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id="toc-Post-war_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Post-war Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-war_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Bloc_and_the_Berlin_airlift" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Bloc_and_the_Berlin_airlift"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Eastern Bloc and the Berlin airlift</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Bloc_and_the_Berlin_airlift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emigration_westward_in_the_early_1950s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emigration_westward_in_the_early_1950s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Emigration westward in the early 1950s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emigration_westward_in_the_early_1950s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Erection_of_the_inner_German_border" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erection_of_the_inner_German_border"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Erection of the inner German border</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Erection_of_the_inner_German_border-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Erection of the inner German border subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Erection_of_the_inner_German_border-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Berlin_emigration_loophole" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Berlin_emigration_loophole"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Berlin emigration loophole</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Berlin_emigration_loophole-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brain_drain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brain_drain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Brain drain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brain_drain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Start_of_the_construction_(1961)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Start_of_the_construction_(1961)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Start of the construction (1961)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Start_of_the_construction_(1961)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Start of the construction (1961) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Start_of_the_construction_(1961)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Immediate_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immediate_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Immediate effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immediate_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Secondary response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure_and_adjacent_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure_and_adjacent_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Structure and adjacent areas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Structure_and_adjacent_areas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Structure and adjacent areas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structure_and_adjacent_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Layout_and_modifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Layout_and_modifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Layout and modifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Layout_and_modifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surrounding_municipalities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surrounding_municipalities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Surrounding municipalities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surrounding_municipalities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Official_crossings_and_usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Official_crossings_and_usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Official crossings and usage</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Official_crossings_and_usage-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Official crossings and usage subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Official_crossings_and_usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Crossing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crossing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Crossing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crossing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defection_attempts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defection_attempts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Defection attempts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defection_attempts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concerts_by_Western_artists_and_growing_anti-Wall_sentiment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concerts_by_Western_artists_and_growing_anti-Wall_sentiment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Concerts by Western artists and growing anti-Wall sentiment</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Concerts_by_Western_artists_and_growing_anti-Wall_sentiment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Concerts by Western artists and growing anti-Wall sentiment subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Concerts_by_Western_artists_and_growing_anti-Wall_sentiment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-David_Bowie,_1987" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#David_Bowie,_1987"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>David Bowie, 1987</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-David_Bowie,_1987-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bruce_Springsteen,_1988" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bruce_Springsteen,_1988"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Bruce Springsteen, 1988</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bruce_Springsteen,_1988-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-David_Hasselhoff,_1989" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#David_Hasselhoff,_1989"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>David Hasselhoff, 1989</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-David_Hasselhoff,_1989-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comments_by_politicians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comments_by_politicians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Comments by politicians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comments_by_politicians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Fall</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cultural_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Cultural differences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wall_segments_around_the_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wall_segments_around_the_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Wall segments around the world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wall_segments_around_the_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-50th_anniversary_commemoration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#50th_anniversary_commemoration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>50th anniversary commemoration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-50th_anniversary_commemoration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Polling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Related media</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Related_media-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Related media subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Related_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Documentaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Documentaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Documentaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Documentaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feature_films" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feature_films"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Feature films</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feature_films-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.5</span> <span>Visual art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Games" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Games"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.6</span> <span>Games</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Games-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Berlin Wall</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 124 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-124" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">124 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlynse_Muur" title="Berlynse Muur – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Berlynse Muur" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berliner_Mauer" title="Berliner Mauer – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Berliner Mauer" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%89%A0%E1%88%AD%E1%88%8A%E1%8A%95_%E1%8C%8D%E1%8B%B5%E1%8C%8D%E1%8B%B3" title="የበርሊን ግድግዳ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የበርሊን ግድግዳ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86" title="جدار برلين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جدار برلين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muro_de_Berl%C3%ADn" title="Muro de Berlín – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Muro de Berlín" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muriu_de_Berl%C3%ADn" title="Muriu de Berlín – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Muriu de Berlín" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_mongoraha" title="Berlin mongoraha – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Berlin mongoraha" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_divar%C4%B1" title="Berlin divarı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Berlin divarı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0" title="বার্লিন প্রাচীর – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বার্লিন প্রাচীর" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pek-l%C3%AEm_Chhi%C3%BB%E2%81%BF-%C3%BBi" title="Pek-lîm Chhiûⁿ-ûi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Pek-lîm Chhiûⁿ-ûi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Берлин диуары – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Берлин диуары" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Берлінская сцяна – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Берлінская сцяна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%80" title="Бэрлінскі мур – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Бэрлінскі мур" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Берлинска стена – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Берлинска стена" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%94%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BE%95%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8D" title="པེར་ལིན་ལྕགས་རི། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="པེར་ལིན་ལྕགས་རི།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlinski_zid" title="Berlinski zid – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Berlinski zid" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moger_Berlin" title="Moger Berlin – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Moger Berlin" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mur_de_Berl%C3%ADn" title="Mur de Berlín – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mur de Berlín" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berl%C3%ADnsk%C3%A1_ze%C4%8F" title="Berlínská zeď – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Berlínská zeď" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mur_Berlin" title="Mur Berlin – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Mur Berlin" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlinmuren" title="Berlinmuren – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Berlinmuren" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlinmuvra" title="Berlinmuvra – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Berlinmuvra" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berliner_Mauer" title="Berliner Mauer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Berliner Mauer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berliini_m%C3%BC%C3%BCr" title="Berliini müür – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Berliini müür" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%92%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Τείχος του Βερολίνου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τείχος του Βερολίνου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muro_de_Berl%C3%ADn" title="Muro de Berlín – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Muro de Berlín" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlina_muro" title="Berlina muro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Berlina muro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlingo_harresia" title="Berlingo harresia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Berlingo harresia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86" title="دیوار برلین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دیوار برلین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlinm%C3%BArurin" title="Berlinmúrurin – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Berlinmúrurin" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mur_de_Berlin" title="Mur de Berlin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mur de Berlin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlynske_Muorre" title="Berlynske Muorre – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Berlynske Muorre" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balla_Bheirl%C3%ADn" title="Balla Bheirlín – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Balla Bheirlín" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boalley_Verleen" title="Boalley Verleen – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Boalley Verleen" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muro_de_Berl%C3%ADn" title="Muro de Berlín – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Muro de Berlín" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A0%EB%A5%BC%EB%A6%B0_%EC%9E%A5%EB%B2%BD" title="베를린 장벽 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="베를린 장벽" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF" title="Բեռլինի պատ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բեռլինի պատ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="बर्लिन की दीवार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बर्लिन की दीवार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlinski_zid" title="Berlinski zid – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Berlinski zid" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muro_di_Berlin" title="Muro di Berlin – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Muro di Berlin" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembok_Berlin" title="Tembok Berlin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tembok Berlin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muro_de_Berlin" title="Muro de Berlin – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Muro de Berlin" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mur_de_Berlin" title="Mur de Berlin – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Mur de Berlin" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berl%C3%ADnarm%C3%BArinn" title="Berlínarmúrinn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Berlínarmúrinn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muro_di_Berlino" title="Muro di Berlino – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Muro di Berlino" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9F" title="חומת ברלין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חומת ברלין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9mbok_Berlin" title="Témbok Berlin – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Témbok Berlin" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%86" title="ಬರ್ಲಿನ್ ಗೋಡೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬರ್ಲಿನ್ ಗೋಡೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ბერლინის კედელი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბერლინის კედელი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D2%9B%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B%D1%80%D2%93%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Берлин қабырғасы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Берлин қабырғасы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukuta_wa_Berlin" title="Ukuta wa Berlin – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ukuta wa Berlin" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%AEwar%C3%AA_Berl%C3%AEn%C3%AA" title="Dîwarê Berlînê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Dîwarê Berlînê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murus_Berolinensis" title="Murus Berolinensis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Murus Berolinensis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berl%C4%ABnes_m%C5%ABris" title="Berlīnes mūris – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Berlīnes mūris" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berliner_Mauer" title="Berliner Mauer – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Berliner Mauer" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlyno_siena" title="Berlyno siena – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Berlyno siena" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C3%A2gia_de_Berlin" title="Miâgia de Berlin – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Miâgia de Berlin" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moe%C3%ABr_(Berlien)" title="Moeër (Berlien) – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Moeër (Berlien)" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCr_de_Berlin" title="Mür de Berlin – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Mür de Berlin" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlini_fal" title="Berlini fal – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Berlini fal" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%95%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Берлински ѕид – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Берлински ѕид" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rindrin%27i_Berlin" title="Rindrin'i Berlin – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Rindrin'i Berlin" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BD" title="ബെർലിൻ മതിൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബെർലിൻ മതിൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4" title="बर्लिनची भिंत – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बर्लिनची भिंत" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%90" title="ბერლინიშ კიდა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბერლინიშ კიდა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86" title="سور برلين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="سور برلين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="برلین دیوار – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="برلین دیوار" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembok_Berlin" title="Tembok Berlin – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tembok Berlin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Берлиний хана – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Берлиний хана" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9C%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%90%E1%80%B6%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ဘာလင် တံတိုင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဘာလင် တံတိုင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlijnse_Muur" title="Berlijnse Muur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Berlijnse Muur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2" title="बर्लिनको पर्खाल – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="बर्लिनको पर्खाल" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%83%AB%E3%83%AA%E3%83%B3%E3%81%AE%E5%A3%81" title="ベルリンの壁 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ベルリンの壁" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muro_%27e_Berlino" title="Muro 'e Berlino – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Muro 'e Berlino" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlinmuren" title="Berlinmuren – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Berlinmuren" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlinmuren" title="Berlinmuren – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Berlinmuren" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mur_de_Berlin" title="Mur de Berlin – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Mur de Berlin" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_devori" title="Berlin devori – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Berlin devori" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A7" title="ਬਰਲਿਨ ਦੀ ਕੰਧ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਰਲਿਨ ਦੀ ਕੰਧ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%86_%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%BE" title="برلن کندھ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="برلن کندھ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muraya_di_Berlin" title="Muraya di Berlin – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Muraya di Berlin" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84" title="د برلین دیوال – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د برلین دیوال" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%89%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%84_%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%8A%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%A1%E1%9E%B6%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%84" title="ជញ្ជាំង ប៊ែរឡាំង – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ជញ្ជាំង ប៊ែរឡាំង" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mur_%C3%ABd_Berlin" title="Mur ëd Berlin – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Mur ëd Berlin" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mur_Berli%C5%84ski" title="Mur Berliński – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mur Berliński" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muro_de_Berlim" title="Muro de Berlim – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Muro de Berlim" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zidul_Berlinului" title="Zidul Berlinului – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Zidul Berlinului" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_pirqa" title="Berlin pirqa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Berlin pirqa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Берлинская стена – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Берлинская стена" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%86" title="دیوار برلن – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="دیوار برلن" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muru_de_Berlinu" title="Muru de Berlinu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Muru de Berlinu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Waw" title="Berlin Waw – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Berlin Waw" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berliner_Muure" title="Berliner Muure – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Berliner Muure" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muri_i_Berlinit" title="Muri i Berlinit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Muri i Berlinit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muru_di_Birlinu" title="Muru di Birlinu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Muru di Birlinu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BA" title="බර්ලින් තාප්පය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බර්ලින් තාප්පය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Berlin Wall" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berl%C3%ADnsky_m%C3%BAr" title="Berlínsky múr – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Berlínsky múr" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlinski_zid" title="Berlinski zid – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Berlinski zid" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berli%C5%84ski_mur" title="Berliński mur – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Berliński mur" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%95%D8%B1%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86" title="دیواری بەرلین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دیواری بەرلین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Берлински зид – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Берлински зид" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlinski_zid" title="Berlinski zid – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Berlinski zid" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berliinin_muuri" title="Berliinin muuri – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Berliinin muuri" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlinmuren" title="Berlinmuren – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Berlinmuren" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pader_ng_Berlin" title="Pader ng Berlin – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pader ng Berlin" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="பெர்லின் சுவர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பெர்லின் சுவர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C9%A3%E1%B9%9Bab_n_Berlin" title="Aɣṛab n Berlin – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Aɣṛab n Berlin" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Берлин дивары – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Берлин дивары" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%A1" title="బెర్లిన్ గోడ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="బెర్లిన్ గోడ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99" title="กำแพงเบอร์ลิน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กำแพงเบอร์ลิน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Duvar%C4%B1" title="Berlin Duvarı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Berlin Duvarı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%80" title="Берлінський мур – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Берлінський мур" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%86" title="دیوار برلن – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="دیوار برلن" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mur_de_Berlin" title="Mur de Berlin – Venetian" 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href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E5%9C%8D%E7%89%86" title="柏林圍牆 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="柏林圍牆" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bungbong_han_Berlin" title="Bungbong han Berlin – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Bungbong han Berlin" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E5%A2%99" title="柏林墙 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="柏林墙" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a 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.latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Berlin_Wall&params=52_30_16_N_13_26_28_E_region:DE_type:landmark"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">52°30′16″N</span> <span class="longitude">13°26′28″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">52.50444°N 13.44111°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">52.50444; 13.44111</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Barrier that once enclosed West Berlin</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the wall that surrounded West Berlin during the Cold War. For the border that divided most of East and West Germany, see <a href="/wiki/Inner_German_border" title="Inner German border">Inner German border</a>. For the video game, see <a href="/wiki/The_Berlin_Wall_(video_game)" title="The Berlin Wall (video game)"><i>The Berlin Wall</i> (video game)</a>. For the ring wall around the historic city of Berlin, see <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Customs_Wall" title="Berlin Customs Wall">Berlin Customs Wall</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org">The Berlin Wall</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlinermauer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Berlinermauer.jpg/267px-Berlinermauer.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Berlinermauer.jpg/401px-Berlinermauer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Berlinermauer.jpg/534px-Berlinermauer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="913" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="text-align: center">From the West Berlin side, <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall_graffiti_art" title="Berlin Wall graffiti art">Berlin Wall graffiti art</a> in 1986. The Wall's "death strip", on the east side of the Wall, here follows the curve of the <a href="/wiki/Luisenstadt_Canal" title="Luisenstadt Canal">Luisenstadt Canal</a> (filled in 1932).</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align: center"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin-wall-map_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Berlin-wall-map_en.svg/250px-Berlin-wall-map_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Berlin-wall-map_en.svg/375px-Berlin-wall-map_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Berlin-wall-map_en.svg/500px-Berlin-wall-map_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2701" data-file-height="2114" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="text-align: center">The Wall and its <a href="/wiki/Border_checkpoint" title="Border checkpoint">checkpoints</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#ededed;color:#000;">General information</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data category">Wall</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Country</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_East_Berlin_(1956%E2%80%931990).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_East_Berlin_%281956%E2%80%931990%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_East_Berlin_%281956%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_East_Berlin_%281956%E2%80%931990%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_East_Berlin_%281956%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_East_Berlin_%281956%E2%80%931990%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_East_Berlin_%281956%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="660" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/East_Berlin" title="East Berlin">East Berlin</a>; see <a href="/wiki/History_of_Berlin#West_and_East_Germany_(1945–1990)" title="History of Berlin">History of Berlin</a> for further info</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Berlin_Wall&params=52_30_16_N_13_26_28_E_region:DE_type:landmark"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">52°30′16″N</span> <span class="longitude">13°26′28″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">52.50444°N 13.44111°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">52.50444; 13.44111</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Construction started</th><td class="infobox-data">13 August 1961</td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Demolished</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">9 November 1989</a> – 1994<span class="noprint">; 31 years ago</span><span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1994</span>)</span><sup id="cite_ref-Chicago_Tribune_1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chicago_Tribune_1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#ededed;color:#000;">Dimensions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other dimensions</th><td class="infobox-data"><div><ul><li>Border length around West Berlin: 155 km (96 mi)</li><li>Border length between West Berlin and East Germany: 111.9 km (69.5 mi)</li><li>Border length between West and East Berlin: 43.1 km (26.8 mi)</li><li>Border length through residential areas in East Berlin: 37 km (23 mi)</li><li>Concrete segment of wall height: 3.6 m (11.8 ft)</li><li>Concrete segment of wall length: 106 km (66 mi)</li><li>Wire mesh fencing: 66.5 km (41.3 mi)</li><li>Anti-vehicle trenches length: 105.5 km (65.6 mi)</li><li>Contact/signal fence length: 127.5 km (79.2 mi)</li><li>Column track width: 7 m (7.7 yd)</li><li>Column track length: 124.3 km (77.2 mi)</li><li>Number of watch towers: 302</li><li>Number of bunkers: 20</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#ededed;color:#000;">Technical details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Size</th><td class="infobox-data">155 km (96.3 mi)</td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist" style="border: 4px double #DC241F;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size: 110%; padding: 0; line-height: 120%;"><table><tbody><tr> <td style="background:#DC241F; vertical-align:middle; padding:5px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Opvolger_van_Pieck,_Walter_Ulbricht,_Bestanddeelnr_911-5926_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Opvolger_van_Pieck%2C_Walter_Ulbricht%2C_Bestanddeelnr_911-5926_%28cropped%29.jpg/75px-Opvolger_van_Pieck%2C_Walter_Ulbricht%2C_Bestanddeelnr_911-5926_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Opvolger_van_Pieck%2C_Walter_Ulbricht%2C_Bestanddeelnr_911-5926_%28cropped%29.jpg/113px-Opvolger_van_Pieck%2C_Walter_Ulbricht%2C_Bestanddeelnr_911-5926_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Opvolger_van_Pieck%2C_Walter_Ulbricht%2C_Bestanddeelnr_911-5926_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Opvolger_van_Pieck%2C_Walter_Ulbricht%2C_Bestanddeelnr_911-5926_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2525" data-file-height="3181" /></a></span></td> <td style="background:#DC241F; vertical-align:middle; padding:25px;"><span style="font-size:0.85em;"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFF">This article is part of a series about</span></span><br /><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><span style="font-size:1.05em;"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Ulbricht" title="Walter Ulbricht"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFF">Walter Ulbricht</span></a></span></span></span></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <b>First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party</b></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">SED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1950_East_German_general_election" title="1950 East German general election">1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_East_German_general_election" title="1954 East German general election">1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_East_German_general_election" title="1958 East German general election">1958</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_East_German_general_election" title="1963 East German general election">1963</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_East_German_general_election" title="1967 East German general election">1967</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_East_German_general_election" title="1971 East German general election">1971</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Ulbricht#Personal_life" title="Walter Ulbricht">Personal life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Ulbricht#Cult_of_personality" title="Walter Ulbricht">Cult of personality</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><b>Early political career</b></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany" title="Communist Party of Germany">Communist Party of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Paul_Anlauf_and_Franz_Lenck" title="Murder of Paul Anlauf and Franz Lenck">Murder of Paul Anlauf and Franz Lenck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulbricht_Group" title="Ulbricht Group">Ulbricht Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merger_of_the_KPD_and_SPD" title="Merger of the KPD and SPD">Merger of the KPD and SPD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Economic_Commission" title="German Economic Commission">German Economic Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><b>Government and policies</b></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_East_Germany" title="Constitution of East Germany">Constitution of East Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_East_Germany#1949_constitution" title="Constitution of East Germany">1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_East_Germany#1968_constitution" title="Constitution of East Germany">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Front_of_the_German_Democratic_Republic" title="National Front of the German Democratic Republic">National Front of the GDR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Course" title="New Course">New Course</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">1953 uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landwirtschaftliche_Produktionsgenossenschaft" title="Landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaft">Creation of the LPG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_East_Germany" title="State Council of East Germany">State Council</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_System" title="New Economic System">New Economic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_System_of_Socialism" title="Economic System of Socialism">Economic System of Socialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><b>Legacy</b></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zentralfriedhof_Friedrichsfelde" title="Zentralfriedhof Friedrichsfelde">Zentralfriedhof Friedrichsfelde</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><b>Family</b></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lotte_Ulbricht" title="Lotte Ulbricht">Lotte Ulbricht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beate_Ulbricht" title="Beate Ulbricht">Beate Ulbricht</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em;"> <hr /> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_East_Germany_(1950%E2%80%931953).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coat_of_arms_of_East_Germany_%281950%E2%80%931953%29.svg/60px-Coat_of_arms_of_East_Germany_%281950%E2%80%931953%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coat_of_arms_of_East_Germany_%281950%E2%80%931953%29.svg/90px-Coat_of_arms_of_East_Germany_%281950%E2%80%931953%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coat_of_arms_of_East_Germany_%281950%E2%80%931953%29.svg/120px-Coat_of_arms_of_East_Germany_%281950%E2%80%931953%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="595" /></a></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Coat_of_arms_of_East_Germany_%281955%E2%80%931990%29.svg/60px-Coat_of_arms_of_East_Germany_%281955%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Coat_of_arms_of_East_Germany_%281955%E2%80%931990%29.svg/90px-Coat_of_arms_of_East_Germany_%281955%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Coat_of_arms_of_East_Germany_%281955%E2%80%931990%29.svg/120px-Coat_of_arms_of_East_Germany_%281955%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1628" data-file-height="1663" /></a></span></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Walter_Ulbricht_sidebar" title="Template:Walter Ulbricht sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Walter_Ulbricht_sidebar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Walter Ulbricht sidebar (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Walter_Ulbricht_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Walter Ulbricht sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:0; font-size:150%;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc"><span style="color:white;">Eastern Bloc</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/120px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/180px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/240px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="721" data-file-height="860" /></span></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF"><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Republics of the Soviet Union"><span style="color:white;">Republics</span></a> of the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR"><span style="color:white;">USSR</span></a></span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karelo-Finnish_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic">Karelia-Finland</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1940–1956)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic">Kirghizia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic">Moldavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic">Turkmenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcaucasian_Socialist_Federative_Soviet_Republic" title="Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic">Transcaucasia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1922–1936)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF">Allied and satellite states</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1978–1989)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">Albania</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1961)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Angola" title="People's Republic of Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Benin" title="People's Republic of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1961)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="People's Republic of the Congo">Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1989)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Republic_of_Ethiopia" title="People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Revolutionary_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Revolutionary Government">Grenada</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979–1983)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Kampuchea" title="People's Republic of Kampuchea">Kampuchea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Mozambique" title="People's Republic of Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1989)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1989)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Somalia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1977)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen" title="South Yemen">South Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> (<a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Republic_of_South_Vietnam" title="Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam">PRG</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1948)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF">Related organizations</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cominform" title="Cominform">Cominform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Trade_Unions" title="World Federation of Trade Unions">World Federation of Trade Unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Democratic_Youth" title="World Federation of Democratic Youth">World Federation of Democratic Youth</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF"><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_insurgencies_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe"><span style="color:white;">Opposition</span></a></span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Anti-Soviet_partisans" title="Anti-Soviet partisans">Anti-Soviet partisans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goryani" title="Goryani">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusaders_(guerrilla)" title="Crusaders (guerrilla)">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_resistance_in_Poland_(1944%E2%80%931953)" title="Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1953)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_anti-communist_resistance_movement" title="Romanian anti-communist resistance movement">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chetniks" title="Chetniks">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Soviet_resistance_by_the_Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Anti-Soviet resistance by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Ukraine</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Soviet occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_partisans" title="Estonian partisans">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_partisans" title="Latvian partisans">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_partisans" title="Lithuanian partisans">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation Jungle</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;padding-bottom:0;"> Protests and uprisings</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_resistance_in_Poland_(1944%E2%80%931989)" title="Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1989)">Poland 1944–1989</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">Poznań 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">1980–89</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Plze%C5%88_uprising" title="1953 Plzeň uprising">Plzeň 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East Germany 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Georgian_demonstrations" title="1956 Georgian demonstrations">Georgia 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungary 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novocherkassk_massacre" title="Novocherkassk massacre">Novocherkassk 1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Red_Square_demonstration" title="1968 Red Square demonstration">Moscow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_77" title="Charter 77">Czechoslovakia 1976–1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiu_Valley_miners%27_strike_of_1977" title="Jiu Valley miners' strike of 1977">Romania 1977</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">Kazakhstan 1986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bra%C8%99ov_rebellion" title="Brașov rebellion">Brașov 1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_9_tragedy" title="April 9 tragedy">Tbilisi 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989%E2%80%931991_Ukrainian_revolution" title="1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution">Ukraine 1989–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">Baku 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">Lithuania 1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">Riga 1991</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Dissent</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissident_movement_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_Poland" title="Dissident movement in the People's Republic of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_attempts_and_victims_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Escape attempts and victims of the inner German border">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_wave_from_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_to_British_Hong_Kong" title="Refugee wave from the People's Republic of China to British Hong Kong">to Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korean_defectors" title="North Korean defectors">North Korea</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF">Cold War events</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">Czechoslovak coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">Secret Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/De-satellization_of_the_Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="De-satellization of the Socialist Republic of Romania">De-satellization of the Socialist Republic of Romania</a></span></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_intervention_in_Angola" title="Cuban intervention in Angola">Cuban intervention in Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet invasion of Afghanistan">Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics" title="1980 Summer Olympics">1980 Moscow Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics" title="1984 Summer Olympics">1984 Los Angeles Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF">Fall</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">January Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">Barricades in Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">End of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eastern_Bloc_sidebar" title="Template:Eastern Bloc sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eastern_Bloc_sidebar" title="Template talk:Eastern Bloc sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern_Bloc_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern Bloc sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_satellite_image_with_Berlin_wall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Berlin_satellite_image_with_Berlin_wall.jpg/220px-Berlin_satellite_image_with_Berlin_wall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Berlin_satellite_image_with_Berlin_wall.jpg/330px-Berlin_satellite_image_with_Berlin_wall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Berlin_satellite_image_with_Berlin_wall.jpg/440px-Berlin_satellite_image_with_Berlin_wall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1506" data-file-height="1347" /></a><figcaption>Satellite image of Berlin, with the Wall's location marked in yellow</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:West_and_East_Berlin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/West_and_East_Berlin.svg/220px-West_and_East_Berlin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/West_and_East_Berlin.svg/330px-West_and_East_Berlin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/West_and_East_Berlin.svg/440px-West_and_East_Berlin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="824" /></a><figcaption>West and East Berlin borders overlaying a current road map</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Berlin Wall</b> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Berliner Mauer</i>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">pronounced</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[bɛʁˌliːnɐ<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈmaʊɐ]</a></span> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/e\/ea\/De-Berliner_Mauer.ogg\/De-Berliner_Mauer.