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<ul id="toc-Prague_Spring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brezhnev's_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brezhnev's_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Brezhnev's government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brezhnev's_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dubček's_rise_to_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dubček's_rise_to_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Dubček's rise to power</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dubček's_rise_to_power-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dubček's rise to power subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dubček's_rise_to_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Socialism_with_a_human_face" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socialism_with_a_human_face"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Socialism with a human face</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socialism_with_a_human_face-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications_and_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications_and_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Publications and media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publications_and_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Czechoslovak_negotiations_with_the_USSR_and_other_Warsaw_Pact_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Czechoslovak_negotiations_with_the_USSR_and_other_Warsaw_Pact_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Czechoslovak negotiations with the USSR and other Warsaw Pact states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Czechoslovak_negotiations_with_the_USSR_and_other_Warsaw_Pact_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invasion_and_intervention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasion_and_intervention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Invasion and intervention</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Invasion_and_intervention-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Invasion and intervention subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Invasion_and_intervention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Failure_to_prepare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failure_to_prepare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Failure to prepare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failure_to_prepare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Letter_of_invitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letter_of_invitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Letter of invitation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Letter_of_invitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_plot" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_plot"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Internal plot</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_plot-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failure_of_the_plot" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failure_of_the_plot"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Failure of the plot</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failure_of_the_plot-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moscow_Protocol" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moscow_Protocol"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Moscow Protocol</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moscow_Protocol-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactions_in_Czechoslovakia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactions_in_Czechoslovakia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Reactions in Czechoslovakia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactions_in_Czechoslovakia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactions_in_other_Warsaw_Pact_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactions_in_other_Warsaw_Pact_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Reactions in other Warsaw Pact countries</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reactions_in_other_Warsaw_Pact_countries-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reactions in other Warsaw Pact countries subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reactions_in_other_Warsaw_Pact_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Romania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>East Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Albania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Albania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Albania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Albania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactions_around_the_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactions_around_the_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Reactions around the world</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reactions_around_the_world-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reactions around the world subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reactions_around_the_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Communist_parties_worldwide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communist_parties_worldwide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Communist parties worldwide</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communist_parties_worldwide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Normalization_(1969–1971)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Normalization_(1969–1971)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Normalization (1969–1971)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Normalization_(1969–1971)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Normalization (1969–1971) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Normalization_(1969–1971)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Revoking_or_modifying_the_reforms_and_removing_the_reformers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revoking_or_modifying_the_reforms_and_removing_the_reformers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Revoking or modifying the reforms and removing the reformers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revoking_or_modifying_the_reforms_and_removing_the_reformers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_reactions_and_revisionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_reactions_and_revisionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Later reactions and revisionism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_reactions_and_revisionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " 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Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%B2%D9%88_%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%81_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%88_%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%88%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="غزو حلف وارسو لتشيكوسلوفاكيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="غزو حلف وارسو لتشيكوسلوفاكيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87exoslavakiyaya_qo%C5%9Funlar%C4%B1n_yeridilm%C9%99si_(1968)" title="Çexoslavakiyaya qoşunların yeridilməsi (1968) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çexoslavakiyaya qoşunların yeridilməsi (1968)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%96_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%9E_%D0%A7%D1%8D%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8E" title="Інтэрвенцыя Арганізацыі Варшаўскага дагавора ў Чэхаславакію – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Інтэрвенцыя Арганізацыі Варшаўскага дагавора ў Чэхаславакію" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%B2_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Интервенция на Организацията на Варшавския договор в Чехословакия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Интервенция на Организацията на Варшавския договор в Чехословакия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invaze_vojsk_Var%C5%A1avsk%C3%A9_smlouvy_do_%C4%8Ceskoslovenska" title="Invaze vojsk Varšavské smlouvy do Československa – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Invaze vojsk Varšavské smlouvy do Československa" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warszawapagtens_invasion_af_Tjekkoslovakiet" title="Warszawapagtens invasion af Tjekkoslovakiet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Warszawapagtens invasion af Tjekkoslovakiet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einmarsch_der_Warschauer-Pakt-Staaten_in_die_%C4%8CSSR" title="Einmarsch der Warschauer-Pakt-Staaten in die ČSSR – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Einmarsch der Warschauer-Pakt-Staaten in die ČSSR" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varssavi_Lepingu_Organisatsiooni_sissetung_T%C5%A1ehhoslovakkiasse" title="Varssavi Lepingu Organisatsiooni sissetung Tšehhoslovakkiasse – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Varssavi Lepingu Organisatsiooni sissetung Tšehhoslovakkiasse" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%B2%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AE_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%86%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%85_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CE%A4%CF%83%CE%B5%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Εισβολή του Συμφώνου της Βαρσοβίας στην Τσεχοσλοβακία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εισβολή του Συμφώνου της Βαρσοβίας στην Τσεχοσλοβακία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasi%C3%B3n_de_Checoslovaquia_por_el_Pacto_de_Varsovia" title="Invasión de Checoslovaquia por el Pacto de Varsovia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Invasión de Checoslovaquia por el Pacto de Varsovia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invado_de_soldataroj_de_Varsovia_Traktato_en_%C4%88e%C4%A5oslovakion" title="Invado de soldataroj de Varsovia Traktato en Ĉeĥoslovakion – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Invado de soldataroj de Varsovia Traktato en Ĉeĥoslovakion" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B6%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B4%D9%88_%D8%A8%D9%87_%DA%86%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="تهاجم اعضای پیمان ورشو به چکسلواکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تهاجم اعضای پیمان ورشو به چکسلواکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_de_la_Tch%C3%A9coslovaquie_par_le_pacte_de_Varsovie" title="Invasion de la Tchécoslovaquie par le pacte de Varsovie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Invasion de la Tchécoslovaquie par le pacte de Varsovie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%94%EB%A5%B4%EC%83%A4%EB%B0%94_%EC%A1%B0%EC%95%BD%EA%B5%B0%EC%9D%98_%EC%B2%B4%EC%BD%94%EC%8A%AC%EB%A1%9C%EB%B0%94%ED%82%A4%EC%95%84_%EC%B9%A8%EA%B3%B5" title="바르샤바 조약군의 체코슬로바키아 침공 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="바르샤바 조약군의 체코슬로바키아 침공" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BD%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B0%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D6%87_%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B3%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A2%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AA%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AA%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4_%D5%89%D5%A5%D5%AD%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%AB%D5%A1_(1968)" title="Խորհրդային և սոցիալիստական ճամբարի ուժերի ներխուժում Չեխոսլովակիա (1968) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Խորհրդային և սոցիալիստական ճամբարի ուժերի ներխուժում Չեխոսլովակիա (1968)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intervencija_Var%C5%A1avskog_pakta_u_%C4%8Cehoslova%C4%8Dkoj" title="Intervencija Varšavskog pakta u Čehoslovačkoj – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Intervencija Varšavskog pakta u Čehoslovačkoj" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasi_Cekoslowakia_oleh_Pakta_Warsawa" title="Invasi Cekoslowakia oleh Pakta Warsawa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Invasi Cekoslowakia oleh Pakta Warsawa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasione_della_Cecoslovacchia_da_parte_del_Patto_di_Varsavia" title="Invasione della Cecoslovacchia da parte del Patto di Varsavia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Invasione della Cecoslovacchia da parte del Patto di Varsavia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%9C%D7%A6%27%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%91%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%94" title="הפלישה הסובייטית לצ'כוסלובקיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הפלישה הסובייטית לצ'כוסלובקיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Var%C5%A1avas_pakta_iebrukums_%C4%8Cehoslov%C4%81kij%C4%81" title="Varšavas pakta iebrukums Čehoslovākijā – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Varšavas pakta iebrukums Čehoslovākijā" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Инвазија на Варшавскиот пакт на Чехословачка – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Инвазија на Варшавскиот пакт на Чехословачка" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inval_van_het_Warschaupact_in_Tsjecho-Slowakije" title="Inval van het Warschaupact in Tsjecho-Slowakije – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Inval van het Warschaupact in Tsjecho-Slowakije" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BD%E9%80%A3%E3%81%AB%E3%82%88%E3%82%8B%E3%83%81%E3%82%A7%E3%82%B3%E3%82%B9%E3%83%AD%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A1%E3%82%AD%E3%82%A2%E3%81%B8%E3%81%AE%E8%BB%8D%E4%BA%8B%E4%BE%B5%E6%94%BB" title="ソ連によるチェコスロヴァキアへの軍事侵攻 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ソ連によるチェコスロヴァキアへの軍事侵攻" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warszawapaktens_invasjon_av_Tsjekkoslovakia" title="Warszawapaktens invasjon av Tsjekkoslovakia – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Warszawapaktens invasjon av Tsjekkoslovakia" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%87_%DA%86%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%90_%D8%AF_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7_%D8%AA%DA%93%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%AF_%D8%BA%DA%93%D9%88_%D9%87%DB%90%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="په چکسلواکیا باندې د وارسا تړون د غړو هېوادونو برید – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="په چکسلواکیا باندې د وارسا تړون د غړو هېوادونو برید" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interwencja_Uk%C5%82adu_Warszawskiego_w_Czechos%C5%82owacji" title="Interwencja Układu Warszawskiego w Czechosłowacji – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Interwencja Układu Warszawskiego w Czechosłowacji" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invas%C3%A3o_da_Tchecoslov%C3%A1quia" title="Invasão da Tchecoslováquia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Invasão da Tchecoslováquia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invazia_Cehoslovaciei" title="Invazia Cehoslovaciei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Invazia Cehoslovaciei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BE_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Инвазия Варшавского пакта до Чехословакии – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Инвазия Варшавского пакта до Чехословакии" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA_%D0%B2_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8E_(1968)" title="Ввод войск в Чехословакию (1968) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ввод войск в Чехословакию (1968)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vp%C3%A1d_vojsk_Var%C5%A1avskej_zmluvy_do_%C4%8Cesko-Slovenska" title="Vpád vojsk Varšavskej zmluvy do Česko-Slovenska – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vpád vojsk Varšavskej zmluvy do Česko-Slovenska" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BA%D1%83" title="Инвазија Варшавског пакта на Чехословачку – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Инвазија Варшавског пакта на Чехословачку" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invazija_Var%C5%A1avskog_pakta_na_%C4%8Cehoslova%C4%8Dku" title="Invazija Varšavskog pakta na Čehoslovačku – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Invazija Varšavskog pakta na Čehoslovačku" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%A1ekkoslovakian_miehitys_1968" title="Tšekkoslovakian miehitys 1968 – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tšekkoslovakian miehitys 1968" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warszawapaktens_invasion_av_Tjeckoslovakien_1968" title="Warszawapaktens invasion av Tjeckoslovakien 1968 – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Warszawapaktens invasion av Tjeckoslovakien 1968" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9D%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%AD" title="การบุกครองเชโกสโลวาเกียของฝ่ายกติกาสัญญาวอร์ซอ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การบุกครองเชโกสโลวาเกียของฝ่ายกติกาสัญญาวอร์ซอ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Var%C5%9Fova_Pakt%C4%B1%27n%C4%B1n_%C3%87ekoslovakya%27ya_m%C3%BCdahalesi" title="Varşova Paktı'nın Çekoslovakya'ya müdahalesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Varşova Paktı'nın Çekoslovakya'ya müdahalesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83_%D0%B4%D0%BE_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Вторгнення військ Варшавського договору до Чехословаччини – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вторгнення військ Варшавського договору до Чехословаччини" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1968 invasion led by the Soviet Union</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Invasion of Czechoslovakia" redirects here. For the events of 1938–1945, see <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Operation Danube</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Franti%C5%A1ek_Dost%C3%A1l_Srpen_1968_4_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Franti%C5%A1ek_Dost%C3%A1l_Srpen_1968_4_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Franti%C5%A1ek_Dost%C3%A1l_Srpen_1968_4_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Franti%C5%A1ek_Dost%C3%A1l_Srpen_1968_4_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Franti%C5%A1ek_Dost%C3%A1l_Srpen_1968_4_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Franti%C5%A1ek_Dost%C3%A1l_Srpen_1968_4_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Franti%C5%A1ek_Dost%C3%A1l_Srpen_1968_4_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2638" data-file-height="1535" /></a></span><br />Soviet <a href="/wiki/T-54" class="mw-redirect" title="T-54">T-54</a> in Prague during the invasion</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>20–21 August 1968</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovak Socialist Republic</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Warsaw Pact victory</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/25px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/38px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/50px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="721" data-file-height="860" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a>:</b></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a><br /><span data-sort-value="Poland"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a></span><br /><span data-sort-value="Bulgaria"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></span><br /><span data-sort-value="Hungary"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungary</a></span><br /><b>Logistics support</b>:<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <b><span data-sort-value="Czechoslovakia"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovakia</a></span></b> <b>Supported by:</b><br /><span data-sort-value="Albania"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Albania_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg/21px-Flag_of_Albania_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Albania_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Albania_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Albania_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg/42px-Flag_of_Albania_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">Albania</a></span><br /><span data-sort-value="Romania"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Romania_%281952%E2%80%931965%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania_%281952%E2%80%931965%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Romania_%281952%E2%80%931965%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania_%281952%E2%80%931965%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Romania_%281952%E2%80%931965%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania_%281952%E2%80%931965%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a></span><br /><span data-sort-value="China"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union"><img alt="Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></b><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union"><img alt="Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Nikolai Podgorny</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union"><img alt="Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Alexei Kosygin</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union"><img alt="Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Grechko" title="Andrei Grechko">Andrei Grechko</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union"><img alt="Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Yakubovsky" title="Ivan Yakubovsky">Ivan Yakubovsky</a> <br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union"><img alt="Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Provalov" title="Konstantin Provalov">Konstantin Provalov</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic"><img alt="Polish People's Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Gomu%C5%82ka" title="Władysław Gomułka">Władysław Gomułka</a></span><br /> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic"><img alt="Polish People's Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Marian_Spychalski" title="Marian Spychalski">Marian Spychalski</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic"><img alt="Polish People's Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Cyrankiewicz" title="Józef Cyrankiewicz">Józef Cyrankiewicz</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic"><img alt="Polish People's Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Jaruzelski" title="Wojciech Jaruzelski">Wojciech Jaruzelski</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic"><img alt="Polish People's Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Boles%C5%82aw_Chocha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bolesław Chocha (page does not exist)">Bolesław Chocha</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_Chocha" class="extiw" title="pl:Bolesław Chocha">pl</a>]</span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic"><img alt="Polish People's Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Florian_Siwicki" title="Florian Siwicki">Florian Siwicki</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria"><img alt="People's Republic of Bulgaria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Todor_Zhivkov" title="Todor Zhivkov">Todor Zhivkov</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria"><img alt="People's Republic of Bulgaria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Dobri_Dzhurov" title="Dobri Dzhurov">Dobri Dzhurov</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic"><img alt="Hungarian People's Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_K%C3%A1d%C3%A1r" title="János Kádár">János Kádár</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic"><img alt="Hungarian People's Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Lajos_Czinege" title="Lajos Czinege">Lajos Czinege</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany"><img alt="East Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Ulbricht" title="Walter Ulbricht">Walter Ulbricht</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic"><img alt="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a></b><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic"><img alt="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ludv%C3%ADk_Svoboda" title="Ludvík Svoboda">Ludvík Svoboda</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic"><img alt="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Old%C5%99ich_%C4%8Cern%C3%ADk" title="Oldřich Černík">Oldřich Černík</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic"><img alt="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Dz%C3%BAr" title="Martin Dzúr">Martin Dzúr</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <b>Initial invasion:</b><br />250,000 (20 divisions)<sup id="cite_ref-cia_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cia-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />2,000 tanks<sup id="cite_ref-washpost_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-washpost-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />800 aircraft<br /><b>Peak strength:</b><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><br />350,000–400,000 Soviet troops, 70,000–80,000 from Poland, Bulgaria and Hungary<sup id="cite_ref-ency_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ency-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />6,300 tanks<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> 235,000 (18 divisions)<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />2,500–3,000 tanks</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union"><img alt="Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> 96 killed (84 in accidents)<br />87 wounded<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />5 soldiers committed suicide<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic"><img alt="Polish People's Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> 10 killed (in accidents and suicides)<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic"><img alt="Hungarian People's Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> 4 killed (in accidents)<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria"><img alt="People's Republic of Bulgaria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> 2 killed</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> 137 civilians and soldiers killed,<sup id="cite_ref-victims_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-victims-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 500 seriously wounded<sup id="cite_ref-victims2_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-victims2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> 70,000 Czechoslovak citizens fled to the <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">West</a> immediately after the invasion. Total number of emigrants before the <a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a> reached 300,000.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="wrap">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Czechoslovak_Radio" title="Battle for Czechoslovak Radio">Battle for Czechoslovak Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Liberec" title="Occupation of Liberec">Occupation of Liberec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Sunday_(1968)" title="Bloody Sunday (1968)">Bloody Sunday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hole%C5%A1ov_barracks_incident" title="Holešov barracks incident">Holešov barracks incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Hockey_Riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Czechoslovak Hockey Riots">Czechoslovak Hockey Riots</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <p>On 20–21 August 1968, the <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovak Socialist Republic</a> was jointly invaded by four fellow <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> countries: the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Polish People's Republic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">People's Republic of Bulgaria</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungarian People's Republic</a>. The invasion stopped <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a> liberalisation reforms and strengthened the <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a> wing of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Communist Party of Czechoslovakia">Communist Party of Czechoslovakia</a> (KSČ). </p><p>About 250,000 Warsaw Pact troops (afterwards rising to about 500,000), supported by thousands of tanks and hundreds of aircraft, participated in the overnight operation, which was code-named <b>Operation Danube</b>. The <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Socialist Republic of Romania</a> and the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Albania">People's Republic of Albania</a> refused to participate.<sup id="cite_ref-Romania_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romania-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Albania_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Albania-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East German</a> forces, except for a small number of specialists, were ordered by Moscow not to cross the Czechoslovak border just hours before the invasion,<sup id="cite_ref-ddr_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ddr-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because of fears of greater resistance if German troops were involved, due to public perception of the previous <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of Czechoslovakia">German occupation</a> three decades earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-nvatruppen_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nvatruppen-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 137 Czechoslovaks were killed<sup id="cite_ref-victims_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-victims-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 500 seriously wounded during the occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-victims2_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-victims2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public reaction to the invasion was widespread and divided, including within the communist world. Although the majority of the Warsaw Pact supported the invasion along with several other communist parties worldwide, Western nations, along with socialist countries such as <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a>, and particularly the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> and <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">People's Republic of Albania</a> condemned the attack. Many other communist parties also lost influence, denounced the USSR, or split up or dissolved due to conflicting opinions. The invasion started a series of events that would ultimately pressure Brezhnev to <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Summit_(1972)" title="Moscow Summit (1972)">establish a state of détente</a> with U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> in 1972 just months after <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon%27s_1972_visit_to_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China">the latter's historic visit to the PRC</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:0; font-size:150%;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc"><span style="color:white;">Eastern Bloc</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/120px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/180px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/240px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="721" data-file-height="860" /></span></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF"><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union"><span style="color:white;">Republics</span></a> of the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR"><span style="color:white;">USSR</span></a></span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic">Kirghizia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic">Moldavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic">Turkmenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF">Allied and satellite states</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">Albania</a> (until 1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Angola" title="People's Republic of Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Benin" title="People's Republic of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> (until 1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="People's Republic of the Congo">Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Republic_of_Ethiopia" title="People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Revolutionary_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Revolutionary Government">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Kampuchea" title="People's Republic of Kampuchea">Kampuchea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Mozambique" title="People's Republic of Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a> (until 1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Somalia</a> (until 1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen" title="South Yemen">South Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> (<a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Republic_of_South_Vietnam" title="Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam">PRG</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> (until 1948)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF">Related organizations</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cominform" title="Cominform">Cominform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Trade_Unions" title="World Federation of Trade Unions">World Federation of Trade Unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Democratic_Youth" title="World Federation of Democratic Youth">World Federation of Democratic Youth</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF"><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_insurgencies_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe"><span style="color:white;">Opposition</span></a></span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Anti-Soviet_partisans" title="Anti-Soviet partisans">Anti-Soviet partisans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goryani" title="Goryani">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusaders_(guerrilla)" title="Crusaders (guerrilla)">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_resistance_in_Poland_(1944%E2%80%931953)" title="Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1953)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_anti-communist_resistance_movement" title="Romanian anti-communist resistance movement">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chetniks" title="Chetniks">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Soviet_resistance_by_the_Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Anti-Soviet resistance by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Ukraine</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Soviet occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_partisans" title="Estonian partisans">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_partisans" title="Latvian partisans">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_partisans" title="Lithuanian partisans">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation Jungle</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;padding-bottom:0;"> Protests and uprisings</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_resistance_in_Poland_(1944%E2%80%931989)" title="Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1989)">Poland 1944–1989</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">Poznań 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">1980–89</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Plze%C5%88_uprising" title="1953 Plzeň uprising">Plzeň 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East Germany 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Georgian_demonstrations" title="1956 Georgian demonstrations">Georgia 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungary 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novocherkassk_massacre" title="Novocherkassk massacre">Novocherkassk 1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague 1968</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Red_Square_demonstration" title="1968 Red Square demonstration">Moscow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_77" title="Charter 77">Czechoslovakia 1976–1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiu_Valley_miners%27_strike_of_1977" title="Jiu Valley miners' strike of 1977">Romania 1977</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">Kazakhstan 1986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bra%C8%99ov_rebellion" title="Brașov rebellion">Brașov 1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_9_tragedy" title="April 9 tragedy">Tbilisi 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989%E2%80%931991_Ukrainian_revolution" title="1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution">Ukraine 1989–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">Baku 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">Lithuania 1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">Riga 1991</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Dissent</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissident_movement_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_Poland" title="Dissident movement in the People's Republic of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_attempts_and_victims_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Escape attempts and victims of the inner German border">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_wave_from_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_to_British_Hong_Kong" title="Refugee wave from the People's Republic of China to British Hong Kong">to Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korean_defectors" title="North Korean defectors">North Korea</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF">Cold War events</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">Czechoslovak coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">Secret Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/De-satellization_of_the_Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="De-satellization of the Socialist Republic of Romania">De-satellization of the Socialist Republic of Romania</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_intervention_in_Angola" title="Cuban intervention in Angola">Cuban intervention in Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet invasion of Afghanistan">Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics" title="1980 Summer Olympics">1980 Moscow Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics" title="1984 Summer Olympics">1984 Los Angeles Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF">Fall</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">January Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">Barricades in Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">End of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eastern_Bloc_sidebar" title="Template:Eastern Bloc sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eastern_Bloc_sidebar" title="Template talk:Eastern Bloc sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern_Bloc_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern Bloc sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Novotný's_regime:_late_1950s_–_early_1960s"><span id="Novotn.C3.BD.27s_regime:_late_1950s_.E2.80.93_early_1960s"></span>Novotný's regime: late 1950s – early 1960s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Novotný's regime: late 1950s – early 1960s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The process of <a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">de-Stalinization</a> in <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> had begun under <a href="/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Novotn%C3%BD" title="Antonín Novotný">Antonín Novotný</a> in the late 1950s and early 1960s, but had progressed more slowly than in most other states of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the lead of <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>, Novotný proclaimed the completion of socialism, and the <a href="/wiki/1960_Constitution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia">new constitution</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> accordingly, adopted the name <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovak Socialist Republic</a>. The pace of change, however, was sluggish; the rehabilitation of Stalinist-era victims, such as those convicted in the <a href="/wiki/Sl%C3%A1nsk%C3%BD_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Slánský trials">Slánský trials</a>, may have been considered as early as 1963, but did not take place until 1967. </p><p>In the early 1960s, Czechoslovakia underwent an economic downturn. The <a href="/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">Soviet model of industrialization</a> applied unsuccessfully since Czechoslovakia was already entirely industrialized before <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and the Soviet model mainly took into account less developed economies. Novotný's attempt at restructuring the economy, the 1965 New Economic Model, spurred increased demand for political reform as well. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1967_Writers'_Congress"><span id="1967_Writers.27_Congress"></span>1967 Writers' Congress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1967 Writers' Congress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the strict government eased its rules, the Union of Czechoslovak Writers cautiously began to air discontent, and in the union's gazette, <i><a href="/wiki/Liter%C3%A1rn%C3%AD_noviny" title="Literární noviny">Literární noviny</a></i>, members suggested that literature should be independent of Party doctrine. In June 1967, a small fraction of the Czech writer's union sympathized with radical socialists, specifically <a href="/wiki/Ludv%C3%ADk_Vacul%C3%ADk" title="Ludvík Vaculík">Ludvík Vaculík</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milan_Kundera" title="Milan Kundera">Milan Kundera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Proch%C3%A1zka_(writer)" title="Jan Procházka (writer)">Jan Procházka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Jaroslav_Liehm" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonín Jaroslav Liehm">Antonín Jaroslav Liehm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Kohout" title="Pavel Kohout">Pavel Kohout</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Kl%C3%ADma" title="Ivan Klíma">Ivan Klíma</a>. A few months later, at a party meeting, it was decided that administrative actions against the writers who openly expressed support of reformation would be taken. Since only a small part of the union held these beliefs, the remaining members were relied upon to discipline their colleagues. Control over <i>Literární noviny</i> and several other publishing houses was transferred to the Ministry of Culture, and even members of the party who later became significant reformers, including Dubček, endorsed these moves. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prague_Spring">Prague Spring</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Prague Spring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></div> <p>The Prague Spring (<a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>: <i lang="cs">Pražské jaro</i>, <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a>: <i lang="sk">Pražská jar</i>) was a period of political <a href="/wiki/Liberalization" title="Liberalization">liberalization</a> in Czechoslovakia that began on 5 January 1968, when reformist <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a> was elected First Secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Communist Party of Czechoslovakia">Communist Party of Czechoslovakia</a> (KSČ), and continued until 21 August when the Soviet Union and other members of the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> invaded the country to halt the reforms. </p><p>The Prague Spring reforms were a strong attempt by Dubček to grant additional rights to the citizens of Czechoslovakia in an act of partial decentralization of the economy and democratization. The freedoms granted included a loosening of restrictions on the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">media</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">speech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">travel</a>. After national discussion of dividing the country into a federation of three republics, <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moravia" title="Moravia">Moravia</a>–<a href="/wiki/Czech_Silesia" title="Czech Silesia">Silesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>, Dubček oversaw the decision to split into two, the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Socialist_Republic" title="Czech Socialist Republic">Czech Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Slovak Socialist Republic">Slovak Republic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brezhnev's_government"><span id="Brezhnev.27s_government"></span>Brezhnev's government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Brezhnev's government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-F0417-0001-011,_Berlin,_VII._SED-Parteitag,_Er%C3%B6ffnung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-F0417-0001-011%2C_Berlin%2C_VII._SED-Parteitag%2C_Er%C3%B6ffnung.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-F0417-0001-011%2C_Berlin%2C_VII._SED-Parteitag%2C_Er%C3%B6ffnung.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-F0417-0001-011%2C_Berlin%2C_VII._SED-Parteitag%2C_Er%C3%B6ffnung.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-F0417-0001-011%2C_Berlin%2C_VII._SED-Parteitag%2C_Er%C3%B6ffnung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-F0417-0001-011%2C_Berlin%2C_VII._SED-Parteitag%2C_Er%C3%B6ffnung.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-F0417-0001-011%2C_Berlin%2C_VII._SED-Parteitag%2C_Er%C3%B6ffnung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a> and Polish leader <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Gomu%C5%82ka" title="Władysław Gomułka">Władysław Gomułka</a> in <a href="/wiki/East_Berlin" title="East Berlin">East Berlin</a>, 1967</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H0603-0036-001,_Moskau,_Ulbricht_und_Breshnew.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H0603-0036-001%2C_Moskau%2C_Ulbricht_und_Breshnew.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H0603-0036-001%2C_Moskau%2C_Ulbricht_und_Breshnew.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H0603-0036-001%2C_Moskau%2C_Ulbricht_und_Breshnew.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H0603-0036-001%2C_Moskau%2C_Ulbricht_und_Breshnew.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H0603-0036-001%2C_Moskau%2C_Ulbricht_und_Breshnew.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H0603-0036-001%2C_Moskau%2C_Ulbricht_und_Breshnew.jpg 2x" data-file-width="776" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Brezhnev, <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Nikolai Podgorny</a>, and East German leader <a href="/wiki/Walter_Ulbricht" title="Walter Ulbricht">Walter Ulbricht</a> in Moscow</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a> and the leadership of the Warsaw Pact countries were worried that the unfolding liberalizations in Czechoslovakia, including the ending of censorship and political surveillance by the <a href="/wiki/StB" title="StB">secret police</a>, would be detrimental to their interests. The first such fear was that Czechoslovakia would defect from the Eastern Bloc, injuring the Soviet Union's position in a possible <a href="/wiki/World_War_III" title="World War III">Third World War</a> with the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic Treaty Organization">North Atlantic Treaty Organization</a> (NATO). Not only would the loss result in a lack of strategic depth for the USSR,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it would also mean that it could not tap Czechoslovakia's industrial base in the event of war.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Czechoslovak leaders had no intention of leaving the Warsaw Pact, but Moscow felt it could not be certain exactly of Prague's intentions. However, the Soviet government was initially hesitant to approve an invasion, due to Czechoslovakia's continued loyalty to the Warsaw Pact and the Soviet Union's recent diplomatic gains with the West as <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">détente</a> began.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other fears included the spread of liberalization and unrest elsewhere in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>. The Warsaw Pact countries feared that if the <a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a> reforms went unchecked, then those ideals might very well spread to <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>, upsetting the <a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">status quo</a> there as well. Within the Soviet Union, nationalism in the republics of <a href="/wiki/Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic">Estonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic">Latvia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic">Lithuania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukraine</a> was already causing problems, and many were worried that events in <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a> might exacerbate those problems.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to documents from the Ukrainian Archives, compiled by Mark Kramer, <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> chairman <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Ukraine_(Soviet_Union)" title="Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union)">Communist Party of Ukraine</a> leaders <a href="/wiki/Petro_Shelest" title="Petro Shelest">Petro Shelest</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Nikolai Podgorny</a> were the most vehement proponents of military intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The other version says that the initiative for the invasion came originally from Poland as the Polish First Secretary <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Gomu%C5%82ka" title="Władysław Gomułka">Władysław Gomułka</a> and later his collaborator, East German First Secretary <a href="/wiki/Walter_Ulbricht" title="Walter Ulbricht">Walter Ulbricht</a>, pressured Brezhnev to agree on the Warsaw Letter and on ensued military involvement.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gomułka accused Brezhnev of being blind and looking at the situation in Czechoslovakia with too much of emotion. Ulbricht, in turn, insisted upon the necessity to enact military action in Czechoslovakia while Brezhnev was still doubting. Poland's foreign policy on the issue is still unknown. The deliberation that took place in Warsaw meeting, resulted in a majority consensus rather than unanimity.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> According to Soviet politician <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Katushev" title="Konstantin Katushev">Konstantin Katushev</a>, "our allies were even more worried than we were by what was going on in Prague. Gomulka, Ulbricht, Bulgarian First Secretary <a href="/wiki/Todor_Zhivkov" title="Todor Zhivkov">Todor Zhivkov</a>, even Hungarian First Secretary <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_K%C3%A1d%C3%A1r" title="János Kádár">János Kádár</a>, all assessed the Prague Spring very negatively."<sup id="cite_ref-radiofree_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-radiofree-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, part of Czechoslovakia bordered <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>, which were on the other side of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a>. This meant both that foreign agents could slip into Czechoslovakia and into any member of the Eastern Bloc and that defectors could slip out to the West.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final concern emerged directly from the lack of <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a>; writers whose work had been censored in the Soviet Union could simply go to Prague or <a href="/wiki/Bratislava" title="Bratislava">Bratislava</a> and air their grievances there, circumventing the <a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union's censorship</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dubček's_rise_to_power"><span id="Dub.C4.8Dek.27s_rise_to_power"></span>Dubček's rise to power</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dubček's rise to power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As President Antonín Novotný was losing support, Alexander Dubček, First Secretary of the regional <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Slovakia_(1939)" title="Communist Party of Slovakia (1939)">Communist Party of Slovakia</a>, and economist <a href="/wiki/Ota_%C5%A0ik" title="Ota Šik">Ota Šik</a> challenged him at a meeting of the Central Committee. Novotný then invited Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev to Prague that December, seeking support; but Brezhnev was surprised at the extent of the opposition to Novotný and thus supported his removal as Czechoslovakia's leader. Dubček replaced Novotný as First Secretary on 5 January 1968. On 22 March 1968, Novotný resigned his presidency and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Ludv%C3%ADk_Svoboda" title="Ludvík Svoboda">Ludvík Svoboda</a>, who later gave consent to the reforms.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When the KSČ <a href="/wiki/Presidium" title="Presidium">Presidium</a> member <a href="/wiki/Josef_Smrkovsk%C3%BD" title="Josef Smrkovský">Josef Smrkovský</a> was interviewed in a <i><a href="/wiki/Rud%C3%A9_Pr%C3%A1vo" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudé Právo">Rudé Právo</a></i> article, entitled "What Lies Ahead", he insisted that Dubček's appointment at the January Plenum would further the goals of socialism and maintain the working class nature of the Communist Party.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socialism_with_a_human_face">Socialism with a human face</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Socialism with a human face"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_a_human_face" title="Socialism with a human face">Socialism with a human face</a></div> <p>On the 20th anniversary of Czechoslovakia's "<a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_of_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948">Victorious February</a>", Dubček delivered a speech explaining the need for change following the triumph of socialism. He emphasized the need to "enforce the leading role of the party more effectively"<sup id="cite_ref-Navratil52_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Navratil52-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and acknowledged that, despite <a href="/wiki/Klement_Gottwald" title="Klement Gottwald">Klement Gottwald</a>'s urgings for better relations with society, the Party had too often made heavy-handed rulings on trivial issues. Dubček declared the party's mission was "to build an advanced socialist society on sound economic foundations ... a socialism that corresponds to the historical democratic traditions of Czechoslovakia, in accordance with the experience of other communist parties ..."<sup id="cite_ref-Navratil52_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Navratil52-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April, Dubček launched an "<a href="/wiki/Action_Programme_(1968)" class="mw-redirect" title="Action Programme (1968)">Action Programme</a>" of liberalizations, which included increasing freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of movement, with economic emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Consumer_goods" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer goods">consumer goods</a> and the possibility of a <a href="/wiki/Multi-party_system" title="Multi-party system">multiparty government</a>. The programme was based on the view that "Socialism cannot mean only liberation of the working people from the domination of exploiting class relations, but must make more provisions for a fuller life of the personality than any bourgeois democracy."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It would limit the power of the secret police<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and provide for the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Law_of_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional Law of Federation">federalization</a> of the ČSSR into two equal nations.<sup id="cite_ref-Auto_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Auto-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The programme also covered <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">foreign policy</a>, including both the maintenance of good relations with <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western countries</a> and cooperation with the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc nations.<sup id="cite_ref-Library_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Library-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It spoke of a ten-year transition through which democratic elections would be made possible and a new form of <a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">democratic socialism</a> would replace the status quo.<sup id="cite_ref-Postwar_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Postwar-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those who drafted the Action Programme were careful not to criticize the actions of the post-war Communist regime, only to point out policies that they felt had outlived their usefulness.<sup id="cite_ref-Doc_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doc-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, the immediate post-war situation had required "centralist and directive-administrative methods"<sup id="cite_ref-Doc_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doc-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to fight against the "remnants of the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Doc_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doc-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the "antagonistic classes"<sup id="cite_ref-Doc_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doc-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were said to have been defeated with the achievement of socialism, these methods were no longer necessary. Reform was needed, for the Czechoslovak economy to join the "scientific-technical revolution in the world"<sup id="cite_ref-Doc_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doc-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> rather than relying on <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinist</a>-era <a href="/wiki/Heavy_industry" title="Heavy industry">heavy industry</a>, labour power, and raw materials.<sup id="cite_ref-Doc_37-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doc-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, since internal class conflict had been overcome, workers could now be duly rewarded for their qualifications and technical skills without contravening <a href="/wiki/Marxism-Leninism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxism-Leninism">Marxism-Leninism</a>. The Programme suggested it was now necessary to ensure important positions were "filled by capable, educated socialist expert cadres" in order to compete with capitalism.<sup id="cite_ref-Doc_37-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doc-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IICCR_G539_Ceausescu_Dubcek_Svoboda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/IICCR_G539_Ceausescu_Dubcek_Svoboda.jpg/220px-IICCR_G539_Ceausescu_Dubcek_Svoboda.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/IICCR_G539_Ceausescu_Dubcek_Svoboda.jpg/330px-IICCR_G539_Ceausescu_Dubcek_Svoboda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/IICCR_G539_Ceausescu_Dubcek_Svoboda.jpg/440px-IICCR_G539_Ceausescu_Dubcek_Svoboda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1184" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C5%9Fescu" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicolae Ceauşescu">Nicolae Ceauşescu</a> (right) visiting Czechoslovakia in 1968; here, with <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludvik_Svoboda" class="mw-redirect" title="Ludvik Svoboda">Ludvik Svoboda</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although it was stipulated that reform must proceed under KSČ direction, popular pressure mounted to implement reforms immediately.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Radical elements became more vocal: <a href="/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">anti-Soviet</a> <a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">polemics</a> appeared in the press (after the abolishment of censorship was formally confirmed by law of 26 June 1968),<sup id="cite_ref-Postwar_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Postwar-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Social_Democratic_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Czech Social Democratic Party">Social Democrats</a> began to form a separate party, and new unaffiliated political clubs were created. Party conservatives urged repressive measures, but Dubček counselled moderation and re-emphasized KSČ leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the Presidium of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia in April, Dubček announced a political programme of "socialism with a human face".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May, he announced that the Fourteenth Party Congress would convene in an early session on 9 September. The congress would incorporate the Action Programme into the party statutes, draft a federalization law, and elect a new Central Committee.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_1997,_p_156_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_1997,_p_156-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dubček's reforms guaranteed freedom of the press and <a href="/wiki/Political_criticism" title="Political criticism">political commentary</a> was allowed for the first time in mainstream media.<sup id="cite_ref-KieranPress_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KieranPress-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time of the Prague Spring, Czechoslovak exports were declining in competitiveness, and Dubček's reforms planned to solve these troubles by mixing <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">planned</a> and <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economies</a>. Within the party, there were varying opinions on how this should proceed; certain economists wished for a more <a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">mixed economy</a> while others wanted the economy to remain mostly socialist. Dubček continued to stress the importance of economic reform proceeding under Communist Party rule.