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-Berliner Mauer.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/ea/De-Berliner_Mauer.ogg/De-Berliner_Mauer.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:De-Berliner_Mauer.ogg" title="File:De-Berliner Mauer.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span>) was a guarded concrete <a href="/wiki/Separation_barrier" title="Separation barrier">barrier</a> that encircled <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a> from 1961 to 1989, separating it from <a href="/wiki/East_Berlin" title="East Berlin">East Berlin</a> and the <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">German Democratic Republic</a> (GDR; East Germany).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chicago_Tribune_1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chicago_Tribune_1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Construction of the <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> Wall was commenced by the government of the GDR on 13 August 1961. It included <a href="/wiki/Guard_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Guard tower">guard towers</a> placed along large concrete walls,<sup id="cite_ref-Marck_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marck-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> accompanied by a wide area (later known as the "death strip") that contained anti-vehicle trenches, beds of nails and other defenses. The primary intention for the Wall's construction was to prevent <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East German</a> citizens from <a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">fleeing to the West</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Soviet Bloc</a> <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> portrayed the Wall as protecting its population from "<a href="/wiki/Fascist_(insult)" title="Fascist (insult)">fascist</a> elements conspiring to prevent the will of the people" from building a <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communist state</a> in the GDR. The authorities officially referred to the Berlin Wall as the <i>Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart</i> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Antifaschistischer Schutzwall</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">pronounced</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[antifaˌʃɪstɪʃɐ<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈʃʊtsval]</a></span> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/4\/43\/De-antifaschistischer_Schutzwall.ogg\/De-antifaschistischer_Schutzwall.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-antifaschistischer Schutzwall.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/43/De-antifaschistischer_Schutzwall.ogg/De-antifaschistischer_Schutzwall.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:De-antifaschistischer_Schutzwall.ogg" title="File:De-antifaschistischer Schutzwall.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span>). Conversely, West Berlin's city government sometimes referred to it as the "<a href="/wiki/Wall_of_Shame" title="Wall of Shame">Wall of Shame</a>", a term coined by mayor <a href="/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Willy Brandt</a> in reference to the Wall's restriction on <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">freedom of movement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with the separate and much longer <a href="/wiki/Inner_German_border" title="Inner German border">inner German border</a>, which demarcated the border between East and West Germany, it came to symbolize physically the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a> that separated the <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a> and Soviet <a href="/wiki/Satellite_state#Soviet_Union" title="Satellite state">satellite states</a> of the Eastern Bloc during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cnn.com_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn.com-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the Wall's erection, 3.5 million East Germans circumvented <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_emigration_and_defection" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Bloc emigration and defection">Eastern Bloc emigration restrictions</a> and defected from the GDR, many by crossing over the border from East Berlin into West Berlin; from there they could then travel to West Germany and to other Western European countries. Between 1961 and 1989, the deadly force associated with the Wall prevented almost all such emigration.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, over 100,000<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> people attempted to escape, and over 5,000 people succeeded in escaping over the Wall, with an estimated death toll of those murdered by East German authorities ranging from 136<sup id="cite_ref-Chronik_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chronik-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to more than 200<sup id="cite_ref-cnn.com_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn.com-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-contemporary_research_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-contemporary_research-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in and around Berlin. </p><p>In 1989, <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">a series of revolutions</a> in nearby Eastern Bloc countries (<a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungary</a> in particular) and the events of the "<a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a>" set in motion a peaceful development during which the Iron Curtain largely broke, rulers in the East came under public pressure to cease their repressive policies.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_Roser_2018_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_Roser_2018-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gorbatschows_2009_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gorbatschows_2009-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After several weeks of civil unrest, the East German government <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">announced on 9 November 1989</a> that all GDR citizens could visit the FRG and West Berlin. Crowds of East Germans crossed and climbed onto the Wall, joined by West Germans on the other side, and souvenir hunters chipped away parts of the Wall over the next few weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-cnn.com_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn.com-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_Gate" title="Brandenburg Gate">Brandenburg Gate</a>, a few meters from the Berlin Wall, reopened on 22 December 1989, with demolition of the Wall beginning on 13 June 1990 and concluding in 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-Chicago_Tribune_1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chicago_Tribune_1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fall of the Berlin Wall paved the way for <a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a>, which formally took place on 3 October 1990.<sup id="cite_ref-cnn.com_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn.com-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-war_Germany">Post-war Germany</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allied_occupation_in_Berlin_(1945-1990).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Allied_occupation_in_Berlin_%281945-1990%29.png/400px-Allied_occupation_in_Berlin_%281945-1990%29.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Allied_occupation_in_Berlin_%281945-1990%29.png/600px-Allied_occupation_in_Berlin_%281945-1990%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Allied_occupation_in_Berlin_%281945-1990%29.png/800px-Allied_occupation_in_Berlin_%281945-1990%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1196" /></a><figcaption>The occupied sectors of Berlin</figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">end of World War II in Europe</a>, what remained of pre-war Germany west of the <a href="/wiki/Oder-Neisse_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Oder-Neisse line">Oder-Neisse line</a> was divided into four occupation zones (as per the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement" title="Potsdam Agreement">Potsdam Agreement</a>), each one controlled by one of the four occupying <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied powers</a>: the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. The capital, <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, as the seat of the <a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council" title="Allied Control Council">Allied Control Council</a>, was similarly subdivided into four sectors despite the city's location, which was fully within the Soviet zone.<sup id="cite_ref-miller4_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miller4-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within two years, political divisions increased between the Soviets and the other occupying powers. These included the Soviets' refusal to agree to reconstruction plans making post-war Germany self-sufficient, and to a detailed accounting of industrial plants, goods and infrastructure—some of which had already been removed by the Soviets.<sup id="cite_ref-miller16_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miller16-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> France, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the <a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a> countries later met to combine the non-Soviet zones of Germany into one zone for reconstruction, and to approve the extension of the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cnn.com_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn.com-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_Bloc_and_the_Berlin_airlift">Eastern Bloc and the Berlin airlift</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv/220px--SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="42" data-mwtitle="SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cc/SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv/SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cc/SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv/SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cc/SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv/SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cc/SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv/SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cc/SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv/SFP_186_-_Brandenburger_Tor.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_Gate" title="Brandenburg Gate">Brandenburg Gate</a> in 1945, after the end of World War II</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II, the Soviet Union engineered the installation of communist regimes in most of the countries occupied by Soviet military forces at the end of the War, including Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, and the GDR, which together with Albania formed the <a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a> in 1949 and later a military alliance, the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a>. The beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> saw the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> of the Soviet Union confront the <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, with the latter grouping becoming largely united in 1949 under <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> and the former grouping becoming largely united in 1955 under the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yoder1993_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yoder1993-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Reinalda2009_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reinalda2009-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the Soviet Union already had an <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">armed presence and political domination</a> all over its eastern <a href="/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">satellite states</a> by 1955, the pact has been long considered "superfluous",<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and because of the rushed way in which it was conceived, NATO officials labeled it a "cardboard castle".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was no direct military confrontation between the two organizations; instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and through <a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">proxy wars</a>. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and their integration into the respective blocs.<sup id="cite_ref-Reinalda2009_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reinalda2009-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Warsaw Pact's largest military engagement was the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a>, its own member state, in August 1968.<sup id="cite_ref-Reinalda2009_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reinalda2009-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the end of the War, the USSR installed a Soviet-style regime in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_zone_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet occupation zone of Germany">Soviet occupation zone of Germany</a> and later founded the GDR, with the country's political system based on a centrally planned socialist economic model with nationalized means of production, and with repressive secret police institutions, under party dictatorship of the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">SED</a> (Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands; Socialist Unity Party of Germany) similar to the party dictatorship of the Soviet Communist Party in the USSR.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the same time, a parallel country was established under the control of the Western powers in the zones of post-war Germany occupied by them, culminating in the foundation of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which initially claimed to be the sole legitimate power in all of Germany, East and West. The material <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> in the Western zones of Berlin began to improve quickly, and residents of the Soviet zone soon began leaving for the West in large numbers, fleeing hunger, poverty and repression in the Soviet Zone for a better life in the West. Soon residents of other parts of the Soviet zone began to escape to the West through Berlin, and this migration, called in Germany "Republikflucht", deprived the Soviet zone not only of working forces desperately needed for post-war reconstruction but disproportionately of highly educated people, which came to be known as the "Brain Drain".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1948, in response to moves by the Western powers to establish a separate, federal system of government in the Western zones, and to extend the US <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> of economic assistance to Germany, the Soviets instituted the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a>, preventing people, food, materials and supplies from arriving in <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a> by land routes through the Soviet zone.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States, the United Kingdom, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> and several other countries began a massive "<a href="/wiki/Berlin_airlift" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin airlift">airlift</a>", supplying West Berlin with food and other supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviets mounted a public relations campaign against the Western policy change. Communists attempted to disrupt the elections of 1948, preceding large losses therein,<sup id="cite_ref-turner29_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-turner29-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while 300,000 Berliners demonstrated for the international airlift to continue.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 1949, Stalin lifted the blockade, permitting the resumption of Western shipments to Berlin.<sup id="cite_ref-Gaddis_2005,_p._34_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaddis_2005,_p._34-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The German Democratic Republic (the "GDR"; East Germany) was declared on 7 October 1949. On that day, the USSR ended the Soviet military government which had governed the Soviet Occupation Zone (Sowetische Besatzungszone) since the end of the War and handed over legal power<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> to the Provisorische Volkskammer under the new Constitution of the GDR which came into force that day. However, until 1955, the Soviets maintained considerable legal control over the GDR state, including the regional governments, through the Sowetische Kontrollkommission and maintained a presence in various East German administrative, military, and secret police structures.<sup id="cite_ref-wettig179_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wettig179-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even after legal sovereignty of the GDR was restored in 1955, the Soviet Union continued to maintain considerable influence over administration and lawmaking in the GDR through the Soviet embassy and through the implicit threat of force which could be exercised through the continuing large Soviet military presence in the GDR, which was used to repress <a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">protests in East Germany bloodily in June 1953</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>East Germany differed from West Germany (<a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">Federal Republic of Germany</a>), which developed into a <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> capitalist country with a <a href="/wiki/Social_market_economy" title="Social market economy">social market economy</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a> parliamentary government. Continual economic growth starting in the 1950s fueled a 20-year "<a href="/wiki/Wirtschaftswunder" title="Wirtschaftswunder">economic miracle</a>" (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">"Wirtschaftswunder"</i></span>). As West Germany's economy grew, and its standard of living steadily improved, many East Germans wanted to move to West Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emigration_westward_in_the_early_1950s">Emigration westward in the early 1950s</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_emigration_and_defection" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Bloc emigration and defection">Eastern Bloc emigration and defection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></div> <p>After the Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe at the end of World War II, the majority of those living in the newly acquired areas of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> aspired to independence and wanted the Soviets to leave.<sup id="cite_ref-thackeray188_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thackeray188-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taking advantage of the zonal border between occupied zones in Germany, the number of GDR citizens moving to West Germany totaled 187,000 in 1950; 165,000 in 1951; 182,000 in 1952; and 331,000 in 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-loescher60_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-loescher60-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One reason for the sharp 1953 increase was fear of potential further <a href="/wiki/Sovietization" title="Sovietization">Sovietization</a>, given the increasingly paranoid actions of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> in late 1952 and early 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-loescher68_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-loescher68-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the first six months of 1953, 226,000 had fled.<sup id="cite_ref-dale17_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dale17-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Erection_of_the_inner_German_border">Erection of the inner German border</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Inner_German_border" title="Inner German border">Inner German border</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Emigration from the Eastern Bloc</a></div> <p>By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to controlling national movement, restricting emigration, was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc, including East Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-dowty114_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dowty114-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The restrictions presented a quandary for some Eastern Bloc states, which had been more economically advanced and open than the Soviet Union, such that crossing borders seemed more natural—especially where no prior border existed between East and West Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-dowty116_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dowty116-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Up until 1952, the demarcation lines between East Germany and the western occupied zones could be easily crossed in most places.<sup id="cite_ref-dowty121_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dowty121-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 1 April 1952, East German leaders met the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in Moscow; during the discussions, Stalin's foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Molotov</a> proposed that the East Germans should "introduce a system of passes for visits of West Berlin residents to the territory of East Berlin [so as to stop] free movement of Western agents" in the GDR. Stalin agreed, calling the situation "intolerable". He advised the East Germans to build up their border defenses, telling them that "The demarcation line between East and West Germany should be considered a border—and not just any border, but a dangerous one ... The Germans will guard the line of defence with their lives."<sup id="cite_ref-harrison240_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrison240-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Consequently, the <a href="/wiki/Inner_German_border" title="Inner German border">inner German border</a> between the two German states was closed, and a barbed-wire fence erected. The border between the Western and Eastern sectors of Berlin, however, remained open, although traffic between the Soviet and the Western sectors was somewhat restricted. This resulted in Berlin becoming a magnet for East Germans desperate to escape life in the GDR, and also a flashpoint for tension between the United States and the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-cnn.com_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn.com-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1955, the Soviets gave East Germany authority over civilian movement in Berlin, passing control to a regime not recognized in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-harrison98_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrison98-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, East Germany granted "visits" to allow its residents access to West Germany. However, following the defection of large numbers of East Germans (known as <i><a href="/wiki/Republikflucht" title="Republikflucht">Republikflucht</a></i>) under this regime, the new East German state legally restricted virtually all travel to the West in 1956.<sup id="cite_ref-dowty121_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dowty121-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soviet East German ambassador <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Pervukhin" title="Mikhail Pervukhin">Mikhail Pervukhin</a> observed that "the presence in Berlin of an open and essentially uncontrolled border between the socialist and capitalist worlds unwittingly prompts the population to make a comparison between both parts of the city, which unfortunately does not always turn out in favour of Democratic [East] Berlin."<sup id="cite_ref-harrison99_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrison99-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Berlin_emigration_loophole">Berlin emigration loophole</h3></div> <p>With the closing of the inner German border officially in 1952,<sup id="cite_ref-harrison99_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrison99-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the border in Berlin remained considerably more accessible because it was administered by all four occupying powers.<sup id="cite_ref-dowty121_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dowty121-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, Berlin became the main route by which East Germans left for the West.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 11 December 1957, East Germany introduced a new passport law that reduced the overall number of refugees leaving Eastern Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-cnn.com_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn.com-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It had the unintended result of drastically increasing the percentage of those leaving through West Berlin from 60% to well over 90% by the end of 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-harrison99_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrison99-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those caught trying to leave East Berlin were subjected to heavy penalties, but with no physical barrier and <a href="/wiki/Berlin_U-Bahn" title="Berlin U-Bahn">subway</a> train access still available to West Berlin, such measures were ineffective.<sup id="cite_ref-dowty122_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dowty122-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Berlin sector border was essentially a "<a href="/wiki/Loophole" title="Loophole">loophole</a>" through which Eastern Bloc citizens could still escape.<sup id="cite_ref-harrison99_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrison99-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 3.5 million East Germans who had left by 1961 totalled approximately 20% of the entire East German population.<sup id="cite_ref-dowty122_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dowty122-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important reason that passage between East Germany and West Berlin was not stopped earlier was that doing so would cut off much of the railway traffic in East Germany. Construction of a new railway bypassing West Berlin, the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_outer_ring" title="Berlin outer ring">Berlin outer ring</a>, commenced in 1951. Following the completion of the railway in 1961, closing the border became a more practical proposition.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brain_drain">Brain drain</h3></div> <p>The emigrants tended to be young and well-educated, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Human_capital_flight" title="Human capital flight">"brain drain"</a> feared by officials in East Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-thackeray188_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thackeray188-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a>, then the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">CPSU</a> Director on Relations with Communist and Workers' Parties of Socialist Countries, wrote an urgent letter on 28 August 1958 to the Central Committee about the significant 50% increase in the number of East German intelligentsia among the refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-harrison100_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrison100-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Andropov reported that, while the East German leadership stated that they were leaving for economic reasons, testimony from refugees indicated that the reasons were more political than material.<sup id="cite_ref-harrison100_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrison100-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He stated "the flight of the intelligentsia has reached a particularly critical phase."<sup id="cite_ref-harrison100_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrison100-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1960, the combination of World War II and the massive emigration westward left East Germany with only 61% of its population of working age, compared to 70.5% before the war. The loss was disproportionately heavy among professionals: engineers, technicians, physicians, teachers, lawyers, and skilled workers. The direct cost of manpower losses to East Germany (and corresponding gain to the West) has been estimated at $7 billion to $9 billion, with East German party leader <a href="/wiki/Walter_Ulbricht" title="Walter Ulbricht">Walter Ulbricht</a> later claiming that West Germany owed him $17 billion in compensation, including reparations as well as manpower losses.<sup id="cite_ref-dowty122_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dowty122-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the drain of East Germany's young population potentially cost it over 22.5 billion marks in lost educational investment.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The brain drain of professionals had become so damaging to the political credibility and economic viability of East Germany that the re-securing of the German communist frontier was imperative.<sup id="cite_ref-pearson75_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pearson75-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The exodus of emigrants from East Germany presented two minor potential benefits: an easy way to smuggle East German secret agents to West Germany, and a reduction in the number of citizens hostile to the communist regime. Neither of these advantages, however, proved particularly useful.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Construction"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Start_of_the_construction_(1961)"><span id="Start_of_the_construction_.281961.29"></span>Start of the construction (1961)</h2></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm/200px--Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" height="150" data-durationhint="79" data-mwtitle="Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4a/Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm/Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="638" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8"" data-width="638" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4a/Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm/Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4a/Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm/Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4a/Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm/Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="478" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4a/Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm/Aerial_View_of_Divided_Berlin.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="478" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Aerial footage of the wall as filmed by the <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a> in 1961</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-85458-0002,_Berlin,_Mauerbau,_Kampfgruppen_am_Brandenburger_Tor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-85458-0002%2C_Berlin%2C_Mauerbau%2C_Kampfgruppen_am_Brandenburger_Tor.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-85458-0002%2C_Berlin%2C_Mauerbau%2C_Kampfgruppen_am_Brandenburger_Tor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-85458-0002%2C_Berlin%2C_Mauerbau%2C_Kampfgruppen_am_Brandenburger_Tor.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-85458-0002%2C_Berlin%2C_Mauerbau%2C_Kampfgruppen_am_Brandenburger_Tor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-85458-0002%2C_Berlin%2C_Mauerbau%2C_Kampfgruppen_am_Brandenburger_Tor.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-85458-0002%2C_Berlin%2C_Mauerbau%2C_Kampfgruppen_am_Brandenburger_Tor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="773" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>East German <a href="/wiki/Combat_Groups_of_the_Working_Class" title="Combat Groups of the Working Class">Combat Groups of the Working Class</a> close the border on 13 August 1961 in preparation for the Berlin Wall construction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_Wall_1961-11-20.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Berlin_Wall_1961-11-20.jpg/220px-Berlin_Wall_1961-11-20.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Berlin_Wall_1961-11-20.jpg/330px-Berlin_Wall_1961-11-20.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Berlin_Wall_1961-11-20.jpg/440px-Berlin_Wall_1961-11-20.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="352" /></a><figcaption>East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, 20 November 1961</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_2" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm/220px--So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="66" data-mwtitle="So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_(CC_BY_4.0).webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_(CC_BY_4.0).webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm/So_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASo_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm&lang=de&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="de" label="Deutsch ‪(de)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASo_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASo_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm&lang=it&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="it" label="italiano ‪(it)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASo_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm&lang=mk&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="mk" label="македонски ‪(mk)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASo_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm&lang=nb&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="nb" label="norsk bokmål ‪(nb)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASo_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm&lang=nl&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="nl" label="Nederlands ‪(nl)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASo_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm&lang=sv&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="sv" label="svenska ‪(sv)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASo_wurde_die_Berliner_Mauer_gebaut_%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm&lang=uk&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="uk" label="українська ‪(uk)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>Animation showing how the Berlin Wall was constructed</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></div> <p>On 15 June 1961, First Secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">Socialist Unity Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_East_Germany" title="State Council of East Germany">GDR State Council</a> chairman <a href="/wiki/Walter_Ulbricht" title="Walter Ulbricht">Walter Ulbricht</a> stated in an international press conference, <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">"Niemand hat die Absicht, eine Mauer zu errichten!"</i></span> (No one has the intention of erecting a wall!). It was the first time the colloquial term <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Mauer</i></span> (wall) had been used in this context.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The transcript of a telephone call between <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> and Ulbricht, on 1 August in the same year, suggests that the initiative for the construction of the Wall came from Khrushchev.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, other sources suggest that Khrushchev had initially been wary about building a wall, fearing negative Western reaction. Nevertheless, Ulbricht had pushed for a border closure for some time, arguing that East Germany's existence was at stake.<sup id="cite_ref-Revolution1989_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Revolution1989-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Khrushchev had become emboldened upon seeing US president <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>'s youth and inexperience, which he considered a weakness. In the 1961 <a href="/wiki/Vienna_summit" title="Vienna summit">Vienna summit</a>, Kennedy made the error of admitting that the US would not actively oppose the building of a barrier.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A feeling of miscalculation and failure immediately afterwards was admitted by Kennedy in a candid interview with <i>New York Times</i> columnist <a href="/wiki/James_Reston" title="James Reston">James "Scotty" Reston</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On Saturday, 12 August 1961, the leaders of the GDR attended a <a href="/wiki/Party#Garden_party" title="Party">garden party</a> at a government guesthouse in <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Döllnsee</i></span>, in a wooded area to the north of East Berlin. There, Ulbricht signed the order to close the border and erect a wall.<sup id="cite_ref-cnn.com_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn.com-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At midnight, the police and units of the East German army began to close the border and, by Sunday morning, 13 August, the border with West Berlin was closed. East German troops and workers had begun to tear up streets running alongside the border to make them impassable to most vehicles and to install barbed wire entanglements and fences along the 156 km (97 mi) around the three western sectors, and the 43 km (27 mi) that divided West and East Berlin.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The date of 13 August became commonly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Barbed_Wire_Sunday" title="Barbed Wire Sunday">Barbed Wire Sunday</a> in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-cnn.com_8-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn.com-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The barrier was built inside East Berlin on East German territory to ensure that it did not encroach on West Berlin at any point. Generally, the Wall was only slightly inside East Berlin, but in a few places it was some distance from the legal border, most notably at <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Potsdamer_Bahnhof" title="Berlin Potsdamer Bahnhof">Potsdamer Bahnhof</a><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Lenné Triangle<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that is now much of the <a href="/wiki/Potsdamer_Platz" title="Potsdamer Platz">Potsdamer Platz</a> development. </p><p>Later, the initial barrier was built up into the Wall proper, the first concrete elements and large blocks being put in place on 17 August. During the construction of the Wall, <a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Army" title="National People's Army">National People's Army</a> (NVA) and <a href="/wiki/Combat_Groups_of_the_Working_Class" title="Combat Groups of the Working Class">Combat Groups of the Working Class</a> (KdA) soldiers stood in front of it with orders to shoot anyone who attempted to defect. Additionally, chain fences, walls, minefields and other obstacles were installed along the length of East Germany's western border with West Germany proper. A wide <a href="/wiki/No_man%27s_land" title="No man's land">no man's land</a> was cleared as well to provide a better overview and a clear line of fire at fleeing refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1961_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1961-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immediate_effects">Immediate effects</h3></div> <p>With the closing of the east–west sector boundary in Berlin, the vast majority of East Germans could no longer travel or emigrate to West Germany. Berlin soon went from being the easiest place to make an unauthorized crossing between East and West Germany to being the most difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many families were split, while East Berliners employed in the West were cut off from their jobs. West Berlin became an isolated <a href="/wiki/Exclave" class="mw-redirect" title="Exclave">exclave</a> in a hostile land. West Berliners demonstrated against the Wall, led by their Mayor (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Oberbürgermeister</i></span>) <a href="/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Willy Brandt</a>, who criticized the United States for failing to respond and went so far as to suggest to Washington what to do next. Kennedy was furious.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Allied intelligence agencies had hypothesized about a wall to stop the flood of refugees, but the main candidate for its location was around the perimeter of the city. In 1961, Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Dean_Rusk" title="Dean Rusk">Dean Rusk</a> proclaimed, "The Wall certainly ought not to be a permanent feature of the European landscape. I see no reason why the Soviet Union should think it is to their advantage in any way to leave there that monument to communist failure."<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1961_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1961-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>United States and UK sources had expected the Soviet sector to be sealed off from West Berlin but were surprised by how long the East Germans took for such a move. They considered the Wall as an end to concerns about a GDR/Soviet retaking or capture of the whole of Berlin; the Wall would presumably have been an unnecessary project if such plans were afloat. Thus, they concluded that the possibility of a Soviet military conflict over Berlin had decreased.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The East German government claimed that the Wall was an "anti-fascist protective rampart" (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">"antifaschistischer Schutzwall"</i>) intended to dissuade aggression from the West.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another official justification was the activities of Western agents in Eastern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Eastern German government also claimed that West Berliners were buying out state-subsidized goods in East Berlin. East Germans and others greeted such statements with skepticism, as most of the time, the border was only closed for citizens of East Germany traveling to the West, but not for residents of West Berlin travelling to the East.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The construction of the Wall had caused considerable hardship to families divided by it. Most people believed that the Wall was mainly a means of preventing the citizens of East Germany from entering or fleeing to West Berlin.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_response">Secondary response</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_3" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/1962-08-16_The_Wall.ogv/220px--1962-08-16_The_Wall.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="103" data-mwtitle="1962-08-16_The_Wall.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:1962-08-16_The_Wall.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/1962-08-16_The_Wall.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="400" data-height="300" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/85/1962-08-16_The_Wall.ogv/1962-08-16_The_Wall.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="400" data-height="300" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/85/1962-08-16_The_Wall.ogv/1962-08-16_The_Wall.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/85/1962-08-16_The_Wall.ogv/1962-08-16_The_Wall.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A1962-08-16_The_Wall.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Universal_Newsreel" title="Universal Newsreel">Universal Newsreel</a> of the 1st anniversary of the Berlin Wall</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kennedy_in_Berlin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Kennedy_in_Berlin.jpg/220px-Kennedy_in_Berlin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Kennedy_in_Berlin.jpg/330px-Kennedy_in_Berlin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Kennedy_in_Berlin.jpg/440px-Kennedy_in_Berlin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2652" data-file-height="2653" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">US President</a> <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> visiting the Berlin Wall on 26 June 1963</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a> was the only American intelligence agency that was aware that East Germany was to take action to deal with the brain drain problem. On 9 August 1961, the NSA intercepted an advance warning information of the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">Socialist Unity Party's</a> plan to close the intra-Berlin border between East and West Berlin completely for foot traffic. The interagency intelligence Berlin Watch Committee assessed that this intercept "might be the first step in a plan to close the border."<sup id="cite_ref-TNSA20130925_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TNSA20130925-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AidBurr20130925_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AidBurr20130925-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This warning did not reach John F. Kennedy until noon on 13 August 1961, while he was vacationing in his yacht off the <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Compound" title="Kennedy Compound">Kennedy Compound</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hyannis_Port,_Massachusetts" title="Hyannis Port, Massachusetts">Hyannis Port, Massachusetts</a>. While Kennedy was angry that he had no advance warning, he was relieved that the East Germans and the Soviets had only divided Berlin without taking any action against West Berlin's access to the West. However, he denounced the Berlin Wall, whose erection worsened the relations between the United States and the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-TNSA20130925_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TNSA20130925-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AidBurr20130925_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AidBurr20130925-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response to the erection of the Berlin Wall, a retired general, <a href="/wiki/Lucius_D._Clay" title="Lucius D. Clay">Lucius D. Clay</a>, was appointed by Kennedy as his special advisor with ambassadorial rank. Clay had been the Military Governor of the US Zone of Occupation in Germany during the period of the Berlin Blockade and had ordered the first measures in what became the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Airlift" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin Airlift">Berlin Airlift</a>. He was immensely popular with the residents of West Berlin, and his appointment was an unambiguous sign that Kennedy would not compromise on the status of West Berlin. As a symbolic gesture, Kennedy sent Clay and Vice President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> to West Berlin. They landed at <a href="/wiki/Tempelhof_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Tempelhof International Airport">Tempelhof Airport</a> on the afternoon of Saturday, 19 August 1961 and were greeted enthusiastically by the local population.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnn.com_8-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn.com-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They arrived in a city defended by three Allied brigades—one each from the UK (<a href="/wiki/Berlin_Infantry_Brigade" title="Berlin Infantry Brigade">Berlin Infantry Brigade</a>), the US (<a href="/wiki/Berlin_Brigade" title="Berlin Brigade">Berlin Brigade</a>), and France (<a href="/wiki/Forces_Fran%C3%A7aises_%C3%A0_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Forces Françaises à Berlin">Forces Françaises à Berlin</a>). On 16 August, Kennedy had given the order for them to be reinforced. Early on 19 August, the 1st Battle Group, <a href="/wiki/18th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="18th Infantry Regiment (United States)">18th Infantry Regiment</a> (commanded by Colonel Glover S. Johns Jr.) was alerted.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On Sunday morning, U.S. troops marched from West Germany through East Germany, bound for West Berlin. Lead elements—arranged in a column of 491 vehicles and trailers carrying 1,500 men, divided into five march units—left the Helmstedt-Marienborn checkpoint at 06:34. At <a href="/wiki/Marienborn" title="Marienborn">Marienborn</a>, the Soviet checkpoint next to <a href="/wiki/Helmstedt" title="Helmstedt">Helmstedt</a> on the West German-East German border, US personnel were counted by guards. The column was 160 km (99 mi) long, and covered 177 km (110 mi) from Marienborn to Berlin in full battle gear. East German police watched from beside trees next to the <a href="/wiki/Autobahn" title="Autobahn">autobahn</a> all the way along.<sup id="cite_ref-cnn.com_8-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn.com-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The front of the convoy arrived at the outskirts of Berlin just before noon, to be met by Clay and Johnson, before parading through the streets of Berlin in front of a large crowd. At 04:00 on 21 August, Lyndon Johnson left West Berlin in the hands of General Frederick O. Hartel and his brigade of 4,224 officers and men. "For the next three and a half years, American battalions would rotate into West Berlin, by autobahn, at three-month intervals to demonstrate Allied rights to the city".<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The creation of the Wall had important implications for both German states. By stemming the exodus of people from East Germany, the East German government was able to reassert its control over the country: despite discontent with the Wall, economic problems caused by dual currency and the black market were largely eliminated. The economy in the GDR began to grow. However, the Wall proved a public relations disaster for the communist bloc as a whole. Western powers portrayed it as a symbol of communist tyranny, particularly after East German border guards shot and killed would-be defectors. Such fatalities were later treated as acts of murder by the reunified Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure_and_adjacent_areas">Structure and adjacent areas</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Layout_and_modifications">Layout and modifications</h3></div> <table class="wikitable float-right"> <caption><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Length (km) </th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">156.4<span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span> </td> <td>Bordering around West Berlin within 3.4 m and 4.2 m in height </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">111.9<span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span> </td> <td>Concrete walls </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">44.5<span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span> </td> <td>Metal mesh fence (along death strip) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">112.7<span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span> </td> <td>Cross attachment in Potsdam </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">43.7<span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span> </td> <td>Cross attachment along the border of East and West Berlin </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">0.5<span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span> </td> <td>Remains of house fronts, land mansion bricks<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (November 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">58.95 </td> <td>Wall-shaped front wall with a height of 3.40 m </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">68.42 </td> <td>Expanded metal fence with a height of 2.90 m as a "front barrier" </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">161<span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span> </td> <td>Light strip </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">113.85 </td> <td>Limit signal and barrier fence (GSSZ) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">127.5<span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span> </td> <td>Contact and signal fence </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">124.3<span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span> </td> <td>Border patrol </td></tr> <tr> <th>Actual number </th> <th>Descriptions </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">186 </td> <td>Observation towers (302 in West-Berlin)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (November 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">31 </td> <td>Implementing agencies </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">259 </td> <td>Dog runs </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right">20 </td> <td>Bunkers </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Structure_of_Berlin_Wall.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Structure_of_Berlin_Wall.svg/220px-Structure_of_Berlin_Wall.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Structure_of_Berlin_Wall.svg/330px-Structure_of_Berlin_Wall.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Structure_of_Berlin_Wall.svg/440px-Structure_of_Berlin_Wall.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="995" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Structure of the Berlin Wall (left to right)<br /> <div><ul><li>Border</li><li>Outer strip</li><li>Concrete wall with rounded top</li><li>Anti vehicle ditch</li><li>"Death strip" sand bank</li><li>Guard road</li><li>Lighting</li><li>Observation towers</li><li>Spikes or tank traps</li><li>Electrified fence with alarms</li><li>Inner wall</li><li>Restricted zone</li></ul></div></figcaption></figure> <p>The Berlin Wall was more than 140 kilometres (87 mi) long. In June 1962, a second, parallel fence, also known as a "hinterland" wall (inner wall),<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was built some 100 m (110 yd) farther into East German territory. The houses contained between the wall and fences were razed and the inhabitants relocated, thus establishing what later became known as the <i>death strip</i>. The death strip was covered with raked sand or gravel, rendering footprints easy to notice, easing the detection of trespassers and also enabling officers to see which guards had neglected their task;<sup id="cite_ref-ineuropa_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ineuropa-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it offered no cover; and, most importantly, it offered clear fields of fire for the Wall guards. </p><p>Through the years, the Berlin Wall evolved through four versions:<sup id="cite_ref-thoughtco.com_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thoughtco.com-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Wire fence and concrete block wall (1961)</li> <li>Improved wire fence (1962–1965)</li> <li>Improved concrete wall (1965–1975)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Grenzmauer 75</i></span> (Border Wall 75) (1975–1989)</li></ul> <p>The "fourth-generation Wall", known officially as "<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Stützwandelement UL 12.11</i></span>" (retaining wall element UL 12.11), was the final and most sophisticated version of the Wall. Begun in 1975<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and completed about 1980,<sup id="cite_ref-cgqmzv_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cgqmzv-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was constructed from 45,000 separate sections of reinforced concrete, each 3.6 metres (12 ft) high and 1.2 m (3.9 ft) wide, and cost <a href="/wiki/East_German_mark" title="East German mark">DDM</a>16,155,000 or about US$3,638,000.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concrete provisions added to this version of the Wall were done to prevent escapees from driving their cars through the barricades.<sup id="cite_ref-Berlin_Wall_2009_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berlin_Wall_2009-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At strategic points, the Wall was constructed to a somewhat weaker standard, so that East German and Soviet armored vehicles could easily break through in the event of war.<sup id="cite_ref-Berlin_Wall_2009_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berlin_Wall_2009-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exterior_of_East_Berlin_Neue_Zeit_newspaper,_with_Berlin_Wall_in_foreground.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Exterior_of_East_Berlin_Neue_Zeit_newspaper%2C_with_Berlin_Wall_in_foreground.jpg/220px-Exterior_of_East_Berlin_Neue_Zeit_newspaper%2C_with_Berlin_Wall_in_foreground.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Exterior_of_East_Berlin_Neue_Zeit_newspaper%2C_with_Berlin_Wall_in_foreground.jpg/330px-Exterior_of_East_Berlin_Neue_Zeit_newspaper%2C_with_Berlin_Wall_in_foreground.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Exterior_of_East_Berlin_Neue_Zeit_newspaper%2C_with_Berlin_Wall_in_foreground.jpg/440px-Exterior_of_East_Berlin_Neue_Zeit_newspaper%2C_with_Berlin_Wall_in_foreground.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1950" data-file-height="1462" /></a><figcaption>Smooth piping lined the top of the Wall, intended to make it more difficult to scale. The areas just outside the wall, including the sidewalk, are <i>de jure</i> East Berlin territory (1984).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_Wall_death_strip,_1977.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Berlin_Wall_death_strip%2C_1977.jpg/220px-Berlin_Wall_death_strip%2C_1977.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Berlin_Wall_death_strip%2C_1977.jpg/330px-Berlin_Wall_death_strip%2C_1977.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Berlin_Wall_death_strip%2C_1977.jpg/440px-Berlin_Wall_death_strip%2C_1977.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>This section of the Wall's "death strip" featured <a href="/wiki/Czech_hedgehog" title="Czech hedgehog">Czech hedgehogs</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Guard_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Guard tower">guard tower</a> and a cleared area, 1977.</figcaption></figure> <p>The top of the wall was lined with a smooth pipe, intended to make it more difficult to scale. The Wall was reinforced by mesh <a href="/wiki/Fence" title="Fence">fencing</a>, signal fencing, anti-vehicle trenches, <a href="/wiki/Barbed_wire" title="Barbed wire">barbed wire</a>, dogs on long lines, "<a href="/wiki/Bed_of_nails" title="Bed of nails">beds of nails</a>" (also known as "Stalin's Carpet") under balconies hanging over the "death strip", over 116 <a href="/wiki/Watchtower" title="Watchtower">watchtowers</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 20 <a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">bunkers</a> with hundreds of guards. This version of the Wall is the one most commonly seen in photographs, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Berlin_Wall_segments" title="List of Berlin Wall segments">surviving fragments</a> of the Wall in Berlin and elsewhere around the world are generally pieces of the fourth-generation Wall. The layout came to resemble the <a href="/wiki/Inner_German_border" title="Inner German border">inner German border</a> in most technical aspects, except that the Berlin Wall had no landmines nor <a href="/wiki/Spring-gun" title="Spring-gun">spring-guns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ineuropa_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ineuropa-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maintenance was performed on the outside of the wall by personnel who accessed the area outside it either via ladders or via hidden doors within the wall.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These doors could not be opened by a single person, needing two separate keys in two separate keyholes to unlock.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As was the case with the inner German border, an unfortified strip of Eastern territory was left outside the wall.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This outer strip was used by workers to paint over graffiti and perform other maintenance on the outside of the wall<sup id="cite_ref-auto_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the inner German border, however, the outer strip was usually no more than four meters wide, and, in photos from the era, the exact location of the actual border in many places appears not even to have been marked. Also in contrast with the inner German border, little interest was shown by East German law enforcement in keeping outsiders off the outer strip; sidewalks of West Berlin streets even ran inside it.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_88-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the East German government's general policy of benign neglect, vandals were known to have been pursued in the outer strip, and even arrested. In 1986, defector and political activist Wolfram Hasch and four other defectors were standing inside the outer strip defacing the wall when East German personnel emerged from one of the hidden doors to apprehend them. All but Hasch escaped back into the western sector. Hasch himself was arrested, dragged through the door into the death strip, and later convicted of illegally crossing the <i><a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i> border outside the wall.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Graffiti artist <a href="/wiki/Thierry_Noir" title="Thierry Noir">Thierry Noir</a> has reported having often been pursued there by East German soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While some graffiti artists were chased off the outer strip, others, such as <a href="/wiki/Keith_Haring" title="Keith Haring">Keith Haring</a>, were seemingly tolerated.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surrounding_municipalities">Surrounding municipalities</h3></div> <p>Besides the sector-sector boundary within Berlin itself, the Wall also separated West Berlin from the present-day state of <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg" title="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a>. The following present-day municipalities, listed in counter-clockwise direction, share a border with the former West Berlin: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oberhavel" title="Oberhavel">Oberhavel</a>: <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BChlenbecker_Land" title="Mühlenbecker Land">Mühlenbecker Land</a> <small>(partially)</small>, <a href="/wiki/Glienicke/Nordbahn" title="Glienicke/Nordbahn">Glienicke/Nordbahn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hohen_Neuendorf" title="Hohen Neuendorf">Hohen Neuendorf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hennigsdorf" title="Hennigsdorf">Hennigsdorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havelland_(district)" title="Havelland (district)">Havelland</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6nwalde-Glien" title="Schönwalde-Glien">Schönwalde-Glien</a>, <a href="/wiki/Falkensee" title="Falkensee">Falkensee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dallgow-D%C3%B6beritz" title="Dallgow-Döberitz">Dallgow-Döberitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam" title="Potsdam">Potsdam</a> (urban district)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam-Mittelmark" title="Potsdam-Mittelmark">Potsdam-Mittelmark</a>: <a href="/wiki/Stahnsdorf" title="Stahnsdorf">Stahnsdorf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kleinmachnow" title="Kleinmachnow">Kleinmachnow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teltow" title="Teltow">Teltow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teltow-Fl%C3%A4ming" title="Teltow-Fläming">Teltow-Fläming</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fbeeren" title="Großbeeren">Großbeeren</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blankenfelde-Mahlow" title="Blankenfelde-Mahlow">Blankenfelde-Mahlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahme-Spreewald" title="Dahme-Spreewald">Dahme-Spreewald</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6nefeld" title="Schönefeld">Schönefeld</a> <small>(partially)</small></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Official_crossings_and_usage">Official crossings and usage</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Berlin_border_crossings" title="Berlin border crossings">Berlin border crossings</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_-_You_are_leaving.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Berlin_-_You_are_leaving.jpg/220px-Berlin_-_You_are_leaving.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Berlin_-_You_are_leaving.jpg/330px-Berlin_-_You_are_leaving.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Berlin_-_You_are_leaving.jpg/440px-Berlin_-_You_are_leaving.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>A <i>You Are Leaving</i> sign at a border of the American sector</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karte_berliner_mauer_en.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Karte_berliner_mauer_en.jpg/220px-Karte_berliner_mauer_en.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Karte_berliner_mauer_en.jpg/330px-Karte_berliner_mauer_en.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Karte_berliner_mauer_en.jpg/440px-Karte_berliner_mauer_en.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1368" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>Position and course of the Berlin Wall and its border control checkpoints (1989)</figcaption></figure> <p>There were nine border crossings between East and West Berlin. These allowed visits by West Berliners, other West Germans, Western foreigners and Allied personnel into East Berlin, as well as visits by GDR citizens and citizens of other socialist countries into West Berlin, provided that they held the necessary permits. These crossings were restricted according to which nationality was allowed to use it (East Germans, West Germans, West Berliners, other countries). The best known was the vehicle and pedestrian checkpoint at the corner of <a href="/wiki/Friedrichstra%C3%9Fe" title="Friedrichstraße">Friedrichstraße</a> and Zimmerstraße (<a href="/wiki/Checkpoint_Charlie" title="Checkpoint Charlie">Checkpoint Charlie</a>), which was restricted to Allied personnel and foreigners.<sup id="cite_ref-harrison206_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrison206-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several other border crossings existed between West Berlin and surrounding East Germany. These could be used for transit between West Germany and West Berlin, for visits by West Berliners into East Germany, for transit into countries neighbouring East Germany (Poland, <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, and Denmark), and for visits by East Germans into West Berlin carrying a permit. After the 1972 agreements, new crossings were opened to allow West Berlin waste to be transported into East German dumps, as well as some crossings for access to <a href="/wiki/Exclaves_of_West_Berlin_in_East_Germany" title="Exclaves of West Berlin in East Germany">West Berlin's exclaves</a> (see <i><a href="/wiki/Steinst%C3%BCcken" title="Steinstücken">Steinstücken</a></i>). </p><p>Four <a href="/wiki/Autobahn" title="Autobahn">autobahns</a> connected West Berlin to West Germany, including <a href="/wiki/Bundesautobahn_2" title="Bundesautobahn 2">Berlin-Helmstedt autobahn</a>, which entered East German territory between the towns of Helmstedt and Marienborn (Checkpoint Alpha), and which entered West Berlin at Dreilinden (Checkpoint Bravo for the Allied forces) in southwestern Berlin. Access to West Berlin was also possible by railway (four routes) and by boat for commercial shipping via canals and rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-cnn.com_8-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn.com-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-thoughtco.com_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thoughtco.com-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-history.howstuffworks.com_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history.howstuffworks.com-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Non-German Westerners could cross the border at <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Friedrichstra%C3%9Fe_station" title="Berlin Friedrichstraße station">Friedrichstraße station</a> in East Berlin and at Checkpoint Charlie. When the Wall was erected, Berlin's complex public transit networks, the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_S-Bahn" title="Berlin S-Bahn">S-Bahn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berlin_U-Bahn" title="Berlin U-Bahn">U-Bahn</a>, were divided with it.<sup id="cite_ref-cgqmzv_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cgqmzv-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some lines were cut in half; many stations were shut down. Three western lines traveled through brief sections of East Berlin territory, passing through eastern stations (called <i><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Geisterbahnhöfe</i></span></i>, or <a href="/wiki/Ghost_station" title="Ghost station">ghost stations</a>) without stopping. Both the eastern and western networks converged at <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Friedrichstraße</i></span>, which became a major crossing point for those (mostly Westerners) with permission to cross.<sup id="cite_ref-history.howstuffworks.com_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history.howstuffworks.com-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mashable.com_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mashable.com-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crossing">Crossing</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_travel_orders.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Berlin_travel_orders.png/220px-Berlin_travel_orders.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Berlin_travel_orders.png/330px-Berlin_travel_orders.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Berlin_travel_orders.png/440px-Berlin_travel_orders.png 2x" data-file-width="820" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption>Travel orders to go to Berlin as used by U.S. forces in the 1980s</figcaption></figure> <p>West Germans and citizens of other Western countries could generally visit East Germany, often after applying for a <a href="/wiki/Travel_visa" title="Travel visa">visa</a><sup id="cite_ref-willis_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-willis-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at an East German embassy several weeks in advance. Visas for day trips restricted to East Berlin were issued without previous application in a simplified procedure at the border crossing. However, East German authorities could refuse entry permits without stating a reason. In the 1980s, visitors from the western part of the city who wanted to visit the eastern part had to exchange at least DM 25 into East German currency at the poor exchange rate of 1:1. It was forbidden to export East German currency from the East, but money not spent could be left at the border for possible future visits. Tourists crossing from the west had to also pay for a visa, which cost DM 5; West Berliners did not have to pay this fee.<sup id="cite_ref-mashable.com_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mashable.com-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>West Berliners initially could not visit East Berlin or East Germany at all—all crossing points were closed to them between 26 August 1961 and 17 December 1963. In 1963, negotiations between East and West resulted in a limited possibility for visits during the Christmas season that year (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Passierscheinregelung</i></span>). Similar, very limited arrangements were made in 1964, 1965 and 1966.<sup id="cite_ref-mashable.com_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mashable.com-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1971, with the <a href="/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a>, agreements were reached that allowed West Berliners to apply for visas to enter East Berlin and East Germany regularly, comparable to the regulations already in force for West Germans. However, East German authorities could still refuse entry permits.<sup id="cite_ref-mashable.com_94-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mashable.com-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:East_Berlin_Death_Strip_seen_from_Axel_Springer_Building_1984.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/East_Berlin_Death_Strip_seen_from_Axel_Springer_Building_1984.jpg/220px-East_Berlin_Death_Strip_seen_from_Axel_Springer_Building_1984.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/East_Berlin_Death_Strip_seen_from_Axel_Springer_Building_1984.jpg/330px-East_Berlin_Death_Strip_seen_from_Axel_Springer_Building_1984.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/East_Berlin_Death_Strip_seen_from_Axel_Springer_Building_1984.jpg/440px-East_Berlin_Death_Strip_seen_from_Axel_Springer_Building_1984.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>East Berlin "death strip" of the Berlin Wall, as seen from the <a href="/wiki/Axel_Springer_AG" class="mw-redirect" title="Axel Springer AG">Axel Springer AG</a> Building, 1984</figcaption></figure> <p>East Berliners and East Germans could not, at first, travel to West Berlin or West Germany at all. This regulation remained in force essentially until the fall of the Wall, but over the years several exceptions to these rules were introduced, the most significant being: </p> <ul><li>Elderly pensioners could travel to the West starting in 1964<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Visits of relatives for important family matters</li> <li>People who had to travel to the West for professional reasons (for example, artists, truck drivers, musicians, writers, etc.)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <p>For each of these exceptions, GDR citizens had to apply for individual approval, which was never guaranteed. In addition, even if travel was approved, GDR travellers could exchange only a very small number of <a href="/wiki/East_German_Mark" class="mw-redirect" title="East German Mark">East German Marks</a> into <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">Deutsche Marks</a> (DM), thus limiting the financial resources available for them to travel to the West. This led to the West German practice of granting a small amount of DM annually (<i><a href="/wiki/Begr%C3%BC%C3%9Fungsgeld" title="Begrüßungsgeld">Begrüßungsgeld</a></i>, or welcome money) to GDR citizens visiting West Germany and West Berlin to help alleviate this situation.<sup id="cite_ref-mashable.com_94-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mashable.com-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Citizens of other East European countries were in general subject to the same prohibition of visiting Western countries as East Germans, though the applicable exception (if any) varied from country to country.<sup id="cite_ref-mashable.com_94-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mashable.com-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Allied military personnel and civilian officials of the Allied forces could enter and exit East Berlin without submitting to East German passport controls, purchasing a visa or being required to exchange money. Likewise, Soviet military patrols could enter and exit West Berlin. This was a requirement of the post-war <a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council" title="Allied Control Council">Four Powers</a> Agreements. A particular area of concern for the Western Allies involved official dealings with East German authorities when crossing the border, since Allied policy did not recognize the authority of the GDR to regulate Allied military traffic to and from West Berlin, as well as the Allied presence within Greater Berlin, including entry into, exit from, and presence within East Berlin.<sup id="cite_ref-mashable.com_94-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mashable.com-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Allies held that only the Soviet Union, and not the GDR, had the authority to regulate Allied personnel in such cases. For this reason, elaborate procedures were established to prevent inadvertent recognition of East German authority when engaged in travel through the GDR and when in East Berlin. Special rules applied to travel by Western Allied military personnel assigned to the <a href="/wiki/Military_liaison_missions" title="Military liaison missions">military liaison missions</a> accredited to the commander of Soviet forces in East Germany, located in <a href="/wiki/Potsdam" title="Potsdam">Potsdam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mashable.com_94-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mashable.com-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Allied personnel were restricted by policy when travelling by land to the following routes: </p> <dl><dt>Transit between West Germany and West Berlin</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>Road:</b> The Helmstedt–Berlin autobahn (A2) (checkpoints Alpha and Bravo respectively). Soviet military personnel manned these checkpoints and processed Allied personnel for travel between the two points.</li> <li><b>Rail:</b> Western Allied military personnel and civilian officials of the Allied forces were forbidden to use commercial train service between West Germany and West Berlin, because of GDR passport and customs controls when using them. Instead, the Allied forces operated a series of official (duty) trains that traveled between their respective duty stations in West Germany and West Berlin. When transiting the GDR, the trains would follow the route between Helmstedt and Griebnitzsee, just outside West Berlin. In addition to persons traveling on official business, authorized personnel could also use the duty trains for personal travel on a space-available basis. The trains traveled only at night, and as with transit by car, Soviet military personnel handled the processing of duty train travelers.<sup id="cite_ref-mashable.com_94-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mashable.com-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Berlin_S-Bahn" title="History of the Berlin S-Bahn">History of the Berlin S-Bahn</a>.)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Entry into and exit from East Berlin</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Checkpoint_Charlie" title="Checkpoint Charlie">Checkpoint Charlie</a> (as a pedestrian or riding in a vehicle)</li></ul> <p>As with military personnel, special procedures applied to travel by diplomatic personnel of the Western Allies accredited to their respective embassies in the GDR. This was intended to prevent inadvertent recognition of East German authority when crossing between East and West Berlin, which could jeopardize the overall Allied position governing the freedom of movement by Allied forces personnel within all Berlin. </p><p>Ordinary citizens of the Western Allied powers, not formally affiliated with the Allied forces, were authorized to use all designated transit routes through East Germany to and from West Berlin. Regarding travel to East Berlin, such persons could also use the Friedrichstraße train station to enter and exit the city, in addition to Checkpoint Charlie. In these instances, such travelers, unlike Allied personnel, had to submit to East German border controls.<sup id="cite_ref-mashable.com_94-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mashable.com-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defection_attempts">Defection attempts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_deaths_at_the_Berlin_Wall" title="List of deaths at the Berlin Wall">List of deaths at the Berlin Wall</a></div> <p>During the years of the Wall, around 5,000 people successfully defected to West Berlin. The number of people who died trying to cross the Wall, or as a result of the Wall's existence, has been disputed. The most vocal claims by <a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Hildebrandt" title="Alexandra Hildebrandt">Alexandra Hildebrandt</a>, director of the <a href="/wiki/Checkpoint_Charlie_Museum" title="Checkpoint Charlie Museum">Checkpoint Charlie Museum</a> and widow of the museum's founder, estimated the death toll to be well above 200.<sup id="cite_ref-Chronik_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chronik-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-contemporary_research_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-contemporary_research-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A historic research group at the <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Contemporary_History" title="Centre for Contemporary History">Centre for Contemporary History</a> (ZZF) in <a href="/wiki/Potsdam" title="Potsdam">Potsdam</a> has confirmed at least 140 deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-contemporary_research_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-contemporary_research-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior official figures listed 98 as being killed. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leap_into_Freedom.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/84/Leap_into_Freedom.jpeg/220px-Leap_into_Freedom.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/84/Leap_into_Freedom.jpeg/330px-Leap_into_Freedom.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/84/Leap_into_Freedom.jpeg/440px-Leap_into_Freedom.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="527" data-file-height="412" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Army" title="National People's Army">NVA</a> soldier <a href="/wiki/Conrad_Schumann" class="mw-redirect" title="Conrad Schumann">Conrad Schumann</a> defecting to West Berlin during the Wall's early days in 1961</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michael_Finder_and_Willy_Finder_-_Flickr_-_The_Central_Intelligence_Agency.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Michael_Finder_and_Willy_Finder_-_Flickr_-_The_Central_Intelligence_Agency.jpg/170px-Michael_Finder_and_Willy_Finder_-_Flickr_-_The_Central_Intelligence_Agency.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Michael_Finder_and_Willy_Finder_-_Flickr_-_The_Central_Intelligence_Agency.jpg/255px-Michael_Finder_and_Willy_Finder_-_Flickr_-_The_Central_Intelligence_Agency.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Michael_Finder_and_Willy_Finder_-_Flickr_-_The_Central_Intelligence_Agency.jpg/340px-Michael_Finder_and_Willy_Finder_-_Flickr_-_The_Central_Intelligence_Agency.jpg 2x" data-file-width="953" data-file-height="1380" /></a><figcaption>October 7, 1961. Four-year-old Michael Finder of East Germany is tossed by his father into a net held by residents across the border in West Berlin. The father, Willy Finder, prepares to make the jump himself.</figcaption></figure> <p>The East German government issued shooting orders (<i><a href="/wiki/Schie%C3%9Fbefehl" title="Schießbefehl">Schießbefehl</a></i>) to border guards dealing with defectors, though such orders are not the same as "shoot to kill" orders. GDR officials denied issuing the latter. In an October 1973 order later discovered by researchers, guards were instructed that people attempting to cross the Wall were criminals and needed to be shot: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Do not hesitate to use your firearm, not even when the border is breached in the company of women and children, which is a tactic the traitors have often used.<sup id="cite_ref-BBCSept2007_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBCSept2007-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Early successful escapes involved people jumping the initial barbed wire or leaping out of apartment windows along the line, but these ended as the Wall was fortified. East German authorities no longer permitted apartments near the Wall to be occupied, and any building near the Wall had its windows boarded and later bricked up. On 15 August 1961, <a href="/wiki/Conrad_Schumann" class="mw-redirect" title="Conrad Schumann">Conrad Schumann</a> was the first East German border guard to escape by jumping the barbed wire to West Berlin.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 22 August 1961, <a href="/wiki/Ida_Siekmann" title="Ida Siekmann">Ida Siekmann</a> was the first casualty at the Berlin Wall: she died after she jumped out of her third floor apartment at 48 <a href="/wiki/Bernauer_Strasse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernauer Strasse">Bernauer Strasse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first person to be shot and killed while trying to cross to West Berlin was <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Litfin" title="Günter Litfin">Günter Litfin</a>, a twenty-four-year-old tailor. He attempted to swim across the <a href="/wiki/Spree_(river)" title="Spree (river)">Spree</a> to West Berlin on 24 August 1961, the same day that East German police had received shoot-to-kill orders to prevent anyone from escaping.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another dramatic escape was carried out in April 1963 by <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Engels" title="Wolfgang Engels">Wolfgang Engels</a>, a 19-year-old civilian employee of the <i><a href="/wiki/Nationale_Volksarmee" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationale Volksarmee">Nationale Volksarmee</a></i> (NVA). Engels stole a Soviet <a href="/wiki/Armored_personnel_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Armored personnel carrier">armored personnel carrier</a> from a base where he was deployed and drove it right into the Wall. He was fired at and seriously wounded by border guards. But a West German policeman intervened, firing his weapon at the East German border guards. The policeman removed Engels from the vehicle, which had become entangled in the barbed wire.