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 27 June, Ludvík Vaculík a leading author and journalist, published a manifesto titled <i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Thousand_Words" title="The Two Thousand Words">The Two Thousand Words</a></i>. It expressed concern about conservative elements within the KSČ and so-called "foreign" forces. Vaculík called on the people to take the initiative in implementing the reform programme.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dubček, the party Presidium, the National Front, and the cabinet denounced this manifesto.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Publications_and_media">Publications and media</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Publications and media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dubček's relaxation of censorship ushered in a brief period of freedom of speech and the press.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first tangible manifestation of this new policy of openness was the production of the previously hard-line communist weekly <i>Literarni noviny</i>, renamed <i>Literarni listy</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams,_pp_68_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams,_pp_68-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bren,_pp_23_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bren,_pp_23-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reduction and later complete abolition of the censorship on 4 March 1968 was one of the most important steps towards the reforms. It was for the first time in Czech history the censorship was abolished and it was probably the only reform fully implemented, albeit only for a short period. From the instrument of Party's <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> media quickly became the instrument of criticism of the regime.<sup id="cite_ref-bulletin_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bulletin-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hoppe_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoppe-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Freedom of the press also opened the door for the first honest look at Czechoslovakia's past by Czechoslovakia's people. Many of the investigations centered on the country's history under communism, especially the <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>-period.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams,_pp_68_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams,_pp_68-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In another television appearance, Goldstucker presented both doctored and undoctored photographs of former communist leaders who had been purged, imprisoned, or executed and thus erased from communist history.<sup id="cite_ref-Bren,_pp_23_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bren,_pp_23-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Writer's Union also formed a committee in April 1968, headed by the poet <a href="/wiki/Jaroslav_Seifert" title="Jaroslav Seifert">Jaroslav Seifert</a>, to investigate the persecution of writers after the Communist takeover in February 1948 and rehabilitate the literary figures into the Union, bookstores and libraries, and the literary world.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Holy,_pp_119_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holy,_pp_119-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Discussions on the current state of communism and abstract ideas such as freedom and identity were also becoming more common; soon, non-party publications began appearing, such as the trade union daily <i>Práce</i> (Labour). This was also helped by the Journalists Union, which by March 1968 had already convinced the Central Publication Board, the government censor, to allow editors to receive uncensored subscriptions for foreign papers, allowing for a more international dialogue around the news.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The press, the radio, and the television also contributed to these discussions by hosting meetings where students and young workers could ask questions of writers such as Goldstucker, Pavel Kohout and Jan Procházka and political victims such as Josef Smrkovský, Zdeněk Hejzlar and <a href="/wiki/Gust%C3%A1v_Hus%C3%A1k" title="Gustáv Husák">Gustáv Husák</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams,_pp_69_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams,_pp_69-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Television also broadcast meetings between former political prisoners and the communist leaders from the secret police or prisons where they were held.<sup id="cite_ref-Bren,_pp_23_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bren,_pp_23-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most importantly, this new freedom of the press and the introduction of television into the lives of everyday Czechoslovak citizens moved the political dialogue from the intellectual to the popular sphere. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Czechoslovak_negotiations_with_the_USSR_and_other_Warsaw_Pact_states">Czechoslovak negotiations with the USSR and other Warsaw Pact states</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Czechoslovak negotiations with the USSR and other Warsaw Pact states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Special:EditPage/Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:(Srpen68)Horici_barikady_a_tanky.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/%28Srpen68%29Horici_barikady_a_tanky.jpg/220px-%28Srpen68%29Horici_barikady_a_tanky.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/%28Srpen68%29Horici_barikady_a_tanky.jpg/330px-%28Srpen68%29Horici_barikady_a_tanky.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/%28Srpen68%29Horici_barikady_a_tanky.jpg/440px-%28Srpen68%29Horici_barikady_a_tanky.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Barricades and Soviet tanks on fire</figcaption></figure> <p>The Soviet leadership at first tried to stop or limit the impact of Dubček's initiatives through a series of negotiations. The Czechoslovak and <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Soviet Presidiums</a> agreed to bilateral meeting to be held in July 1968 at <a href="/wiki/%C4%8Cierna_nad_Tisou" title="Čierna nad Tisou">Čierna nad Tisou</a>, near the <a href="/wiki/Slovakia%E2%80%93Ukraine_border" title="Slovakia–Ukraine border">Slovak-Soviet border</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-aktualne_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aktualne-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The meeting was the first time the Soviet Presidium met outside Soviet territory.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the main agreements were reached at the meetings of the “fours” - Brezhnev, <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Alexei Kosygin</a>, Nikolai Podgorny, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Suslov" title="Mikhail Suslov">Mikhail Suslov</a> - Dubček, Ludvík Svoboda, <a href="/wiki/Old%C5%99ich_%C4%8Cern%C3%ADk" title="Oldřich Černík">Oldřich Černík</a> and Josef Smrkovský.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the meeting Dubček defended the program of the reformist wing of the KSČ while pledging commitment to the Warsaw Pact and <a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a>. The KSČ leadership, however, was divided between vigorous reformers (Josef Smrkovský, Oldřich Černík, <a href="/wiki/Josef_%C5%A0pa%C4%8Dek_(politician)" title="Josef Špaček (politician)">Josef Špaček</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_Kriegel" title="František Kriegel">František Kriegel</a>) who supported Dubček, and conservatives (<a href="/wiki/Vasil_Bi%C4%BEak" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasil Biľak">Vasil Biľak</a>, Drahomír Kolder, and Oldřich Švestka) who represented an anti-reformist stance. Brezhnev decided on compromise. The KSČ delegates reaffirmed their loyalty to the Warsaw Pact and promised to curb "<a href="/wiki/Anti-socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-socialist">anti-socialist</a>" tendencies, prevent the revival of the Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party, and control the press by the re-imposition of a higher level of censorship.<sup id="cite_ref-aktualne_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aktualne-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In return the USSR agreed to withdraw their troops (still stationed in Czechoslovakia since the June 1968 maneuvers) and permit 9 September party congress. Dubček appeared on television shortly afterwards reaffirming Czechoslovakia's alliance with the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 3 August, representatives from the Soviet Union, East Germany, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Poland">People's Republic of Poland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungarian People's Republic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">People's Republic of Bulgaria</a> and Czechoslovakia met in Bratislava and signed the <a href="/wiki/Bratislava_Declaration" title="Bratislava Declaration">Bratislava Declaration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The declaration affirmed unshakable fidelity to <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proletarian_internationalism" title="Proletarian internationalism">proletarian internationalism</a> and declared an implacable struggle against <a href="/wiki/Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a> ideology and all "antisocialist" forces.<sup id="cite_ref-bratmeet_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bratmeet-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Union expressed its intention to intervene in a Warsaw Pact country if a bourgeois system was ever established.<sup id="cite_ref-riseandfall_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-riseandfall-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the Bratislava conference, Soviet troops left Czechoslovak territory but remained along Czechoslovak borders.<sup id="cite_ref-bratmeet_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bratmeet-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As these talks proved unsatisfactory, the USSR began to consider a military alternative. The Soviet Union's policy of compelling the socialist governments of its <a href="/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">satellite states</a> to subordinate their national interests to those of the Eastern Bloc (through military force if needed) became known as the <a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-riseandfall_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-riseandfall-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States">United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> largely ignored the situation in Czechoslovakia.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Whilst the Soviet Union was concerned about the possibility of losing a regional ally and <a href="/wiki/Buffer_state" title="Buffer state">buffer state</a>, the United States did not publicly seek an alliance with the Czechoslovak government. President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> had already involved the United States in the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> and was unlikely to be able to drum up support for a conflict in Czechoslovakia. Also, he wanted to pursue an <a href="/wiki/Arms_control" title="Arms control">arms control</a> treaty with the Soviets, <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">SALT</a>. He needed a willing partner in Moscow in order to reach such an agreement, and he did not wish to risk that treaty over what was ultimately a minor conflict in Czechoslovakia.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For these reasons, the United States stated that it would not intervene on behalf of the Prague Spring.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Invasion_and_intervention">Invasion and intervention</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Invasion and intervention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At approximately 11 pm on 20 August 1968,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eastern Bloc armies from four Warsaw Pact countries – the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces" title="Soviet Armed Forces">Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_People%27s_Army" title="Bulgarian People's Army">Bulgaria</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Army" title="Polish People's Army">Poland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Army" title="Hungarian People's Army">Hungary</a> – invaded Czechoslovakia. That night, 250,000 Warsaw Pact troops and 2,000 tanks entered the country.<sup id="cite_ref-washpost_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-washpost-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The total number of invading troops eventually reached 500,000,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> including 28,000 soldiers<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_2nd_Army_(1968)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish 2nd Army (1968)">Polish 2nd Army</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Silesian_Military_District" title="Silesian Military District">Silesian Military District</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Brezhnev wanted the operation to appear multilateral (unlike the Soviet intervention in the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a>). Nevertheless, the invasion was decidedly dominated by troops from the Soviet Union, which outnumbered other participants five to one, and the Soviet High Command was in charge of the invading armies at all times.<sup id="cite_ref-ency_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ency-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The non-Soviet forces took no part in combat.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All invading Hungarian troops were withdrawn by 31 October.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Romania did not take part in the invasion,<sup id="cite_ref-Romania_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romania-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nor did Albania, which subsequently withdrew from the Warsaw Pact over the matter the following month.<sup id="cite_ref-Albania_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Albania-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The participation of East Germany was cancelled just hours before the invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-ddr_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ddr-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decision for the non-participation of the East German <a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Army" title="National People's Army">National People's Army</a> in the invasion was made on short notice by Brezhnev at the request of high-ranking Czechoslovak opponents of Dubček who feared much larger Czechoslovak resistance if German troops were present, due to previous experience with the <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of Czechoslovakia">German occupation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nvatruppen_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nvatruppen-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:(Srpen68)Horici_sovetsky_tank.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/%28Srpen68%29Horici_sovetsky_tank.jpg/220px-%28Srpen68%29Horici_sovetsky_tank.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/%28Srpen68%29Horici_sovetsky_tank.jpg/330px-%28Srpen68%29Horici_sovetsky_tank.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/%28Srpen68%29Horici_sovetsky_tank.jpg/440px-%28Srpen68%29Horici_sovetsky_tank.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Soviet tanks marked with <a href="/wiki/Invasion_stripes" title="Invasion stripes">invasion stripes</a> during the invasion</figcaption></figure> <p>The invasion was well planned and coordinated; simultaneously with the border crossing by ground forces, a Soviet <a href="/wiki/Spetsnaz" title="Spetsnaz">spetsnaz</a> task force of the <a href="/wiki/Main_Intelligence_Directorate_(GRU)" class="mw-redirect" title="Main Intelligence Directorate (GRU)">GRU</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spetsnaz_GRU" title="Spetsnaz GRU">Spetsnaz GRU</a>) captured <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel_Airport_Prague" title="Václav Havel Airport Prague">Ruzyne International Airport</a> in the early hours of the invasion. It began with a flight from <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> which carried more than 100 agents in plain clothes and requested an emergency landing at the airport due to "engine failure". They quickly secured the airport and prepared the way for the huge forthcoming airlift, in which <a href="/wiki/Antonov_An-12" title="Antonov An-12">Antonov An-12</a> transport aircraft began arriving and unloading <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Airborne_Forces" title="Soviet Airborne Forces">Soviet Airborne Forces</a> equipped with artillery and <a href="/wiki/Light_tank" title="Light tank">light tanks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the operation at the airport continued, columns of tanks and motorized rifle troops headed toward Prague and other major centers, meeting almost no resistance. Despite the fact that the <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_People%27s_Army" title="Czechoslovak People's Army">Czechoslovak People's Army</a> was one of the most advanced militaries in the Eastern Bloc, it failed to effectively resist the invasion due to its lack of an independent <a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">chain of command</a> and the government's fears that it would side with the invaders as the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Army" title="Hungarian People's Army">Hungarian People's Army</a> did during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. The Czechoslovak People's Army was utterly defeated by the Warsaw Pact armies. </p><p>During the attack of the Warsaw Pact armies, 137 Czechs and Slovaks were killed,<sup id="cite_ref-victims_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-victims-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and hundreds were wounded. Alexander Dubček called upon his people not to resist.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams158_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams158-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Central Committee, including Dubček, hunkered down at its headquarters as Soviet forces seized control of Prague. Eventually, paratroopers cut the building's <a href="/wiki/Telephone_line" title="Telephone line">telephone lines</a> and stormed the building. Dubček was promptly arrested by the KGB and taken to Moscow along with several of his colleagues.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dubček and most of the reformers were returned to Prague on 27 August, and Dubček retained his post as the party's first secretary until he was forced to resign in April 1969 following the <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Hockey_Riots_(1969)" class="mw-redirect" title="Czechoslovak Hockey Riots (1969)">Czechoslovak Hockey Riots</a>. </p><p>The invasion was followed by a wave of <a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">emigration</a>, largely of highly qualified people, unseen before and stopped shortly after (estimate: 70,000 immediately, 300,000 in total).<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western countries allowed these people to immigrate without complications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Failure_to_prepare">Failure to prepare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Failure to prepare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Dubček regime took no steps to forestall a potential invasion, despite ominous troop movements by the Warsaw Pact. The Czechoslovak leadership believed that the Soviet Union and its allies would not invade, having believed that the summit at Čierna nad Tisou had smoothed out the differences between the two sides.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also believed that any invasion would be too costly, both because of domestic support for the reforms and because the international political outcry would be too significant, especially with the World Communist Conference coming up in November of that year. Czechoslovakia could have raised the costs of such an invasion by drumming up international support or making military preparations such as blocking roads and ramping up security of their airports, but they decided not to, paving the way for the invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Letter_of_invitation">Letter of invitation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Letter of invitation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although on the night of the invasion, the Czechoslovak Presidium declared that Warsaw Pact troops had crossed the border without the knowledge of the ČSSR Government, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_media_and_propaganda" title="Eastern Bloc media and propaganda">Eastern Bloc press</a> printed an unsigned request, allegedly by Czechoslovak party and state leaders, for "immediate assistance, including assistance with armed forces".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-skilling_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skilling-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the 14th KSČ <a href="/wiki/Party_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Party Congress">Party Congress</a> (conducted secretly, immediately following the intervention), it was emphasized that no member of the leadership had invited the intervention. At the time, a number of commentators believed the letter was fake or non-existent. </p><p>In the early 1990s, however, the Russian government gave the new Czechoslovak President, Václav Havel, a copy of a letter of invitation addressed to Soviet authorities and signed by KSČ members Biľak, Švestka, Kolder, Indra, and Kapek. It claimed that "<a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">right-wing</a>" media were "fomenting a wave of <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Czechoslovak nationalism">nationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">chauvinism</a>, and are provoking an <a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">anti-communist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">anti-Soviet</a> psychosis". It formally asked the Soviets to "lend support and assistance with all means at your disposal" to save the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic "from the imminent danger of counterrevolution".<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 1992 <i><a href="/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></i> article claimed that candidate Presidium member Antonin Kapek gave Brezhnev a letter at the Soviet-Czechoslovak Čierna and Tisou talks in late July which appealed for "fraternal help". A second letter was supposedly delivered by Biľak to Ukrainian Party leader Petro Shelest during the August Bratislava conference "in a lavatory rendezvous arranged through the KGB station chief".<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This letter was signed by the same five as Kapek's letter, mentioned above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_plot">Internal plot</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Internal plot"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Long before the invasion, planning for a coup was undertaken by Indra, Kolder and Biľak, among others, often at the Soviet embassy and at the Party recreation centre at <a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%ADk_Dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Orlík Dam">Orlík Dam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When these men had managed to convince a majority of the Presidium (six of eleven voting members) to side with them against Alexander Dubček's reformists, they asked the USSR to launch a military invasion. The USSR leadership was even considering waiting until the 26 August Slovak Party Congress, but the Czechoslovak conspirators "specifically requested the night of the 20th".<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_74-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The plan was to unfold as follows. A debate would unfold in response to the Kašpar report on the state of the country, during which conservative members would insist that Dubček present two letters he had received from the USSR; letters which listed promises he had made at the Čierna and Tisou talks but had failed to keep. Dubček's concealment of such important letters, and his unwillingness to keep his promises would lead to a <a href="/wiki/Vote_of_confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote of confidence">vote of confidence</a> which the now conservative majority would win, seizing power, and issue a request for Soviet assistance in preventing a <a href="/wiki/Counterrevolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterrevolution">counterrevolution</a>. It was this formal request, drafted in Moscow, which was published in <a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a> on 22 August without the signatories. All the USSR needed to do was suppress the Czechoslovak military and any violent resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-navratil_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-navratil-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With this plan in mind, the 16 to 17 August Soviet <a href="/wiki/Politburo" title="Politburo">Politburo</a> meeting unanimously passed a resolution to "provide help to the Communist Party and people of Czechoslovakia through military force".<sup id="cite_ref-navratil_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-navratil-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ency_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ency-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At an 18 August Warsaw Pact meeting, Brezhnev announced that the intervention would go ahead on the night of 20 August, and asked for "fraternal support", which the national leaders of Bulgaria, East Germany, Hungary, and Poland duly offered. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Failure_of_the_plot">Failure of the plot</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Failure of the plot"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The coup, however, did not go according to plan. Kolder intended to review the Kašpar report early on in the meeting, but Dubček and Špaček, suspicious of Kolder, adjusted the agenda so the upcoming 14th Party Congress could be covered before any discussion on recent reforms or Kašpar's report. Discussion of the Congress dragged on, and before the conspirators had a chance to request a confidence vote, early news of the invasion reached the Presidium.<sup id="cite_ref-skilling_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skilling-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An anonymous warning was transmitted by the Czechoslovak Ambassador to Hungary, Jozef Púčik, approximately six hours before Soviet troops crossed the border at midnight.<sup id="cite_ref-skilling_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skilling-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the news arrived, the solidarity of the conservative coalition crumbled. When the Presidium proposed a declaration condemning the invasion, two key members of the conspiracy, Jan Pillar and František Barbírek, switched sides to support Dubček. With their help, the declaration against the invasion won with a 7:4 majority.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_74-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moscow_Protocol">Moscow Protocol</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Moscow Protocol"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the morning of 21 August, Dubček and other prominent reformists had been arrested and were later flown to Moscow. There they were held in secret and interrogated for days.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conservatives asked Svoboda to create an "emergency government" but since they had not won a clear majority of support, he refused. Instead, he and Gustáv Husák traveled to Moscow on 23 August to insist Dubček and Černík should be included in a solution to the conflict. After days of negotiations, all members of the Czechoslovak delegation (including all the highest-ranked officials President Svoboda, First Secretary Dubček, Prime Minister Černík and Chairman of the National Assembly Smrkovský) but one (František Kriegel)<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> accepted the "<a href="/wiki/Moscow_Protocol" title="Moscow Protocol">Moscow Protocol</a>", and signed their commitment to its fifteen points. The Protocol demanded the suppression of opposition groups, the full reinstatement of censorship, and the dismissal of specific reformist officials.<sup id="cite_ref-navratil_75-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-navratil-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It did not, however, refer to the situation in the ČSSR as "<a href="/wiki/Counterrevolutionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterrevolutionary">counterrevolutionary</a>" nor did it demand a reversal of the post-January course.<sup id="cite_ref-navratil_75-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-navratil-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reactions_in_Czechoslovakia">Reactions in Czechoslovakia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Reactions in Czechoslovakia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Popular opposition was expressed in numerous spontaneous acts of <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">nonviolent resistance</a>. In Prague and other cities throughout the republic, Czechs and Slovaks greeted Warsaw Pact soldiers with arguments and reproaches. <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Suvorov" title="Viktor Suvorov">Vladimir Bogdanovich Rezun</a>, then a junior officer who led a Soviet Tank column during the invasion, was given absurd information from his commanders about how the people of Czechoslovakia would welcome them as their "Liberators", and were instead attacked by angry crowds of people who threw stones, eggs, tomatoes, and apples upon crossing into Slovakia.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Every form of assistance, including the provision of food and water, was denied to the invaders. In an opposite case of subterfuge, Rezun recalled how local townspeople quietly opened the gates of the Czech breweries and spirit factories for the enlisted Soviet soldiers, making entire units inebriated and causing significant disruptions to the fury of the Soviet commanders.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Signs, placards, and <a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">graffiti</a> drawn on walls and pavements denounced the invaders, the Soviet leaders, and suspected <a href="/wiki/Collaborationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborationism">collaborationists</a>. Pictures of Dubček and Svoboda appeared in the streets. Citizens gave wrong directions to soldiers and even removed street signs (except for those giving the direction back to Moscow).<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Initially, some civilians tried to argue with the invading troops, but this met with little or no success. After the USSR used photographs of these discussions as proof that the invasion troops were being greeted <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/amicably" class="extiw" title="wikt:amicably">amicably</a>, secret Czechoslovak broadcasting stations discouraged the practice, reminding the people that "pictures are silent".<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The protests in reaction to the invasion lasted only about seven days. Explanations for the fizzling of these public outbursts mostly centre on demoralisation of the population, whether from the intimidation of all the enemy troops and tanks or from being abandoned by their leaders. Many Czechoslovaks saw the signing of the Moscow Protocol as treasonous.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another common explanation is that, due to the fact that most of Czech society was middle class, the cost of continued resistance meant giving up a comfortable lifestyle, which was too high a price to pay.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The generalised resistance caused the Soviet Union to abandon its original plan to oust the First Secretary. Dubček, who had been arrested on the night of 20 August, was taken to Moscow for negotiations. It was agreed that Dubček would remain in office and a programme of moderate reform would continue. </p><p>On 19 January 1969, student <a href="/wiki/Jan_Palach" title="Jan Palach">Jan Palach</a> set himself on fire in <a href="/wiki/Wenceslas_Square" title="Wenceslas Square">Wenceslas Square</a> in Prague to protest the renewed suppression of <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a>. </p><p>Finally, on 17 April 1969, Dubček was replaced as First Secretary by Gustáv Husák, and a period of "Normalization" began. Pressure from the Soviet Union pushed politicians to either switch loyalties or simply give up. In fact, the very group that voted in Dubček and put the reforms in place were mostly the same people who annulled the program and replaced Dubček with Husák. Husák reversed Dubček's reforms, purged the party of its liberal members, and dismissed the professional and intellectual elites who openly expressed disagreement with the political turnaround from public offices and jobs. Many of those purged would later become the <a href="/wiki/Dissident" title="Dissident">dissidents</a> of <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_underground_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Czechoslovak underground culture">Czechoslovak underground culture</a>, active in <a href="/wiki/Charter_77" title="Charter 77">Charter 77</a> and related movements which eventually met success in the <a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reactions_in_other_Warsaw_Pact_countries">Reactions in other Warsaw Pact countries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Reactions in other Warsaw Pact countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_Union">Soviet Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1968_Red_Square_demonstration" title="1968 Red Square demonstration">1968 Red Square demonstration</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Za_vashu_i_nashu_svobodu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Za_vashu_i_nashu_svobodu.jpg/220px-Za_vashu_i_nashu_svobodu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Za_vashu_i_nashu_svobodu.jpg/330px-Za_vashu_i_nashu_svobodu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Za_vashu_i_nashu_svobodu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="135" /></a><figcaption>One of the protesters' banners:<br /><i>For your freedom and ours</i></figcaption></figure> <p>On 25 August, at the <a href="/wiki/Red_Square" title="Red Square">Red Square</a>, eight protesters carried banners with anti-invasion slogans. The demonstrators were arrested and later punished, as the protest was dubbed "<a href="/wiki/Anti-Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Soviet">anti-Soviet</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-an_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-an-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One unintended consequence of the invasion was that many within the Soviet State security apparatus and Intelligence Services were shocked and outraged at the invasion and several KGB/GRU defectors and spies such as <a href="/wiki/Oleg_Gordievsky" title="Oleg Gordievsky">Oleg Gordievsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasili_Mitrokhin" title="Vasili Mitrokhin">Vasili Mitrokhin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Polyakov" title="Dmitri Polyakov">Dmitri Polyakov</a> have pointed out the 1968 invasion as their motivation for cooperating with the Western Intelligence agencies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Poland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the People's Republic of Poland, on 8 September 1968, <a href="/wiki/Ryszard_Siwiec" title="Ryszard Siwiec">Ryszard Siwiec</a> immolated himself in Warsaw during a harvest festival at the <a href="/wiki/10th-Anniversary_Stadium" title="10th-Anniversary Stadium">10th-Anniversary Stadium</a> in protest against the Warsaw Pact's invasion of Czechoslovakia and the totalitarianism of the Communist regime.<sup id="cite_ref-culture_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-culture-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Siwiec did not survive.<sup id="cite_ref-culture_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-culture-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After his death, Soviets and Polish communists attempted to discredit his act by claiming that he was psychologically ill and mentally unstable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romania">Romania</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Romania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ceau%C8%99escu%27s_speech_of_21_August_1968" title="Ceaușescu's speech of 21 August 1968">Ceaușescu's speech of 21 August 1968</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adunare_Pia%C5%A3a_Palatului_August_1968.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Adunare_Pia%C5%A3a_Palatului_August_1968.jpg/220px-Adunare_Pia%C5%A3a_Palatului_August_1968.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Adunare_Pia%C5%A3a_Palatului_August_1968.jpg/330px-Adunare_Pia%C5%A3a_Palatului_August_1968.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Adunare_Pia%C5%A3a_Palatului_August_1968.jpg/440px-Adunare_Pia%C5%A3a_Palatului_August_1968.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1047" /></a><figcaption>Bucharest, August 1968: <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Ceauşescu</a> criticizing the Soviet invasion</figcaption></figure> <p>A more pronounced effect took place in the Socialist Republic of Romania, which did not take part in the invasion. <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C5%9Fescu" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicolae Ceauşescu">Nicolae Ceauşescu</a>, who was already a staunch opponent of Soviet influence and had previously declared himself on Dubček's side, held a <a href="/wiki/Ceau%C8%99escu%27s_speech_of_21_August_1968" title="Ceaușescu's speech of 21 August 1968">public speech in Bucharest</a> on the day of the invasion, depicting Soviet policies in harsh terms. This response consolidated Romania's independent voice in the next two decades, especially after Ceauşescu encouraged the population to take up arms in order to meet any similar manoeuvre in the country: he received an enthusiastic initial response, with many people, who were by no means Communist, willing to enroll in the newly formed paramilitary <a href="/wiki/Patriotic_Guards_(Romania)" title="Patriotic Guards (Romania)">Patriotic Guards</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Germany">East Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: East Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the German Democratic Republic, the invasion aroused discontent mostly among young people who had hoped that Czechoslovakia would pave the way for a more liberal socialism.<sup id="cite_ref-allinson_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allinson-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, isolated protests were quickly stopped by the <a href="/wiki/Volkspolizei" title="Volkspolizei">Volkspolizei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The official government newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/Neues_Deutschland" title="Neues Deutschland">Neues Deutschland</a></i> published an article before the invasion began falsely claiming that the Czechoslovak Presidium had ousted Dubcek and that a new "revolutionary" <a href="/wiki/Provisional_government" title="Provisional government">provisional government</a> had requested Warsaw Pact military assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Albania">Albania</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Albania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The People's Republic of Albania responded in an opposite fashion. It was already feuding with Moscow over suggestions that Albania should focus on agriculture to the detriment of industrial development, and it also felt that the Soviet Union had become too liberal since the <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin">death of Joseph Stalin</a>, as well as with <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> (which by that time was regarded as a threatening neighbor by Albania), which it was branding as "imperialist" in its propaganda. The invasion served as the tipping point, and in September 1968, Albania <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania#Withdrawal_from_the_Warsaw_Pact" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">formally withdrew from the Warsaw Pact</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Albania_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Albania-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The economic fallout from this move was mitigated somewhat by a strengthening of <a href="/wiki/Albania%E2%80%93China_relations" title="Albania–China relations">Albanian relations with the People's Republic of China</a>, which was also on <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">increasingly strained terms with the Soviet Union</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reactions_around_the_world">Reactions around the world</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Reactions around the world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The night of the invasion, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and the United States all requested a session of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-franck_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-franck-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The night of August 20, movie theaters in Prague showed news reels of a meeting between Brezhnev and Dubček. However the Warsaw Pact had amassed at the Czech border, and invaded overnight (August 20–21). That afternoon, on August 21, the council met to hear the Czechoslovak Ambassador <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jan_Mu%C5%BE%C3%ADk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jan Mužík (page does not exist)">Jan Mužík</a> denounce the invasion. Soviet Ambassador <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Alexandrovich_Malik" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacob Alexandrovich Malik">Jacob Malik</a> insisted the Warsaw Pact actions were those of "fraternal assistance" against "antisocial forces".<sup id="cite_ref-franck_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-franck-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the invading soldiers told the Czechs that they were there to "liberate" them from West German and other NATO hegemony. The next day, several countries suggested a resolution condemning the intervention and calling for immediate withdrawal. US Ambassador <a href="/wiki/George_Wildman_Ball" class="mw-redirect" title="George Wildman Ball">George Ball</a> suggested that "the kind of fraternal assistance that the Soviet Union is according to Czechoslovakia is exactly the same kind that <a href="/wiki/Cain_and_Abel" title="Cain and Abel">Cain gave to Abel</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-franck_90-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-franck-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Helsinki_demonstration_against_the_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia_in_1968.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Helsinki_demonstration_against_the_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia_in_1968.jpg/220px-Helsinki_demonstration_against_the_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia_in_1968.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Helsinki_demonstration_against_the_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia_in_1968.jpg/330px-Helsinki_demonstration_against_the_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia_in_1968.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Helsinki_demonstration_against_the_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia_in_1968.jpg/440px-Helsinki_demonstration_against_the_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia_in_1968.jpg 2x" data-file-width="832" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>Demonstration in <a href="/wiki/Helsinki" title="Helsinki">Helsinki</a>, Finland, against the invasion</figcaption></figure> <p>Ball accused Soviet delegates of <a href="/wiki/Filibuster" title="Filibuster">filibustering</a> to put off the vote until the occupation was complete. Malik continued to speak, ranging in topics from <a href="/wiki/US-Latin_American_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="US-Latin American relations">US exploitation of Latin America's raw materials</a> to statistics on Czech <a href="/wiki/Commodity_market" title="Commodity market">commodity trading</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-franck_90-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-franck-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, a vote was taken. Ten members ( 4 with veto power) supported the motion; <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> abstained; the USSR (with <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_veto_power" title="United Nations Security Council veto power">veto power</a>) and Hungary opposed it. Canadian delegates immediately introduced another motion asking for a UN representative to travel to Prague and work for the release of the imprisoned Czechoslovak leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-franck_90-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-franck-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Malik accused Western countries of hypocrisy, asking "who drowned the fields, villages, and cities of Vietnam in blood?"<sup id="cite_ref-franck_90-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-franck-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 26 August, another vote had not taken place, but a new Czechoslovak representative requested the whole issue be removed from the Security Council's agenda.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The invasion occurred simultaneously with the <a href="/wiki/1968_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1968 Democratic National Convention">1968 Democratic National Convention</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, and multiple political factions seized upon the events as a symbol. Student activists such as <a href="/wiki/Abbie_Hoffman" title="Abbie Hoffman">Abbie Hoffman</a> and progressives such as <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Yarborough" title="Ralph Yarborough">Ralph Yarborough</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eugene_McCarthy" title="Eugene McCarthy">Eugene McCarthy</a> compared the repression of the Prague Spring to repression of Western student movements such as in the <a href="/wiki/1968_Democratic_National_Convention_protests" title="1968 Democratic National Convention protests">1968 Chicago riots</a>, with Hoffman calling Chicago "Czechago." On the other hand, anti-Communists such as <a href="/wiki/John_Connally" title="John Connally">John Connally</a> used the incident to urge tougher <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">relations with the Soviet Union</a> and a renewed commitment to the Vietnam War.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the United States insisted at the UN that Warsaw Pact aggression was unjustifiable, its position was weakened by its own actions. Only three years earlier, US delegates to the UN had insisted that the overthrow of the leftist government of the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>, as part of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Power_Pack" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Power Pack">Operation Power Pack</a>, was an issue to be worked out by the <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">Organization of American States</a> (OAS) without UN interference. When <a href="/wiki/UN_Secretary-General" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Secretary-General">UN Secretary-General</a> <a href="/wiki/U_Thant" title="U Thant">U Thant</a> called for an end to the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Rolling_Thunder" title="Operation Rolling Thunder">bombing of Vietnam</a>, the Americans questioned why he didn't similarly intervene on the matter of Czechoslovakia, to which he responded that "if Russians were bombing and napalming the villages of Czechoslovakia" he might have called for an end to the occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-franck_90-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-franck-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States government sent <a href="/wiki/Shirley_Temple_Black" class="mw-redirect" title="Shirley Temple Black">Shirley Temple Black</a>, the famous <a href="/wiki/Child_actor" title="Child actor">child movie star</a>, who became a diplomat in later life, to Prague in August 1968 to prepare to become the first United States Ambassador to a post-Communist Czechoslovakia. She attempted to form a motorcade for evacuation of trapped Westerners. Two decades later, when the Warsaw Pact forces left Czechoslovakia in 1989, Temple Black was recognized as the first American ambassador to a democratic Czechoslovakia. In addition to her own personnel, an attempt was made to evacuate a group of 150 American high school students stuck in the invasion who had been on a summer abroad trip studying Russian in the (then) USSR and affiliated countries. They were eventually evacuated by train to Vienna, smuggling their two Czech tour guides across the border who settled in New York.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Studentische_Demonstration_f%C3%BCr_die_Tschechoslowakei_(CSSR)_(Kiel_21.575).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Studentische_Demonstration_f%C3%BCr_die_Tschechoslowakei_%28CSSR%29_%28Kiel_21.575%29.jpg/220px-Studentische_Demonstration_f%C3%BCr_die_Tschechoslowakei_%28CSSR%29_%28Kiel_21.575%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Studentische_Demonstration_f%C3%BCr_die_Tschechoslowakei_%28CSSR%29_%28Kiel_21.575%29.jpg/330px-Studentische_Demonstration_f%C3%BCr_die_Tschechoslowakei_%28CSSR%29_%28Kiel_21.575%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Studentische_Demonstration_f%C3%BCr_die_Tschechoslowakei_%28CSSR%29_%28Kiel_21.575%29.jpg/440px-Studentische_Demonstration_f%C3%BCr_die_Tschechoslowakei_%28CSSR%29_%28Kiel_21.575%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="944" data-file-height="616" /></a><figcaption>Demonstration in <a href="/wiki/Kiel" title="Kiel">Kiel</a>, West Germany, against the invasion of Czechoslovakia and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, 23 August 1968</figcaption></figure> <p>In Finland, a <a href="/wiki/Neutral_country" title="Neutral country">neutral country</a> under some <a href="/wiki/Finlandization" title="Finlandization">Soviet political influence at that time</a>, the occupation caused a major scandal.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The People's Republic of China objected furiously to the so-called Brezhnev Doctrine, which declared the Soviet Union alone had the right to determine what nations were properly Communist and could invade those Communist nations whose communism did not meet the Kremlin's approval.<sup id="cite_ref-Rea_1975_p._22_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rea_1975_p._22-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> saw the Brezhnev doctrine as the ideological justification for a would-be Soviet invasion of China and launched a massive <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_China" title="Propaganda in China">propaganda</a> campaign condemning the invasion of Czechoslovakia, despite his own earlier opposition to the Prague Spring.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Speaking at a banquet held at the Romanian Embassy in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> on 23 August 1968, the Chinese Premier <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a> denounced the Soviet Union for "fascist politics, great power chauvinism, national egoism and <a href="/wiki/Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">social imperialism</a>", going on to compare the invasion of Czechoslovakia to the Vietnam War and more pointedly to the policies of Adolf Hitler towards Czechoslovakia in 1938–39.<sup id="cite_ref-Rea_1975_p._22_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rea_1975_p._22-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhou ended his speech with a barely veiled call for the people of Czechoslovakia to wage <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla war</a> against the Red Army.<sup id="cite_ref-Rea_1975_p._22_93-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rea_1975_p._22-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a> at Zhenbao island, the invasion of Czechoslovakia contributed to Chinese policy-makers' fears of Soviet invasion, leading them to accelerate the <a href="/wiki/Third_Front_(China)" title="Third Front (China)">Third Front</a> campaign, which had slowed during the Cultural Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communist_parties_worldwide">Communist parties worldwide</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Communist parties worldwide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reactions from communist parties outside the Warsaw Pact were generally split. <a href="/wiki/Italian_Communist_Party" title="Italian Communist Party">Italian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Spain" title="Communist Party of Spain">Spanish</a> eurocommunist parties denounced the occupation,<sup id="cite_ref-hitchens_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hitchens-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Party of France">Communist Party of France</a>, which had pleaded for conciliation, expressed its disapproval about the Soviet intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Greece" title="Communist Party of Greece">Communist Party of Greece</a> (KKE) suffered a major split over the internal disputes over the Prague Spring,<sup id="cite_ref-hitchens_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hitchens-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the pro-Czech faction breaking ties with the Soviet leadership and founding the Eurocommunist <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Greece_(Interior)" title="Communist Party of Greece (Interior)">KKE Interior</a>. The Eurocommunist leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Finland" title="Communist Party of Finland">Communist Party of Finland</a> denounced the invasion as well, thereby however fueling the internal disputes with its <a href="/wiki/Taistoism" title="Taistoism">pro-Soviet minority faction</a>, which eventually led to the party's disintegration.<sup id="cite_ref-tuomioja_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tuomioja-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others, including the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Communist_Party" title="Portuguese Communist Party">Portuguese Communist Party</a>, the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Communist_Party" title="South African Communist Party">South African Communist Party</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a>, however supported the Soviet position.<sup id="cite_ref-hitchens_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hitchens-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hitchens" title="Christopher Hitchens">Christopher Hitchens</a> recapitulated the repercussions of the Prague Spring to western Communism in 2008: "What became clear, however, was that there was no longer something that could be called the world Communist movement. It was utterly, irretrievably, hopelessly split. The main spring had broken. And the Prague Spring had broken it."<sup id="cite_ref-hitchens_96-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hitchens-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Normalization_(1969–1971)"><span id="Normalization_.281969.E2.80.931971.29"></span>Normalization (1969–1971)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Normalization (1969–1971)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Normalization_(Czechoslovakia)" title="Normalization (Czechoslovakia)">Normalization (Czechoslovakia)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Special:EditPage/Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J1012-029-001,_Ulbricht_und_Jakubowski,_Man%C3%B6verbesuch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J1012-029-001%2C_Ulbricht_und_Jakubowski%2C_Man%C3%B6verbesuch.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J1012-029-001%2C_Ulbricht_und_Jakubowski%2C_Man%C3%B6verbesuch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J1012-029-001%2C_Ulbricht_und_Jakubowski%2C_Man%C3%B6verbesuch.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J1012-029-001%2C_Ulbricht_und_Jakubowski%2C_Man%C3%B6verbesuch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J1012-029-001%2C_Ulbricht_und_Jakubowski%2C_Man%C3%B6verbesuch.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J1012-029-001%2C_Ulbricht_und_Jakubowski%2C_Man%C3%B6verbesuch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption>Commander-in-chief of the Warsaw Pact <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Yakubovsky" title="Ivan Yakubovsky">Ivan Yakubovsky</a> with Walter Ulbricht in 1970</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Czechoslovakia" title="History of Czechoslovakia">history of Czechoslovakia</a>, <b>normalization</b> (<a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>: <i lang="cs">normalizace</i>, <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a>: <i lang="sk">normalizácia</i>) is a name commonly given to the period 1969–87. It was characterized by initial restoration of the conditions prevailing before the reform period led by Dubček, first of all, the firm rule of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia and subsequent preservation of this new <i>status quo</i>. </p><p>"Normalization" is sometimes used in a narrower sense to refer only to the period 1969 to 1971. </p><p>The official ideology of normalization is sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Husakism" title="Husakism">Husakism</a> after the Czechoslovak leader Gustáv Husák. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revoking_or_modifying_the_reforms_and_removing_the_reformers">Revoking or modifying the reforms and removing the reformers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Revoking or modifying the reforms and removing the reformers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0614-0006-003,_Berlin,_VIII._SED-Parteitag,_Honecker,_Husak,_Ulbricht.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0614-0006-003%2C_Berlin%2C_VIII._SED-Parteitag%2C_Honecker%2C_Husak%2C_Ulbricht.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0614-0006-003%2C_Berlin%2C_VIII._SED-Parteitag%2C_Honecker%2C_Husak%2C_Ulbricht.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0614-0006-003%2C_Berlin%2C_VIII._SED-Parteitag%2C_Honecker%2C_Husak%2C_Ulbricht.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0614-0006-003%2C_Berlin%2C_VIII._SED-Parteitag%2C_Honecker%2C_Husak%2C_Ulbricht.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0614-0006-003%2C_Berlin%2C_VIII._SED-Parteitag%2C_Honecker%2C_Husak%2C_Ulbricht.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0614-0006-003%2C_Berlin%2C_VIII._SED-Parteitag%2C_Honecker%2C_Husak%2C_Ulbricht.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gust%C3%A1v_Hus%C3%A1k" title="Gustáv Husák">Gustáv Husák</a>, and Walter Ulbricht in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, East Germany, 1971</figcaption></figure> <p>When Husák replaced Dubček as leader of the KSČ in April 1969, his regime quickly acted in order to "normalize" the country's political situation. The chief objectives of Husák's normalization were the restoration of firm party rule and the reestablishment of Czechoslovakia's status as a committed member of the socialist bloc. The normalization process involved five interrelated steps: </p> <ul><li>consolidate the Husák leadership and remove the reformers from leadership positions;</li> <li>revoke or modify the laws which were enacted by the reform movement;</li> <li>reestablish <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">centralized control over the economy</a>;</li> <li>reinstate the power of police authorities; and</li> <li>expand Czechoslovakia's ties with other socialist nations.</li></ul> <p>Within a week after he assumed power, Husák began to consolidate his leadership by ordering extensive purges of the reformers who were still occupying key positions in the mass media, judiciary, social and mass organizations, lower party organs, and, finally, the highest levels of the KSČ. In the fall of 1969, twenty-nine liberals on the Central Committee of the KSČ were replaced by conservatives. Among the liberals ousted was Dubček, who was dropped from the Presidium (the following year Dubček was expelled from the party; he subsequently became a minor functionary in Slovakia, where he still lived in 1987). Husák also consolidated his leadership by appointing potential rivals to the new government positions which were created as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Act_on_the_Czechoslovak_Federation" title="Constitutional Act on the Czechoslovak Federation">1968 Constitutional Law of Federation</a> (which created the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic). </p><p>Once it had consolidated its power, the regime quickly moved to implement other normalization policies. In the two years which followed the invasion, the new leadership revoked some reformist laws (such as the National Front Act and the Press Act) and simply did not enforce others. It returned economic enterprises, which had been given substantial independence during the Prague Spring, to centralized control through contracts which were based on central planning and production quotas. It reinstated extreme police control, a step that was reflected in the harsh treatment of demonstrators who attempted to mark the first anniversary of the August intervention. </p><p>Finally, Husák stabilized Czechoslovakia's relations with its allies by arranging frequent intrabloc exchanges and visits and redirecting Czechoslovakia's foreign economic ties towards greater involvement with socialist nations. </p><p>By May 1971, Husák could report to the delegates who were attending the officially sanctioned Fourteenth Party Congress that the process of normalization had been satisfactorily completed and he could also report that Czechoslovakia was ready to proceed towards higher forms of socialism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_reactions_and_revisionism">Later reactions and revisionism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Later reactions and revisionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:August_68.