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin-Memorial_to_the_Victims_of_the_Wall-1982.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Berlin-Memorial_to_the_Victims_of_the_Wall-1982.jpg/220px-Berlin-Memorial_to_the_Victims_of_the_Wall-1982.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Berlin-Memorial_to_the_Victims_of_the_Wall-1982.jpg/330px-Berlin-Memorial_to_the_Victims_of_the_Wall-1982.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Berlin-Memorial_to_the_Victims_of_the_Wall-1982.jpg/440px-Berlin-Memorial_to_the_Victims_of_the_Wall-1982.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1306" data-file-height="1039" /></a><figcaption>Memorial to the Victims of the Wall, with <a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">graffiti</a>, 1982</figcaption></figure> <p>East Germans successfully defected by a variety of methods: <a href="/wiki/Tunnel_57" title="Tunnel 57">digging long tunnels</a> under the Wall, waiting for favorable winds and taking a <a href="/wiki/Hot_air_balloon" title="Hot air balloon">hot air balloon</a>, sliding along aerial wires, flying <a href="/wiki/Ultralight_aviation" title="Ultralight aviation">ultralights</a> and, in one instance, simply driving a sports car at full speed through the basic, initial fortifications. When a metal beam was placed at checkpoints to prevent this kind of defection, up to four people (two in the front seats and possibly two in the <a href="/wiki/Trunk_(car)" title="Trunk (car)">boot</a>) drove under the bar in a sports car that had been modified to allow the roof and windscreen to come away when it made contact with the beam. They lay flat and kept driving forward. The East Germans then built zig-zagging roads at checkpoints. The sewer system predated the Wall, and some people escaped through the sewers,<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in a number of cases with assistance from the <a href="/wiki/Unternehmen_Reiseb%C3%BCro" title="Unternehmen Reisebüro">Unternehmen Reisebüro</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 1962, 29 people escaped through a tunnel to the west.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least 70 tunnels were dug under the wall; only 19 were successful in allowing fugitives—about 400 persons—to escape. The East German authorities eventually used seismographic and acoustic equipment to detect the practice.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AFP_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AFP-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1962, they planned an attempt to use explosives to destroy one tunnel, but this was not carried out as it was apparently sabotaged by a member of the Stasi.<sup id="cite_ref-AFP_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AFP-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An airborne escape was made by Thomas Krüger, who landed a <a href="/wiki/Zlin_Z_42" class="mw-redirect" title="Zlin Z 42">Zlin Z 42M</a> light aircraft of the <i><a href="/wiki/Gesellschaft_f%C3%BCr_Sport_und_Technik" title="Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik">Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik</a></i>, an East German youth military training organization, at <a href="/wiki/RAF_Gatow" title="RAF Gatow">RAF Gatow</a>. His aircraft, registration DDR-WOH, was dismantled and returned to the East Germans by road, complete with humorous slogans painted on it by airmen of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a>, such as "Wish you were here" and "Come back soon".<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If an escapee was wounded in a crossing attempt and lay on the death strip, no matter how close they were to the Western wall, Westerners could not intervene for fear of triggering engaging fire from the 'Grepos', the East Berlin border guards. The guards often let fugitives bleed to death in the middle of this ground, as in the most notorious failed attempt, that of <a href="/wiki/Peter_Fechter" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Fechter">Peter Fechter</a> (aged 18) at a point near Zimmerstrasse in East Berlin. He was shot and bled to death, in full view of the Western media, on 17 August 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fechter's death created negative publicity worldwide that led the leaders of East Berlin to place more restrictions on shooting in public places and provide medical care for possible "would-be escapers".<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last person to be shot and killed while trying to cross the border was <a href="/wiki/Chris_Gueffroy" title="Chris Gueffroy">Chris Gueffroy</a> on 6 February 1989, while the final person to die in an escape attempt was <a href="/wiki/Winfried_Freudenberg" title="Winfried Freudenberg">Winfried Freudenberg</a> who was killed when his homemade <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>-filled <a href="/wiki/Aerostat" title="Aerostat">balloon</a> crashed on 8 March 1989. </p><p>The Wall gave rise to a widespread sense of desperation and oppression in East Berlin, as expressed in the private thoughts of one resident, who confided to her diary "Our lives have lost their spirit<span class="nowrap"> </span>... we can do nothing to stop them."<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concerts_by_Western_artists_and_growing_anti-Wall_sentiment">Concerts by Western artists and growing anti-Wall sentiment</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="David_Bowie,_1987"><span id="David_Bowie.2C_1987"></span>David Bowie, 1987</h3></div> <p>On 6 June 1987, <a href="/wiki/David_Bowie" title="David Bowie">David Bowie</a>, who earlier for several years lived and recorded in West Berlin, played <a href="/wiki/Glass_Spider_Tour" title="Glass Spider Tour">a concert close to the Wall</a>. This was attended by thousands of Eastern concertgoers across the Wall,<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by violent rioting in East Berlin. According to Tobias Ruther, these protests in East Berlin were the first in the sequence of riots that led to those of November 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although other factors were probably more influential in the fall of the Wall,<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> upon <a href="/wiki/Death_of_David_Bowie" title="Death of David Bowie">his death</a> in 2016, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Foreign_Office" title="Federal Foreign Office">German Foreign Office</a> tweeted "Good-bye, David Bowie. You are now among #Heroes. Thank you for helping to bring down the #wall."<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bruce_Springsteen,_1988"><span id="Bruce_Springsteen.2C_1988"></span>Bruce Springsteen, 1988</h3></div> <p>On 19 July 1988, 16 months before the Wall came down, <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Springsteen" title="Bruce Springsteen">Bruce Springsteen</a> and the <a href="/wiki/E_Street_Band" title="E Street Band">E Street Band</a>, played Rocking the Wall, a live concert in East Berlin, which was attended by 300,000 in person and broadcast on television. Springsteen spoke to the crowd in German, saying: "I'm not here for or against any government. I've come to play rock 'n' roll for you in the hope that one day all the barriers will be torn down".<sup id="cite_ref-TL20130709_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TL20130709-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> East Germany and its <a href="/wiki/Free_German_Youth" title="Free German Youth">FDJ</a> youth organization were worried they were losing an entire generation. They hoped that by letting Springsteen in, they could improve their sentiment among East Germans. However, this strategy of "one step backwards, two steps forwards" backfired, and the concert only made East Germans hungrier for more of the freedoms that Springsteen epitomized. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="David_Hasselhoff,_1989"><span id="David_Hasselhoff.2C_1989"></span>David Hasselhoff, 1989</h3></div> <p>On 31 December 1989, American TV actor and pop music singer <a href="/wiki/David_Hasselhoff" title="David Hasselhoff">David Hasselhoff</a> was the headlining performer for the Freedom Tour Live concert, which was attended by over 500,000 people on both sides of the Wall. The live concert footage was directed by music video director <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mignone" title="Thomas Mignone">Thomas Mignone</a> and aired on broadcast television station Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen <a href="/wiki/ZDF" title="ZDF">ZDF</a> throughout Europe. During shooting, film crew personnel pulled people up from both sides to stand and celebrate on top of the wall. Hasselhoff sang his number one hit song "Looking for Freedom" on a platform at the end of a twenty-meter steel crane that swung above and over the Wall adjacent to the <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_Gate" title="Brandenburg Gate">Brandenburg Gate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NPR20141109_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NPR20141109-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/David_Hasselhoff_Museum" title="David Hasselhoff Museum">small museum</a> was created in 2008 to celebrate Hasselhoff in the basement of the Circus Hostel.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comments_by_politicians">Comments by politicians</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner" title="Ich bin ein Berliner">Ich bin ein Berliner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tear_down_this_wall!" title="Tear down this wall!">Tear down this wall!</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Audio-input-microphone.svg/50px-Audio-input-microphone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Audio-input-microphone.svg/75px-Audio-input-microphone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Audio-input-microphone.svg/100px-Audio-input-microphone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Ich_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_(June_26,_1963)_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv" title="File:Ich bin ein Berliner Speech (June 26, 1963) John Fitzgerald Kennedy trimmed.theora.ogv"><i>Ich bin ein Berliner</i> (I am a Berliner) speech</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><video id="mwe_player_4" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_%28June_26%2C_1963%29_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv/232px--Ich_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_%28June_26%2C_1963%29_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" height="174" data-durationhint="542" data-mwtitle="Ich_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_(June_26,_1963)_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/15/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_%28June_26%2C_1963%29_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_%28June_26%2C_1963%29_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_%28June_26%2C_1963%29_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/15/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_%28June_26%2C_1963%29_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_%28June_26%2C_1963%29_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/15/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_%28June_26%2C_1963%29_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_%28June_26%2C_1963%29_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AIch_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_%28June_26%2C_1963%29_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AIch_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_%28June_26%2C_1963%29_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv&lang=es&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AIch_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_%28June_26%2C_1963%29_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv&lang=eu&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="eu" label="euskara ‪(eu)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AIch_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_%28June_26%2C_1963%29_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv&lang=fi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fi" label="suomi ‪(fi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AIch_bin_ein_Berliner_Speech_%28June_26%2C_1963%29_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_trimmed.theora.ogv&lang=he&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="he" label="עברית ‪(he)‬" data-dir="rtl" /></video></span></span></div> <div class="description">Speech from the <a href="/wiki/Rathaus_Sch%C3%B6neberg" title="Rathaus Schöneberg">Rathaus Schöneberg</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, 26 June 1963. Duration 9:01.</div></div><hr /><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Jfk_berlin_address_high.ogg" title="File:Jfk berlin address high.ogg"><i>Ich bin ein Berliner</i> ("I am a Berliner") speech (audio)</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_5" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="562" data-mwtitle="Jfk_berlin_address_high.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3a/Jfk_berlin_address_high.ogg/Jfk_berlin_address_high.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Jfk_berlin_address_high.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AJfk_berlin_address_high.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AJfk_berlin_address_high.ogg&lang=es&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AJfk_berlin_address_high.ogg&lang=gan-hant&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="gan-Hant" label="贛語（繁體） ‪(gan-hant)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description">Audio-only version (Duration 9:22)</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing these files? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_6" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm/250px-seek%3D670-President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="250" height="194" data-durationhint="1581" data-mwtitle="President_Ronald_Reagan's_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall,_June_12,_1987.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall,_June_12,_1987.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/13/President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm/President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm.480p.vp9.webm#t=00:11:10" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="620" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm#t=00:11:10" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="620" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/13/President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm/President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov#t=00:11:10" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="186" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/13/President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm/President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm.240p.vp9.webm#t=00:11:10" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="310" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/13/President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm/President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm.360p.vp9.webm#t=00:11:10" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="466" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/13/President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm/President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm.360p.webm#t=00:11:10" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="466" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APresident_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APresident_Ronald_Reagan%27s_Speech_at_the_Berlin_Wall%2C_June_12%2C_1987.webm&lang=fi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fi" label="suomi ‪(fi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>Complete speech by <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_Gate" title="Brandenburg Gate">Brandenburg Gate</a>, 12 June 1987. "Tear down this wall" passage begins at 11:10 into this video.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 26 June 1963, 22 months after the erection of the Berlin Wall, <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">U.S. President</a> <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> visited West Berlin. Speaking from a platform erected on the steps of <a href="/wiki/Rathaus_Sch%C3%B6neberg" title="Rathaus Schöneberg">Rathaus Schöneberg</a> for an audience of 450,000 and straying from the prepared script,<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he declared in his <i><a href="/wiki/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner" title="Ich bin ein Berliner">Ich bin ein Berliner</a></i> speech the support of the United States for West Germany and the people of West Berlin in particular: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Two thousand years ago, the proudest boast was <i><a href="/wiki/Civis_Romanus_sum" title="Civis Romanus sum">civis Romanus sum</a></i> ["I am a Roman citizen"]. Today, in the world of freedom, the proudest boast is <i>"Ich bin ein Berliner!"</i>... All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, and therefore, as a free man, I take pride in the words "Ich bin ein Berliner!"</p></blockquote> <p>The message was aimed as much at the Soviets as it was at Berliners and was a clear statement of U.S. policy in the wake of the construction of the Berlin Wall. The speech is considered one of Kennedy's best, both a significant moment in the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and a high point of the <a href="/wiki/New_Frontier" title="New Frontier">New Frontier</a>. It was a great morale boost for West Berliners, who lived in an <a href="/wiki/Exclave" class="mw-redirect" title="Exclave">exclave</a> deep inside East Germany and feared a possible East German occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>British prime minister <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a> commented in 1982: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Every stone bears witness to the moral bankruptcy of the society it encloses.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In a speech at the <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_Gate" title="Brandenburg Gate">Brandenburg Gate</a> commemorating the 750th anniversary of Berlin<sup id="cite_ref-USATODAY_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USATODAY-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on 12 June 1987, U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> challenged <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>, then the <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a>, to tear down the Wall as a symbol of increasing freedom in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We welcome change and openness; for we believe that freedom and security go together, that the advance of human liberty can only strengthen the cause of world peace. There is one sign the Soviets can make that would be unmistakable, that would advance dramatically the cause of freedom and peace. General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and eastern Europe, if you seek <a href="/wiki/Liberalization" title="Liberalization">liberalization</a>, come here to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this Wall!<sup id="cite_ref-text_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-text-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In January 1989, GDR leader <a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a> predicted that the Wall would stand for 50 or 100 more years<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> if the conditions that had caused its construction did not change. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fall"><span class="anchor" id="The_Fall"></span>Fall</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></div> <p>Due to the increasing economic problems in the Eastern Bloc and the failure of the USSR to intervene in relation to the individual communist states, the brackets of the Eastern Bloc slowly began to loosen from the end of the 1980s. One example is the fall of the communist government in neighboring <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>'s <a href="/wiki/1989_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1989 Polish parliamentary election">1989 Polish parliamentary election</a>. Also in June 1989, the Hungarian government began <a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Hungary%27s_border_fence_with_Austria" title="Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria">dismantling the electrified fence along its border with Austria</a> (with Western TV crews present) although the border was still very closely guarded and escape was almost impossible. </p><p>The opening of a border gate between Austria and Hungary at the <a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a> on 19 August 1989, which was based on an idea by <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Habsburg" title="Otto von Habsburg">Otto von Habsburg</a> to test the reaction of <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> then triggered a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer the GDR and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. Because with the non-reaction of the USSR and the GDR to the mass exodus, the media-informed Eastern Europeans could feel the increasing loss of power of their governments and more and more East Germans were now trying to flee via Hungary. Erich Honecker explained to the <i>Daily Mirror</i> regarding the Pan-European Picnic and thus showed his people his own inaction: "Habsburg distributed leaflets far into Poland, on which the East German holidaymakers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West."<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_Roser_2018_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_Roser_2018-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gorbatschows_2009_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gorbatschows_2009-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then, in September, more than 13,000 East German tourists escaped through <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> to <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This set up a chain of events. The Hungarians prevented many more East Germans from crossing the border and returned them to <a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a>. These East Germans flooded the West German embassy and refused to return to East Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berliner_Mauer,_ostdeutscher_Grenzer_beobachtet_R%C3%A4umung_des_Kubat-Dreieck.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Berliner_Mauer%2C_ostdeutscher_Grenzer_beobachtet_R%C3%A4umung_des_Kubat-Dreieck.jpg/220px-Berliner_Mauer%2C_ostdeutscher_Grenzer_beobachtet_R%C3%A4umung_des_Kubat-Dreieck.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Berliner_Mauer%2C_ostdeutscher_Grenzer_beobachtet_R%C3%A4umung_des_Kubat-Dreieck.jpg/330px-Berliner_Mauer%2C_ostdeutscher_Grenzer_beobachtet_R%C3%A4umung_des_Kubat-Dreieck.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Berliner_Mauer%2C_ostdeutscher_Grenzer_beobachtet_R%C3%A4umung_des_Kubat-Dreieck.jpg/440px-Berliner_Mauer%2C_ostdeutscher_Grenzer_beobachtet_R%C3%A4umung_des_Kubat-Dreieck.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2266" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>East German border guard at Berlin Wall, July 1988</figcaption></figure> <p>The East German government responded by disallowing any further travel to Hungary but allowed those already there to return to East Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This triggered similar events in neighboring <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>. This time, however, the East German authorities allowed people to leave, provided that they did so by train through East Germany. This was followed by <a href="/wiki/Monday_demonstrations_in_East_Germany" title="Monday demonstrations in East Germany">mass demonstrations</a> within East Germany itself. Protest demonstrations spread throughout East Germany in September 1989. Initially, protesters were mostly people wanting to leave to the West, chanting <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">"Wir wollen raus!"</i></span> ("We want out!"). Then protestors began to chant <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">"Wir bleiben hier!"</i></span> ("We are staying here!"). This was the start of what East Germans generally call the "<a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a>" of late 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-unknown_2009_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unknown_2009-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The protest demonstrations grew considerably by early November. The movement neared its height on 4 November, when half a million people gathered to demand political change, at the <a href="/wiki/Alexanderplatz_demonstration" title="Alexanderplatz demonstration">Alexanderplatz demonstration</a>, East Berlin's large public square and transportation hub.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 9 October 1989, the police and army units were given permission to use force against those assembled, but this did not deter the church service and march from taking place, which gathered 70,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-Crutchley2015_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crutchley2015-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The longtime leader of East Germany, <a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a>, resigned on 18 October 1989 and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Egon_Krenz" title="Egon Krenz">Egon Krenz</a> that day. </p><p>The wave of refugees leaving East Germany for the West kept increasing. By early November refugees were finding their way to Hungary via Czechoslovakia, or via the West German Embassy in Prague. This was tolerated by the new Krenz government, because of long-standing agreements with the communist Czechoslovak government, allowing free travel across their common border. However, this movement of people grew so large it caused difficulties for both countries. To ease the difficulties, the politburo led by Krenz decided on 9 November to allow refugees to exit directly through crossing points between East Germany and West Germany, including between East and West Berlin. Later the same day, the ministerial administration modified the proposal to include private, round-trip, and travel. The new regulations were to take effect the next day.<sup id="cite_ref-Schäfer,_2015_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schäfer,_2015-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Schabowski" title="Günter Schabowski">Günter Schabowski</a>, the party boss in East Berlin and the spokesman for the SED Politburo, had the task of announcing the new regulations. However, he had not been involved in the discussions about the new regulations and had not been fully updated.<sup id="cite_ref-Schabowski_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schabowski-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly before a press conference on 9 November, he was handed a note announcing the changes, but given no further instructions on how to handle the information. These regulations had only been completed a few hours earlier and were to take effect the following day, so as to allow time to inform the border guards. But this starting time delay was not communicated to Schabowski.<sup id="cite_ref-Revolution1989_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Revolution1989-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> At the end of the press conference, Schabowski read out loud the note he had been given. A reporter, <a href="/wiki/Agenzia_Nazionale_Stampa_Associata" title="Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata">ANSA</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Ehrman" title="Riccardo Ehrman">Riccardo Ehrman</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-time_stephanie_kirchner_2009_04_19_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-time_stephanie_kirchner_2009_04_19-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> asked when the regulations would take effect. After a few seconds' hesitation, Schabowski replied, "As far as I know, it takes effect immediately, without delay".<sup id="cite_ref-Revolution1989_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Revolution1989-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> After further questions from journalists, he confirmed that the regulations included the border crossings through the Wall into West Berlin, which he had not mentioned until then.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He repeated that it was immediate in an interview with American journalist <a href="/wiki/Tom_Brokaw" title="Tom Brokaw">Tom Brokaw</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Excerpts from Schabowski's press conference were the lead story on West Germany's two main news programs that night—at 7:17 p.m. on <a href="/wiki/ZDF" title="ZDF">ZDF</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Heute" title="Heute">heute</a></i> and at 8 p.m. on <a href="/wiki/ARD_(broadcaster)" title="ARD (broadcaster)">ARD</a>'s <i>Tagesschau</i>. As ARD and ZDF had broadcast to <a href="/wiki/Tal_der_Ahnungslosen" title="Tal der Ahnungslosen">nearly all of East Germany</a> since the late 1950s and had become accepted by the East German authorities, the news was broadcast there as well simultaneously. Later that night, on ARD's <i><a href="/wiki/Tagesthemen" title="Tagesthemen">Tagesthemen</a></i>, anchorman <a href="/wiki/Hanns_Joachim_Friedrichs" title="Hanns Joachim Friedrichs">Hanns Joachim Friedrichs</a> proclaimed, "This 9 November is a historic day. The GDR has announced that, starting immediately, its borders are open to everyone. The gates in the Wall stand open wide."<sup id="cite_ref-Revolution1989_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Revolution1989-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schabowski_133-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schabowski-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After hearing the broadcast, East Germans began gathering at the Wall, at the six checkpoints between East and West Berlin, demanding that border guards immediately open the gates.<sup id="cite_ref-Schabowski_133-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schabowski-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The surprised and overwhelmed guards made many hectic telephone calls to their superiors about the problem. At first, they were ordered to find the "more aggressive" people gathered at the gates and stamp their passports with a special stamp that barred them from returning to East Germany—in effect, revoking their citizenship. However, this still left thousands of people demanding to be let through "as Schabowski said we can".<sup id="cite_ref-Revolution1989_56-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Revolution1989-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It soon became clear that no one among the East German authorities would take personal responsibility for issuing orders to use lethal force, so the vastly outnumbered soldiers had no way to hold back the huge crowd of East German citizens. Finally, at 10:45 p.m. on 9 November, <a href="/wiki/Harald_J%C3%A4ger" title="Harald Jäger">Harald Jäger</a>, the commander of the <a href="/wiki/Bornholmer_Stra%C3%9Fe_border_crossing" title="Bornholmer Straße border crossing">Bornholmer Straße border crossing</a> yielded, allowing the guards to open the checkpoints and allowing people through with little or no identity checking.<sup id="cite_ref-Spiegel_Online_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spiegel_Online-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the <i><a href="/wiki/New_states_of_Germany" title="New states of Germany">Ossis</a></i> swarmed through, they were greeted by <i><a href="/wiki/Wessi" class="mw-redirect" title="Wessi">Wessis</a></i> waiting with flowers and champagne amid wild rejoicing. Soon afterward, a crowd of West Berliners jumped on top of the Wall, and were soon joined by East German youngsters.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evening of 9 November 1989 is known as the night the Wall came down.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another border crossing to the south may have been opened earlier. An account by <a href="/wiki/Heinz_Sch%C3%A4fer" title="Heinz Schäfer">Heinz Schäfer</a> indicates that he also acted independently and ordered the opening of the gate at Waltersdorf-Rudow a couple of hours earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may explain reports of East Berliners appearing in West Berlin earlier than the opening of the Bornholmer Straße border crossing.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thirty years after the fall of the Berlin Wall, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i> collected short stories from 9 November 1989 by five German writers who reflect on the day. In this, <a href="/wiki/Kathrin_Schmidt" title="Kathrin Schmidt">Kathrin Schmidt</a> remembers comically: "I downed almost an entire bottle of schnapps".<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_wall_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Remains of the Wall adjacent to the Topography of Terror, August 2007"><img alt="Remains of the Wall adjacent to the Topography of Terror, August 2007" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Berlin_wall_1.jpg/240px-Berlin_wall_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Berlin_wall_1.jpg/360px-Berlin_wall_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Berlin_wall_1.jpg/480px-Berlin_wall_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Remains of the Wall adjacent to the <a href="/wiki/Topography_of_Terror" title="Topography of Terror">Topography of Terror</a>, August 2007</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 161.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 159.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Checkpoint_Charlie_Memorial.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="A memorial of over a thousand crosses and a segment of the Wall for those who died trying to cross. The memorial stood for ten months from 2004 to 2005."><img alt="A memorial of over a thousand crosses and a segment of the Wall for those who died trying to cross. The memorial stood for ten months from 2004 to 2005." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Checkpoint_Charlie_Memorial.JPG/239px-Checkpoint_Charlie_Memorial.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Checkpoint_Charlie_Memorial.JPG/358px-Checkpoint_Charlie_Memorial.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Checkpoint_Charlie_Memorial.JPG/477px-Checkpoint_Charlie_Memorial.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1232" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A memorial of over a thousand crosses and a segment of the Wall for those who died trying to cross. The memorial stood for ten months from 2004 to 2005.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 284px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 282px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:BERLINER_MAUER_1961%E2%80%931989_plaque.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A plaque near Checkpoint Charlie signifying where the Wall stood"><img alt="A "BERLINER MAUER 1961–1989" plaque near Checkpoint Charlie signifying where the Wall stood" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/BERLINER_MAUER_1961%E2%80%931989_plaque.jpg/423px-BERLINER_MAUER_1961%E2%80%931989_plaque.jpg" decoding="async" width="282" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/BERLINER_MAUER_1961%E2%80%931989_plaque.jpg/634px-BERLINER_MAUER_1961%E2%80%931989_plaque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/BERLINER_MAUER_1961%E2%80%931989_plaque.jpg/846px-BERLINER_MAUER_1961%E2%80%931989_plaque.jpg 2x" data-file-width="857" data-file-height="365" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A plaque near <a href="/wiki/Checkpoint_Charlie" title="Checkpoint Charlie">Checkpoint Charlie</a> signifying where the Wall stood</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 148.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 146.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fort_Gordon%27s_Berlin_Wall_Display.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Display of two sections of the Wall and a "You are leaving" sign at Fort Eisenhower, Georgia, US"><img alt="Display of two sections of the Wall and a "You are leaving" sign at Fort Eisenhower, Georgia, US" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Fort_Gordon%27s_Berlin_Wall_Display.JPG/220px-Fort_Gordon%27s_Berlin_Wall_Display.JPG" decoding="async" width="147" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Fort_Gordon%27s_Berlin_Wall_Display.JPG/331px-Fort_Gordon%27s_Berlin_Wall_Display.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Fort_Gordon%27s_Berlin_Wall_Display.JPG/441px-Fort_Gordon%27s_Berlin_Wall_Display.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3349" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Display of two sections of the Wall and a "You are leaving" sign at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Eisenhower" title="Fort Eisenhower">Fort Eisenhower</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, US</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_Wall_from_the_East.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Berlin Wall from the East Berlin side, 1967"><img alt="The Berlin Wall from the East Berlin side, 1967" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Berlin_Wall_from_the_East.jpg/271px-Berlin_Wall_from_the_East.jpg" decoding="async" width="181" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Berlin_Wall_from_the_East.jpg/407px-Berlin_Wall_from_the_East.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Berlin_Wall_from_the_East.jpg/542px-Berlin_Wall_from_the_East.jpg 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="423" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Berlin Wall from the East Berlin side, 1967</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 190px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 188px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_wall-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A sign reading "Until we see each other again in the capital of the GDR""><img alt="A sign reading "Until we see each other again in the capital of the GDR"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Berlin_wall-1.jpg/282px-Berlin_wall-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Berlin_wall-1.jpg/423px-Berlin_wall-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Berlin_wall-1.jpg/564px-Berlin_wall-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="409" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A sign reading "Until we see each other again in the capital of the GDR"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 189.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 187.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_wall-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Czech hedgehog anti-tank obstacles and the Wall"><img alt="Czech hedgehog anti-tank obstacles and the Wall" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Berlin_wall-3.jpg/281px-Berlin_wall-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Berlin_wall-3.jpg/422px-Berlin_wall-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Berlin_wall-3.jpg/562px-Berlin_wall-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="401" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Czech_hedgehog" title="Czech hedgehog">Czech hedgehog</a> anti-tank obstacles and the Wall</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 213.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_Wall_Exhibition_2014-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An exhibition dedicated to the 25th anniversary to the Berlin Wall destruction was located at Potsdamer Platz Arkaden."><img alt="An exhibition dedicated to the 25th anniversary to the Berlin Wall destruction was located at Potsdamer Platz Arkaden." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Berlin_Wall_Exhibition_2014-1.jpg/320px-Berlin_Wall_Exhibition_2014-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="214" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Berlin_Wall_Exhibition_2014-1.jpg/479px-Berlin_Wall_Exhibition_2014-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Berlin_Wall_Exhibition_2014-1.jpg/639px-Berlin_Wall_Exhibition_2014-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1840" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">An exhibition dedicated to the 25th anniversary to the Berlin Wall destruction was located at <a href="/wiki/Potsdamer_Platz" title="Potsdamer Platz">Potsdamer Platz</a> Arkaden.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 92px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 90px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hole_in_berlin_wall.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A hole in the Berlin wall, 2019"><img alt="A hole in the Berlin wall, 2019" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Hole_in_berlin_wall.jpg/135px-Hole_in_berlin_wall.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Hole_in_berlin_wall.jpg/202px-Hole_in_berlin_wall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Hole_in_berlin_wall.jpg/270px-Hole_in_berlin_wall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2795" data-file-height="3727" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A hole in the Berlin wall, 2019</div> </li> </ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_Wall_(13-8-2006).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Berlin_Wall_%2813-8-2006%29.jpg/220px-Berlin_Wall_%2813-8-2006%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Berlin_Wall_%2813-8-2006%29.jpg/330px-Berlin_Wall_%2813-8-2006%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Berlin_Wall_%2813-8-2006%29.jpg/440px-Berlin_Wall_%2813-8-2006%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1992" data-file-height="1492" /></a><figcaption>Remaining stretch of the Wall near <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Ostbahnhof" title="Berlin Ostbahnhof">Ostbahnhof</a> in <a href="/wiki/Friedrichshain" title="Friedrichshain">Friedrichshain</a> called <a href="/wiki/East_Side_Gallery" title="East Side Gallery">East Side Gallery</a>, August 2006</figcaption></figure> <p>Little is left of the Wall at its original site, which was destroyed almost in its entirety. Three long sections are still standing: an 80-metre-long (260 ft) piece of the first (westernmost) wall at the <a href="/wiki/Topography_of_Terror" title="Topography of Terror">Topography of Terror</a>, site of the former <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a> headquarters, halfway between Checkpoint Charlie and <a href="/wiki/Potsdamer_Platz" title="Potsdamer Platz">Potsdamer Platz</a>; a longer section of the second (easternmost) wall along the <a href="/wiki/Spree_(river)" title="Spree (river)">Spree</a> River near the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Oberbaumbr%C3%BCcke" class="mw-redirect" title="Oberbaumbrücke">Oberbaumbrücke</a></i></span>, nicknamed <a href="/wiki/East_Side_Gallery" title="East Side Gallery">East Side Gallery</a>; and a third section that is partly reconstructed, in the north at Bernauer Straße, which was turned into a memorial in 1998. Other isolated fragments, lampposts, other elements, and a few watchtowers also remain in various parts of the city. </p> <ul><li>The former leadership in the Schlesischen Busch in the vicinity of the Puschkinallee—the listed, twelve-meter high watchtower stands in a piece of the wall strip, which has been turned into a park, near the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lohm%C3%BChleninsel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lohmühleninsel (page does not exist)">Lohmühleninsel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The former "Kieler Eck" (<a href="/wiki/Kiel" title="Kiel">Kiel</a> Corner) on Kieler Strasse in <a href="/wiki/Mitte_(locality)" title="Mitte (locality)">Mitte</a>, close to the Berlin-Spandau Schifffahrtskanal—the tower is protected as a historic monument and now surrounded on three sides by new buildings. It houses a memorial site named after the Wallopfer <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Litfin" title="Günter Litfin">Günter Litfin</a>, who was shot at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Humboldthafen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Humboldthafen (page does not exist)">Humboldthafen</a> in August 1961. The memorial site, which is run by the initiative of his brother Jürgen Liftin, can be viewed after registration.</li> <li>The former management office at Nieder Neuendorf, in the district of <a href="/wiki/Hennigsdorf" title="Hennigsdorf">Hennigsdorf</a> of the same name—here is the permanent exhibition on the history of the border installations between the two German states.</li> <li>The former management station at Bergfelde, today the district of <a href="/wiki/Hohen_Neuendorf" title="Hohen Neuendorf">Hohen Neuendorf</a>—The tower is located in an already reforested area of the border strip and is used together with surrounding terrain as a nature protection tower by the Deutschen Waldjugend.</li> <li>The only one of the much slimmer observation towers (BT-11) in the Erna-Berger-Strasse also in Mitte—however, was moved by a few meters for construction work and is no longer in the original location; There is an exhibition about the wall in the area of the Potsdamer Platz in planning.