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/August_68.jpg/170px-August_68.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/August_68.jpg/255px-August_68.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/August_68.jpg/340px-August_68.jpg 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="1287" /></a><figcaption>Memorial plate in <a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%A1ice" title="Košice">Košice</a>, Slovakia</figcaption></figure> <p>The first government to offer an apology was the government of Hungary, on 11 August 1989. The <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Socialist_Workers%27_Party" title="Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party">Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party</a> published its opinion on the fundamentally wrong decision to invade Czechoslovakia. In 1989, on the 21st anniversary of the military intervention, the House of the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of Poland">National Assembly of Poland</a> adopted a resolution condemning the armed intervention. Another resolution was issued by the <a href="/wiki/Volkskammer" title="Volkskammer">People's Assembly of East Germany</a> on <span class="nowrap">1 December 1989</span>, when it apologized for its involvement in the military intervention to the Czechoslovak people. Another apology was issued by Bulgaria on 2 December 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-literarky_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-literarky-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 4 December 1989, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> and other Warsaw Pact leaders drafted a statement which called the 1968 invasion a mistake. The statement, released by the Soviet news agency <a href="/wiki/Telegraph_Agency_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union">Tass</a>, said that sending in troops constituted "interference in the internal affairs of a sovereign Czechoslovakia and it must be condemned."<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet government also said that the 1968 action was "an unbalanced, inadequate approach, an interference in the affairs of a friendly country".<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gorbachev later said that Dubček "believed that he could build socialism with a human face. I have only a good opinion of him."<sup id="cite_ref-radiofree_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-radiofree-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The invasion was also condemned by the newly appointed Russian President <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a> ("We condemn it as an aggression, as an attack on a sovereign, stand-up state as interference in its internal affairs").<sup id="cite_ref-literarky_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-literarky-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During a state visit to Prague, on 1 March 2006, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> said that the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a> bore moral responsibility for the invasion, referring to his predecessor Yeltsin's description of 1968 as an act of aggression: "When President Yeltsin visited the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> in 1993 he was not speaking just for himself, he was speaking for the Russian Federation and for the Russian people. Today, not only do we respect all agreements signed previously – we also share all the evaluations that were made at the beginning of the 1990s... I must tell you with absolute frankness – we do not, of course, bear any legal responsibility. But the moral responsibility is there, of course".<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dubček stated: "My problem was not having a crystal ball to foresee the Russian invasion. At no point between January and August 20, in fact, did I believe that it would happen."<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 23 May 2015, the Russian state television channel <a href="/wiki/Russia-1" title="Russia-1">Russia-1</a> aired <i>Warsaw Pact: Declassified Pages</i>, a documentary that presented the invasion as a protective measure against a NATO coup.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC150601_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC150601-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RFE150601_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RFE150601-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BB150601_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BB150601-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The film was widely condemned as <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Propaganda in the Russian Federation">political propaganda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Slovakia%27s_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovakia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs">Slovakia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs</a> stated that the film "attempts to rewrite history and to falsify historical truths about such a dark chapter of our history".<sup id="cite_ref-SMFA150531_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SMFA150531-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_%C5%A0ebej" title="František Šebej">František Šebej</a>, the Slovak chair of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_(Slovakia)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Council (Slovakia)">National Council</a>, stated that "They describe it as brotherly help aimed to prevent an invasion by NATO and <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>. Such Russian propaganda is hostile toward freedom and democracy, and also to us."<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Czech President <a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Zeman" title="Miloš Zeman">Miloš Zeman</a> stated that "Russian TV lies, and no other comment that this is just a journalistic lie, can not be said".<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Czech Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Lubom%C3%ADr_Zaor%C3%A1lek" title="Lubomír Zaorálek">Lubomír Zaorálek</a> said that the film "grossly distorts" the facts.<sup id="cite_ref-BB150601_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BB150601-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CMFA150601_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CMFA150601-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Russia_in_Prague" class="mw-redirect" title="Embassy of Russia in Prague">Russian ambassador</a> to the Czech Republic, Sergei Kiselyov, has distanced himself from the film and stated that the documentary does not express the official position of the Russian government.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most popular Russian <a href="/wiki/Online_newspaper" title="Online newspaper">online newspapers</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Gazeta.Ru" title="Gazeta.Ru">Gazeta.Ru</a></i>, has described the document as biased and revisionist, which harms Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Czechoslovakia_(1948%E2%80%931989)" title="History of Czechoslovakia (1948–1989)">History of Czechoslovakia (1948–1989)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ota_%C5%A0ik" title="Ota Šik">Ota Šik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts related to the Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_interventions_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign interventions by the Soviet Union">Foreign interventions by the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_internationalism" title="Proletarian internationalism">Proletarian internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilian-based_defense" title="Civilian-based defense">Civilian-based defense</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Invasion cancelled, troops prepared, part of the executive staff</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rea, Kenneth "Peking and the Brezhnev Doctrine". Asian Affairs. 3 (1975) p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cia-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cia_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/2008-featured-story-archive/a-look-back-the-prague-spring-the-soviet.html">A Look Back ... The Prague Spring & the Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170429182612/https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/2008-featured-story-archive/a-look-back-the-prague-spring-the-soviet.html">Archived</a> 29 April 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved on 11 June 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-washpost-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-washpost_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-washpost_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a>, (Final Edition), 21 August 1998, p. A11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ency-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ency_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ency_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ency_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVan_Dijk2008" class="citation book cs1">Van Dijk, Ruud, ed. 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Retrieved on 11 June 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkomra" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Skomra, Sławomir. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lublin.gazeta.pl/lublin/1,35640,14642535,Brali_udzial_w_inwazji_na_Czechoslowacje__Kombatanci_.html#LokKrajTxt">"Brali udział w inwazji na Czechosłowację. Kombatanci?"</a> (in Polish). Agora SA<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=radio.cz&rft.atitle=Historians+pin+down+number+of+1968+invasion+victims&rft.date=2017-08-18&rft.aulast=Fra%C5%88kov%C3%A1&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.radio.cz%2Fen%2Fsection%2Fcurraffrs%2Fhistorians-pin-down-number-of-1968-invasion-victims&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-victims2-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-victims2_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-victims2_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718191818/http://www.ustrcr.cz/en/august-1968-victims-of-the-occupation">"August 1968 – Victims of the Occupation"</a>. <i>ustrcr.cz</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ustrcr.cz&rft.atitle=August+1968+%E2%80%93+Victims+of+the+Occupation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ustrcr.cz%2Fen%2Faugust-1968-victims-of-the-occupation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enrs.eu/en/news/1255-invasion-of-czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170731024148/http://www.enrs.eu/en/news/1255-invasion-of-czechoslovakia">Archived</a> 31 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Retrieved on 23 June 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Albania-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Albania_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Albania_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Albania_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/14/newsid_3771000/3771065.stm">"1955: Communist states sign Warsaw Pact"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 14 May 1955<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=1955%3A+Communist+states+sign+Warsaw+Pact&rft.date=1955-05-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2Fonthisday%2Fhi%2Fdates%2Fstories%2Fmay%2F14%2Fnewsid_3771000%2F3771065.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ddr-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ddr_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ddr_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStolarik,_M._Mark2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wenzke,_R%C3%BCdiger&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wenzke, Rüdiger (page does not exist)">Stolarik, M. Mark</a> (2010). <i>The Prague Spring and the Warsaw Pact Invasion of Czechoslovakia, 1968: Forty Years Later</i>. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. pp. 137–164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780865167513" title="Special:BookSources/9780865167513"><bdi>9780865167513</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prague+Spring+and+the+Warsaw+Pact+Invasion+of+Czechoslovakia%2C+1968%3A+Forty+Years+Later&rft.pages=137-164&rft.pub=Bolchazy-Carducci+Publishers&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780865167513&rft.au=Stolarik%2C+M.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nvatruppen-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nvatruppen_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nvatruppen_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radio.cz/de/rubrik/sonderserie68/nva-truppen-machen-halt-an-der-tschechoslowakischen-grenze">NVA-Truppen machen Halt an der tschechoslowakischen Grenze</a> radio.cz. Retrieved on 12 June 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams (1997), p. 170</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams (1997), p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Czech radio broadcasts 18–20 August 1968</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karen Dawisha (1981). "The 1968 Invasion of Czechoslovakia: Causes, Consequences, and Lessons for the Future" in <i>Soviet-East European Dilemmas: Coercion, Competition, and Consent</i> ed. Karen Dawisha and Philip Hanson. New York: Homs and Meier Publishers Inc.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2019)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jiri Valenta, <i>Soviet Intervention in Czechoslovakia, 1968: Anatomy of a Decision</i> (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979) 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurlansky,_Mark.2004" class="citation book cs1">Kurlansky, Mark. 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New York: Ballantine. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-45581-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-345-45581-9"><bdi>0-345-45581-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53929433">53929433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1968+%3A+the+year+that+rocked+the+world&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Ballantine&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53929433&rft.isbn=0-345-45581-9&rft.au=Kurlansky%2C+Mark.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F53929433&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jiri Valenta, "From Prague to Kabul," <i>International Security</i> 5, (1980), 117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Kramer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/ukraine.pdf">Ukraine and the Soviet-Czechoslovak Crisis of 1968 (part 2)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141019204135/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/ukraine.pdf">Archived</a> 19 October 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. New Evidence from the Ukrainian Archives. <i>Cold War International History Project Bulletin</i>, Issue 14/15. 2004. pp. 273–275.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHignett2012" class="citation web cs1">Hignett, Kelly (27 June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thevieweast.wordpress.com/2012/06/27/dubceks-failings-the-1968-warsaw-pact-invasion-of-czechoslovakia/">"Dubcek's Failings? The 1968 Warsaw Pact Invasion of Czechoslovakia"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dubcek%27s+Failings%3F+The+1968+Warsaw+Pact+Invasion+of+Czechoslovakia&rft.date=2012-06-27&rft.aulast=Hignett&rft.aufirst=Kelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthevieweast.wordpress.com%2F2012%2F06%2F27%2Fdubceks-failings-the-1968-warsaw-pact-invasion-of-czechoslovakia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTismaneanuI2011" class="citation book cs1">TismaneanuI, Vladimir, ed. (2011). "Crisis, Illusion and Utopia". <i>Promises of 1968: Crisis, Illusion and Utopia</i> (NED – New edition, 1 ed.). Central European University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-6155053047" title="Special:BookSources/978-6155053047"><bdi>978-6155053047</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7829/j.ctt1281xt">10.7829/j.ctt1281xt</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Crisis%2C+Illusion+and+Utopia&rft.btitle=Promises+of+1968%3A+Crisis%2C+Illusion+and+Utopia&rft.edition=NED+%E2%80%93+New+edition%2C+1&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7829%2Fj.ctt1281xt%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-6155053047&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. 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"Two Thousand Words". Literární listy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Two+Thousand+Words&rft.date=1968-06-27&rft.aulast=Vacul%C3%ADk&rft.aufirst=Ludv%C3%ADk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMastalir2006" class="citation web cs1">Mastalir, Linda (25 July 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radio.cz/en/article/81466">"Ludvík Vaculík: a Czechoslovak man of letters"</a>. Radio Prague<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 January</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ludv%C3%ADk+Vacul%C3%ADk%3A+a+Czechoslovak+man+of+letters&rft.pub=Radio+Prague&rft.date=2006-07-25&rft.aulast=Mastalir&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radio.cz%2Fen%2Farticle%2F81466&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Tieren (1997). <i>The Prague Spring and Its Aftermath: Czechoslovak Politics, 1968–1970.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams,_pp_68-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams,_pp_68_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams,_pp_68_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, p. 68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bren,_pp_23-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bren,_pp_23_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bren,_pp_23_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bren,_pp_23_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBren2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paulina_Bren" title="Paulina Bren">Bren, Paulina</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o2LT7c_Kw80C&pg=PA23"><i>The Greengrocer and His TV: The Culture of Communism after the 1968 Prague Spring</i></a>. Ithaca, NY: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. pp. 23ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4767-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4767-9"><bdi>978-0-8014-4767-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greengrocer+and+His+TV%3A+The+Culture+of+Communism+after+the+1968+Prague+Spring&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+NY&rft.pages=23ff&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-4767-9&rft.aulast=Bren&rft.aufirst=Paulina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do2LT7c_Kw80C%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bulletin-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bulletin_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVondrová2008" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vondrová, Jitka (25 June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abicko.avcr.cz/2008/4/04/prazske-jaro-1968.html">"Pražské Jaro 1968"</a>. <i>Akademický bulletin</i> (in Czech). Akademie věd ČR<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Akademick%C3%BD+bulletin&rft.atitle=Pra%C5%BEsk%C3%A9+Jaro+1968&rft.date=2008-06-25&rft.aulast=Vondrov%C3%A1&rft.aufirst=Jitka&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabicko.avcr.cz%2F2008%2F4%2F04%2Fprazske-jaro-1968.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoppe-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hoppe_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoppe2008" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hoppe, Jiří (6 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iforum.cuni.cz/IFORUM-5993.html">"Co je Pražské jaro 1968?"</a>. <i>iForum</i> (in Czech). Charles University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=iForum&rft.atitle=Co+je+Pra%C5%BEsk%C3%A9+jaro+1968%3F&rft.date=2008-08-06&rft.aulast=Hoppe&rft.aufirst=Ji%C5%99%C3%AD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiforum.cuni.cz%2FIFORUM-5993.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Golan, Galia (1973). <i>Cambridge Russian, Soviet and Post-Soviet Studies. Reform Rule in Czechoslovakia: The Dubček Era, 1968–1969</i>. Vol. 11. Cambridge: CUP Archive, p. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holy,_pp_119-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Holy,_pp_119_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holy, p. 119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Golan, p. 112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams,_pp_69-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams,_pp_69_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, p. 69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aktualne-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aktualne_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aktualne_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zpravy.aktualne.cz/1968-bilateral-meeting-anticipated-soviet-invasion/r~i:article:612272/">"1968: Bilateral meeting anticipated Soviet invasion"</a> aktualne.cz. Retrieved on 11 June 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJiri_Valenta1979" class="citation book cs1">Jiri Valenta (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1vNmBoanUcC&dq=four++1968++%C4%8Cierna++Podgorny++Smrkovsky++Brezhnev++Svoboda+++Suslov&pg=PA151"><i>Soviet Intervention in Czechoslovakia, 1968</i></a>. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-4297-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-4297-2"><bdi>0-8018-4297-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Intervention+in+Czechoslovakia%2C+1968&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-8018-4297-2&rft.au=Jiri+Valenta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ1vNmBoanUcC%26dq%3Dfour%2B%2B1968%2B%2B%25C4%258Cierna%2B%2BPodgorny%2B%2BSmrkovsky%2B%2BBrezhnev%2B%2BSvoboda%2B%2B%2BSuslov%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.thinkquest.org/C001155/documents/doc41.htm">"The Bratislava Declaration, August 3, 1968" Navratil, Jaromir.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121014010026/http://library.thinkquest.org/C001155/documents/doc41.htm">Archived</a> 14 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> "The Prague Spring 1968". Hungary: Central European Press, 1998, pp. 326–329 Retrieved on 4 March 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bratmeet-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bratmeet_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bratmeet_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/group/tomzgroup/pmwiki/uploads/0346-1968-08-KS-b-EYJ.pdf">The Bratislava Meeting.</a> stanford.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160809151646/https://web.stanford.edu/group/tomzgroup/pmwiki/uploads/0346-1968-08-KS-b-EYJ.pdf">Archived</a> 9 August 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved on 11 June 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-riseandfall-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-riseandfall_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-riseandfall_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOuimet2003" class="citation book cs1">Ouimet, Matthew J. (2003). <i>The Rise and Fall of the Brezhnev Doctrine in Soviet Foreign Policy</i>. Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-2740-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-2740-6"><bdi>978-0-8078-2740-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Brezhnev+Doctrine+in+Soviet+Foreign+Policy&rft.place=Chapel+Hill+and+London&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-2740-6&rft.aulast=Ouimet&rft.aufirst=Matthew+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dawisha (Fn. 6) 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurlander2020" class="citation web cs1">Kurlander, David (17 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cafe.com/article/a-shattering-moment-lbjs-last-hope-and-the-end-of-the-prague-spring/">"A Shattering Moment: LBJ's Last Hope and The End of the Prague Spring"</a>. <i>Cafe</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cafe&rft.atitle=A+Shattering+Moment%3A+LBJ%27s+Last+Hope+and+The+End+of+the+Prague+Spring&rft.date=2020-09-17&rft.aulast=Kurlander&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcafe.com%2Farticle%2Fa-shattering-moment-lbjs-last-hope-and-the-end-of-the-prague-spring%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ReGASMuPpA">Warsaw Pact Invasion of Czechoslovakia - ABC News - August 21, 1968</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210202070924/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ReGASMuPpA">Archived</a> February 2, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080911023945/http://archive.timesonline.co.uk/tol/viewArticle.arc?articleId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1968-08-21-01-001&pageId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1968-08-21-01&manualTopicId=false">"Russians march into Czechoslovakia"</a>. <i>The Times</i>. London. 21 August 1968. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.timesonline.co.uk/tol/viewArticle.arc?articleId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1968-08-21-01-001&pageId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1968-08-21-01&manualTopicId=false">the original</a> on 11 September 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Russians+march+into+Czechoslovakia&rft.date=1968-08-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.timesonline.co.uk%2Ftol%2FviewArticle.arc%3FarticleId%3DARCHIVE-The_Times-1968-08-21-01-001%26pageId%3DARCHIVE-The_Times-1968-08-21-01%26manualTopicId%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?q=Czechoslovakia+1968+%22Bulgarian+troops%22&btnG=Search+Books">Czechoslovakia 1968 "Bulgarian troops"</a>. Google Books. Retrieved on 23 June 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HMylRh-wHWEC&pg=PA302">Jerzy Lukowski, Hubert Zawadzki: A Concise History of Poland, 2006</a>. Google Books (17 July 2006). Retrieved on 23 June 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTismaneanu2011" class="citation book cs1">Tismaneanu, Vladimir, ed. (2011). <i>Promises of 1968: Crisis, Illusion, and Utopia</i>. <a href="/wiki/Central_European_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Central European University Press">Central European University Press</a>. p. 358. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9786155053047" title="Special:BookSources/9786155053047"><bdi>9786155053047</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Promises+of+1968%3A+Crisis%2C+Illusion%2C+and+Utopia&rft.pages=358&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9786155053047&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?q=Czechoslovakia+1968+%22Hungarian+troops%22&btnG=Search+Books">Czechoslovakia 1968 "Hungarian troops"</a>. Google Books (22 October 1968). Retrieved on 23 June 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rbth.com/defence/2017/05/10/gru-alpha-vympel-russias-famous-covert-operators-759604">"GRU, Alpha and Vympel: Russia's most famous covert operators"</a>. rbth.com. 18 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GRU%2C+Alpha+and+Vympel%3A+Russia%27s+most+famous+covert+operators&rft.pub=rbth.com&rft.date=2017-06-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rbth.com%2Fdefence%2F2017%2F05%2F10%2Fgru-alpha-vympel-russias-famous-covert-operators-759604&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams158-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams158_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams (1997), p. 158</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britskelisty.cz/9808/19980821h.html">"Day when tanks destroyed Czech dreams of Prague Spring" ("Den, kdy tanky zlikvidovaly české sny Pražského jara") at Britské Listy (British Letters)</a>. Britskelisty.cz. Retrieved on 23 June 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jiri Valenta, "Could the Prague Spring Have Been Saved" <i>Orbis</i> 35 (1991) 597</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Valenta (Fn. 23) 599.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-skilling-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-skilling_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skilling_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skilling_73-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/H._Gordon_Skilling" title="H. Gordon Skilling">H. Gordon Skilling</a>, <i>Czechoslovakia's Interrupted Revolution</i>, (Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 1976)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_74-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_74-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_74-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kieran Williams, "The Prague Spring and its aftermath: Czechoslovak politics 1968–1970," (Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-navratil-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-navratil_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-navratil_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-navratil_75-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-navratil_75-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jaromír Navratíl, et al., eds. "The Prague Spring 1968: A National Security Archive Documents Reader," (Budapest: <a href="/wiki/Central_European_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Central European University Press">Central European University Press</a>, 1998).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vladimir Kusin, <i>From Dubcek to Charter 77</i> (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1978) p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nakedtourguideprague.com/the-man-who-said-no-to-the-soviets/">"The Man Who Said "No" to the Soviets"</a>. 21 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Man+Who+Said+%22No%22+to+the+Soviets&rft.date=2015-08-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nakedtourguideprague.com%2Fthe-man-who-said-no-to-the-soviets%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suvorov 162</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suvorov 185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Keane, Vaclav Havel: A Political Tragedy in Six Acts (New York: Basic Books, 2000) 213</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertleff" class="citation book cs1">Bertleff, Erich. <i>Mit bloßen Händen – der einsame Kampf der Tschechen und Slowaken 1968</i>. Verlag Fritz Molden.