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trac%C3%A9_du_Mur_de_Berlin_pr%C3%A8s_de_Potsdamer_Platz,_2015.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Trac%C3%A9_du_Mur_de_Berlin_pr%C3%A8s_de_Potsdamer_Platz%2C_2015.JPG/220px-Trac%C3%A9_du_Mur_de_Berlin_pr%C3%A8s_de_Potsdamer_Platz%2C_2015.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Trac%C3%A9_du_Mur_de_Berlin_pr%C3%A8s_de_Potsdamer_Platz%2C_2015.JPG/330px-Trac%C3%A9_du_Mur_de_Berlin_pr%C3%A8s_de_Potsdamer_Platz%2C_2015.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Trac%C3%A9_du_Mur_de_Berlin_pr%C3%A8s_de_Potsdamer_Platz%2C_2015.JPG/440px-Trac%C3%A9_du_Mur_de_Berlin_pr%C3%A8s_de_Potsdamer_Platz%2C_2015.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Line indicating where the inner part of the wall once stood on <a href="/wiki/Leipziger_Platz" title="Leipziger Platz">Leipziger Platz</a>, just off <a href="/wiki/Potsdamer_Platz" title="Potsdamer Platz">Potsdamer Platz</a>, in 2015</figcaption></figure> <p>Nothing still accurately represents the Wall's original appearance better than a very short stretch at Bernauer Straße associated with the Berlin Wall Documentation Center.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other remnants are badly damaged by souvenir seekers. Fragments of the Wall were taken, and some were sold around the world. Appearing both with and without <a href="/wiki/Certificate_of_authenticity" title="Certificate of authenticity">certificates of authenticity</a>, these fragments are now a staple on the online auction service <a href="/wiki/EBay" title="EBay">eBay</a> as well as German souvenir shops. Today, the eastern side is covered in <a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">graffiti</a> that did not exist while the Wall was guarded by the armed soldiers of East Germany. Previously, graffiti appeared only on the western side. Along some tourist areas of the city centre, the city government has marked the location of the former Wall by a row of cobblestones in the street. In most places only the "first" wall is marked, except near Potsdamer Platz where the stretch of both walls is marked, giving visitors an impression of the dimension of the barrier system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After the fall of the Berlin Wall, there were initiatives that they want to preserve the death strip walkways and redevelop them into a hiking and cycling area, known as <b><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Berliner Mauerweg</i></span></b>. It is part of the initiative by the Berlin Senate since 11 October 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_differences">Cultural differences</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_wall_holes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Berlin_wall_holes.jpg/150px-Berlin_wall_holes.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Berlin_wall_holes.jpg/225px-Berlin_wall_holes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Berlin_wall_holes.jpg/300px-Berlin_wall_holes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1048" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Remains of the Berlin wall, 2016</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trozo_del_Muro_de_Berl%C3%ADn_en_F%C3%A1tima_(4592089636).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Trozo_del_Muro_de_Berl%C3%ADn_en_F%C3%A1tima_%284592089636%29.jpg/220px-Trozo_del_Muro_de_Berl%C3%ADn_en_F%C3%A1tima_%284592089636%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Trozo_del_Muro_de_Berl%C3%ADn_en_F%C3%A1tima_%284592089636%29.jpg/330px-Trozo_del_Muro_de_Berl%C3%ADn_en_F%C3%A1tima_%284592089636%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Trozo_del_Muro_de_Berl%C3%ADn_en_F%C3%A1tima_%284592089636%29.jpg/440px-Trozo_del_Muro_de_Berl%C3%ADn_en_F%C3%A1tima_%284592089636%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1523" data-file-height="1130" /></a><figcaption>Segment of the Berlin wall in the <a href="/wiki/Sanctuary_of_F%C3%A1tima" title="Sanctuary of Fátima">Sanctuary of Fátima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a></figcaption></figure> <p>For many years after reunification, people in Germany talked about cultural differences between East and West Germans (colloquially <a href="/wiki/Ossi_and_Wessi" title="Ossi and Wessi"><i>Ossis</i> and <i>Wessis</i></a>), sometimes described as <i>Mauer im Kopf</i> (The wall in the head). A September 2004 poll found that 25 percent of West Germans and 12 percent of East Germans wished that East and West should be separated again by a "Wall".<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A poll taken in October 2009 on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Wall indicated, however, that only about a tenth of the population was still unhappy with the unification (8 percent in the East; 12 percent in the West). Although differences are still perceived between East and West, Germans make similar distinctions between <a href="/wiki/Northern_Germany" title="Northern Germany">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Germany" title="Southern Germany">South</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2009 poll conducted by Russia's VTsIOM, found that more than half of all Russians do not know who built the Berlin Wall. Ten percent of people surveyed thought Berlin residents built it themselves. Six percent said Western powers built it and four percent thought it was a "bilateral initiative" of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the West. Fifty-eight percent said they did not know who built it, with just 24 percent correctly naming the Soviet Union and its then-communist ally East Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wall_segments_around_the_world">Wall segments around the world</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Berlin_Wall_segments" title="List of Berlin Wall segments">List of Berlin Wall segments</a></div> <p>Not all segments of the Wall were ground up as the Wall was being torn down. Many segments have been given to various institutions around the world. They can be found, for instance, in presidential and historical museums, lobbies of hotels and corporations, at universities and government buildings, and in public spaces in different countries of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="50th_anniversary_commemoration">50th anniversary commemoration</h3></div> <p>On 13 August 2011, Germany marked the 50th anniversary of East Germany beginning the erection of the Berlin Wall. Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a> joined with President <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wulff" title="Christian Wulff">Christian Wulff</a> and Berlin Mayor <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Wowereit" title="Klaus Wowereit">Klaus Wowereit</a> at the Bernauer Straße memorial park to remember lives and liberty. Speeches extolled freedom and a minute of silence at noon honored those who died trying to flee to the West. "It is our shared responsibility to keep the memory alive and to pass it on to the coming generations as a reminder to stand up for freedom and democracy to ensure that such injustice may never happen again." entreated Mayor Wowereit. "It has been shown once again: Freedom is invincible at the end. No wall can permanently withstand the desire for freedom", proclaimed President Wulff.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polling">Polling</h3></div> <p>A small minority still support the wall or even support rebuilding the wall back up. In 2008 a poll found that 11% of participants from the former West Berlin and 12% form the former East Berlin said it would be better if the wall was still in place.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A November 2009 poll found that 12% of Germans said the wall should be rebuilt. The poll also found that in the former <a href="/wiki/Old_states_of_Germany" title="Old states of Germany">West German states</a> support was at 12% and in the former <a href="/wiki/New_states_of_Germany" title="New states of Germany">East German states</a> it was 13%. A September 2009 poll found 15% of Germans supported a wall, while in the west it was 16% and in the east it was at 10%.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2010 poll from Emnid for <a href="/wiki/Bild" title="Bild">Bild</a>, found that 24% of West Germans and 23% of East Germans wished for the wall still being in place.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2019 poll from <a href="/wiki/Berliner_Zeitung" title="Berliner Zeitung">Berliner Zeitung</a> on the 30th anniversary, found that 8% of Berliners supported the idea if the wall was still standing, The overwhelming majority of Berliners at 87% however supported the fall of the wall. The poll also found that 28% of the <a href="/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany" title="Alternative for Germany">Alternative for Germany</a> (AfD) and 16% of <a href="/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_(Germany)" title="Free Democratic Party (Germany)">Free Democratic Party</a> (FDP) supporters supported bringing back the wall.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2019 Yougov poll found that 13% of Germans wanted the wall back, in the West support was at 14% and in the East it was 13%.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2019 poll from <a href="/wiki/Forsa_Institute" title="Forsa Institute">Forsa</a> found 35% of Berliners thought the construction of the Wall was not so wrong with supporters of <a href="/wiki/The_Left_(Germany)" title="The Left (Germany)">the Left Party</a> at 74%.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_media">Related media</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-In_popular_culture plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may contain <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_an_indiscriminate_collection_of_information" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">irrelevant</a> references to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Trivia_sections#"In_popular_culture"_and_"Cultural_references"_material" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Trivia sections">popular culture</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help Wikipedia to <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berlin_Wall&action=edit">improve this article</a> by removing the content or adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citations</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">reliable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Independent_sources" title="Wikipedia:Independent sources">independent sources</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Documentaries">Documentaries</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Films_about_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Category:Films about the Berlin Wall">Category:Films about the Berlin Wall</a></div> <p>Documentary films specifically about the Berlin Wall include: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tunnel_(1962_film)" title="The Tunnel (1962 film)">The Tunnel</a></i> (December 1962), an NBC News Special documentary film.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_the_Wall" title="The Road to the Wall">The Road to the Wall</a></i> (1962), a documentary film.</li> <li><i>Something to Do with the Wall</i> (1991), a documentary about the fall of the Berlin Wall by <a href="/wiki/Ross_McElwee" title="Ross McElwee">Ross McElwee</a> and Marilyn Levine, originally conceived as a commemoration of the 25th anniversary of its construction.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rabbit_%C3%A0_la_Berlin" title="Rabbit à la Berlin">Rabbit à la Berlin</a></i> (2009), a documentary film, directed by Bartek Konopka, told from the point of view of a group of wild rabbits that inhabited the zone between the two walls.</li> <li><i>The American Sector</i> (2020), a documentary by Courtney Stephens and Pacho Velez that tracks down the wall segments located in the U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feature_films">Feature films</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Films_about_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Category:Films about the Berlin Wall">Category:Films about the Berlin Wall</a></div> <p>Fictional films featuring the Berlin Wall have included: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Escape_from_East_Berlin" title="Escape from East Berlin">Escape from East Berlin</a></i> (1962), American-West German film inspired by story of 29 East Germans that tunneled under the wall<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spy_Who_Came_in_from_the_Cold_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Spy Who Came in from the Cold (film)">The Spy Who Came in from the Cold</a></i> (1965), a Cold War classic set on both sides of The Wall, from the <a href="/wiki/The_Spy_Who_Came_in_from_the_Cold" title="The Spy Who Came in from the Cold">eponymous book</a> by John le Carré, directed by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ritt" title="Martin Ritt">Martin Ritt</a>.</li> <li><i>The Boy and the Ball and the Hole in the Wall</i> (1965), Spanish-Mexican co-production.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Funeral_in_Berlin_(film)" title="Funeral in Berlin (film)">Funeral in Berlin</a></i> (1966), a spy movie starring <a href="/wiki/Michael_Caine" title="Michael Caine">Michael Caine</a>, directed by <a href="/wiki/Guy_Hamilton" title="Guy Hamilton">Guy Hamilton</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Casino_Royale_(1967_film)" title="Casino Royale (1967 film)">Casino Royale</a></i> (1967), a film featuring a segment centred on a house apparently bisected by the Wall.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wicked_Dreams_of_Paula_Schultz" title="The Wicked Dreams of Paula Schultz">The Wicked Dreams of Paula Schultz</a></i> (1968), a Cold War spy farce about an Olympic athlete who defects, directed by <a href="/wiki/George_Marshall_(director)" title="George Marshall (director)">George Marshall</a>.</li> <li><i>Berlin Tunnel 21</i> (1981), a made-for-TV movie about a former American officer leading an attempt to build a tunnel underneath The Wall as a rescue route.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Night_Crossing" title="Night Crossing">Night Crossing</a></i> (1982), a British-American drama film starring <a href="/wiki/John_Hurt" title="John Hurt">John Hurt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jane_Alexander" title="Jane Alexander">Jane Alexander</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Beau_Bridges" title="Beau Bridges">Beau Bridges</a>, based on the true story of the Strelzyk and Wetzel families, who on 16 September 1979, attempted to escape from East Germany to West Germany in a homemade hot air balloon, during the days of the Inner German border-era.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Innocent_(1993_film)" title="The Innocent (1993 film)">The Innocent</a></i> (1993), a film about the joint <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>/<a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a> operation to build a tunnel under East Berlin in the 1950s, directed by <a href="/wiki/John_Schlesinger" title="John Schlesinger">John Schlesinger</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sonnenallee" title="Sonnenallee">Sonnenallee</a></i> (1999), a German comedy film about life in East Berlin in the late 1970s, directed by <a href="/wiki/Leander_Hau%C3%9Fmann" title="Leander Haußmann">Leander Haußmann</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tunnel_(2001_film)" title="The Tunnel (2001 film)">The Tunnel</a></i> (2001), a dramatization of a collaborative tunnel under the Wall, filmed by <a href="/wiki/Roland_Suso_Richter" title="Roland Suso Richter">Roland Suso Richter</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Good_Bye_Lenin!" class="mw-redirect" title="Good Bye Lenin!">Good Bye Lenin!</a></i> (2003), film set during German unification that depicts the fall of the Wall through archive footage</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Open_The_Wall_(film)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Open The Wall (film) (page does not exist)">Open The Wall</a></i> (2014), featuring a dramatized story of the East-German border guard who was the first to let East Berliners cross the border to West Berlin on <a href="/wiki/9_November_1989" class="mw-redirect" title="9 November 1989">9 November 1989</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bridge_of_Spies_(film)" title="Bridge of Spies (film)">Bridge of Spies</a></i> (2015), featuring a dramatized subplot about <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Pryor" title="Frederic Pryor">Frederic Pryor</a>, in which an American economics graduate student visits his German girlfriend in <a href="/wiki/East_Berlin" title="East Berlin">East Berlin</a> just as the Berlin Wall is being built. He tries to bring her back into West Berlin but is stopped by <a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a> agents and arrested as a spy.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3></div> <p>Some novels specifically about the Berlin Wall include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_le_Carr%C3%A9" title="John le Carré">John le Carré</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Spy_Who_Came_in_from_the_Cold" title="The Spy Who Came in from the Cold">The Spy Who Came in from the Cold</a></i> (1963), classic Cold War <a href="/wiki/Spy_fiction" title="Spy fiction">spy fiction</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Len_Deighton" title="Len Deighton">Len Deighton</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Game" title="Berlin Game">Berlin Game</a></i> (1983), classic Cold War <a href="/wiki/Spy_fiction" title="Spy fiction">spy fiction</a></li> <li>T.H.E. Hill, <i>The Day Before the Berlin Wall: Could We Have Stopped It? – An Alternate History of Cold War Espionage</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 2010 – based on a legend told in Berlin in the 1970s.</li> <li>John Marks' <i>The Wall</i> (1999)<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which an American spy defects to the East just hours before the Wall falls.</li> <li>Marcia Preston's <i>West of the Wall</i> (2007, published as <i>Trudy's Promise</i> in North America), in which the heroine, left behind in East Berlin, waits for news of her husband after he makes his escape over the Berlin Wall.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Schneider_(writer)" title="Peter Schneider (writer)">Peter Schneider</a>'s <i>The Wall Jumper</i>, (1984; German: <i>Der Mauerspringer</i>, 1982), the Wall plays a central role in this novel set in Berlin of the 1980s.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3></div> <p>Music related to the Berlin Wall includes: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Stationary_Traveller" title="Stationary Traveller">Stationary Traveller</a></i> (1984), a concept album by <a href="/wiki/Camel_(band)" title="Camel (band)">Camel</a> that takes the theme of families and friends split up by the building of the Berlin Wall.</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/West_of_the_Wall" title="West of the Wall">West of the Wall</a>", a 1962 top 40 hit by <a href="/wiki/Toni_Fisher" title="Toni Fisher">Toni Fisher</a>, which tells the tale of two lovers separated by the newly built Berlin Wall.</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Holidays_in_the_Sun_(song)" title="Holidays in the Sun (song)">Holidays in the Sun</a>", a song by the English <a href="/wiki/Punk_rock" title="Punk rock">punk rock</a> band <a href="/wiki/Sex_Pistols" title="Sex Pistols">Sex Pistols</a> which prominently mentions the Wall, specifically singer <a href="/wiki/Johnny_Rotten" class="mw-redirect" title="Johnny Rotten">Johnny Rotten</a>'s fantasy of digging a tunnel under it.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Bowie" title="David Bowie">David Bowie</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/%22Heroes%22_(David_Bowie_song)" title=""Heroes" (David Bowie song)"><span style="padding-left:0.15em;">'</span>Heroes<span style="padding-right:0.15em;">'</span></a>" (1977), inspired by the image of a couple kissing at the Berlin Wall (in reality, the couple was his producer <a href="/wiki/Tony_Visconti" title="Tony Visconti">Tony Visconti</a> and backup singer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonia_Maa%C3%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonia Maaß (page does not exist)">Antonia Maaß</a>). The song (which, along with the <a href="/wiki/%22Heroes%22_(David_Bowie_album)" class="mw-redirect" title=""Heroes" (David Bowie album)">album of the same name</a>, was recorded in Berlin), makes lyrical references to the kissing couple, and to the "Wall of Shame" ("the shame was on the other side"). Upon Bowie's death, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Foreign_Office" title="Federal Foreign Office">Federal Foreign Office</a> paid homage to Bowie on Twitter:<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>see also <a href="#David_Bowie,_1987">above</a></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Over_de_muur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Over de muur (page does not exist)">Over de muur</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over_de_muur" class="extiw" title="nl:Over de muur">nl</a>]</span>" (1984), a song by the Dutch pop band <a href="/w/index.php?title=Klein_Orkest&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Klein Orkest (page does not exist)">Klein Orkest</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klein_Orkest" class="extiw" title="nl:Klein Orkest">nl</a>]</span>, about the differences between East and West Berlin during the period of the Berlin Wall.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Chippin' Away" (1990),<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a song by Tom Fedora, performed by <a href="/wiki/Crosby,_Stills_%26_Nash" class="mw-redirect" title="Crosby, Stills & Nash">Crosby, Stills & Nash</a> on the Berlin Wall, which appeared on <a href="/wiki/Graham_Nash" title="Graham Nash">Graham Nash</a>'s solo album <i><a href="/wiki/Innocent_Eyes_(Graham_Nash_album)" title="Innocent Eyes (Graham Nash album)">Innocent Eyes</a></i> (1986).</li> <li>"Berliners", a song by <a href="/wiki/Roy_Harper_(singer)" title="Roy Harper (singer)">Roy Harper</a> from his 1990 album <i><a href="/wiki/Once_(Roy_Harper_album)" title="Once (Roy Harper album)">Once</a></i> (lyrics include "They built a wall, boys, it stayed up for thirty years"). The song uses a BBC news broadcast describing the fall of the wall.</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Hedwig_and_the_Angry_Inch_(musical)" title="Hedwig and the Angry Inch (musical)">Hedwig and the Angry Inch</a>," a <a href="/wiki/Rock_opera" title="Rock opera">rock opera</a> whose genderqueer protagonist Hedwig Robinson was born in East Berlin and later, living in the United States, describes herself as "the new Berlin Wall" standing between "East and West, slavery and freedom, man and woman, top and bottom." As a result, she says, people are moved to "decorate" her with "blood, graffiti and spit."<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1998)</li> <li>The music video for <a href="/wiki/Liza_Fox" class="mw-redirect" title="Liza Fox">Liza Fox</a>'s song "Free" (2013) contains video clips of the fall of the Berlin Wall.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_art">Visual art</h3></div> <p>Artworks related to the Berlin Wall include: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TheDaytheWallcamedown.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/TheDaytheWallcamedown.jpg/220px-TheDaytheWallcamedown.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/TheDaytheWallcamedown.jpg/330px-TheDaytheWallcamedown.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/TheDaytheWallcamedown.jpg/440px-TheDaytheWallcamedown.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Day_the_Wall_Came_Down" title="The Day the Wall Came Down">The Day the Wall Came Down</a></i> (1996) by <a href="/wiki/Veryl_Goodnight" title="Veryl Goodnight">Veryl Goodnight</a>, a statue depicting horses leaping over actual pieces of the Berlin Wall</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>In 1982, the West-German artist <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stephan_Elsner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stephan Elsner (page does not exist)">Elsner</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephan_Elsner" class="extiw" title="de:Stephan Elsner">de</a>]</span></i> created about 500 artworks along the former border strip around West Berlin as part of his work series <i>Border Injuries</i>. On one of his actions he tore down a large part of the Wall,<sup id="cite_ref-mauerfall_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mauerfall-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> installed a prepared foil of 3x2m in it, and finished the painting there before the border soldiers on patrol could detect him. This performance was recorded on video.<sup id="cite_ref-elsnerworks_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elsnerworks-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His actions are well-documented both in newspapers from that time and in recent scientific publications.<sup id="cite_ref-elsnerpress_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elsnerpress-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Day_the_Wall_Came_Down" title="The Day the Wall Came Down">The Day the Wall Came Down</a></i>, 1996 and 1998 sculptures by <a href="/wiki/Veryl_Goodnight" title="Veryl Goodnight">Veryl Goodnight</a>, which depict five horses leaping over actual pieces of the Berlin Wall.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Games">Games</h3></div> <p>Video games related to the Berlin Wall include: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Berlin_Wall_(video_game)" title="The Berlin Wall (video game)">The Berlin Wall</a></i> (1991), a video game.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ostalgie" title="Ostalgie">Ostalgie</a>: The Berlin Wall</i> (2018), video game by Kremlingames, where the player, playing as the leader of the GDR from 1989 to 1991, can take down the Berlin Wall themselves or as a result of events in the game, or keep the wall intact as long as the country exists.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_parthenon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/P_parthenon.svg/31px-P_parthenon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/P_parthenon.svg/47px-P_parthenon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/P_parthenon.svg/62px-P_parthenon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Architecture" title="Portal:Architecture">Architecture portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/28px-COL-city_icon.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/42px-COL-city_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/56px-COL-city_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Cities" title="Portal:Cities">Cities portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/48px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/64px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:East_Germany" title="Portal:East Germany">East Germany portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/48px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/64px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a> (October 1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapel_of_Reconciliation" title="Chapel of Reconciliation">Chapel of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Kennedy_(artist)" title="Deborah Kennedy (artist)">Deborah Kennedy</a>, American artist whose works were featured on the wall before its fall</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germany_balloon_escape" title="East Germany balloon escape">East Germany balloon escape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Line_(Lebanon)" title="Green Line (Lebanon)">Green Line (Lebanon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_German_border" title="Inner German border">Inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_annexation_of_East_Jerusalem" title="Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem">Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Demilitarized_Zone" title="Korean Demilitarized Zone">Korean Demilitarized Zone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Demarcation_Line" title="Military Demarcation Line">Military Demarcation Line</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_walls" title="List of walls">List of walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gold" title="Operation Gold">Operation Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_lines" title="Peace lines">Peace lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Hungary%27s_border_fence_with_Austria" title="Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria">Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_%E2%80%93_Live_in_Berlin" title="The Wall – Live in Berlin">The Wall – Live in Berlin</a></i> (rock opera/concert, 21 July 1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Freedom_Day_(United_States)" title="World Freedom Day (United States)">World Freedom Day (United States)</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There was no international consensus whether East Berlin was part of the GDR. The Soviet Union and the GDR considered it to be the GDR <a href="/wiki/Capital_city" title="Capital city">capital city</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a> considered it as the separate Soviet occupation sector.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Chicago_Tribune_1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chicago_Tribune_1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chicago_Tribune_1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chicago_Tribune_1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/opinion/commentary/ct-myths-berlin-wall-fall-reagan-east-west-perspec-1102-20141031-story.html">"Untangling 5 myths about the Berlin Wall"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Tribune" title="Chicago Tribune">Chicago Tribune</a></i>. 31 October 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190420133321/https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/opinion/commentary/ct-myths-berlin-wall-fall-reagan-east-west-perspec-1102-20141031-story.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Tribune&rft.atitle=Untangling+5+myths+about+the+Berlin+Wall&rft.date=2014-10-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chicagotribune.com%2Fnews%2Fopinion%2Fcommentary%2Fct-myths-berlin-wall-fall-reagan-east-west-perspec-1102-20141031-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiotrowiczBlay1997" class="citation book cs1">Piotrowicz, Ryszard W.; Blay, Sam (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36437948"><i>The unification of Germany in international and domestic law</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers#Rodopi" title="Brill Publishers">Rodopi</a>. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-5183-755-0" title="Special:BookSources/90-5183-755-0"><bdi>90-5183-755-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/36437948">36437948</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+unification+of+Germany+in+international+and+domestic+law&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F36437948&rft.isbn=90-5183-755-0&rft.aulast=Piotrowicz&rft.aufirst=Ryszard+W.&rft.au=Blay%2C+Sam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F36437948&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1961-08-31_Berlin"><i>Video: Berlin, 1961/08/31</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Universal_Newsreel" title="Universal Newsreel">Universal Newsreel</a>. 1961<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Berlin+Wall%3A+Five+things+you+might+not+know&rft.date=2011-08-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2F8698446%2FBerlin-Wall-Five-things-you-might-not-know.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnn.com-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnn.com_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnn.com_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnn.com_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnn.com_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnn.com_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnn.com_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnn.com_8-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnn.com_8-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnn.com_8-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnn.com_8-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnn.com_8-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnn.com_8-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/15/world/europe/berlin-wall-fast-facts/index.html">"Berlin Wall Fast Facts"</a>. <i>CNN</i>. 16 September 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191113034725/https://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/15/world/europe/berlin-wall-fast-facts/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Berlin+Wall+Fast+Facts&rft.date=2013-09-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2013%2F09%2F15%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Fberlin-wall-fast-facts%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071121211406/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,959058,00.html">"Freedom!"</a>. <i>Time</i>. 20 November 1989. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,959058,00.html">the original</a> on 21 November 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Freedom%21&rft.date=1989-11-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C959058%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.berlin.de/mauer/en/history/victims-of-the-wall/">"Victims of the Wall"</a>. <i>www.berlin.de</i>. 19 August 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211209125903/https://www.berlin.de/mauer/en/history/victims-of-the-wall/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 December 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.berlin.de&rft.atitle=Victims+of+the+Wall&rft.date=2020-08-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.berlin.de%2Fmauer%2Fen%2Fhistory%2Fvictims-of-the-wall%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chronik-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chronik_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chronik_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/index.php/de/Common/Document/field/file/id/45997">"Forschungsprojekt "Die Todesopfer an der Berliner Mauer, 1961–1989": BILANZ (Stand: 7. August 2008) (in German)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190929153720/http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/index.php/de/Common/Document/field/file/id/45997">Archived</a> from the original on 29 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Forschungsprojekt+%22Die+Todesopfer+an+der+Berliner+Mauer%2C+1961%E2%80%931989%22%3A+BILANZ+%28Stand%3A+7.+August+2008%29+%28in+German%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chronik-der-mauer.de%2Findex.php%2Fde%2FCommon%2FDocument%2Ffield%2Ffile%2Fid%2F45997&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-contemporary_research-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-contemporary_research_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-contemporary_research_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-contemporary_research_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/178924/todeopfer-an-der-berliner-mauer">"Todesopfer an der Berliner Mauer"</a> [Fatalities at the Berlin Wall] (in German). Chronik der Mauer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191006190136/http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/178924/todeopfer-an-der-berliner-mauer">Archived</a> from the original on 6 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Todesopfer+an+der+Berliner+Mauer&rft.pub=Chronik+der+Mauer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chronik-der-mauer.de%2F178924%2Ftodeopfer-an-der-berliner-mauer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hilde Szabo: Die Berliner Mauer begann im Burgenland zu bröckeln (The Berlin Wall began to crumble in Burgenland – German), in Wiener Zeitung 16 August 1999; Otmar Lahodynsky: Paneuropäisches Picknick: Die Generalprobe für den Mauerfall (Pan-European picnic: the dress rehearsal for the fall of the Berlin Wall – German), in: Profil 9 August 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas_Roser_2018-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_Roser_2018_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_Roser_2018_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Roser: DDR-Massenflucht: Ein Picknick hebt die Welt aus den Angeln (German – Mass exodus of the GDR: A picnic clears the world) in: Die Presse 16 August 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gorbatschows_2009-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gorbatschows_2009_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gorbatschows_2009_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Der 19. August 1989 war ein Test für Gorbatschows" (German – August 19, 1989 was a test for Gorbachev), in: FAZ 19 August 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-miller4-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-miller4_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller2000">Miller 2000</a>, pp. 4–5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-miller16-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-miller16_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller2000">Miller 2000</a>, p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yoder1993-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yoder1993_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmos_Yoder1993" class="citation book cs1">Amos Yoder (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/communismintrans00yode"><i>Communism in Transition: The End of the Soviet Empires</i></a></span>. Taylor & Francis. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/communismintrans00yode/page/58">58</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8448-1738-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8448-1738-5"><bdi>978-0-8448-1738-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communism+in+Transition%3A+The+End+of+the+Soviet+Empires&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8448-1738-5&rft.au=Amos+Yoder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommunismintrans00yode&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reinalda2009-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reinalda2009_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reinalda2009_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reinalda2009_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBob_Reinalda2009" class="citation book cs1">Bob Reinalda (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ln19AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA369"><i>Routledge History of International Organizations: From 1815 to the Present Day</i></a>. Routledge. p. 369. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-02405-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-02405-6"><bdi>978-1-134-02405-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160101212444/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ln19AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA369">Archived</a> from the original on 1 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+History+of+International+Organizations%3A+From+1815+to+the+Present+Day&rft.pages=369&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-134-02405-6&rft.au=Bob+Reinalda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLn19AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laurien Crump (2015). <i>The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955–1969</i>. Routledge. p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laurien Crump (2015). <i>The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955–1969</i>. Routledge. p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerman2020" class="citation news cs1">Berman, Russell A. (1 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hoover.org/research/leaving-socialism-behind-lesson-germany">"Leaving Socialism Behind: A Lesson From Germany"</a>. <i>Hoover Institution</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414080739/https://www.hoover.org/research/leaving-socialism-behind-lesson-germany">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hoover+Institution&rft.atitle=Leaving+Socialism+Behind%3A+A+Lesson+From+Germany&rft.date=2020-10-01&rft.aulast=Berman&rft.aufirst=Russell+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hoover.org%2Fresearch%2Fleaving-socialism-behind-lesson-germany&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner1987">Turner 1987</a>, p. 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGaddis2005">Gaddis 2005</a>, p. 33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller2000">Miller 2000</a>, pp. 65–70</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-turner29-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-turner29_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner1987">Turner 1987</a>, p. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fritsch-Bournazel, Renata, <i>Confronting the German Question: Germans on the East-West Divide</i>, Berg Publishers, 1990, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85496-684-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-85496-684-6">0-85496-684-6</a>, p. 143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gaddis_2005,_p._34-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gaddis_2005,_p._34_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGaddis2005">Gaddis 2005</a>, p. 34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller2000">Miller 2000</a>, pp. 180–181</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenull2005" class="citation book cs1">Kenull, Torsten (2005). <i>Die Geschichte der DDR in Ihren Gründzügen</i>. Hary: GRIN Verlag für akademische Texte.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Geschichte+der+DDR+in+Ihren+Gr%C3%BCndz%C3%BCgen&rft.place=Hary&rft.pub=GRIN+Verlag+f%C3%BCr+akademische+Texte&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Kenull&rft.aufirst=Torsten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wettig179-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wettig179_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWettig2008">Wettig 2008</a>, p. 179</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In a congratulatory telegram, Stalin emphasized that, with the creation of East Germany, the "enslavement of European countries by the global imperialists was rendered impossible." (Wettig, Gerhard, <i>Stalin and the Cold War in Europe</i>, Rowman & Littlefield, 2008, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7425-5542-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7425-5542-9">0-7425-5542-9</a>, p. 179)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenull2005" class="citation book cs1">Kenull, Torsten (2005). <i>Die Geschichte der DDR in Ihren Grundzügen</i>. Harz: GRIN Verlag für akademische Texte. p. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Geschichte+der+DDR+in+Ihren+Grundz%C3%BCgen&rft.place=Harz&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=GRIN+Verlag+f%C3%BCr+akademische+Texte&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Kenull&rft.aufirst=Torsten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/history/berlin-wall-what-you-need-to-know-about-the-barrier-that-divided-east-and-west-9847347.html">"Everything you need to know about the Berlin Wall"</a>. <i>The Independent</i>. 7 November 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180128124342/http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/history/berlin-wall-what-you-need-to-know-about-the-barrier-that-divided-east-and-west-9847347.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Everything+you+need+to+know+about+the+Berlin+Wall&rft.date=2014-11-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Flife-style%2Fhistory%2Fberlin-wall-what-you-need-to-know-about-the-barrier-that-divided-east-and-west-9847347.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thackeray188-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-thackeray188_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thackeray188_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThackeray2004">Thackeray 2004</a>, p. 188</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stmas.bayern.de/migration/aussiedler/aussstat.pdf">Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Arbeit und Sozialordnung, Familie und Frauen, Statistik Spätaussiedler Dezember 2007</a></i></span>, p. 3 (in German)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-loescher60-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-loescher60_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoescher2001">Loescher 2001</a>, p. 60</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-loescher68-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-loescher68_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoescher2001">Loescher 2001</a>, p. 68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dale17-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dale17_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDale2005">Dale 2005</a>, p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dowty114-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dowty114_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDowty1989">Dowty 1989</a>, p. 114</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dowty116-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dowty116_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDowty1989">Dowty 1989</a>, p. 116</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dowty121-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dowty121_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dowty121_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dowty121_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDowty1989">Dowty 1989</a>, p. 121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harrison240-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harrison240_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarrison2003">Harrison 2003</a>, p. 240-fn</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harrison98-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harrison98_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarrison2003">Harrison 2003</a>, p. 98</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harrison99-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-harrison99_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harrison99_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harrison99_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harrison99_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarrison2003">Harrison 2003</a>, p. 99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Maddrell, <i>Spying on Science: Western Intelligence in Divided Germany 1945–1961</i>, p. 56. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dowty122-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dowty122_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dowty122_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dowty122_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDowty1989">Dowty 1989</a>, p. 122</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/files/research/foreign-policy/cold-war/1961-berlin-crisis/overview/berlin-wall-overview.pdf">"A Brief History of the Berlin Crisis of 1961"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.archives.gov/files/research/foreign-policy/cold-war/1961-berlin-crisis/overview/berlin-wall-overview.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Berlin+Crisis+of+1961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffiles%2Fresearch%2Fforeign-policy%2Fcold-war%2F1961-berlin-crisis%2Foverview%2Fberlin-wall-overview.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harrison100-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-harrison100_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harrison100_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harrison100_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarrison2003">Harrison 2003</a>, p. 100</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker Rolf Berghahn, <i>Modern Germany: Society, Economy and Politics in the Twentieth Century</i>, p. 227. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 1987</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pearson75-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pearson75_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPearson1998">Pearson 1998</a>, p. 75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrozier1999">Crozier 1999</a>, pp. 170–171</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRottman2008" class="citation book cs1">Rottman, Gordon (2008). <i>The Berlin Wall and the Intra-German Border 1961–1989</i>. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-184603-193-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-184603-193-9"><bdi>978-184603-193-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Berlin+Wall+and+the+Intra-German+Border+1961%E2%80%931989&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-184603-193-9&rft.aulast=Rottman&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiegrefe2009" class="citation magazine cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wiegrefe, Klaus (May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140209044353/http://einestages.spiegel.de/static/topicalbumbackground/4246/_wir_lassen_euch_jetzt_ein_zwei_wochen_zeit.html">"Wir lassen euch jetzt ein, zwei Wochen Zeit"</a>. Einestages. <i>Spiegel Online</i> (in German). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://einestages.spiegel.de/static/topicalbumbackground/4246/_wir_lassen_euch_jetzt_ein_zwei_wochen_zeit.html">the original</a> on 9 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Spiegel+Online&rft.atitle=Wir+lassen+euch+jetzt+ein%2C+zwei+Wochen+Zeit&rft.date=2009-05&rft.aulast=Wiegrefe&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feinestages.spiegel.de%2Fstatic%2Ftopicalbumbackground%2F4246%2F_wir_lassen_euch_jetzt_ein_zwei_wochen_zeit.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.welt.de/politik/article3828831/Das-Gespraech-zwischen-Ulbricht-und-Chruschtschow.html">"Transcript of the telephone call between Khrushchev and Ulbricht on August 1, 1961"</a>. <i>Die Welt</i> (in German). Welt.de. 30 May 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110821163514/http://www.welt.de/politik/article3828831/Das-Gespraech-zwischen-Ulbricht-und-Chruschtschow.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Die+Welt&rft.atitle=Transcript+of+the+telephone+call+between+Khrushchev+and+Ulbricht+on+August+1%2C+1961&rft.date=2009-05-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.welt.de%2Fpolitik%2Farticle3828831%2FDas-Gespraech-zwischen-Ulbricht-und-Chruschtschow.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Revolution1989-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Revolution1989_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Revolution1989_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Revolution1989_56-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Revolution1989_56-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Revolution1989_56-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebetsyen2009" class="citation book cs1">Sebetsyen, Victor (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/revolution1989fa00sebe"><i>Revolution 1989: The Fall of the Soviet Empire</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_Books" title="Pantheon Books">Pantheon Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-42532-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-42532-5"><bdi>978-0-375-42532-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+1989%3A+The+Fall+of+the+Soviet+Empire&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-375-42532-5&rft.aulast=Sebetsyen&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frevolution1989fa00sebe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKempe2011" class="citation book cs1">Kempe, Frederick (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/berlin1961kenned0000kemp/page/247"><i>Berlin 1961</i></a>. Penguin Group. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/berlin1961kenned0000kemp/page/247">247</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-399-15729-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-399-15729-5"><bdi>978-0-399-15729-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Berlin+1961&rft.pages=247&rft.pub=Penguin+Group&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-399-15729-5&rft.aulast=Kempe&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fberlin1961kenned0000kemp%2Fpage%2F247&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKempe2011" class="citation web cs1">Kempe, Frederick (27 May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110530005247/http://blogs.reuters.com/berlin1961/2011/05/27/the-worst-day-of-jfks-life/">"The worst day of JFK's life"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.reuters.com/berlin1961/2011/05/27/the-worst-day-of-jfks-life/">the original</a> on 30 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+worst+day+of+JFK%27s+life&rft.date=2011-05-27&rft.aulast=Kempe&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.reuters.com%2Fberlin1961%2F2011%2F05%2F27%2Fthe-worst-day-of-jfks-life%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historytoday.com/archive/berlin-wall-secret-history">"The Berlin Wall: A Secret History"</a>. <i>www.historytoday.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190227114956/http://www.historytoday.com/archive/berlin-wall-secret-history">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.historytoday.com&rft.atitle=The+Berlin+Wall%3A+A+Secret+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Farchive%2Fberlin-wall-secret-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304085918/http://www.berlin.de/mauer/zahlen_fakten/gebietsaustausch/index.en.html">"Exchanges of Territory"</a>. City of Berlin. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.berlin.de/mauer/zahlen_fakten/gebietsaustausch/index.en.html">the original</a> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Exchanges+of+Territory&rft.pub=City+of+Berlin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.berlin.de%2Fmauer%2Fzahlen_fakten%2Fgebietsaustausch%2Findex.en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304085918/http://www.berlin.de/mauer/zahlen_fakten/gebietsaustausch/index.en.html">"Exchanges of Territory: Lenné-Dreieck"</a>. City of Berlin. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.berlin.de/mauer/zahlen_fakten/gebietsaustausch/index.en.html#lenne">the original</a> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Exchanges+of+Territory%3A+Lenn%C3%A9-Dreieck&rft.pub=City+of+Berlin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.berlin.de%2Fmauer%2Fzahlen_fakten%2Fgebietsaustausch%2Findex.en.html%23lenne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1961-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1961_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1961_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1961/Wall-Goes-Up-in-Berlin/12295509433760-7/">"Wall Goes Up in Berlin – Events of 1961 – Year in Review"</a>. UPI.com. 29 May 1998. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130726230428/http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1961/Wall-Goes-Up-in-Berlin/12295509433760-7/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wall+Goes+Up+in+Berlin+%E2%80%93+Events+of+1961+%E2%80%93+Year+in+Review&rft.pub=UPI.com&rft.date=1998-05-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.upi.com%2FAudio%2FYear_in_Review%2FEvents-of-1961%2FWall-Goes-Up-in-Berlin%2F12295509433760-7%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keeling, Drew (2014), business-of-migration.com <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.business-of-migration.com/migration-processes/other-regions/berlin-wall-and-migration/">"Berlin Wall and Migration," <i>Migration as a travel business</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225032330/https://www.business-of-migration.com/migration-processes/other-regions/berlin-wall-and-migration/">Archived</a> 25 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaum2008">Daum 2008</a>, pp. 27–28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, Frederick. <i>The Berlin Wall: 13 August 1961 – 9 November 1989</i>. Bloomsbury 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.goethe.de/ges/ztg/thm/ddg/en1748571.htm">"Goethe-Institut – Topics – German History"</a>. 9 April 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080409133940/http://www.goethe.de/ges/ztg/thm/ddg/en1748571.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Goethe-Institut+%E2%80%93+Topics+%E2%80%93+German+History&rft.date=2008-04-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.goethe.de%2Fges%2Fztg%2Fthm%2Fddg%2Fen1748571.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">"Die Regierungen der Warschauer Vertragsstaaten wenden sich an die Volkskammer und an die Regierung der DDR mit dem Vorschlag, an der Westberliner Grenze eine solche Ordnung einzuführen, durch die der Wühltätigkeit gegen die Länder des sozialistischen Lagers zuverlässig der Weg verlegt und ringsum das ganze Gebiet West-Berlins eine verlässliche Bewachung gewährleistet wird."</i></span> <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.welt.de/print-welt/article252861/Berlin_wird_geteilt.html">Die Welt: Berlin wird geteilt</a></i></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718025112/http://www.zlb.de/projekte/millennium/original_html/nd_1961_1408.GIF.html">"Neues Deutschland: Normales Leben in Berlin,14 August 1961"</a> (in German). Zlb.de. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zlb.de/projekte/millennium/original_html/nd_1961_1408.GIF.html">the original</a> on 18 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Neues+Deutschland%3A+Normales+Leben+in+Berlin%2C14+August+1961&rft.pub=Zlb.de&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zlb.de%2Fprojekte%2Fmillennium%2Foriginal_html%2Fnd_1961_1408.GIF.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarotte2014" class="citation book cs1">Sarotte, Mary Elise (2014). <i>The Collapse: The Accidental Opening of the Berlin Wall</i>. New York: Basic Books. p. 114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-06494-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-06494-6"><bdi>978-0-465-06494-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collapse%3A+The+Accidental+Opening+of+the+Berlin+Wall&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-465-06494-6&rft.aulast=Sarotte&rft.aufirst=Mary+Elise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TNSA20130925-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TNSA20130925_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TNSA20130925_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB441/docs/berlin%20crisis%20after.pdf">"Berlin Crisis After Dividing Berlin, August 1961"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. The National Security Archive at George Washington University in Washington, D.C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130928114740/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB441/docs/berlin%20crisis%20after.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 28 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Berlin+Crisis+After+Dividing+Berlin%2C+August+1961&rft.pub=The+National+Security+Archive+at+George+Washington+University+in+Washington%2C+D.C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.gwu.edu%2F~nsarchiv%2FNSAEBB%2FNSAEBB441%2Fdocs%2Fberlin%2520crisis%2520after.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AidBurr20130925-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AidBurr20130925_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AidBurr20130925_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthew_M._AidWilliam_Burr2013" class="citation web cs1">Matthew M. Aid & William Burr (25 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB441/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Disreputable if Not Outright Illegal': The National Security Agency versus Martin Luther King, Muhammad Ali, Art Buchwald, Frank Church, et al"</a>. The National Security Archive at the George Washington University in Washington, D.C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130926223814/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB441/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Disreputable+if+Not+Outright+Illegal%27%3A+The+National+Security+Agency+versus+Martin+Luther+King%2C+Muhammad+Ali%2C+Art+Buchwald%2C+Frank+Church%2C+et+al.&rft.pub=The+National+Security+Archive+at+the+George+Washington+University+in+Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.date=2013-09-25&rft.au=Matthew+M.+Aid&rft.au=William+Burr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.gwu.edu%2F~nsarchiv%2FNSAEBB%2FNSAEBB441%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaum2008">Daum 2008</a>, pp. 51–56</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also <a href="/wiki/David_Hackworth" title="David Hackworth">Hackworth</a>, About Face</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2014" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Ben (2014). <i>Escaping The Bonds of Earth: The Fifties and the Sixties</i>. Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-79093-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-79093-0"><bdi>978-0-387-79093-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Escaping+The+Bonds+of+Earth%3A+The+Fifties+and+the+Sixties&rft.place=Chichester%2C+UK&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Praxis+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-387-79093-0&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Ben&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goodman, Micah (1996) "After the Wall: The Legal Ramifications of the East German Border Guard Trials in Unified Germany," <i>Cornell International Law Journal</i>: Vol. 29: Iss. 3, Article 3. p. 728</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/index.php/de/Start/Detail/id/593791/page/0">Berliner Mauer (Stand 31. Juli 1989) Polizeipräsident von Berlin</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210209114000/https://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/index.php/de/Start/Detail/id/593791/page/0">Archived</a> 9 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/index.php/de/Start/Detail/id/593791/page/0">Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung: <i>Ministerium für Staatssicherheit der DDR</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210209114000/https://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/index.php/de/Start/Detail/id/593791/page/0">Archived</a> 9 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, siehe: <i>Statistiken + "Grenzsicherung in Berlin"</i> 1989.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.berlin.de/landesdenkmalamt/denkmale/berliner-mauer/mauer-denkmale/bornholmer-strasse-649637.en.php">"Hinterland wall on Bornholmer Straße – Witness to the events of 9 November 1989"</a>. Berlin.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hinterland+wall+on+Bornholmer+Stra%C3%9Fe+%E2%80%93+Witness+to+the+events+of+9+November+1989&rft.pub=Berlin.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.berlin.de%2Flandesdenkmalamt%2Fdenkmale%2Fberliner-mauer%2Fmauer-denkmale%2Fbornholmer-strasse-649637.en.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ineuropa-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ineuropa_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ineuropa_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">According to Hagen Koch, former <a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a>-officer, in <a href="/wiki/Geert_Mak" title="Geert Mak">Geert Mak</a>'s documentary <a href="/wiki/In_Europa_(TV_program)" title="In Europa (TV program)">In Europa (TV program)</a>, episode <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ineuropa.nl/programmas/36788896/afleveringen/40824233/"><i>1961 – DDR</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210209113951/http://v.youku.com/v_show/id_XNTEzNDkyMDY4.html">Archived</a> 9 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 25 January 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thoughtco.com-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-thoughtco.com_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thoughtco.com_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFhistorianFact-CheckerTopics" class="citation web cs1">historian, Jennifer Rosenberg Jennifer Rosenberg is a; Fact-Checker, History; Topics, Freelance Writer Who Writes About 20th-Century History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/the-berlin-wall-28-year-history-1779495">"All About the 28-Year History, Rise and Fall of the Berlin Wall"</a>. <i>ThoughtCo</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180216030017/https://www.thoughtco.com/the-berlin-wall-28-year-history-1779495">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ThoughtCo&rft.atitle=All+About+the+28-Year+History%2C+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Berlin+Wall&rft.aulast=historian&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+Rosenberg+Jennifer+Rosenberg+is+a&rft.au=Fact-Checker%2C+History&rft.au=Topics%2C+Freelance+Writer+Who+Writes+About+20th-Century+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thoughtco.com%2Fthe-berlin-wall-28-year-history-1779495&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurkhardt" class="citation web cs1">Burkhardt, Heiko. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/history/facts.htm">"Facts of Berlin Wall – History of Berlin Wall"</a>. Dailysoft.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210311194422/https://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/history/facts.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Facts+of+Berlin+Wall+%E2%80%93+History+of+Berlin+Wall&rft.pub=Dailysoft.com&rft.aulast=Burkhardt&rft.aufirst=Heiko&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailysoft.com%2Fberlinwall%2Fhistory%2Ffacts.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cgqmzv-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cgqmzv_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cgqmzv_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._DoussetA._SouquetS._Lelarge" class="citation web cs1">P. Dousset; A. Souquet; S. Lelarge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060913215115/http://www.wall-berlin.org/gb/mur.htm">"Berlin Wall"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wall-berlin.org/gb/mur.htm">the original</a> on 13 September 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Berlin+Wall&rft.au=P.+Dousset&rft.au=A.+Souquet&rft.au=S.+Lelarge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wall-berlin.org%2Fgb%2Fmur.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeiko_Burkhardt" class="citation web cs1">Heiko Burkhardt. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/history/facts_02.htm">"Fourth Generation of Berlin Wall – History of Berlin Wall"</a>. Dailysoft.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210211080754/https://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/history/facts_02.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fourth+Generation+of+Berlin+Wall+%E2%80%93+History+of+Berlin+Wall&rft.pub=Dailysoft.com&rft.au=Heiko+Burkhardt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailysoft.com%2Fberlinwall%2Fhistory%2Ffacts_02.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berlin_Wall_2009-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Berlin_Wall_2009_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berlin_Wall_2009_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rise and Fall of the Berlin Wall</i>. <a href="/wiki/History_(American_TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="History (American TV channel)">History Channel</a>, 2009. DVD-ROM.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopiolek" class="citation web cs1">Popiolek. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071012011801/http://die-berliner-mauer.de/en/fakten.html">"The Berlin Wall : History of Berlin Wall : Facts"</a>. Die-berliner-mauer.de. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.die-berliner-mauer.de/en/fakten.html">the original</a> on 12 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Berlin+Wall+%3A+History+of+Berlin+Wall+%3A+Facts&rft.pub=Die-berliner-mauer.de&rft.au=Popiolek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.die-berliner-mauer.de%2Fen%2Ffakten.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRottman2012" class="citation book cs1">Rottman, Gordon L. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QbfvCwAAQBAJ&q=berlin+wall+outside+maintenance&pg=PT61"><i>The Berlin Wall and the Intra-German Border 1961–89</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781782005087" title="Special:BookSources/9781782005087"><bdi>9781782005087</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Berlin+Wall+and+the+Intra-German+Border+1961%E2%80%9389&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781782005087&rft.aulast=Rottman&rft.aufirst=Gordon+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQbfvCwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dberlin%2Bwall%2Boutside%2Bmaintenance%26pg%3DPT61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDW_News_English2009" class="citation web cs1">DW News English (30 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=275&v=OwQsTzGkbiY">"Walled in! – The inner German border"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201104212348/https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=275&v=OwQsTzGkbiY">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 November</span> 2017</span> – via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Walled+in%21+%E2%80%93+The+inner+German+border&rft.date=2009-06-30&rft.au=DW+News+English&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Ftime_continue%3D275%26v%3DOwQsTzGkbiY&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_88-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRottman2012" class="citation book cs1">Rottman, Gordon L. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UPI&rft.atitle=Foreign+News+Briefs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.upi.com%2FArchives%2F1987%2F01%2F09%2FForeign-News-Briefs%2F9799537166800%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2014/apr/03/thierry-noir-graffiti-berlin-wall">"Graffiti in the death strip: the Berlin wall's first street artist tells his story"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 3 April 2014. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171201142426/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2014/apr/03/thierry-noir-graffiti-berlin-wall">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2018</span> – via www.theguardian.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Graffiti+in+the+death+strip%3A+the+Berlin+wall%27s+first+street+artist+tells+his+story&rft.date=2014-04-03&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fartanddesign%2Fgallery%2F2014%2Fapr%2F03%2Fthierry-noir-graffiti-berlin-wall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOltermann2014" class="citation web cs1">Oltermann, Philip (3 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/nov/03/east-german-punks-berlin-wall-radical-art-stunt">"A line in history: the east German punks behind the Berlin Wall's most radical art stunt"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180924114802/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/nov/03/east-german-punks-berlin-wall-radical-art-stunt">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=A+line+in+history%3A+the+east+German+punks+behind+the+Berlin+Wall%27s+most+radical+art+stunt&rft.date=2014-11-03&rft.aulast=Oltermann&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fartanddesign%2F2014%2Fnov%2F03%2Feast-german-punks-berlin-wall-radical-art-stunt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harrison206-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harrison206_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarrison2003">Harrison 2003</a>, pp. 206–214</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-history.howstuffworks.com-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-history.howstuffworks.com_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-history.howstuffworks.com_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.howstuffworks.com/historical-events/berlin-wall.htm">"How the Berlin Wall Worked"</a>. <i>HowStuffWorks</i>. 12 May 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190216093820/https://history.howstuffworks.com/historical-events/berlin-wall.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HowStuffWorks&rft.atitle=How+the+Berlin+Wall+Worked&rft.date=2008-05-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.howstuffworks.com%2Fhistorical-events%2Fberlin-wall.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mashable.com-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mashable.com_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mashable.com_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mashable.com_94-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mashable.com_94-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mashable.com_94-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mashable.com_94-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mashable.com_94-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mashable.com_94-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mashable.com_94-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mashable.com_94-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWild2014" class="citation web cs1">Wild, Chris (6 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mashable.com/2014/11/06/berlin-wall-fence/">"Before the Berlin Wall, people escaped through a wire fence"</a>. <i>Mashable</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180216025706/https://mashable.com/2014/11/06/berlin-wall-fence/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mashable&rft.atitle=Before+the+Berlin+Wall%2C+people+escaped+through+a+wire+fence&rft.date=2014-11-06&rft.aulast=Wild&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmashable.com%2F2014%2F11%2F06%2Fberlin-wall-fence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-willis-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-willis_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="willis" class="citation book cs1">Willis, Jim (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j-I99V70m0sC&q=visa+to+visit+west+germany+from+east&pg=PT45"><i>Daily Life behind the Iron Curtain</i></a>. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313397639" title="Special:BookSources/9780313397639"><bdi>9780313397639</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+behind+the+Iron+Curtain&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1946&rft.isbn=9780313397639&rft.aulast=Willis&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj-I99V70m0sC%26q%3Dvisa%2Bto%2Bvisit%2Bwest%2Bgermany%2Bfrom%2Beast%26pg%3DPT45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChronik_der_Mauer_staff" class="citation web cs1">Chronik der Mauer staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/en/chronicle/#anchoryear1964">"Chronicle of the Berlin Wall: 9 September 1964"</a>. <i>Chronik der Mauer</i>. Federal Agency for Civic Education. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191201085017/http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/en/chronicle/#anchoryear1964">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chronik+der+Mauer&rft.atitle=Chronicle+of+the+Berlin+Wall%3A+9+September+1964&rft.au=Chronik+der+Mauer+staff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chronik-der-mauer.de%2Fen%2Fchronicle%2F%23anchoryear1964&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBCSept2007-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBCSept2007_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6943093.stm">"E German 'licence to kill' found"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></i>. 12 August 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090611004756/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6943093.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 June 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2007</span>. <q>A newly discovered order is the firmest evidence yet that the <a href="/wiki/Communist_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist regime">communist regime</a> gave explicit shoot-to-kill orders, says Germany's director of Stasi files.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=E+German+%27licence+to+kill%27+found&rft.date=2007-08-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Feurope%2F6943093.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Conrad Schumann, 56, Symbol of E. Berlin escapes"; North Sports Final Edition Associated Press. <i>Chicago Tribune</i>, Chicago, Ill.: 23 June 1998. p. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/index.php/de/Start/Detail/id/593816/page/1">"Chronik der Mauer – Bau und Fall der Berliner Mauer | Opfer der Mauer"</a>. Chronik-der-mauer.de. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160314082744/http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/index.php/de/start/detail/id/593816/page/1">Archived</a> from the original on 14 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chronik+der+Mauer+%E2%80%93+Bau+und+Fall+der+Berliner+Mauer+%26%23124%3B+Opfer+der+Mauer&rft.pub=Chronik-der-mauer.de&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chronik-der-mauer.de%2Findex.php%2Fde%2FStart%2FDetail%2Fid%2F593816%2Fpage%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKempe2011" class="citation book cs1">Kempe, Frederick (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/berlin1961kenned0000kemp/page/363"><i>Berlin 1961</i></a>. Penguin Group (US). pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/berlin1961kenned0000kemp/page/363">363–367</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-399-15729-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-399-15729-5"><bdi>978-0-399-15729-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Berlin+1961&rft.pages=363-367&rft.pub=Penguin+Group+%28US%29&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-399-15729-5&rft.aulast=Kempe&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fberlin1961kenned0000kemp%2Fpage%2F363&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hertle, Hans-Hermann (2008). <i>The Berlin Wall: Monument of the Cold War</i>. Ch. Links Verlag, p. 72. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-86153-463-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-86153-463-0">3-86153-463-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thelocal.de/20141105/the-great-escape-across-the-berlin-wall">"Escaping of the 5,000 from East Berlin"</a>. <i>The Local Germany</i>. 5 November 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180216025330/https://www.thelocal.de/20141105/the-great-escape-across-the-berlin-wall">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Local+Germany&rft.atitle=Escaping+of+the+5%2C000+from+East+Berlin&rft.date=2014-11-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelocal.de%2F20141105%2Fthe-great-escape-across-the-berlin-wall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/secret-tunnels-that-brought-freedom-from-berlins-wall-1804765.html">"Secret tunnels that brought freedom from Berlin's Wall"</a>. <i>The Independent</i>. 18 October 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180216030850/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/secret-tunnels-that-brought-freedom-from-berlins-wall-1804765.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Secret+tunnels+that+brought+freedom+from+Berlin%27s+Wall&rft.date=2009-10-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Fsecret-tunnels-that-brought-freedom-from-berlins-wall-1804765.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerriman2021" class="citation book cs1">Merriman, Helena (2021). <i>Tunnel 29</i>. New York: Public Affairs. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781541788831" title="Special:BookSources/9781541788831"><bdi>9781541788831</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tunnel+29&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Public+Affairs&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781541788831&rft.aulast=Merriman&rft.aufirst=Helena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossland2019" class="citation news cs1">Crossland, David (4 November 2019). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/edition/world/hatred-of-the-communist-east-that-drove-berlin-wall-tunneller-w70cw9tx3">"Hatred of the Communist East that drove Berlin Wall tunneller"</a></span>. <i>The Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191104194707/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/edition/world/hatred-of-the-communist-east-that-drove-berlin-wall-tunneller-w70cw9tx3">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Hatred+of+the+Communist+East+that+drove+Berlin+Wall+tunneller&rft.date=2019-11-04&rft.aulast=Crossland&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetimes.co.uk%2Fedition%2Fworld%2Fhatred-of-the-communist-east-that-drove-berlin-wall-tunneller-w70cw9tx3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AFP-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AFP_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AFP_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.france24.com/en/20191101-meet-the-berlin-wall-tunnel-digger-saved-by-stasi-hero">"Meet the Berlin Wall tunnel digger saved by Stasi 'hero'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>France 24</i>. Agence France-Presse. 1 November 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191108124344/https://www.france24.com/en/20191101-meet-the-berlin-wall-tunnel-digger-saved-by-stasi-hero">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=France+24&rft.atitle=Meet+the+Berlin+Wall+tunnel+digger+saved+by+Stasi+%27hero%27&rft.date=2019-11-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.france24.com%2Fen%2F20191101-meet-the-berlin-wall-tunnel-digger-saved-by-stasi-hero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vitaliev, V. (2008). "After all...the pupils of Houdini". <i>Engineering & Technology</i> (17509637), 3(18), 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/independentpremium/long-reads/berlin-wall-1989-anniversary-peter-fechter-death-communism-soviet-union-history-a9156716.html">"The Berlin Wall bricklayer whose death became instrumental in its destruction"</a>. <i>The Independent</i>. 9 November 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191109170026/https://www.independent.co.uk/independentpremium/long-reads/berlin-wall-1989-anniversary-peter-fechter-death-communism-soviet-union-history-a9156716.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=The+Berlin+Wall+bricklayer+whose+death+became+instrumental+in+its+destruction&rft.date=2019-11-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Findependentpremium%2Flong-reads%2Fberlin-wall-1989-anniversary-peter-fechter-death-communism-soviet-union-history-a9156716.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, Frederick. <i>The Berlin Wall: A World Divided 1961–1989</i>, London: Harper Perennial, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKempe2011" class="citation book cs1">Kempe, Frederick (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/berlin1961kenned0000kemp/page/394"><i>Berlin 1961</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=David+Bowie+at+the+Berlin+Wall%3A+the+incredible+story+of+a+concert+and+its+role+in+history&rft.date=2016-01-11&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2F2016%2F1%2F11%2F10749546%2Fdavid-bowie-berlin-wall-heroes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theweek.co.uk/25027/did-bowie-bring-down-berlin-wall">"Did Bowie bring down the Berlin Wall?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Week" title="The Week">The Week</a></i>. 15 December 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220405000214/https://www.theweek.co.uk/25027/did-bowie-bring-down-berlin-wall">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Week&rft.atitle=Did+Bowie+bring+down+the+Berlin+Wall%3F&rft.date=2008-12-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theweek.co.uk%2F25027%2Fdid-bowie-bring-down-berlin-wall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/germany-thanks-david-bowie-for-helping-bring-down-berlin-wall-2016-1">"Germany: Thank you David Bowie for helping bring down the Berlin Wall"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Business_Insider" title="Business Insider">Business Insider Australia</a></i>. 11 January 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220224211724/https://www.businessinsider.com.au/germany-thanks-david-bowie-for-helping-bring-down-berlin-wall-2016-1">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider+Australia&rft.atitle=Germany%3A+Thank+you+David+Bowie+for+helping+bring+down+the+Berlin+Wall&rft.date=2016-01-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fgermany-thanks-david-bowie-for-helping-bring-down-berlin-wall-2016-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://twitter.com/GermanyDiplo/status/686498183669743616">"Good-bye, David Bowie"</a>. German Foreign Office. 11 January 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160308191559/https://twitter.com/GermanyDiplo/status/686498183669743616">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Good-bye%2C+David+Bowie&rft.pub=German+Foreign+Office&rft.date=2016-01-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftwitter.com%2FGermanyDiplo%2Fstatus%2F686498183669743616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TL20130709-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TL20130709_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130928022723/http://www.thelocal.de/opinion/20130709-50749.html">"Did Springsteen's 1988 Berlin gig rock the Wall?"</a>. <i>The Local – Germany's News in English</i>. 9 July 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelocal.de/opinion/20130709-50749.html">the original</a> on 28 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Local+%E2%80%93+Germany%27s+News+in+English&rft.atitle=Did+Springsteen%27s+1988+Berlin+gig+rock+the+Wall%3F&rft.date=2013-07-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelocal.de%2Fopinion%2F20130709-50749.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NPR20141109-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NPR20141109_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2014/11/09/362595983/how-mr-hasselhoff-tore-down-this-wall">"How Mr. Hasselhoff Tore Down This Wall"</a>. <i>NPR</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=How+Mr.+Hasselhoff+Tore+Down+This+Wall&rft.date=2014-11-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2014%2F11%2F09%2F362595983%2Fhow-mr-hasselhoff-tore-down-this-wall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191109155736/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/24/arts/a-guide-to-the-weird-and-wacky-in-berlin.html">"A Guide to the Weird and Wacky in Berlin"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Guide+to+the+Weird+and+Wacky+in+Berlin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2018%2F04%2F24%2Farts%2Fa-guide-to-the-weird-and-wacky-in-berlin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaum2008">Daum 2008</a>, pp. 140–144</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaum2008">Daum 2008</a>, pp. 136–156, 223–226</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/30/world/mrs-thatcher-visits-the-berlin-wall.html">Mrs. Thatcher Visits the Berlin Wall</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171113165654/http://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/30/world/mrs-thatcher-visits-the-berlin-wall.html">Archived</a> 13 November 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, 30 October 1982</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USATODAY-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-USATODAY_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-06-12-reagan-speech_N.htm">"Reagan's 'tear down this wall' speech turns 20"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/USA_Today" title="USA Today">USA Today</a></i>. 12 June 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120314041230/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-06-12-reagan-speech_N.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 14 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Reagan%27s+%27tear+down+this+wall%27+speech+turns+20&rft.date=2007-06-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2F2007-06-12-reagan-speech_N.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-text-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-text_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080622043537/http://www.reaganfoundation.org/reagan/speeches/wall.asp">"Remarks at the Brandenberg Gate"</a>. Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reaganfoundation.org/reagan/speeches/wall.asp">the original</a> on 22 June 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Berlin+Wall+anniversary%3A+key+dates+in+the+history+of+Germany%27s+Wall&rft.date=2009-11-09&rft.issn=0307-1235&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Feurope%2Fgermany%2F6527092%2FBerlin-Wall-anniversary-key-dates-in-the-history-of-Germanys-Wall.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miklós Németh in Interview, Austrian TV – ORF "Report", 25 June 2019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Otmar Lahodynsky: Paneuropäisches Picknick: Die Generalprobe für den Mauerfall (Pan-European picnic: the dress rehearsal for the fall of the Berlin Wall – German), in: Profil 9 August 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer2009" class="citation news cs1">Meyer, Michael (13 September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2009-sep-13-oe-meyer13-story.html">"The picnic that brought down the Berlin Wall"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120715050007/http://articles.latimes.com/2009/sep/13/opinion/oe-meyer13">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dpa.de/Detailansicht-80er-Jahre.543+M517a9d5ff09.0.html">the original</a> on 27 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sie+wird+noch+in+50+Jahren+stehen&rft.pub=dpa&rft.date=2009-05-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dpa.de%2FDetailansicht-80er-Jahre.543%2BM517a9d5ff09.0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Elise Sarotte, <i>Collapse: The Accidental Opening of the Berlin Wall</i>, New York: Basic Books, 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-unknown_2009-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-unknown_2009_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mauerfall09.de/">"20 Jahre Mauerfall"</a> (in German). Kulturprojekte Berlin GmbH. 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090403165816/http://mauerfall09.de/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 April 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=20+Jahre+Mauerfall&rft.pub=Kulturprojekte+Berlin+GmbH&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mauerfall09.de%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henslin, 07</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crutchley2015-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Crutchley2015_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrutchley2015" class="citation web cs1">Crutchley, Peter (9 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/24661333">"How prayers helped end the Cold War"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190202103325/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/24661333">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+prayers+helped+end+the+Cold+War&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2015-10-09&rft.aulast=Crutchley&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Freligion%2F0%2F24661333&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schäfer,_2015-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schäfer,_2015_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchäfer2015" class="citation book cs1">Schäfer, Hermann (2015). <i>Deutsche Geschichte in 100 Objekten</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=How+it+went+down%3A+The+little+accident+that+toppled+history&rft.date=2009-11-01&rft.aulast=Sarotte&rft.aufirst=Mary+Elise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2009%2F10%2F30%2FAR2009103001846.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-time_stephanie_kirchner_2009_04_19-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-time_stephanie_kirchner_2009_04_19_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirchner2009" class="citation news cs1">Kirchner, Stephanie (19 April 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090422040812/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1892408,00.html">"Berlin Wall: Was the Fall Engineered by the GDR?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1892408,00.html">the original</a> on 22 April 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Berlin+Wall%3A+Was+the+Fall+Engineered+by+the+GDR%3F&rft.date=2009-04-19&rft.aulast=Kirchner&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fworld%2Farticle%2F0%2C8599%2C1892408%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2009" class="citation journal cs1">Walker, Marcus (21 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB125597721400194603">"Did Brinkmannship Fell Berlin's Wall? Brinkmann Says It Did"</a>. <i>The Wall Street Journal</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180716224045/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB125597721400194603">Archived</a> from the original on 16 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Did+Brinkmannship+Fell+Berlin%27s+Wall%3F+Brinkmann+Says+It+Did&rft.date=2009-10-21&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Marcus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB125597721400194603&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nbcnews.com/watch/nbcnews-com/brokaw-reports-from-the-berlin-wall-337455683615">"Brokaw reports from the Berlin Wall"</a>. <i>NBC NEWS</i>. 9 November 1989. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170816022753/http://www.nbcnews.com/watch/nbcnews-com/brokaw-reports-from-the-berlin-wall-337455683615">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NBC+NEWS&rft.atitle=Brokaw+reports+from+the+Berlin+Wall&rft.date=1989-11-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fwatch%2Fnbcnews-com%2Fbrokaw-reports-from-the-berlin-wall-337455683615&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spiegel_Online-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spiegel_Online_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/the-guard-who-opened-the-berlin-wall-i-gave-my-people-the-order-raise-the-barrier-a-660128.html">"The Guard Who Opened the Berlin Wall: 'I Gave my People the Order – Raise the Barrier'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Spiegel_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiegel Online">Spiegel Online</a></i>. 9 November 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141013090443/http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/the-guard-who-opened-the-berlin-wall-i-gave-my-people-the-order-raise-the-barrier-a-660128.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Spiegel+Online&rft.atitle=The+Guard+Who+Opened+the+Berlin+Wall%3A+%27I+Gave+my+People+the+Order+%E2%80%93+Raise+the+Barrier%27&rft.date=2014-11-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fgermany%2Fthe-guard-who-opened-the-berlin-wall-i-gave-my-people-the-order-raise-the-barrier-a-660128.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarotte2014" class="citation book cs1">Sarotte, Mary Elise (2014). <i>The Collapse: The Accidental Opening of the Berlin Wall</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2019</span> – via news.bbc.co.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=1989%3A+The+night+the+Wall+came+down&rft.date=1989-11-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2Fonthisday%2Fhi%2Fwitness%2Fnovember%2F9%2Fnewsid_3241000%2F3241641.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcElroy,_Damien2009" class="citation news cs1">McElroy, Damien (7 November 2009). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/6519769/East-Germans-may-have-arrived-in-West-Berlin-hours-before-previously-thought.html">"East Germans may have arrived in West Berlin hours before previously thought"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/6519769/East-Germans-may-have-arrived-in-West-Berlin-hours-before-previously-thought.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=East+Germans+may+have+arrived+in+West+Berlin+hours+before+previously+thought&rft.date=2009-11-07&rft.au=McElroy%2C+Damien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Feurope%2Fgermany%2F6519769%2FEast-Germans-may-have-arrived-in-West-Berlin-hours-before-previously-thought.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProtzmanTimes1989" class="citation news cs1">Protzman, Ferdinand; Times, Special To the New York (10 November 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/10/world/clamor-in-the-east-east-berliners-explore-land-long-forbidden.html">"Clamor in the East; East Berliners Explore Land Long Forbidden"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211022004719/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/10/world/clamor-in-the-east-east-berliners-explore-land-long-forbidden.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Clamor+in+the+East%3B+East+Berliners+Explore+Land+Long+Forbidden&rft.date=1989-11-10&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Protzman&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rft.au=Times%2C+Special+To+the+New+York&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F11%2F10%2Fworld%2Fclamor-in-the-east-east-berliners-explore-land-long-forbidden.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErpenbeckBrussigSchmidtWagner2019" class="citation news cs1">Erpenbeck, Jenny; Brussig, Thomas; Schmidt, Kathrin; Wagner, David; Rennefanz, Sabine (9 November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/nov/09/30-years-after-fall-berlin-wall">"Watching the fall of the Berlin Wall: 'I downed almost an entire bottle of schnapps'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191109065837/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/nov/09/30-years-after-fall-berlin-wall">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Watching+the+fall+of+the+Berlin+Wall%3A+%27I+downed+almost+an+entire+bottle+of+schnapps%27&rft.date=2019-11-09&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Erpenbeck&rft.aufirst=Jenny&rft.au=Brussig%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Schmidt%2C+Kathrin&rft.au=Wagner%2C+David&rft.au=Rennefanz%2C+Sabine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbooks%2F2019%2Fnov%2F09%2F30-years-after-fall-berlin-wall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kunstfabrik.org/#LUe">"Flutgraben e.V."</a> <i>kunstfabrik.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160111144732/http://kunstfabrik.org/#LUe">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=kunstfabrik.org&rft.atitle=Flutgraben+e.V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kunstfabrik.org%2F%23LUe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.berliner-mauer-gedenkstaette.de/en/memorial-grounds-548.html">"Berlin Wall Memorial"</a>. Berlin Wall Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114855/http://www.berliner-mauer-gedenkstaette.de/en/memorial-grounds-548.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Berlin+Wall+Memorial&rft.pub=Berlin+Wall+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.berliner-mauer-gedenkstaette.de%2Fen%2Fmemorial-grounds-548.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.berlin.de/mauer/en/wall-trail/project-information-358631.en.php">"Berlin Wall Trail"</a>. <i>Berlin.de</i>. State of Berlin. 28 August 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220625004646/https://www.berlin.de/mauer/en/wall-trail/project-information-358631.en.php">Archived</a> from the original on 25 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 June</span> 2022</span>. <q>Construction of the Berliner Mauerweg (Berlin Wall Trail) began in 2002 and was completed in 2006, in line with a resolution passed by the Berlin House of Representatives on 11 October 2001. […] The state-owned Grün Berlin Park und Garten GmbH was charged with carrying out the project under the overall supervision of the Senate Department for Urban Development.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Berlin.de&rft.atitle=Berlin+Wall+Trail&rft.date=2015-08-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.berlin.de%2Fmauer%2Fen%2Fwall-trail%2Fproject-information-358631.en.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna5942091">"One in 5 Germans wants Berlin Wall rebuilt"</a>. <i>NBC News</i>. Reuters. 8 September 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130318225853/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/5942091/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 March 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=One+in+5+Germans+wants+Berlin+Wall+rebuilt&rft.date=2004-09-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fid%2Fwbna5942091&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZDF_"Wochenjournal"2009" class="citation web cs1">ZDF "Wochenjournal" (5 November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091214050606/http://wochenjournal.zdf.de/ZDFde/inhalt/11/0%2C1872%2C7925355%2C00.html">"Große Zustimmung zur Wiedervereinigung"</a>. ZDF. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wochenjournal.zdf.de/ZDFde/inhalt/11/0,1872,7925355,00.html">the original</a> on 14 December 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gro%C3%9Fe+Zustimmung+zur+Wiedervereinigung&rft.pub=ZDF&rft.date=2009-11-05&rft.au=ZDF+%22Wochenjournal%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwochenjournal.zdf.de%2FZDFde%2Finhalt%2F11%2F0%2C1872%2C7925355%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolovyov2009" class="citation news cs1">Solovyov, Dmitry (5 November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100119031054/http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKTRE5A44NS20091105">"Who built Berlin Wall? Most Russians don't know"</a>. Uk.reuters.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKTRE5A44NS20091105">the original</a> on 19 January 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Who+built+Berlin+Wall%3F+Most+Russians+don%27t+know&rft.date=2009-11-05&rft.aulast=Solovyov&rft.aufirst=Dmitry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuk.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FidUKTRE5A44NS20091105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsweek.com/where-world-berlin-wall-283566">"Where in the World Is the Berlin Wall?"</a>. <i>Newsweek</i>. 11 November 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171104064452/http://www.newsweek.com/where-world-berlin-wall-283566">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Where+in+the+World+Is+the+Berlin+Wall%3F&rft.date=2014-11-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2Fwhere-world-berlin-wall-283566&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/8699626/Germany-marks-50th-anniversary-of-Berlin-Wall.html">"Germany marks 50th anniversary of Berlin Wall"</a></span>. London: UK Telegraph. 13 August 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/8699626/Germany-marks-50th-anniversary-of-Berlin-Wall.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Germany+marks+50th+anniversary+of+Berlin+Wall&rft.date=2011-08-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Feurope%2Fgermany%2F8699626%2FGermany-marks-50th-anniversary-of-Berlin-Wall.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foxnews.com/world/germany-marks-construction-of-the-berlin-wall/">"Germany Marks Construction of the Berlin Wall"</a>. Associated Press. 13 August 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110814020251/http://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/08/13/germany-marks-construction-berlin-wall-1271894147/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Germany+Marks+Construction+of+the+Berlin+Wall&rft.date=2011-08-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foxnews.com%2Fworld%2Fgermany-marks-construction-of-the-berlin-wall%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130125070351/http://www.history.com/news/2011/08/11/reflecting-on-the-berlin-wall-50-years-after-its-construction/">"Reflecting on the Berlin Wall, 50 Years After Its Construction"</a>. History.com. 11 August 2011. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reflecting+on+the+Berlin+Wall%2C+50+Years+After+Its+Construction&rft.pub=History.com&rft.date=2011-08-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fnews%2F2011%2F08%2F11%2Freflecting-on-the-berlin-wall-50-years-after-its-construction%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111112225424/http://www.germanworldonline.com/index.php/50-years-berlin-wall-1961-1989/">"50 Years Berlin Wall 1961–1989 [video clips]"</a>. German World. 13 August 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.germanworldonline.com/index.php/50-years-berlin-wall-1961-1989/">the original</a> on 12 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=50+Years+Berlin+Wall+1961%E2%80%931989+%5Bvideo+clips%5D&rft.pub=German+World&rft.date=2011-08-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.germanworldonline.com%2Findex.php%2F50-years-berlin-wall-1961-1989%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/one-in-nine-berliners-wants-the-wall-back-study-shows/a-3515822">"Bring Back the Wall – DW – 07/27/2008"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Welle" title="Deutsche Welle">Deutsche Welle</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsche+Welle&rft.atitle=Bring+Back+the+Wall+%E2%80%93+DW+%E2%80%93+07%2F27%2F2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Fone-in-nine-berliners-wants-the-wall-back-study-shows%2Fa-3515822&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/umfrage-jeder-achte-deutsche-will-die-mauer-zurueck-a-660034.html">"Umfrage: Jeder achte Deutsche will die Mauer zurück"</a>. <i>Der Spiegel</i>. 8 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=Umfrage%3A+Jeder+achte+Deutsche+will+die+Mauer+zur%C3%BCck&rft.date=2009-11-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Fpolitik%2Fdeutschland%2Fumfrage-jeder-achte-deutsche-will-die-mauer-zurueck-a-660034.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE58G5GS/">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.hindustantimes.com/world/survey-finds-support-for-return-of-berlin-wall/story-WipQ3z8TVZvKdHHSlB01EK_amp.html">[2]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article6777000/Jeder-Vierte-wuenscht-sich-die-Mauer-zurueck.html">"Umfrage: Jeder Vierte wünscht sich die Mauer zurück – Welt"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Umfrage%3A+Jeder+Vierte+w%C3%BCnscht+sich+die+Mauer+zur%C3%BCck+%E2%80%93+Welt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.welt.de%2Fpolitik%2Fdeutschland%2Farticle6777000%2FJeder-Vierte-wuenscht-sich-die-Mauer-zurueck.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bild.de/politik/2010/jeder-vierte-deutsche-wuenscht-sich-die-mauer-zurueck-11819240.bild.html">"Umfrage-Schock Ost-West: Jeder vierte Deutsche wünscht sich die Mauer zurück"</a>. 14 March 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Umfrage-Schock+Ost-West%3A+Jeder+vierte+Deutsche+w%C3%BCnscht+sich+die+Mauer+zur%C3%BCck&rft.date=2010-03-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bild.de%2Fpolitik%2F2010%2Fjeder-vierte-deutsche-wuenscht-sich-die-mauer-zurueck-11819240.bild.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bild.de/regional/berlin/umfrage-mauer-noch-nicht-aus-koepfen-verschwunden-11828644.bild.html">"Umfrage: Mauer noch nicht aus Köpfen verschwunden"</a>. 15 March 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Umfrage%3A+Mauer+noch+nicht+aus+K%C3%B6pfen+verschwunden&rft.date=2010-03-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bild.de%2Fregional%2Fberlin%2Fumfrage-mauer-noch-nicht-aus-koepfen-verschwunden-11828644.bild.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.berliner-zeitung.de/politik-gesellschaft/exklusive-forsa-umfrage-das-denken-die-berliner-30-jahre-spaeter-ueber-den-mauerfall-li.27832">"Exklusive Forsa-Umfrage: Das denken die Berliner 30 Jahre später über den Mauerfall"</a>. 4 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Exklusive+Forsa-Umfrage%3A+Das+denken+die+Berliner+30+Jahre+sp%C3%A4ter+%C3%BCber+den+Mauerfall&rft.date=2019-11-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.berliner-zeitung.de%2Fpolitik-gesellschaft%2Fexklusive-forsa-umfrage-das-denken-die-berliner-30-jahre-spaeter-ueber-den-mauerfall-li.27832&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=genius.com&rft.atitle=Hedwig+and+the+Angry+Inch+%E2%80%93+Tear+Me+Down&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgenius.com%2FHedwig-and-the-angry-inch-original-broadway-cast-tear-me-down-lyrics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=artworks+%26+video+documentation&rft.atitle=ELSNER%27s+Border+Injuries&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.galerie-son.com%2Fartists%2Felsner%2Felsner_works.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-elsnerpress-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-elsnerpress_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galerie-son.com/artists/elsner/elsner_press.html">"ELSNER"</a>. <i>press archive</i>. galerie son. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111112230138/http://www.galerie-son.com/artists/elsner/elsner_press.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=press+archive&rft.atitle=ELSNER&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.galerie-son.com%2Fartists%2Felsner%2Felsner_press.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBähr" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bähr, Sebastian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.neues-deutschland.de/artikel/1142569.ostalgie-die-ddr-ueberlebt.html">"Die DDR überlebt (neues deutschland)"</a>. <i>www.neues-deutschland.de</i> (in German). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414075405/https://www.neues-deutschland.de/artikel/1142569.ostalgie-die-ddr-ueberlebt.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.neues-deutschland.de&rft.atitle=Die+DDR+%C3%BCberlebt+%28neues+deutschland%29&rft.aulast=B%C3%A4hr&rft.aufirst=Sebastian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.neues-deutschland.de%2Fartikel%2F1142569.ostalgie-die-ddr-ueberlebt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Childs_(academic)" title="David Childs (academic)">Childs, David</a> (2001). <i>The Fall of the GDR: Germany's Road To Unity</i>, Longman, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120222073111/http://www.pearsoned.co.uk/Bookshop/detail.asp?item=100000000004463">Pearsoned.co.uk</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-31569-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-31569-3">978-0-582-31569-3</a></li> <li>Childs, David (1986) [1983]. <i>The GDR: Moscow's German Ally</i>, London: George Allen & Unwin, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-04-354029-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-04-354029-9">978-0-04-354029-9</a>.</li> <li>Childs, David (2001). <i>The Fall of the GDR</i>, Longman. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-31569-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-31569-7">0-582-31569-7</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Fall-Themes-Modern-German-History/dp/0582315697">Amazon.co.uk</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171019113817/https://www.amazon.co.uk/Fall-Themes-Modern-German-History/dp/0582315697">Archived</a> 19 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Childs, David (2000). <i>The Two Red Flags: European Social Democracy & Soviet Communism Since 1945</i>, Routledge. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Childs, David (1991). <i>Germany in the Twentieth Century</i>, (From pre-1918 to the restoration of German unity), Batsford, Third edition. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7134-6795-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7134-6795-9">0-7134-6795-9</a></li> <li>Childs, David (1987). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/b/OL16520921M/East_Germany_to_the_1990s">East Germany to the 1990s Can It Resist Glasnost?</a></i>, The Economist Intelligence Unit. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85058-245-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85058-245-1">978-0-85058-245-1</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=au%3A%22Childs%2C+David%2C%22&qt=hot_author">WorldCat.org</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150903211006/http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=au%3A%22Childs%2C+David%2C%22&qt=hot_author">Archived</a> 3 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrozier1999" class="citation book cs1">Crozier, Brian (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/risefallofsoviet0000croz"><i>The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire</i></a></span>. Forum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7615-2057-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7615-2057-3"><bdi>978-0-7615-2057-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Soviet+Empire&rft.pub=Forum&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7615-2057-3&rft.aulast=Crozier&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frisefallofsoviet0000croz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDale2005" class="citation book cs1">Dale, Gareth (2005). <i>Popular Protest in East Germany, 1945–1989: Judgements on the Street</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-5408-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-5408-9"><bdi>978-0-7146-5408-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Popular+Protest+in+East+Germany%2C+1945%E2%80%931989%3A+Judgements+on+the+Street&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-5408-9&rft.aulast=Dale&rft.aufirst=Gareth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaum2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Daum" title="Andreas Daum">Daum, Andreas</a> (2008). <i>Kennedy in Berlin</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85824-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85824-3"><bdi>978-0-521-85824-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kennedy+in+Berlin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85824-3&rft.aulast=Daum&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowty1989" class="citation book cs1">Dowty, Alan (1989). <i>Closed Borders: The Contemporary Assault on Freedom of Movement</i>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04498-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04498-0"><bdi>978-0-300-04498-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Closed+Borders%3A+The+Contemporary+Assault+on+Freedom+of+Movement&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-300-04498-0&rft.aulast=Dowty&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaddis2005" class="citation book cs1">Gaddis, John Lewis (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/coldwarnewhistor00gadd"><i>The Cold War: A New History</i></a>. Penguin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-062-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-062-5"><bdi>978-1-59420-062-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cold+War%3A+A+New+History&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-59420-062-5&rft.aulast=Gaddis&rft.aufirst=John+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcoldwarnewhistor00gadd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2003" class="citation book cs1">Harrison, Hope Millard (2003). <i>Driving the Soviets Up the Wall: Soviet-East German Relations, 1953–1961</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-09678-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-09678-0"><bdi>978-0-691-09678-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Driving+the+Soviets+Up+the+Wall%3A+Soviet-East+German+Relations%2C+1953%E2%80%931961&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-691-09678-0&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Hope+Millard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoescher2001" class="citation book cs1">Loescher, Gil (2001). <i>The UNHCR and World Politics: A Perilous Path</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829716-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829716-1"><bdi>978-0-19-829716-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+UNHCR+and+World+Politics%3A+A+Perilous+Path&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-829716-1&rft.aulast=Loescher&rft.aufirst=Gil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2000" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Roger Gene (2000). <i>To Save a City: The Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949</i>. Texas A&M University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89096-967-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89096-967-0"><bdi>978-0-89096-967-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+Save+a+City%3A+The+Berlin+Airlift%2C+1948%E2%80%931949&rft.pub=Texas+A%26M+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-89096-967-0&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Roger+Gene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearson1998" class="citation book cs1">Pearson, Raymond (1998). <i>The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire</i>. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-17407-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-17407-1"><bdi>978-0-312-17407-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Soviet+Empire&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-312-17407-1&rft.aulast=Pearson&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThackeray2004" class="citation book cs1">Thackeray, Frank W. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/eventsthatchange00fran"><i>Events that changed Germany</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32814-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32814-5"><bdi>978-0-313-32814-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Events+that+changed+Germany&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32814-5&rft.aulast=Thackeray&rft.aufirst=Frank+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feventsthatchange00fran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner1987" class="citation book cs1">Turner, Henry Ashby (1987). <i>The Two Germanies Since 1945: East and West</i>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03865-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03865-1"><bdi>978-0-300-03865-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Two+Germanies+Since+1945%3A+East+and+West&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-300-03865-1&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Henry+Ashby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWettig2008" class="citation book cs1">Wettig, Gerhard (2008). <i>Stalin and the Cold War in Europe</i>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5542-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5542-6"><bdi>978-0-7425-5542-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin+and+the+Cold+War+in+Europe&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5542-6&rft.aulast=Wettig&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Luftbildatlas. <i>Entlang der Berliner Mauer. Karten, Pläne und Fotos</i>. Hans Wolfgang Hoffmann / Philipp Meuser (eds.) Berlin 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-938666-84-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-938666-84-5">978-3-938666-84-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Elise_Sarotte" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary Elise Sarotte">Sarotte, Mary Elise</a> (2014). <i>Collapse: The Accidental Opening of the Berlin Wall</i>, New York: Basic Books, <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Sarotte, Mary Elise (2014) [1989]. <i>The Struggle to Create Post-Cold War Europe</i> (Second Edition) Princeton: Princeton University Press, <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Berlin_Wall" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Berlin_Wall" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Berlin_Wall" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="official-website"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.berlin.de/mauer/en/">Official website</a></span></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.berliner-mauer-gedenkstaette.de/en/">"Berlin Wall Memorial"</a>. Berlin Wall Foundation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Berlin+Wall+Memorial&rft.pub=Berlin+Wall+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.berliner-mauer-gedenkstaette.de%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/en/">"Chronicle of the Berlin Wall"</a>. Deutschlandradio.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chronicle+of+the+Berlin+Wall&rft.pub=Deutschlandradio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chronik-der-mauer.de%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-berlin-wall.com/">"The Berlin Wall: a Multimedia Story"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rundfunk_Berlin-Brandenburg" title="Rundfunk Berlin-Brandenburg">Rundfunk Berlin-Brandenburg</a> (RRB).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Berlin+Wall%3A+a+Multimedia+Story&rft.pub=Rundfunk+Berlin-Brandenburg+%28RRB%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-berlin-wall.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/topic/subject/berlin-wall">Berlin Wall</a> collected news and commentary at <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/berlinwall">Berlin Wall</a> collected news and commentary at <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/identities/nc-berlin%20wall%20berlin%20germany%201961%201989/">Works about Berlin Wall</a> in libraries (<a href="/wiki/WorldCat" title="WorldCat">WorldCat</a> catalog)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britishpathe.com/search/query/berlin+wall">"Berlin Wall (newsreel archives)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Adobe_Flash" title="Adobe Flash">Adobe Flash</a> <a href="/wiki/Flash_Video" title="Flash Video">video</a>))</span>. <i>Multimedia</i>. <a href="/wiki/British_Pathe" class="mw-redirect" title="British Pathe">British Pathe</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Multimedia&rft.atitle=Berlin+Wall+%28newsreel+archives%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishpathe.com%2Fsearch%2Fquery%2Fberlin%2Bwall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/6651797">Berlin Wall on OpenStreetMap</a> (zoomable and scrollable)</li> <li>Other resources: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://secure.flickr.com/groups/52809934@N00/">Berlin Wall image group</a> on <a href="/wiki/Flickr" title="Flickr">Flickr</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/">Berlin Wall Online</a>, historical chronicle</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNail" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nail, Norbert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://staff-www.uni-marburg.de/~nail/mauer.htm">"Meine Mauer – Deutsche Bilder aus der Vergangenheit"</a> [My Wall – German Pictures from the past] (in German). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Marburg" title="University of Marburg">University of Marburg</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Meine+Mauer+%E2%80%93+Deutsche+Bilder+aus+der+Vergangenheit&rft.pub=University+of+Marburg&rft.aulast=Nail&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstaff-www.uni-marburg.de%2F~nail%2Fmauer.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerlin+Wall" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Berlin_Wall264" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Berlin_Wall" title="Template:Berlin Wall"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Berlin_Wall" title="Template talk:Berlin Wall"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Berlin_Wall" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Berlin Wall"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Berlin_Wall264" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Berlin Wall</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inner_German_border" title="Inner German border">Inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_of_Shame" title="Wall of Shame">Wall of Shame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Berlin" title="East Berlin">East Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc emigration and defection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republikflucht" title="Republikflucht">Republikflucht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schie%C3%9Fbefehl" title="Schießbefehl">Schießbefehl</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Berlinermauer.jpg/120px-Berlinermauer.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Berlinermauer.jpg/180px-Berlinermauer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Berlinermauer.jpg/240px-Berlinermauer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="913" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Memorials, museums<br />and galleries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gedenkst%C3%A4tte_Berliner_Mauer" title="Gedenkstätte Berliner Mauer">Gedenkstätte Berliner Mauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Crosses" title="White Crosses">White Crosses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Side_Gallery" title="East Side Gallery">East Side Gallery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checkpoint_Charlie_Museum" title="Checkpoint Charlie Museum">Checkpoint Charlie Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topography_of_Terror" title="Topography of Terror">Topography of Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauerpark" title="Mauerpark">Mauerpark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapel_of_Reconciliation" title="Chapel of Reconciliation">Chapel of Reconciliation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Berlin_border_crossings" title="Berlin border crossings">Border crossings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bornholmer_Stra%C3%9Fe_border_crossing" title="Bornholmer Straße border crossing">Bornholmer Straße</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checkpoint_Charlie" title="Checkpoint Charlie">Checkpoint Charlie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checkpoint_Bravo" title="Checkpoint Bravo">Checkpoint Bravo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Friedrichstra%C3%9Fe_station" title="Berlin Friedrichstraße station">Berlin Friedrichstraße station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glienicke_Bridge" title="Glienicke Bridge">Glienicke Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invalidenstra%C3%9Fe" title="Invalidenstraße">Invalidenstraße</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberbaum_Bridge" title="Oberbaum Bridge">Oberbaum Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonnenallee_(Berlin)" title="Sonnenallee (Berlin)">Sonnenallee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%A4nenpalast" title="Tränenpalast">Tränenpalast, Friedrichstraße station</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_deaths_at_the_Berlin_Wall" title="List of deaths at the Berlin Wall">People who died<br />breaching the Wall</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Brueske" title="Klaus Brueske">Klaus Brueske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Peter_Fechter" title="Killing of Peter Fechter">Peter Fechter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winfried_Freudenberg" title="Winfried Freudenberg">Winfried Freudenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian-Peter_Friese" title="Christian-Peter Friese">Christian-Peter Friese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Gueffroy" title="Chris Gueffroy">Chris Gueffroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marienetta_Jirkowsky" title="Marienetta Jirkowsky">Marienetta Jirkowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cengaver_Katranc%C4%B1" title="Cengaver Katrancı">Cengaver Katrancı</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erna_Kelm" title="Erna Kelm">Erna Kelm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czes%C5%82aw_Kukuczka" title="Czesław Kukuczka">Czesław Kukuczka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horst_Kutscher" title="Horst Kutscher">Horst Kutscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Litfin" title="Günter Litfin">Günter Litfin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorit_Schmiel" title="Dorit Schmiel">Dorit Schmiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egon_Schultz" title="Egon Schultz">Egon Schultz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olga_Segler" title="Olga Segler">Olga Segler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_Siekmann" title="Ida Siekmann">Ida Siekmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_Sokolowski" title="Heinz Sokolowski">Heinz Sokolowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hildegard_Trabant" title="Hildegard Trabant">Hildegard Trabant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Urban_(Berlin_Wall_victim)" title="Rudolf Urban (Berlin Wall victim)">Rudolf Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christel_and_Eckhard_Wehage" title="Christel and Eckhard Wehage">Christel and Eckhard Wehage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Others associated<br />with the Wall</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Schabowski" title="Günter Schabowski">Günter Schabowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Ehrman" title="Riccardo Ehrman">Riccardo Ehrman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Schumann" title="Konrad Schumann">Konrad Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Ulbricht" title="Walter Ulbricht">Walter Ulbricht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hasselhoff" title="David Hasselhoff">David Hasselhoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutta_Fleck" title="Jutta Fleck">Jutta Fleck</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">The Wall in speeches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<i><a href="/wiki/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner" title="Ich bin ein Berliner">Ich bin ein Berliner</a></i>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tear_down_this_wall!" title="Tear down this wall!">"Tear down this wall!"</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">In popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Films and<br />TV series</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Escape_from_East_Berlin" title="Escape from East Berlin">Escape from East Berlin</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_(1962_film)" title="The Wall (1962 film)">The Wall</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stop_Train_349" title="Stop Train 349">Stop Train 349</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spy_Who_Came_In_from_the_Cold_(film)" title="The Spy Who Came In from the Cold (film)">The Spy Who Came In from the Cold</a></i> (1965)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Freiheit_(film)" title="Freiheit (film)">Freiheit</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Funeral_in_Berlin_(film)" title="Funeral in Berlin (film)">Funeral in Berlin</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Soldier_(1982_film)" title="The Soldier (1982 film)">The Soldier</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Octopussy" title="Octopussy">Octopussy</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gotcha!_(film)" title="Gotcha! (film)">Gotcha!</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wings_of_Desire" title="Wings of Desire">Wings of Desire</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judgment_in_Berlin_(film)" title="Judgment in Berlin (film)">Judgment in Berlin</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Promise_(1995_film)" title="The Promise (1995 film)">Das Versprechen</a></i> (1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sonnenallee" title="Sonnenallee">Sonnenallee</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tunnel_(2001_film)" title="The Tunnel (2001 film)">The Tunnel</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Soldiers_(2001_film)" title="Buffalo Soldiers (2001 film)">Buffalo Soldiers</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Good_Bye,_Lenin!" title="Good Bye, Lenin!">Good Bye, Lenin!