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mit+blo%C3%9Fen+H%C3%A4nden+%E2%80%93+der+einsame+Kampf+der+Tschechen+und+Slowaken+1968&rft.pub=Verlag+Fritz+Molden&rft.aulast=Bertleff&rft.aufirst=Erich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexander Dubcek, "Hope Dies Last" (New York: Kodansha International, 1993) 216</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams (Fn. 25) 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-an-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-an_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Letter by <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a> to <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Committee">Central Committee</a> about the demonstration, 5 September 1968, in the <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bukovsky" title="Vladimir Bukovsky">Vladimir Bukovsky</a>'s archive, (PDF, faximile, in Russian), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psi.ece.jhu.edu/~kaplan/IRUSS/BUK/GBARC/pdfs/dis60/kgb68-5.pdf">JHU.edu</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171108182643/http://psi.ece.jhu.edu/~kaplan/IRUSS/BUK/GBARC/pdfs/dis60/kgb68-5.pdf">Archived</a> 8 November 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andropov to the Central Committee. The Demonstration in Red Square Against the Warsaw Pact Invasion of Czechoslovakia. 20 September 1968, at <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a>'s archive, in Russian and translation into English, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yale.edu/annals/sakharov/documents_frames/Sakharov_008.htm">Yale.edu</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071012132901/http://yale.edu/annals/sakharov/documents_frames/Sakharov_008.htm">Archived</a> 12 October 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-culture-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-culture_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-culture_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in English)</span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://culture.pl/en/work/hear-my-cry-maciej-drygas">"Hear My Cry – Maciej Drygas"</a>. <i>culture.pl</i>. June 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=culture.pl&rft.atitle=Hear+My+Cry+%E2%80%93+Maciej+Drygas&rft.date=2007-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fculture.pl%2Fen%2Fwork%2Fhear-my-cry-maciej-drygas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in English)</span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vlada.cz/scripts/detail.php?id=21158">"Czech Prime Minister Mirek Topolánek honoured the memory of Ryszard Siwiec"</a>. <i>www.vlada.cz</i>. Press Department of the Office of Czech Government<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.vlada.cz&rft.atitle=Czech+Prime+Minister+Mirek+Topol%C3%A1nek+honoured+the+memory+of+Ryszard+Siwiec&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vlada.cz%2Fscripts%2Fdetail.php%3Fid%3D21158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-allinson-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-allinson_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllinson2000" class="citation book cs1">Allinson, Mark (2000). <i>Politics and Popular Opinion in East Germany, 1945–68</i>. Manchester University Press. pp. 149–150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0719055546" title="Special:BookSources/978-0719055546"><bdi>978-0719055546</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+and+Popular+Opinion+in+East+Germany%2C+1945%E2%80%9368&rft.pages=149-150&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0719055546&rft.aulast=Allinson&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bpb.de/publikationen/9JZQKI,8,0,Die_vers%E4umte_Revolte%3A_Die_DDR_und_das_Jahr_1968.html#art8">Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung: Die versäumte Revolte: Die DDR und das Jahr 1968 – Ideale sterben langsam (in German)</a>. Bpb.de (2 March 2011). Retrieved on 23 June 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-franck-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-franck_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-franck_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-franck_90-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-franck_90-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-franck_90-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-franck_90-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-franck_90-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranck1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M._Franck" title="Thomas M. Franck">Franck, Thomas M.</a> (1985). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nationagainstnat0000fran"><i>Nation Against Nation: What Happened to the U.N. Dream and What the U.S. Can Do About It</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503587-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503587-2"><bdi>978-0-19-503587-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nation+Against+Nation%3A+What+Happened+to+the+U.N.+Dream+and+What+the+U.S.+Can+Do+About+It&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-19-503587-2&rft.aulast=Franck&rft.aufirst=Thomas+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnationagainstnat0000fran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CEEDF1338F931A35751C1A966958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1">"International; Prague's Spring Into Capitalism" by Lawrence E. Joseph at The</a>. New York Times (2 December 1990). Retrieved on 23 June 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jutikkala, Eino; Pirinen, Kauko (2001). Suomen historia (History of Finland). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/80-7106-406-8" title="Special:BookSources/80-7106-406-8">80-7106-406-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rea_1975_p._22-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rea_1975_p._22_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rea_1975_p._22_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rea_1975_p._22_93-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rea, Kenneth "Peking and the Brezhnev Doctrine". <i>Asian Affairs</i>. 3 (1975) p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rea, Kenneth "Peking and the Brezhnev Doctrine". <i>Asian Affairs</i>. 3 (1975)p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyskens2020" class="citation book cs1">Meyskens, Covell F. (2020). <i>Mao's Third Front: The Militarization of Cold War China</i>. Cambridge, United Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 150. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108784788">10.1017/9781108784788</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-78478-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-78478-8"><bdi>978-1-108-78478-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1145096137">1145096137</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218936313">218936313</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao%27s+Third+Front%3A+The+Militarization+of+Cold+War+China&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1145096137&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218936313%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108784788&rft.isbn=978-1-108-78478-8&rft.aulast=Meyskens&rft.aufirst=Covell+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hitchens-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hitchens_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hitchens_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hitchens_96-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hitchens_96-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHitchens2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hitchens" title="Christopher Hitchens">Hitchens, Christopher</a> (25 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/fighting_words/2008/08/the_verbal_revolution.html">"The Verbal Revolution. How the Prague Spring broke world communism's main spring"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Slate_(magazine)" title="Slate (magazine)">Slate</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=4+distortions+about+Russian+history+that+the+Kremlin+is+now+promoting&rft.aulast=Bigg&rft.aufirst=Claire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2F4-distortions-about-russian-history-that-the-kremlin-is-now-promoting-2015-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SMFA150531-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SMFA150531_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150925213521/http://www.mzv.sk/servlet/content?MT=%2FApp%2FWCM%2Fmain.nsf%2Fvw_ByID%2FID_C0B1D004B5A332B2C1257627003301E7_EN&OpenDocument=Y&LANG=EN&TG=BlankMaster&URL=%2FApp%2FWCM%2FAktualit.nsf%2F%28vw_ByID%29%2FID_4E6407DFBF0FFE00C1257E570023F671">"Statement of the Speaker of the Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of the Slovak Republic on the documentary film of the Russian television about the 1968 invasion"</a>. Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of the Slovak Republic. 31 May 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mzv.sk/servlet/content?MT=/App/WCM/main.nsf/vw_ByID/ID_C0B1D004B5A332B2C1257627003301E7_EN&OpenDocument=Y&LANG=EN&TG=BlankMaster&URL=/App/WCM/Aktualit.nsf/%28vw_ByID%29/ID_4E6407DFBF0FFE00C1257E570023F671">the original</a> on 25 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Statement+of+the+Speaker+of+the+Ministry+of+Foreign+and+European+Affairs+of+the+Slovak+Republic+on+the+documentary+film+of+the+Russian+television+about+the+1968+invasion&rft.date=2015-05-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mzv.sk%2Fservlet%2Fcontent%3FMT%3D%2FApp%2FWCM%2Fmain.nsf%2Fvw_ByID%2FID_C0B1D004B5A332B2C1257627003301E7_EN%26OpenDocument%3DY%26LANG%3DEN%26TG%3DBlankMaster%26URL%3D%2FApp%2FWCM%2FAktualit.nsf%2F%2528vw_ByID%2529%2FID_4E6407DFBF0FFE00C1257E570023F671&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160401014812/http://www.praguepost.com/eu-news/48070-fico-to-return-to-moscow-to-meet-putin-medvedev">"Fico to return to Moscow to meet Putin, Medvedev"</a>. <i>Czech News Agency</i>. Prague Post. 1 June 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.praguepost.com/eu-news/48070-fico-to-return-to-moscow-to-meet-putin-medvedev">the original</a> on 1 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Czech+News+Agency&rft.atitle=Fico+to+return+to+Moscow+to+meet+Putin%2C+Medvedev&rft.date=2015-06-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.praguepost.com%2Feu-news%2F48070-fico-to-return-to-moscow-to-meet-putin-medvedev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170820202630/https://www.novinky.cz/domaci/371331-zeman-ruska-televize-o-roce-1968-lze-invaze-byla-zlocin.html">"Zeman: Ruská televize o roce 1968 lže, invaze byla zločin"</a>. <i>Novinky.cz</i> (in Czech). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.novinky.cz/domaci/371331-zeman-ruska-televize-o-roce-1968-lze-invaze-byla-zlocin.html">the original</a> on 20 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Novinky.cz&rft.atitle=Zeman%3A+Rusk%C3%A1+televize+o+roce+1968+l%C5%BEe%2C+invaze+byla+zlo%C4%8Din&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.novinky.cz%2Fdomaci%2F371331-zeman-ruska-televize-o-roce-1968-lze-invaze-byla-zlocin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CMFA150601-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CMFA150601_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150925211202/http://www.mzv.cz/jnp/cz/udalosti_a_media/tiskove_zpravy/x2015_06_01_ministr_zaoralek_si_predvolal.html">"Ministr Zaorálek si předvolal velvyslance Ruské federace"</a>. <i>Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic</i> (in Czech). 1 June 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mzv.cz/jnp/cz/udalosti_a_media/tiskove_zpravy/x2015_06_01_ministr_zaoralek_si_predvolal.html">the original</a> on 25 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ministry+of+Foreign+Affairs+of+the+Czech+Republic&rft.atitle=Ministr+Zaor%C3%A1lek+si+p%C5%99edvolal+velvyslance+Rusk%C3%A9+federace&rft.date=2015-06-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mzv.cz%2Fjnp%2Fcz%2Fudalosti_a_media%2Ftiskove_zpravy%2Fx2015_06_01_ministr_zaoralek_si_predvolal.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ct24/svet/1532814-zaoralek-k-sankcnimu-seznamu-takove-zachazeni-s-cechy-odmitame">Zaorálek k sankčnímu seznamu: Takové zacházení s Čechy odmítáme</a>". Česká televize. 1 June 2015 (in Czech).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.novinky.cz/zahranicni/evropa/371168-neobjektivita-skodi-rusku-napsal-k-dokumentu-o-srpnu-1968-rusky-denik.html">"Neobjektivita škodí Rusku, napsal k dokumentu o srpnu 1968 ruský deník"</a>. <i>Novinky.cz</i> (in Czech).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Novinky.cz&rft.atitle=Neobjektivita+%C5%A1kod%C3%AD+Rusku%2C+napsal+k+dokumentu+o+srpnu+1968+rusk%C3%BD+den%C3%ADk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.novinky.cz%2Fzahranicni%2Fevropa%2F371168-neobjektivita-skodi-rusku-napsal-k-dokumentu-o-srpnu-1968-rusky-denik.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBischofKarnerRuggenthaler2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Bischof" title="Günter Bischof">Bischof, Günter</a>; Karner, Stefan; Ruggenthaler, Peter, eds. (2010). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/praguespringwars0000unse"><i>The Prague Spring and the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968</i></a></span>. The Harvard Cold War studies book series. Lanham, Md: <a href="/wiki/Lexington_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexington Books">Lexington Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-4304-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-4304-9"><bdi>978-0-7391-4304-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/436358434">436358434</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prague+Spring+and+the+Warsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia+in+1968&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Md&rft.series=The+Harvard+Cold+War+studies+book+series&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F436358434&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-4304-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpraguespringwars0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuvorov1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Suvorov" title="Viktor Suvorov">Suvorov, Viktor</a> (1981). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/liberators0000suvo"><i>The liberators</i></a></span>. London: H. Hamilton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-10675-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-241-10675-4"><bdi>978-0-241-10675-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+liberators&rft.place=London&rft.pub=H.+Hamilton&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-241-10675-4&rft.aulast=Suvorov&rft.aufirst=Viktor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fliberators0000suvo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2011" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Kieran (2011). "Civil Resistance in Czechoslovakia: From Soviet Invasion to 'Velvet Revolution', 1968–89". In <a href="/wiki/Adam_Roberts_(scholar)" title="Adam Roberts (scholar)">Roberts, Adam</a>; <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Garton Ash, Timothy</a> (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/civilresistancep0000unse"><i>Civil resistance and power politics: the experience of non-violent action from Gandhi to the present</i></a></span>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 110–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969145-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969145-6"><bdi>978-0-19-969145-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Civil+Resistance+in+Czechoslovakia%3A+From+Soviet+Invasion+to+%27Velvet+Revolution%27%2C+1968%E2%80%9389&rft.btitle=Civil+resistance+and+power+politics%3A+the+experience+of+non-violent+action+from+Gandhi+to+the+present&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=110-26&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-969145-6&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Kieran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcivilresistancep0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWindsor1969" class="citation book cs1">Windsor, Philip (1969). Windsor, Philip; Roberts, Adam (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/czechoslovakia190000wind"><i>Czechoslovakia 1968: Reform, repression and resistance</i></a></span>. An ISS paperback. London: <a href="/wiki/Chatto_%26_Windus" title="Chatto & Windus">Chatto & Windus</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7011-1498-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7011-1498-5"><bdi>978-0-7011-1498-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Czechoslovakia+1968%3A+Reform%2C+repression+and+resistance&rft.place=London&rft.series=An+ISS+paperback&rft.pub=Chatto+%26+Windus&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-7011-1498-5&rft.aulast=Windsor&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fczechoslovakia190000wind&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarsaw+Pact+invasion+of+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/collection/77/soviet-invasion-of-czechoslovakia">"Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia": Collection of archival documents on www.DigitalArchive.org</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ustrcr.cz/en/project-1968-1969">Project 1968–1969</a>, page dedicated to documenting the invasion, created by the Totalitarian Regime Study Institute</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.RadioTapes.com">Breaking news coverage of the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a> as heard on WCCO Radio (Minneapolis, MN) and CBS Radio as posted on RadioTapes.com</li> <li>The short film <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.1536549"><i>Russian Invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968)</i></a> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</li> <li>The short film <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.1536420"><i>Warsaw Pact Invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968)</i></a> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Era_of_Stagnation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Stagnation_Era" title="Template:Stagnation Era"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Stagnation_Era" title="Template talk:Stagnation Era"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Stagnation_Era" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Stagnation Era"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Era_of_Stagnation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1964%E2%80%931982)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)">Events (1964–1982)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glassboro_Summit_Conference" title="Glassboro Summit Conference">Glassboro Summit Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Red_Square_demonstration" title="1968 Red Square demonstration">1968 Red Square demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Attempted assassination of Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev assassination attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladivostok_Summit_Meeting_on_Arms_Control" title="Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control">Vladivostok Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helsinki_Accords" title="Helsinki Accords">Helsinki Accords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Moscow_bombings" title="1977 Moscow bombings">1977 Moscow bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1977 Soviet constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Georgian_demonstrations" title="1978 Georgian demonstrations">1978 Georgian demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics" title="1980 Summer Olympics">1980 Summer Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Reaction to 1980–1981 Polish crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exercise_Zapad-81" class="mw-redirect" title="Exercise Zapad-81">Exercise Zapad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Death and state funeral of Leonid Brezhnev">Death and state funeral of Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev">Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1982%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)">Events (1982–1985)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RYAN" class="mw-redirect" title="RYAN">RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_Soviet_nuclear_false_alarm_incident" title="1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident">1983 false nuclear alarm incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_cotton_scandal" title="Uzbek cotton scandal">Uzbek cotton scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Games" title="Friendship Games">Friendship Games</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politburo members<br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidium_of_the_22nd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Presidium of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">22nd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_23rd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">23rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_24th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">24th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">26th</a></li></ul></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Heydar_Aliyev" title="Heydar Aliyev">Aliyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Andropov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Chebrikov" title="Viktor Chebrikov">Chebrikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Chernenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Demichev" title="Pyotr Demichev">Demichev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Dolgikh" title="Vladimir Dolgikh">Dolgikh</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leonid_Efremov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leonid Efremov (page does not exist)">Efremov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Grechko" title="Andrei Grechko">Grechko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Grishin" title="Viktor Grishin">Grishin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Gromyko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Kirilenko_(politician)" title="Andrei Kirilenko (politician)">Kirilenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhon_Kiselyov" title="Tikhon Kiselyov">Kiselyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinmukhamed_Kunaev" title="Dinmukhamed Kunaev">Kunaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Kosygin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Kulakov" title="Fyodor Kulakov">Kulakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasili_Kuznetsov_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasili Kuznetsov (politician)">Kuznetsov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Masherov" title="Pyotr Masherov">Masherov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirill_Mazurov" title="Kirill Mazurov">Mazurov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anastas_Mikoyan" title="Anastas Mikoyan">Mikoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasil_Mzhavanadze" title="Vasil Mzhavanadze">Mzhavanadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arv%C4%ABds_Pel%C5%A1e" title="Arvīds Pelše">Pelše</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Podgorny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Polyansky" title="Dmitry Polyansky">Polyansky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Ponomarev" title="Boris Ponomarev">Ponomarev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharof_Rashidov" title="Sharof Rashidov">Rashidov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigory_Romanov" title="Grigory Romanov">Romanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Shcherbytsky" title="Volodymyr Shcherbytsky">Shcherbytsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Shelepin" title="Alexander Shelepin">Shelepin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petro_Shelest" title="Petro Shelest">Shelest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Shevardnadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Shvernik" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolay Shvernik">Shvernik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Solomentsev" title="Mikhail Solomentsev">Solomentsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Suslov" title="Mikhail Suslov">Suslov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Tikhonov" title="Nikolai Tikhonov">Tikhonov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitriy_Ustinov" class="mw-redirect" title="Dmitriy Ustinov">Ustinov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gennady_Voronov" title="Gennady Voronov">Voronov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Vorotnikov" title="Vitaly Vorotnikov">Vorotnikov</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Triumvirate" title="Triumvirate">Troika</a> (<a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Kosygin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Podgorny</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Governments_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Governments of the Soviet Union">Governments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_First_Government" title="Kosygin's First Government">Kosygin's 1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_Second_Government" title="Kosygin's Second Government">2nd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_Third_Government" title="Kosygin's Third Government">3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_Fourth_Government" title="Kosygin's Fourth Government">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_Fifth_Government" title="Kosygin's Fifth Government">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhonov%27s_First_Government" title="Tikhonov's First Government">Tikhonov's 1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhonov%27s_Second_Government" title="Tikhonov's Second Government">2nd</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National economy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/OGAS" title="OGAS">OGAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1973 Soviet economic reform">1973</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1979 Soviet economic reform">1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_Programme" title="Food Programme">Food Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1984_Soviet_economic_reform&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1984 Soviet economic reform (page does not exist)">1984</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_for_the_national_economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="Eighth five-year plan (Soviet Union)">8th plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ninth five-year plan (Soviet Union)">9th plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="Tenth five-year plan (Soviet Union)">10th plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="Eleventh five-year plan (Soviet Union)">11th plan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prague_Spring" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Prague_Spring" title="Template:Prague Spring"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Prague_Spring" title="Template talk:Prague Spring"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Prague_Spring" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Prague Spring"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prague_Spring" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Warsaw Pact Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_(Czechoslovakia)" title="Normalization (Czechoslovakia)">Normalization Period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vasil_Bi%C4%BEak" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasil Biľak">Vasil Biľak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old%C5%99ich_%C4%8Cern%C3%ADk" title="Oldřich Černík">Oldřich Černík</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gust%C3%A1v_Hus%C3%A1k" title="Gustáv Husák">Gustáv Husák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_Kriegel" title="František Kriegel">František Kriegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zden%C4%9Bk_Mlyn%C3%A1%C5%99" title="Zdeněk Mlynář">Zdeněk Mlynář</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Novotn%C3%BD" title="Antonín Novotný">Antonín Novotný</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Palach" title="Jan Palach">Jan Palach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petro_Shelest" title="Petro Shelest">Petro Shelest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ota_%C5%A0ik" title="Ota Šik">Ota Šik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludv%C3%ADk_Svoboda" title="Ludvík Svoboda">Ludvík Svoboda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludv%C3%ADk_Vacul%C3%ADk" title="Ludvík Vaculík">Ludvík Vaculík</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_Programme_(1968)" class="mw-redirect" title="Action Programme (1968)">Action Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Protocol" title="Moscow Protocol">Moscow Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Red_Square_demonstration" title="1968 Red Square demonstration">Red Square demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cold_War" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cold_War" title="Template talk:Cold War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cold_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cold War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cold_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">NEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hukbalahap_rebellion" title="Hukbalahap rebellion">Hukbalahap rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_political_conflict" title="Jamaican political conflict">Jamaican political conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekemvriana" title="Dekemvriana">Dekemvriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation <i>Priboi</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation <i>Jungle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Cursed soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation <i>Unthinkable</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouzenko_Affair" title="Gouzenko Affair">Gouzenko Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Operation <i>Masterdom</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation <i>Beleaguer</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blacklist_Forty" title="Operation Blacklist Forty">Operation <i>Blacklist Forty</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu_Channel_incident" title="Corfu Channel incident">Corfu Channel incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1947 Polish parliamentary election">1947 Polish parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Relations_Conference" title="Asian Relations Conference">Asian Relations Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">May 1947 crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_war_of_1947%E2%80%931948" title="Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948">Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war" title="1948 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council#Incapacitation_of_the_council" title="Allied Control Council">Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathbah_uprising" title="Al-Wathbah uprising">Al-Wathbah uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Hyderabad" title="Annexation of Hyderabad">Annexation of Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madiun_Affair" title="Madiun Affair">Madiun Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Operation Valuable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_curtain" title="Bamboo curtain">Bamboo curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War (1952–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada (1952)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Mau Mau rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the <i>Tuapse</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Jebel Akhdar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Polish October</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gladio" title="Operation Gladio">Operation <i>Gladio</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Crisis_of_1957" title="Syrian