</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bornholmer_Stra%C3%9Fe_(film)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bornholmer Straße (film) (page does not exist)">Bornholmer Straße</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bridge_of_Spies_(film)" title="Bridge of Spies (film)">Bridge of Spies</a></i> (2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Blonde" title="Atomic Blonde">Atomic Blonde</a></i> (2017)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deutschland_89" title="Deutschland 89">Deutschland 89</a></i> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_the_Wall" title="The Road to the Wall">The Road to the Wall</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tunnel_(1962_film)" title="The Tunnel (1962 film)">The Tunnel</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rabbit_%C3%A0_la_Berlin" title="Rabbit à la Berlin">Rabbit à la Berlin</a></i> (2009)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Novels</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spy_Who_Came_in_from_the_Cold" title="The Spy Who Came in from the Cold">The Spy Who Came in from the Cold</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Funeral_in_Berlin" title="Funeral in Berlin">Funeral in Berlin</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judgment_in_Berlin" title="Judgment in Berlin">Judgment in Berlin</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Am_k%C3%BCrzeren_Ende_der_Sonnenallee" title="Am kürzeren Ende der Sonnenallee">Am kürzeren Ende der Sonnenallee</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edge_of_Eternity_(novel)" title="Edge of Eternity (novel)">Edge of Eternity</a></i> (2014)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/West_of_the_Wall" title="West of the Wall">West of the Wall</a>" (1962)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Holidays_in_the_Sun_(song)" title="Holidays in the Sun (song)">Holidays in the Sun</a>" (1977)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Nikita_(song)" title="Nikita (song)">Nikita</a>" (1985)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Berlin_Wall_(video_game)" title="The Berlin Wall (video game)"><i>The Berlin Wall</i> (1991 video game)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Day_the_Wall_Came_Down" title="The Day the Wall Came Down"><i>The Day the Wall Came Down</i> (1997 sculpture)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Berlin_Wall_segments" title="List of Berlin Wall segments">List of Berlin Wall segments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_station" title="Ghost station">Ghost station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steinst%C3%BCcken" title="Steinstücken">Steinstücken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_border_commuters_in_the_Berlin_area_1948%E2%80%931961" title="Cross border commuters in the Berlin area 1948–1961"><i>Grenzgänger</i> (Cross-border commuters)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Shame_(performance_art)" title="The Shame (performance art)">The Shame</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Borders_of_Germany37" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Germany" title="Template:Borders of Germany"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Borders_of_Germany" title="Template talk:Borders of Germany"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Borders_of_Germany" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Borders of Germany"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Borders_of_Germany37" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Borders of Germany">Borders of Germany</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austria%E2%80%93Germany_border" title="Austria–Germany border">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium%E2%80%93Germany_border" title="Belgium–Germany border">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic%E2%80%93Germany_border" title="Czech Republic–Germany border">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Germany_border" title="Denmark–Germany border">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Germany_border" title="France–Germany border">France</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Luxembourg_border&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Germany–Luxembourg border (page does not exist)">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Netherlands_border" title="Germany–Netherlands border">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Poland_border" title="Germany–Poland border">Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Oder–Neisse line</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Switzerland_border" title="Germany–Switzerland border">Switzerland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_German_border" title="Inner German border">Inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=German-Czechoslovak_border&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="German-Czechoslovak border (page does not exist)">German-Czechoslovak border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_Border_and_Commercial_Agreement" title="German–Soviet Border and Commercial Agreement">German-Soviet Border</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cold_War16183" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cold_War" title="Template talk:Cold War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cold_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cold War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cold_War16183" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">NEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hukbalahap_rebellion" title="Hukbalahap rebellion">Hukbalahap rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_political_conflict" title="Jamaican political conflict">Jamaican political conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekemvriana" title="Dekemvriana">Dekemvriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation <i>Priboi</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation <i>Jungle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Cursed soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation <i>Unthinkable</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouzenko_Affair" title="Gouzenko Affair">Gouzenko Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Operation <i>Masterdom</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation <i>Beleaguer</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blacklist_Forty" title="Operation Blacklist Forty">Operation <i>Blacklist Forty</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu_Channel_incident" title="Corfu Channel incident">Corfu Channel incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1947 Polish parliamentary election">1947 Polish parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Relations_Conference" title="Asian Relations Conference">Asian Relations Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">May 1947 crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_war_of_1947%E2%80%931948" title="Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948">Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war" title="1948 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council#Incapacitation_of_the_council" title="Allied Control Council">Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathbah_uprising" title="Al-Wathbah uprising">Al-Wathbah uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Hyderabad" title="Annexation of Hyderabad">Annexation of Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madiun_Affair" title="Madiun Affair">Madiun Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Operation Valuable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_curtain" title="Bamboo curtain">Bamboo curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War (1952–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada (1952)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Mau Mau rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the <i>Tuapse</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Jebel Akhdar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Polish October</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gladio" title="Operation Gladio">Operation <i>Gladio</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Crisis_of_1957" title="Syrian Crisis of 1957">Syrian Crisis of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">Iraqi 14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1960 Turkish coup d'état">1960 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Soviets_from_Albania" title="Expulsion of Soviets from Albania">Expulsion of Soviets from Albania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_War" title="Sand War">Sand War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Porte%C3%B1azo" title="El Porteñazo">El Porteñazo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Communist insurgency in Sarawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="North Yemen Civil War">North Yemen Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963–1964" title="Cypriot intercommunal violence">Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifta_War" title="Shifta War">Shifta War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict" title="Korean DMZ Conflict">Korean DMZ Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Hong_Kong_riots" title="1967 Hong Kong riots">1967 Hong Kong riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wadiah_War" title="Al-Wadiah War">Al-Wadiah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2)#Pueblo_incident" title="USS Pueblo (AGER-2)">USS <i>Pueblo</i> incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Peruvian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Peru" title="Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru">Revolutionary Government</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Goulash Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Thailand" title="Communist insurgency in Thailand">Communist insurgency in Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koza_riot" title="Koza riot">Koza riot</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_JVP_insurrection" title="1971 JVP insurrection">1971 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_revolution_(Egypt)" title="Corrective revolution (Egypt)">Corrective revolution (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1971 Turkish military memorandum">1971 Turkish military memorandum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Sudanese coup d'état">1971 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Bolivian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Bolivian coup d'état">1971 Bolivian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">Bangladesh Liberation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen#Disputes_with_North_Yemen" title="South Yemen">North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Yemenite_War" title="First Yemenite War">First Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972%E2%80%931975_Bangladesh_insurgency" title="1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency">1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Uruguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/15_August_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="3 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Siege of Dhaka (1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="7 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Sipahi-Janata revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Somali_coup_attempt" title="1978 Somali coup attempt">1978 Somali coup attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Indochina_War" title="Third Indochina War">Third Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_conflict_(1979%E2%80%931998)" title="Cambodian conflict (1979–1998)">Cambodian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation <i>Condor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War (Argentina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania_War" title="Uganda–Tanzania War">Uganda–Tanzania War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NDF_Rebellion" title="NDF Rebellion">NDF Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Chadian–Libyan War">Chadian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Yemenite_War" title="Second Yemenite War">Second Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure" title="Grand Mosque seizure">Grand Mosque seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980</a> and <a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycotts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gera_Demands" title="Gera Demands">Gera Demands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" class="mw-redirect" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Agreement" title="Gdańsk Agreement">Gdańsk Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">1980 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra_incident_(1981)" title="Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)">Gulf of Sidra incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Star Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">1985 Geneva Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somali Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen_civil_war" title="South Yemen civil war">South Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyota_War" title="Toyota War">Toyota War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Denver" title="Operation Denver">Operation Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_JVP_insurrection" title="1987–1989 JVP insurrection">1987–1989 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">Solidarity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_RYAN" title="Operation RYAN">Operation RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bougainville_conflict" title="Bougainville conflict">Bougainville conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">1991 August Coup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">Frozen conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia_conflict" title="Abkhazia conflict">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">China-Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Kosovo" title="Political status of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Doctrine" title="Carter Doctrine">Carter Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">American conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">Guided democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-worldism" title="Third-worldism">Third-worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy#White_separatism" title="White supremacy">White separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">EEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_and_Non-Aligned_European_States" title="Neutral and Non-Aligned European States">NN States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-communist</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neues_Deutschland" title="Neues Deutschland">Neues Deutschland</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Moscow" title="Radio Moscow">Radio Moscow</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rud%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Rudé právo">Rudé právo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trybuna_Ludu" title="Trybuna Ludu">Trybuna Ludu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Soviet Life</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_for_Freedom" title="Crusade for Freedom">Crusade for Freedom</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paix_et_Libert%C3%A9" title="Paix et Liberté">Paix et Liberté</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technological<br />competition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gar_Alperovitz" title="Gar Alperovitz">Gar Alperovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Bailey" title="Thomas A. Bailey">Thomas A. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Michael Beschloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_H._Carroll" title="Warren H. Carroll">Warren H. Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Cioroianu" title="Adrian Cioroianu">Adrian Cioroianu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">John Costello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cox_(academic)" title="Michael Cox (academic)">Michael Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_J._Cull" title="Nicholas J. Cull">Nicholas J. Cull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Willem Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._English" title="Robert D. English">Robert D. English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Feis" title="Herbert Feis">Herbert Feis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fontaine" title="André Fontaine">André Fontaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anneli_Ute_Gabanyi" title="Anneli Ute Gabanyi">Anneli Ute Gabanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Gorodetsky" title="Gabriel Gorodetsky">Gabriel Gorodetsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jussi_Hanhim%C3%A4ki" title="Jussi Hanhimäki">Jussi Hanhimäki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">John Earl Haynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Hearden" title="Patrick J. Hearden">Patrick J. Hearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tvrtko_Jakovina" title="Tvrtko Jakovina">Tvrtko Jakovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Judt" title="Tony Judt">Tony Judt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Harvey Klehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Gabriel Kolko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Melvyn P. Leffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Vojtech Mastny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_F._Matlock_Jr." title="Jack F. Matlock Jr.">Jack F. Matlock Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._McCormick" title="Thomas J. McCormick">Thomas J. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Naftali" title="Timothy Naftali">Timothy Naftali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Oprea" title="Marius Oprea">Marius Oprea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_S._Painter" title="David S. Painter">David S. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">William B. Pickett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_E._Powaski" title="Ronald E. Powaski">Ronald E. Powaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_M._Rabkin" title="Yakov M. Rabkin">Yakov M. Rabkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._E._Sarotte" title="M. E. Sarotte">M. E. Sarotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhihua" title="Shen Zhihua">Shen Zhihua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athan_Theoharis" title="Athan Theoharis">Athan Theoharis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Thorpe" title="Andrew Thorpe">Andrew Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tism%C4%83neanu" title="Vladimir Tismăneanu">Vladimir Tismăneanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Vaughan" title="Patrick Vaughan">Patrick Vaughan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_von_Tunzelmann" title="Alex von Tunzelmann">Alex von Tunzelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Reed_Winkler" title="Jonathan Reed Winkler">Jonathan Reed Winkler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Winnacker" title="Rudolph Winnacker">Rudolph Winnacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Young" title="Ken Young">Ken Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Espionage and<br />intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Eastern_Bloc_agents_in_the_United_States" title="List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States">List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviet espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Russian espionage in the United States">Russian espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_and_the_Cultural_Cold_War" title="CIA and the Cultural Cold War">CIA and the Cultural Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Soviet involvement in regime change">Soviet involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union–United States summits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">Russia–NATO relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship#Cold_War" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Atomica" title="Pax Atomica">Pax Atomica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War" title="Category:Cold War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of the Cold War">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Revolutions_of_1989233" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fall_of_Communism" title="Template:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fall_of_Communism" title="Template talk:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fall_of_Communism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Revolutions_of_1989233" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Internal<br />background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_communist_party_rule" title="Criticism of communist party rule">Criticism of communist party rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_politics" title="Eastern Bloc politics">Eastern Bloc politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_media_and_propaganda" title="Eastern Bloc media and propaganda">Eastern Bloc media and propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Emigration from the Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomenklatura" title="Nomenklatura">Nomenklatura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortage_economy" title="Shortage economy">Shortage economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_insurgencies_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe">Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">International<br />background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_socialist_states" title="List of socialist states">List of socialist states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictions_of_the_collapse_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union">Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorism and the Soviet Union">Terrorism and the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Holy See–Soviet Union relations">Vatican Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Reforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uskorenie" title="Uskorenie">Uskorenie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demokratizatsiya_(Soviet_Union)" title="Demokratizatsiya (Soviet Union)">Demokratizatsiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khozraschyot" class="mw-redirect" title="Khozraschyot">Khozraschyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/500_Days_Program" title="500 Days Program">500 Days Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_political_thinking" title="New political thinking">New political thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinatra_Doctrine" title="Sinatra Doctrine">Sinatra Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_and_Opening_Up" class="mw-redirect" title="Reform and Opening Up">Reform and Opening Up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%95i_M%E1%BB%9Bi" title="Đổi Mới">Đổi Mới</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Government<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramiz_Alia" title="Ramiz Alia">Ramiz Alia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Gr%C3%B3sz" title="Károly Grósz">Károly Grósz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Jake%C5%A1" title="Miloš Jakeš">Miloš Jakeš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egon_Krenz" title="Egon Krenz">Egon Krenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Jaruzelski" title="Wojciech Jaruzelski">Wojciech Jaruzelski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Slobodan Milošević">Slobodan Milošević</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathieu_K%C3%A9r%C3%A9kou" title="Mathieu Kérékou">Mathieu Kérékou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengistu_Haile_Mariam" title="Mengistu Haile Mariam">Mengistu Haile Mariam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ne_Win" title="Ne Win">Ne Win</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Sassou_Nguesso" title="Denis Sassou Nguesso">Denis Sassou Nguesso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heng_Samrin" title="Heng Samrin">Heng Samrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang" title="Zhao Ziyang">Zhao Ziyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todor_Zhivkov" title="Todor Zhivkov">Todor Zhivkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Siad Barre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition<br />methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">Civil resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_chain_(politics)" title="Human chain (politics)">Human chains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnitizdat" title="Magnitizdat">Magnitizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_underground_press" title="Polish underground press">Polish underground press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Political demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel" title="Václav Havel">Václav Havel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Iliescu" title="Ion Iliescu">Ion Iliescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Gang" title="Liu Gang">Liu Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu%27erkaixi" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu'erkaixi">Wu'erkaixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chai_Ling" title="Chai Ling">Chai Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Dan_(dissident)" title="Wang Dan (dissident)">Wang Dan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Congde" title="Feng Congde">Feng Congde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_Man" title="Tank Man">Tank Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Gauck" title="Joachim Gauck">Joachim Gauck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sali_Berisha" title="Sali Berisha">Sali Berisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjaas%C3%BCrengiin_Zorig" title="Sanjaasürengiin Zorig">Sanjaasürengiin Zorig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bukovsky" title="Vladimir Bukovsky">Vladimir Bukovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viacheslav_Chornovil" title="Viacheslav Chornovil">Viacheslav Chornovil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vytautas_Landsbergis" title="Vytautas Landsbergis">Vytautas Landsbergis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zianon_Pazniak" title="Zianon Pazniak">Zianon Pazniak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhelyu_Zhelev" title="Zhelyu Zhelev">Zhelyu Zhelev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meles_Zenawi" title="Meles Zenawi">Meles Zenawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaias_Afwerki" title="Isaias Afwerki">Isaias Afwerki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition<br />movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Students%27_Autonomous_Federation" title="Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation">Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_77" title="Charter 77">Charter 77</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Forum" title="New Forum">New Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_Forum" title="Civic Forum">Civic Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Albania" title="Democratic Party of Albania">Democratic Party of Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Russia" title="Democratic Russia">Democratic Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiative_for_Peace_and_Human_Rights" title="Initiative for Peace and Human Rights">Initiative for Peace and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%85j%C5%ABdis" title="Sąjūdis">Sąjūdis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Movement_of_Ukraine" title="People's Movement of Ukraine">People's Movement of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_of_Latvia" title="Popular Front of Latvia">Popular Front of Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_of_Estonia" title="Popular Front of Estonia">Popular Front of Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Against_Violence" title="Public Against Violence">Public Against Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Popular_Front" title="Belarusian Popular Front">Belarusian Popular Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastokhez" title="Rastokhez">Rastokhez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_League_for_Democracy" title="National League for Democracy">National League for Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Salvation_Front_(Romania)" title="National Salvation Front (Romania)">National Salvation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Democratic_Forces_(Bulgaria)" title="Union of Democratic Forces (Bulgaria)">Union of Democratic Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-regional_Deputies_Group" title="Inter-regional Deputies Group">Inter-regional Deputies Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Free_Democrats" title="Alliance of Free Democrats">Alliance of Free Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Democratic_Forum" title="Hungarian Democratic Forum">Hungarian Democratic Forum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Events<br />by location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Central and<br />Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria#End_of_the_People's_Republic" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_communism_in_Hungary" title="End of communism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)#Final_decade_of_the_Polish_People's_Republic_(1980–1989)" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Armenian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Armenian independence referendum">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Azerbaijani_independence_referendum" title="1991 Azerbaijani independence referendum">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Belarusian_strikes" title="1991 Belarusian strikes">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_Revolution" title="Chechen Revolution">Chechnya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Georgian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Georgian independence referendum">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kyrgyzstan#Towards_independence:_1985-1991" title="History of Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_of_Moldova" title="Independence of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="History of the Russian Federation">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Revolution" title="Tajikistani Revolution">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Turkmen_independence_referendum" title="1991 Turkmen independence referendum">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989%E2%80%931991_Ukrainian_revolution" title="1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Uzbek_independence_election" title="1991 Uzbek independence election">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Elsewhere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicesse_Accords" title="Bicesse Accords">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Benin#Dissolution" title="People's Republic of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Paris_Peace_Agreements" title="1991 Paris Peace Agreements">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo#Transition" title="People's Republic of the Congo">Congo-Brazzaville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Derg_regime" title="Fall of the Derg regime">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War#Transition_to_peace" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">South Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Individual<br />events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">Jeltoqsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_Tibetan_unrest" title="1987–1989 Tibetan unrest">1987–1989 Tibetan unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_in_the_Caucasus" title="Wars in the Caucasus">Wars in the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_9_tragedy" title="April 9 tragedy">April 9 tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Hungary%27s_border_fence_with_Austria" title="Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria">Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Round_Table_Talks" title="Hungarian Round Table Talks">Hungarian Round Table Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Way" title="Baltic Way">Baltic Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monday_demonstrations_in_East_Germany" title="Monday demonstrations in East Germany">Monday Demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexanderplatz_demonstration" title="Alexanderplatz demonstration">Alexanderplatz demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Summit" title="Malta Summit">Malta Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">Black January</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah" title="1990s post-Soviet aliyah">1990s post-Soviet aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helsinki_Summit_(1990)" title="Helsinki Summit (1990)">Helsinki Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_on_Granite" title="Revolution on Granite">Revolution on Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">January Events in Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">January Events in Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_protests_in_Belgrade" title="1991 protests in Belgrade">1991 protests in Belgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Belarusian_strikes" title="1991 Belarusian strikes">1991 Belarusian strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact#End_of_the_Cold_War" title="Warsaw Pact">Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">August Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Civil_War" title="Tajikistani Civil War">Tajikistani Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Later events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decommunization" title="Decommunization">Decommunization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lustration" title="Lustration">Lustration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalization" title="Economic liberalization">Economic liberalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Sovietism" title="Neo-Sovietism">Neo-Sovietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Stalinism" title="Neo-Stalinism">Neo-Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-communism" title="Post-communism">Post-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">Pink tide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Eastern_Bloc308" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eastern_Bloc" title="Template:Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eastern_Bloc" title="Template talk:Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern_Bloc" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Eastern_Bloc308" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Hungary–Soviet Union relations">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan#Rejection_by_Stalin" title="Marshall Plan">Soviet response to the Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soviet-allied states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">People's Republic of Albania <span style="font-size:85%;">(to 1961)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">People's Republic of Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovak Socialist Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">German Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungarian People's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Polish People's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Socialist Republic of Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia <span style="font-size:85%;">(to 1948)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cominform" title="Cominform">Cominform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">COMECON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Trade_Unions" title="World Federation of Trade Unions">World Federation of Trade Unions <span style="font-size:85%;">(WFTU)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Democratic_Youth" title="World Federation of Democratic Youth">World Federation of Democratic Youth <span style="font-size:85%;">(WFDY)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Revolts and<br />opposition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goryani" title="Goryani">Goryani Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1949_East_German_State_Railway_strike" title="1949 East German State Railway strike">1949 East German State Railway strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cazin_rebellion" title="Cazin rebellion">Rebellion of Cazin 1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Plze%C5%88_uprising" title="1953 Plzeň uprising">1953 Plzeň uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">1953 East German uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">1956 Hungarian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a> / <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Spring" title="Croatian Spring">Croatian Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1981_protests_in_Kosovo" title="1981 protests in Kosovo">1981 protests in Kosovo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Emigration and defection</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_and_Eastern_Bloc_defectors" title="List of Soviet and Eastern Bloc defectors">list of defectors</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovietization_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Sovietization of the Baltic states">Sovietization of the Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_media_and_propaganda" title="Eastern Bloc media and propaganda">Information dissemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_politics" title="Eastern Bloc politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_economies" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Bloc economies">Economies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_tapping_in_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Telephone tapping in the Eastern Bloc">Telephone tapping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dissolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Die Wende</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_communism_in_Hungary" title="End of communism in Hungary">End of communism in Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Collapse of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events" title="January Events">January 1991 events in Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">January 1991 events in Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Damage,_destruction_and_looting_of_art_and_cultural_heritage298" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Destroyed_heritage" title="Template:Destroyed heritage"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Destroyed_heritage" title="Template talk:Destroyed heritage"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Destroyed_heritage" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Destroyed heritage"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Damage,_destruction_and_looting_of_art_and_cultural_heritage298" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Damage, <a href="/wiki/List_of_destroyed_heritage" title="List of destroyed heritage">destruction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">looting</a> of <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">cultural heritage</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Human-<br />caused</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Afghanistan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_art_in_Afghanistan" title="Destruction of art in Afghanistan">Destruction of art</a></li></ul></li> <li>Bangladesh <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangabandhu_Memorial_Museum#2024_vandalism" title="Bangabandhu Memorial Museum">Bangabandhu Memorial Museum attack</a></li></ul></li> <li>Brazil <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artworks_damaged,_destroyed_or_stolen_during_the_2023_Brazilian_Congress_attack" title="Artworks damaged, destroyed or stolen during the 2023 Brazilian Congress attack">Artworks lost or damaged in the 2023 Congress attack</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monuments_and_memorials_in_Canada_removed_in_2020%E2%80%932022" title="Monuments and memorials in Canada removed in 2020–2022">Monuments removed in 2020–2022</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Destruction of the Four Olds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looting_of_the_Eastern_Mausoleum" title="Looting of the Eastern Mausoleum">Looting of the Eastern Mausoleum</a></li></ul></li> <li>France <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Iconoclasm during the French Revolution">Iconoclasm during the French Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li>Germany <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Dresden" title="Bombing of Dresden">Bombing of Dresden</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iran <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disappeared_statues_in_Tehran,_2010" title="Disappeared statues in Tehran, 2010">Disappeared statues in Tehran, 2010</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iraq <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting_in_Iraq" title="Archaeological looting in Iraq">Archaeological looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Mosul_Museum_artifacts" title="Destruction of Mosul Museum artifacts">Destruction of Mosul Museum artifacts</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ireland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Irish_country_houses_(1919%E2%80%931923)" title="Destruction of Irish country houses (1919–1923)">Destruction of country houses, 1919–1923</a></li></ul></li> <li>Israel <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shrine_of_Husayn%27s_Head" title="Shrine of Husayn's Head">Destruction of the Shrine of Husayn's Head</a></li></ul></li> <li>Kosovo <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Albanian_heritage_in_Kosovo" title="Destruction of Albanian heritage in Kosovo">Destruction of Albanian heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Serbian_heritage_in_Kosovo" title="Destruction of Serbian heritage in Kosovo">Destruction of Serbian heritage</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lebanon <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_during_the_Israeli_invasion_of_Lebanon" title="Destruction of cultural heritage during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon">Destruction of cultural heritage during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon</a></li></ul></li> <li>Middle East <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_damaged_by_conflict_in_the_Middle_East_during_the_21st_century" title="List of monuments damaged by conflict in the Middle East during the 21st century">Damage to heritage sites in 21st-century conflicts</a></li></ul></li> <li>Nigeria <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benin_Bronzes" title="Benin Bronzes">Benin Bronzes</a></li></ul></li> <li>Palestine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_during_the_Israeli_invasion_of_the_Gaza_Strip" title="Destruction of cultural heritage during the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip">Damage to heritage sites in the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip</a></li></ul></li> <li>Poland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Warsaw" title="Destruction of Warsaw">Destruction of Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looting_of_Poland_in_World_War_II" title="Looting of Poland in World War II">Looting in World War II</a></li></ul></li> <li>Saudi Arabia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_early_Islamic_heritage_sites_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia">Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites</a></li></ul></li> <li>Spain <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_destroyed_landmarks_in_Spain" title="List of destroyed landmarks in Spain">Destroyed landmarks</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sudan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_during_the_Sudanese_civil_war" title="Destruction of cultural heritage during the Sudanese civil war">Destruction of cultural heritage during the Sudanese civil war</a></li></ul></li> <li>Syria <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heritage_sites_damaged_during_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="List of heritage sites damaged during the Syrian civil war">Damage to heritage sites during the Syrian civil war</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ukraine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demolition_of_monuments_to_Vladimir_Lenin_in_Ukraine" title="Demolition of monuments to Vladimir Lenin in Ukraine">Demolition of monuments to Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_damaged_cultural_sites_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="List of damaged cultural sites during the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Damage to heritage sites during the Russian invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_country_houses_in_20th-century_Britain" title="Destruction of country houses in 20th-century Britain">20th-century destruction of country houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baedeker_Blitz" title="Baedeker Blitz">Baedeker Blitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_demolished_buildings_and_structures_in_London" title="List of demolished buildings and structures in London">Demolished buildings and structures in London</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_demolished_churches_in_the_City_of_London" title="List of demolished churches in the City of London">Churches in the City of London</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_churches_destroyed_in_the_Great_Fire_of_London_and_not_rebuilt" title="List of churches destroyed in the Great Fire of London and not rebuilt">Churches destroyed in the Great Fire of London and not rebuilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_public_art_formerly_in_London" title="List of public art formerly in London">Public art formerly in London</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_destroyed_heritage_of_the_United_States" title="List of destroyed heritage of the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artwork_damaged_or_destroyed_in_the_September_11_attacks" title="Artwork damaged or destroyed in the September 11 attacks">Artworks lost or damaged in the September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_buildings_damaged_or_destroyed_in_the_September_11_attacks" title="List of buildings damaged or destroyed in the September 11 attacks">List of buildings damaged or destroyed in the September 11 attacks</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Attacks_on_museums" title="Category:Attacks on museums">Attacks on museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State">Destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_destroyed_libraries" title="List of destroyed libraries">Destroyed libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_robbery" title="Grave robbery">Grave robbery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Body_snatching" title="Body snatching">Body snatching</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Museums_destroyed_by_war" title="Category:Museums destroyed by war">Museums destroyed by war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_looting_of_art" title="Napoleonic looting of art">Napoleonic looting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_looted_by_Napoleonic_armies" title="List of art looted by Napoleonic armies">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stolen_and_missing_Moon_rocks" title="Stolen and missing Moon rocks">Stolen and missing Moon rocks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_voluntarily_demolished_buildings" title="List of tallest voluntarily demolished buildings">Tallest voluntarily demolished buildings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">World War II</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_theft_and_looting_during_World_War_II" title="Art theft and looting during World War II">Art theft and looting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_claims_for_restitution_for_Nazi-looted_art" title="List of claims for restitution for Nazi-looted art">Restitution claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_looting_of_artworks_by_Vincent_van_Gogh" title="Nazi looting of artworks by Vincent van Gogh">Works by Vincent van Gogh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_libraries_damaged_during_World_War_II" title="List of libraries damaged during World War II">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_plunder" title="Nazi plunder">Nazi plunder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Library_damage_resulting_from_the_2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake" title="Library damage resulting from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">Library damage in the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting" title="Archaeological looting">Archaeological looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_destruction" title="Art destruction">Art destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_theft" title="Art theft">Art theft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_burning" title="Book burning">Book burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_artworks" title="Lost artworks">Lost artworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looted_art" title="Looted art">Looted art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism_of_art" title="Vandalism of art">Vandalism of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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