Crisis of 1957">Syrian Crisis of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">Iraqi 14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1960 Turkish coup d'état">1960 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Soviets_from_Albania" title="Expulsion of Soviets from Albania">Expulsion of Soviets from Albania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_War" title="Sand War">Sand War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Porte%C3%B1azo" title="El Porteñazo">El Porteñazo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Communist insurgency in Sarawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963–1964" title="Cypriot intercommunal violence">Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifta_War" title="Shifta War">Shifta War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict" title="Korean DMZ Conflict">Korean DMZ Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Hong_Kong_riots" title="1967 Hong Kong riots">1967 Hong Kong riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wadiah_War" title="Al-Wadiah War">Al-Wadiah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2)#Pueblo_incident" title="USS Pueblo (AGER-2)">USS <i>Pueblo</i> incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968%E2%80%931971_East_Pakistan_communist_insurgency" title="1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency">1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Peruvian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Peru" title="Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru">Revolutionary Government</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Goulash Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Thailand" title="Communist insurgency in Thailand">Communist insurgency in Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koza_riot" title="Koza riot">Koza riot</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_JVP_insurrection" title="1971 JVP insurrection">1971 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_revolution_(Egypt)" title="Corrective revolution (Egypt)">Corrective revolution (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1971 Turkish military memorandum">1971 Turkish military memorandum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Sudanese coup d'état">1971 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">Bangladesh Liberation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen#Disputes_with_North_Yemen" title="South Yemen">North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Yemenite_War" title="First Yemenite War">First Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972%E2%80%931975_Bangladesh_insurgency" title="1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency">1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Uruguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/15_August_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="3 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Siege of Dhaka (1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="7 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Sipahi-Janata revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Somali_coup_attempt" title="1978 Somali coup attempt">1978 Somali coup attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Indochina_War" title="Third Indochina War">Third Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_conflict_(1979%E2%80%931998)" title="Cambodian conflict (1979–1998)">Cambodian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation <i>Condor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War (Argentina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania_War" title="Uganda–Tanzania War">Uganda–Tanzania War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NDF_Rebellion" title="NDF Rebellion">NDF Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Chadian–Libyan War">Chadian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Yemenite_War" title="Second Yemenite War">Second Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure" title="Grand Mosque seizure">Grand Mosque seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980</a> and <a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycotts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gera_Demands" title="Gera Demands">Gera Demands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Agreement" title="Gdańsk Agreement">Gdańsk Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">1980 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra_incident_(1981)" title="Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)">Gulf of Sidra incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Star Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">1985 Geneva Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somali Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen_civil_war" title="South Yemen civil war">South Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyota_War" title="Toyota War">Toyota War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Denver" title="Operation Denver">Operation Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_JVP_insurrection" title="1987–1989 JVP insurrection">1987–1989 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">Solidarity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_RYAN" title="Operation RYAN">Operation RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bougainville_conflict" title="Bougainville conflict">Bougainville conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">1991 August Coup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">Frozen conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia_conflict" title="Abkhazia conflict">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">China-Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Kosovo" title="Political status of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Doctrine" title="Carter Doctrine">Carter Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">American conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">Guided democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-worldism" title="Third-worldism">Third-worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy#White_separatism" title="White supremacy">White separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">EEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_and_Non-Aligned_European_States" title="Neutral and Non-Aligned European States">NN States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-communist</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neues_Deutschland" title="Neues Deutschland">Neues Deutschland</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Moscow" title="Radio Moscow">Radio Moscow</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rud%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Rudé právo">Rudé právo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trybuna_Ludu" title="Trybuna Ludu">Trybuna Ludu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Soviet Life</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_for_Freedom" title="Crusade for Freedom">Crusade for Freedom</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paix_et_Libert%C3%A9" title="Paix et Liberté">Paix et Liberté</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technological<br />competition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gar_Alperovitz" title="Gar Alperovitz">Gar Alperovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Bailey" title="Thomas A. Bailey">Thomas A. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Michael Beschloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_H._Carroll" title="Warren H. Carroll">Warren H. Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Cioroianu" title="Adrian Cioroianu">Adrian Cioroianu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">John Costello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cox_(academic)" title="Michael Cox (academic)">Michael Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_J._Cull" title="Nicholas J. Cull">Nicholas J. Cull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Willem Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._English" title="Robert D. English">Robert D. English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Feis" title="Herbert Feis">Herbert Feis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fontaine" title="André Fontaine">André Fontaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anneli_Ute_Gabanyi" title="Anneli Ute Gabanyi">Anneli Ute Gabanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Gorodetsky" title="Gabriel Gorodetsky">Gabriel Gorodetsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jussi_Hanhim%C3%A4ki" title="Jussi Hanhimäki">Jussi Hanhimäki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">John Earl Haynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Hearden" title="Patrick J. Hearden">Patrick J. Hearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tvrtko_Jakovina" title="Tvrtko Jakovina">Tvrtko Jakovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Judt" title="Tony Judt">Tony Judt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Harvey Klehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Gabriel Kolko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Melvyn P. Leffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Vojtech Mastny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_F._Matlock_Jr." title="Jack F. Matlock Jr.">Jack F. Matlock Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._McCormick" title="Thomas J. McCormick">Thomas J. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Naftali" title="Timothy Naftali">Timothy Naftali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Oprea" title="Marius Oprea">Marius Oprea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_S._Painter" title="David S. Painter">David S. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">William B. Pickett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_E._Powaski" title="Ronald E. Powaski">Ronald E. Powaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_M._Rabkin" title="Yakov M. Rabkin">Yakov M. Rabkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._E._Sarotte" title="M. E. Sarotte">M. E. Sarotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhihua" title="Shen Zhihua">Shen Zhihua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athan_Theoharis" title="Athan Theoharis">Athan Theoharis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Thorpe" title="Andrew Thorpe">Andrew Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tism%C4%83neanu" title="Vladimir Tismăneanu">Vladimir Tismăneanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Vaughan" title="Patrick Vaughan">Patrick Vaughan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_von_Tunzelmann" title="Alex von Tunzelmann">Alex von Tunzelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Reed_Winkler" title="Jonathan Reed Winkler">Jonathan Reed Winkler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Winnacker" title="Rudolph Winnacker">Rudolph Winnacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Young" title="Ken Young">Ken Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Espionage and<br />intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Eastern_Bloc_agents_in_the_United_States" title="List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States">List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviet espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Russian espionage in the United States">Russian espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_and_the_Cultural_Cold_War" title="CIA and the Cultural Cold War">CIA and the Cultural Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Soviet involvement in regime change">Soviet involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union–United States summits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">Russia–NATO relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship#Cold_War" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War" title="Category:Cold War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of the Cold War">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Eastern_Bloc" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eastern_Bloc" title="Template:Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eastern_Bloc" title="Template talk:Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern_Bloc" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Eastern_Bloc" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Hungary–Soviet Union relations">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan#Rejection_by_Stalin" title="Marshall Plan">Soviet response to the Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soviet-allied states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">People's Republic of Albania <span style="font-size:85%;">(to 1961)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">People's Republic of Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovak Socialist Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">German Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungarian People's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Polish People's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Socialist Republic of Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia <span style="font-size:85%;">(to 1948)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cominform" title="Cominform">Cominform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">COMECON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Trade_Unions" title="World Federation of Trade Unions">World Federation of Trade Unions <span style="font-size:85%;">(WFTU)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Democratic_Youth" title="World Federation of Democratic Youth">World Federation of Democratic Youth <span style="font-size:85%;">(WFDY)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Revolts and<br />opposition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goryani" title="Goryani">Goryani Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1949_East_German_State_Railway_strike" title="1949 East German State Railway strike">1949 East German State Railway strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cazin_rebellion" title="Cazin rebellion">Rebellion of Cazin 1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Plze%C5%88_uprising" title="1953 Plzeň uprising">1953 Plzeň uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">1953 East German uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">1956 Hungarian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Spring" title="Croatian Spring">Croatian Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1981_protests_in_Kosovo" title="1981 protests in Kosovo">1981 protests in Kosovo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Emigration and defection</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_and_Eastern_Bloc_defectors" title="List of Soviet and Eastern Bloc defectors">list of defectors</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovietization_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Sovietization of the Baltic states">Sovietization of the Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_media_and_propaganda" title="Eastern Bloc media and propaganda">Information dissemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_politics" title="Eastern Bloc politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_economies" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Bloc economies">Economies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_tapping_in_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Telephone tapping in the Eastern Bloc">Telephone tapping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dissolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Die Wende</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_communism_in_Hungary" title="End of communism in Hungary">End of communism in Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Collapse of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events" title="January Events">January 1991 events in Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">January 1991 events in Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Czech_wars_and_conflicts" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Czech_wars_and_conflicts" title="Template:Czech wars and conflicts"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Czech_wars_and_conflicts" title="Template talk:Czech wars and conflicts"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Czech_wars_and_conflicts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Czech wars and conflicts"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Czech_wars_and_conflicts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Czech_lands" title="List of wars involving the Czech lands">Czech wars and conflicts</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Slavic tribes and <a href="/wiki/Great_Moravia" title="Great Moravia">Great Moravia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>War against Avars</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wogastisburg" title="Battle of Wogastisburg">War between Samo's empire and Frank Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canburg" title="Canburg">War against Charles the Great</a></li> <li>Conquest of <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Nitra" title="Principality of Nitra">Nitrian Principality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Bohemia" title="Duchy of Bohemia">Duchy of Bohemia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_the_German" title="Louis the German">Louis the German's</a> campaign against Bohemia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_invasions_of_Europe" title="Hungarian invasions of Europe">Hungarian invasions of Europe</a></li> <li>Great Moravia war against East Francia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxon_revolt_of_1077%E2%80%931088" title="Saxon revolt of 1077–1088">Saxon revolt of 1077–1088</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chlumec_(1126)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Chlumec (1126)"> War of succession to the Duchy of Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Crusade" title="Second Crusade">Second Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Moravia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Moravia">Mongol invasion of Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_Crusade" title="Prussian Crusade">Prussian Crusade</a></li> <li>Bohemia-Bavarian War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kressenbrunn" title="Battle of Kressenbrunn">War of Styria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_Crusade" title="Prussian Crusade">Prussian Crusade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Czech_lands_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Czech lands in the High Middle Ages">Kingdom of Bohemia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Hungarian Campaign</li> <li>Bohemian-Hungarian War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marchfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Marchfeld">War against Rudolf von Habsburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenceslaus_II_of_Bohemia" title="Wenceslaus II of Bohemia">Wenceslaus II.'s</a> Polish Campaign</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_G%C3%B6llheim" title="Battle of Göllheim">Fight for the rule over the Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li>Anti-Bohemian Coalition</li> <li>War against <a href="/wiki/Matthew_III_Cs%C3%A1k" title="Matthew III Csák">Matthew III Csák</a></li> <li>Double reign of <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li>War against <a href="/wiki/Louis_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor">Louis IV.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish-Bohemian_War_(1345%E2%80%931348)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Bohemian War (1345–1348)">Polish-Czech War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cr%C3%A9cy" title="Battle of Crécy">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li>Polish–Bohemian war</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_of_Varna" title="Crusade of Varna">Crusade of Varna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian%E2%80%93Hungarian_War_(1468%E2%80%931478)" title="Bohemian–Hungarian War (1468–1478)">Bohemian–Hungarian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown_(1526%E2%80%931648)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1526–1648)">1526–1648</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Little_War_in_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Little War in Hungary">Little War in Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War" title="Schmalkaldic War">Schmalkaldic War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Invasion_of_Passau_Army&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Invasion of Passau Army (page does not exist)">Invasion of Passau Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Revolt" title="Bohemian Revolt">Bohemian Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown_(1648%E2%80%931867)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1648–1867)">1648–1867</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1680 Czech peasant Uprising</li> <li>1775 Czech peasant Uprising</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Austrian_Empire" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire">Czech Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown_(1867%E2%80%931918)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1867–1918)">1867–1918</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Legion" title="Czechoslovak Legion">Czechoslovak Legion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Czechoslovak_Legion" title="Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion">Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Czechoslovak_War" title="Polish–Czechoslovak War">Polish–Czechoslovak War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C5%BDelezn%C3%A1_Ruda_uprising&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Železná Ruda uprising (page does not exist)">Železná Ruda uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_and_interventions_in_Hungary_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Revolutions and interventions in Hungary (1918–1920)">Revolutions and interventions in Hungary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian%E2%80%93Czechoslovak_War" title="Hungarian–Czechoslovak War">Hungarian–Czechoslovak War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudeten_German_uprising" title="Sudeten German uprising">Sudeten German uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Czechoslovak_border_conflicts#World_War_II" title="Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts">Capture of Zaolzie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Axis invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpatho-Ukraine#Hungarian_invasion" title="Carpatho-Ukraine">Hungarian Invasion of Carpatho-Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_the_Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Resistance in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Resistance in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_and_Slovak_Legion" title="Czech and Slovak Legion">Czech and Slovak Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1st_Czechoslovak_Division_in_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1st Czechoslovak Division in France (page does not exist)">1st Czechoslovak Division in France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Royal_Air_Force_aircraft_squadrons#Czechoslovakian_(310–313)" title="List of Royal Air Force aircraft squadrons">Royal Air Force aircraft squadrons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_11th_Infantry_Battalion" title="Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion">Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1st_Czechoslovak_Army_Corps_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="1st Czechoslovak Army Corps in the Soviet Union">1st Czechoslovak Army Corps in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1st_Czechoslovak_Mixed_Air_Division" title="1st Czechoslovak Mixed Air Division">1st Czechoslovak Mixed Air Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1st_Czechoslovak_Armoured_Brigade" class="mw-redirect" title="1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade">1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racib%C3%B3rz_Conflict" title="Racibórz Conflict">Racibórz Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_B_(1945%E2%80%931947)" title="Operation B (1945–1947)">Operation B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_War_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Israeli War of Independence">Israeli War of Independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_shipments_from_Czechoslovakia_to_Israel_1947%E2%80%931949" class="mw-redirect" title="Arms shipments from Czechoslovakia to Israel 1947–1949">Arms shipments from Czechoslovakia to Israel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_military_mission_in_Korea_(1952-1956)" class="mw-redirect" title="Czechoslovak military mission in Korea (1952-1956)">Czechoslovak military mission in Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_battle_over_Merkl%C3%ADn" title="Air battle over Merklín">Merklín incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uprising_in_Plze%C5%88_(1953)" class="mw-redirect" title="Uprising in Plzeň (1953)">Uprising in Plzeň</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War#Czechoslovakia" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abduction_of_Czechoslovak_citizens_in_Angola" title="Abduction of Czechoslovak citizens in Angola">Abduction of Czechoslovak citizens in Angola</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia_in_the_Gulf_War" title="Czechoslovakia in the Gulf War">Czechoslovakia in the Gulf War</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Protection_Force" title="United Nations Protection Force">United Nations Protection Force</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO_bombing_of_Yugoslavia" title="NATO bombing of Yugoslavia">Kosovo War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_unrest_in_Kosovo" title="2004 unrest in Kosovo">Unrest in Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Afghanistan_Contingent" title="Czech Afghanistan Contingent">Czech Afghanistan Contingent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincial_Reconstruction_Team_Logar" title="Provincial Reconstruction Team Logar">Provincial Reconstruction Team Logar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-National_Force_%E2%80%93_Iraq#List_of_countries_in_coalition" title="Multi-National Force – Iraq">Multi-National Force – Iraq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Libyan_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Libyan Civil War">First Libyan Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unified_Protector" title="Operation Unified Protector">Operation Unified Protector</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_War" title="Mali War">Mali War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Training_Mission_in_Mali" title="European Union Training Mission in Mali">European Union Training Mission in Mali</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_aid_to_Ukraine_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="List of military aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War">military aid to Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Legion_of_Territorial_Defense_of_Ukraine#Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="International Legion of Territorial Defense of Ukraine">International Legion of Territorial Defense</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Polish_wars_and_conflicts" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Polish_wars_and_conflicts" title="Template:Polish wars and conflicts"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Polish_wars_and_conflicts" title="Template talk:Polish wars and conflicts"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Polish_wars_and_conflicts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Polish wars and conflicts"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Polish_wars_and_conflicts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Poland" title="List of wars involving Poland">Polish wars and conflicts</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">General and related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish_Army" title="History of the Polish Army">History of the Polish Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Polish_intelligence_services" title="History of Polish intelligence services">History of Polish intelligence services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Poland" title="List of wars involving Poland">List of wars involving Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Military of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Military of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces" title="Polish Armed Forces">Polish Armed Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warfare_in_Medieval_Poland" title="Warfare in Medieval Poland">Warfare in Medieval Poland</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Wojska_L%C4%85dowe.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/POL_Wojska_L%C4%85dowe.svg/50px-POL_Wojska_L%C4%85dowe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/POL_Wojska_L%C4%85dowe.svg/75px-POL_Wojska_L%C4%85dowe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/POL_Wojska_L%C4%85dowe.svg/100px-POL_Wojska_L%C4%85dowe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1061" /></a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Marynarka_Wojenna.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/POL_Marynarka_Wojenna.svg/50px-POL_Marynarka_Wojenna.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/POL_Marynarka_Wojenna.svg/75px-POL_Marynarka_Wojenna.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/POL_Marynarka_Wojenna.svg/100px-POL_Marynarka_Wojenna.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Wojska_Lotnicze.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/POL_Wojska_Lotnicze.svg/50px-POL_Wojska_Lotnicze.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/POL_Wojska_Lotnicze.svg/75px-POL_Wojska_Lotnicze.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/POL_Wojska_Lotnicze.svg/100px-POL_Wojska_Lotnicze.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="939" /></a></span></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_the_Piast_dynasty" title="History of Poland during the Piast dynasty">Piast Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Veletian_War" title="Polish–Veletian War">Polish–Veletian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cedynia" title="Battle of Cedynia">Battle of Cedynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Polish_War_(1003%E2%80%931018)" title="German–Polish War (1003–1018)">German–Polish War (1003–1018)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I%27s_intervention_in_the_Kievan_succession_crisis" title="Bolesław I's intervention in the Kievan succession crisis">Bolesław I's intervention in the Kievan succession crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Polish_War_(1028%E2%80%931031)" title="German–Polish War (1028–1031)">German–Polish War (1028–1031)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miec%C5%82aw%27s_Rebellion" title="Miecław's Rebellion">Miecław's Rebellion</a></li> <li>1072 war against <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_G%C5%82og%C3%B3w" title="Siege of Głogów">Siege of Głogów</a></li> <li>1146 war against Germany</li> <li>1156 war against Germany</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galicia%E2%80%93Volhynia_Wars" title="Galicia–Volhynia Wars">Galicia–Volhynia Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mongol invasions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="First Mongol invasion of Poland">First Mongol invasion of Poland (1240/41)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Second Mongol invasion of Poland">Second Mongol invasion of Poland (1259/60)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Third Mongol invasion of Poland">Third Mongol invasion of Poland (1287/88)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Legnica" title="Battle of Legnica">Battle of Legnica</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_the_Jagiellonian_dynasty" title="History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty">Jagiellon Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Teutonic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish–Teutonic War">Polish–Teutonic wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teutonic_takeover_of_Danzig_(Gda%C5%84sk)" title="Teutonic takeover of Danzig (Gdańsk)">Teutonic takeover of Danzig (Gdańsk)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Teutonic_War_(1326%E2%80%931332)" title="Polish–Teutonic War (1326–1332)">Polish–Teutonic War (1326–1332)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_P%C5%82owce" title="Battle of Płowce">Battle of Płowce</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian%E2%80%93Teutonic_War" title="Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War">Great War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Grunwald" title="Battle of Grunwald">Battle of Grunwald</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_War" title="Hunger War">Hunger War (1414)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gollub_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Gollub War">Gollub War (1422)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Teutonic_War_(1431%E2%80%931435)" title="Polish–Teutonic War (1431–1435)">Polish–Teutonic War (1431–1435)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Years%27_War_(1454%E2%80%931466)" title="Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466)">Thirteen Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Priests_(Poland)" title="War of the Priests (Poland)">War of the Priests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Teutonic_War_(1519%E2%80%931521)" title="Polish–Teutonic War (1519–1521)">Polish–Teutonic War (1519–1521)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_the_White%27s_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Władysław the White's rebellion">Władysław the White's rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Civil_War_(1432%E2%80%931438)" title="Lithuanian Civil War (1432–1438)">Lithuanian Civil War (1432–1438)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Grotniki" title="Battle of Grotniki">Battle of Grotniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_of_Varna" title="Crusade of Varna">1444 war against the Ottomans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Varna" title="Battle of Varna">Battle of Varna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldavian_campaign_(1497%E2%80%931499)" title="Moldavian campaign (1497–1499)">Moldavian campaign (1497–1499)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscovite%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Wars" title="Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars">Polish–Lithuanian–Muscovite War (1512–1522)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Orsha" title="Battle of Orsha">Battle of Orsha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian%E2%80%93Muscovite_War_(1534%E2%80%931537)" title="Lithuanian–Muscovite War (1534–1537)">Polish–Lithuanian–Muscovite War (1534–1537)</a></li> <li>Ottoman–Tatar Invasion of Lithuania and Poland</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Swedish_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish–Swedish wars">Polish–Swedish wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_War" title="Livonian War">Livonian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_campaign_of_Stephen_B%C3%A1thory" title="Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory">campaign of Stephen Báthory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Seven_Years%27_War" title="Northern Seven Years' War">Northern Seven Years' War (1563–1570)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_against_Sigismund" title="War against Sigismund">War against Sigismund</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St%C3%A5ngebro" title="Battle of Stångebro">Battle of Stångebro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Swedish_War_(1600%E2%80%931629)" title="Polish–Swedish War (1600–1629)">Polish–Swedish War of 1600–1629</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Swedish_War_(1600%E2%80%931611)" title="Polish–Swedish War (1600–1611)">Polish–Swedish War of 1600–1611</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kircholm" title="Battle of Kircholm">Battle of Kircholm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Swedish_War_(1617%E2%80%931618)" title="Polish–Swedish War (1617–1618)">Polish–Swedish War of 1617–1618</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Swedish_War_(1621%E2%80%931625)" title="Polish–Swedish War (1621–1625)">Polish–Swedish War of 1621–1625</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Swedish_War_(1626%E2%80%931629)" title="Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629)">Polish–Swedish War of 1626–1629</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_War_of_1655%E2%80%931660" title="Northern War of 1655–1660">Northern War of 1655–1660</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)" title="Deluge (history)">The Deluge</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danzig_rebellion" title="Danzig rebellion">Danzig rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lubiesz%C3%B3w" title="Battle of Lubieszów">Battle of Lubieszów</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Danzig_(1577)" title="Siege of Danzig (1577)">Siege of Danzig (1577)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession_(1587%E2%80%931588)" title="War of the Polish Succession (1587–1588)">War of the Polish Succession (1587–1588)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Byczyna" title="Battle of Byczyna">Battle of Byczyna</a></li></ul></li> <li>1589 Tatar Invasion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosi%C5%84ski_uprising" title="Kosiński uprising">Kosiński uprising</a></li> <li>1593 Tatar Invasion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalyvaiko_Uprising" title="Nalyvaiko Uprising">Nalyvaiko Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldavian_Magnate_Wars" title="Moldavian Magnate Wars">Moldavian Magnate Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_(1609%E2%80%931618)" title="Polish–Russian War (1609–1618)">Polish–Russian War of 1609–1618</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Klushino" title="Battle of Klushino">Battle of Kłuszyn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zebrzydowski_rebellion" title="Zebrzydowski rebellion">Zebrzydowski rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Humenn%C3%A9" title="Battle of Humenné">Battle of Humenné</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ottoman_Wars" title="Polish–Ottoman Wars">Polish–Ottoman wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moldavian_campaign_(1497%E2%80%931499)" title="Moldavian campaign (1497–1499)">Moldavian campaign (1497–1499)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1620%E2%80%931621)" title="Polish–Ottoman War (1620–1621)">Polish–Ottoman War of 1620–1621</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Khotyn_(1621)" title="Battle of Khotyn (1621)">Battle of Chocim (1621)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1633%E2%80%931634)" title="Polish–Ottoman War (1633–1634)">Polish–Ottoman War of 1633–1634</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Cossack%E2%80%93Tatar_War_(1666%E2%80%931671)" title="Polish–Cossack–Tatar War (1666–1671)">Polish–Cossack–Tatar War (1666–1671)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1672%E2%80%931676)" title="Polish–Ottoman War (1672–1676)">Polish–Ottoman War of 1672–1676</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Khotyn_(1673)" title="Battle of Khotyn (1673)">Battle of Chocim (1673)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Turkish_War" title="Great Turkish War">Great Turkish War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1683%E2%80%931699)" title="Polish–Ottoman War (1683–1699)">War of the Holy League 1683–1699</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna" title="Battle of Vienna">Battle of Vienna</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1624 Tatar Invasion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhmaylo_uprising" title="Zhmaylo uprising">Zhmaylo uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fedorovych_uprising" title="Fedorovych uprising">Fedorovych uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_War" title="Smolensk War">Smolensk War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Smolensk_(1632%E2%80%931633)" title="Siege of Smolensk (1632–1633)">Siege of Smolensk (1632–1633)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavlyuk_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Pavlyuk uprising">Pavlyuk uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostryanyn_uprising" title="Ostryanyn uprising">Ostryanyn uprising</a></li> <li>1644 Tatar Invasion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Khmelnytsky Uprising</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berestechko" title="Battle of Berestechko">Battle of Berestechko</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Polish_War_(1654%E2%80%931667)" title="Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)">Russo–Polish War of 1654–1667</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession" title="War of the Polish Succession">War of the Polish Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Confederation" title="Bar Confederation">War of the Bar Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_of_1792" title="Polish–Russian War of 1792">Polish–Russian War of 1792</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising" title="Kościuszko Uprising">Kościuszko Uprising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1795%E2%80%931918)" title="History of Poland (1795–1918)">Poland partitioned</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denisko_uprising" title="Denisko uprising">Denisko uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition" title="War of the Fourth Coalition">War of the Fourth Coalition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition" title="War of the Fourth Coalition">Prussian campaign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition" title="War of the Fifth Coalition">War of the Fifth Coalition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Polish_War" title="Austro-Polish War">Austro-Polish War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition" title="War of the Sixth Coalition">War of the Sixth Coalition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">French invasion of Russia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_(1848)" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Poland uprising (1848)">Greater Poland uprising (1848)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">November Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_World_War_I" title="History of Poland during World War I">fighting in Poland</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Second Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">Polish–Ukrainian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)">Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Czechoslovak_War" title="Polish–Czechoslovak War">Polish–Czechoslovak War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Silesian_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="First Silesian Uprising">First Silesian Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Warsaw_(1920)" title="Battle of Warsaw (1920)">Battle of Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiev_offensive_(1920)" title="Kiev offensive (1920)">Kiev offensive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Silesian_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Silesian Uprising">Second Silesian Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_War" title="Polish–Lithuanian War">Polish–Lithuanian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Silesian_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Silesian Uprising">Third Silesian Uprising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">World War II in Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a></li> <li>Polish <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II"> resistance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Poland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Poland during World War II">contributions</a> during World War II</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_uprisings" title="Ghetto uprisings">Ghetto uprisings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto_uprising" title="Białystok Ghetto uprising">Białystok Ghetto uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_Ghetto_uprising" title="Częstochowa Ghetto uprising">Częstochowa Ghetto uprising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest">Operation Tempest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ostra_Brama" title="Operation Ostra Brama">Operation Ostra Brama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Lwów uprising">Lwów uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">People's Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racib%C3%B3rz_Conflict" title="Racibórz Conflict">Racibórz Conflict</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1989%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Poland (1989–present)">Third Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Uphold_Democracy" title="Operation Uphold Democracy">Operation Uphold Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 invasion of Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Iraq_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)">Occupation of Iraq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_aid_to_Ukraine_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="List of military aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War">Military aid to Ukraine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Armed_conflicts_involving_Russia_(including_Tsarist,_Imperial_and_Soviet_times)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Russian_conflicts" title="Template:Russian conflicts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Russian_conflicts" title="Template talk:Russian conflicts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Russian_conflicts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Russian conflicts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Armed_conflicts_involving_Russia_(including_Tsarist,_Imperial_and_Soviet_times)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Armed conflicts involving <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> times)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Russia" title="Military history of Russia">Military history of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Military history of the Russian Empire">Military history of the Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military history of the Soviet Union">Military history of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Military history of the Russian Federation">Military history of the Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces" title="Russian Armed Forces">Russian Armed Forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists by opponent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscovite%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Wars" title="Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars">Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Crimean_Wars" title="Russo-Crimean Wars">Russo-Crimean Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet-Finnish_wars" title="Soviet-Finnish wars">Soviet-Finnish wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Kazan_Wars" title="Russo-Kazan Wars">Russo-Kazan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_Wars" title="Russo-Persian Wars">Russo-Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_armed_conflicts_involving_Poland_against_Russia" title="List of armed conflicts involving Poland against Russia">Russo-Polish Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_between_Russia_and_Sweden" title="List of wars between Russia and Sweden">Russo-Swedish wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russo-Turkish_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Russo-Turkish wars">Russo-Turkish wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_between_Russia_and_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="List of wars between Russia and Ukraine">Russo-Ukrainian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Russia" title="List of wars involving Russia">List of wars involving Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of wars involving the Soviet Union">List of wars involving the Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battles_involving_the_Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="List of battles involving the Russian Federation">List of battles involving the Russian Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Internal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uprising_of_Bolotnikov" title="Uprising of Bolotnikov">Uprising of Bolotnikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razin%27s_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Razin's Rebellion">Razin's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulavin_Rebellion" title="Bulavin Rebellion">Bulavin Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pugachev%27s_Rebellion" title="Pugachev's Rebellion">Pugachev's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decembrist_revolt" title="Decembrist revolt">Decembrist revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Uprising" title="August Uprising">August Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">Coup attempt (1991)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_Russian_constitutional_crisis" title="1993 Russian constitutional crisis">1993 Russian constitutional crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">First Chechen War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Dagestan" class="mw-redirect" title="War of Dagestan">War of Dagestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">Second Chechen War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_the_North_Caucasus" title="Insurgency in the North Caucasus">Insurgency in the North Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagner_Group_rebellion" title="Wagner Group rebellion">Wagner Group rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tsardom of<br />Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Crimean_Wars" title="Russo-Crimean Wars">Russo-Crimean Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Kazan_Wars" title="Russo-Kazan Wars">Russo-Kazan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1554%E2%80%931557)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1554–1557)">Russo-Swedish War (1554–1557)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_War" title="Livonian War">Livonian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">Russian Conquest of Siberia (1580–1747)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1568%E2%80%931570)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)">Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1590%E2%80%931595)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595)">Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Muscovite_War_(1605%E2%80%931618)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)">Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Time_of_Troubles" title="Time of Troubles">Time of Troubles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_War" title="Ingrian War">Ingrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_War" title="Smolensk War">Smolensk War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1651%E2%80%931653)" title="Russo-Persian War (1651–1653)">Russo-Persian War (1651–1653)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts (1652–1689)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Polish_War_(1654%E2%80%931667)" title="Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)">Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Northern_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Northern War">Second Northern War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1676%E2%80%931681)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681)">Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1686%E2%80%931700)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)">Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th–19th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1710%E2%80%931711)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711)">Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1722%E2%80%931723)" title="Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)">Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession" title="War of the Polish Succession">War of the Polish Succession</a> (1733–1738)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Russian%E2%80%93Turkish_War_(1735%E2%80%931739)" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)">Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> (1740–1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1741%E2%80%931743)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743)">Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Confederation" title="Bar Confederation">Bar Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1787%E2%80%931792)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)">Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1788%E2%80%931790)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790)">Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_of_1792" title="Polish–Russian War of 1792">Russo-Polish War (1792)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_North_America" title="Russian colonization of North America">Russian colonization of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising" title="Kościuszko Uprising">Kościuszko Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Expedition_of_1796" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Expedition of 1796">Russo-Persian War (1796)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">War of the Second Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Third_Coalition" title="War of the Third Coalition">War of the Third Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1804%E2%80%931813)" title="Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)">Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition" title="War of the Fourth Coalition">War of the Fourth Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1806%E2%80%931812)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)">Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_War_(1807%E2%80%931812)" title="Anglo-Russian War (1807–1812)">Anglo-Russian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_War" title="Finnish War">Finnish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition" title="War of the Fifth Coalition">War of the Fifth Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">French invasion of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition" title="War of the Sixth Coalition">War of the Sixth Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Seventh_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Seventh Coalition">War of the Seventh Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_the_Caucasus" title="Russian conquest of the Caucasus">Russian conquest of the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_War" title="Caucasian War">Caucasian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Circassian_War" title="Russo-Circassian War">Russo-Circassian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murid_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Murid War">Murid War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1826%E2%80%931828)" title="Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)">Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1828%E2%80%931829)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)">Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">November Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungarian Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85land_War" title="Åland War">Åland War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">Amur Annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Central_Asia" title="Russian conquest of Central Asia">Russian conquest of Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Bukhara" title="Russian conquest of Bukhara">Russian conquest of Bukhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_campaign_of_1873" title="Khivan campaign of 1873">Khivan campaign of 1873</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Russian invasion of Manchuria">Russian invasion of Manchuria</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Tabriz" title="Russian occupation of Tabriz">Russian occupation of Tabriz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Robat_Karim" title="Battle of Robat Karim">Battle of Robat Karim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Ukrainian–Soviet War">Ukrainian–Soviet War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1919_Soviet_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="1919 Soviet invasion of Ukraine">1919 Soviet invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alash_Autonomy" title="Alash Autonomy">Kazakhstan Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sochi_conflict" title="Sochi conflict">Sochi conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heimosodat" title="Heimosodat">Heimosodat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_westward_offensive_of_1918%E2%80%931919" title="Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919">Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Lithuanian–Soviet War">Lithuanian–Soviet War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict (1918–1920)">Georgian–Ossetian conflict (1918–1920)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Azerbaijan" title="Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan">Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Armenia" title="Red Army invasion of Armenia">Red Army invasion of Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Red Army invasion of Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_intervention_in_Mongolia" title="Soviet intervention in Mongolia">Red Army intervention in Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Karelian_uprising" title="East Karelian uprising">East Karelian uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basmachi_movement" title="Basmachi movement">Central Asian Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Uprising" title="August Uprising">August Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urtatagai_conflict_(1925%E2%80%931926)" title="Urtatagai conflict (1925–1926)">Urtatagai conflict (1925–1926)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_intervention_in_Afghanistan_(1929)" title="Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1929)">Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1929)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_intervention_in_Afghanistan_(1930)" title="Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1930)">Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1930)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chechen_uprising_of_1932&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chechen uprising of 1932 (page does not exist)">Chechen uprising of 1932</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B5_1932_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Восстание в Чечне 1932 года">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">Soviet–Japanese border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Xinjiang" title="Soviet invasion of Xinjiang">Soviet invasion of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_rebellion_in_Xinjiang_(1937)" title="Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937)">Xinjiang War (1937)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">Soviet invasion of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1940)" title="Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)">Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Latvia_in_1940" title="Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940">Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Continuation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front (World War II)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_re-occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1944)" title="Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)">Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_re-occupation_of_Latvia_in_1944" title="Soviet re-occupation of Latvia in 1944">Soviet re-occupation of Latvia in 1944</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Soviet–Japanese War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army#Soviet_Union" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Guerrilla war in Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_resistance_in_Poland_(1944%E2%80%931953)" title="Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1953)">Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1953)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ili_Rebellion" title="Ili Rebellion">Ili Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlora_incident" title="Vlora incident">Vlora incident</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_OMON_assaults_on_Lithuanian_border_posts" title="Soviet OMON assaults on Lithuanian border posts">Soviet OMON assaults on Lithuanian border posts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Abkhazia_(1992%E2%80%931993)" title="War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)">War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Ossetia_war_(1991%E2%80%931992)" title="South Ossetia war (1991–1992)">South Ossetia war (1991–1992)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Civil_War" title="Georgian Civil War">Georgian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Civil_War" title="Tajikistani Civil War">Tajikistani Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">First Chechen War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Dagestan" class="mw-redirect" title="War of Dagestan">War of Dagestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">Second Chechen War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War" title="Russo-Georgian War">Russo-Georgian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Outline of the Russo-Ukrainian War">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas" title="War in Donbas">War in Donbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war">Intervention in Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Libya_campaign" title="Western Libya campaign">Western Libya campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="Second Nagorno-Karabakh War">Deployment in Nagorno-Karabakh (2020)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Kazakh_unrest" title="2022 Kazakh unrest">Deployment in Kazakhstan (2022)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Winter" title="Russian Winter">Russian Winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">Sphere of influence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style 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