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id="toc-The_West_of_the_Mediterranean_Region_during_the_Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_West_of_the_Mediterranean_Region_during_the_Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 The West of the Mediterranean Region during the Antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_West_of_the_Mediterranean_Region_during_the_Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_birth_of_European_West_during_the_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_birth_of_European_West_during_the_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 The birth of European West during the Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_birth_of_European_West_during_the_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Later_Middle_Ages_(Rome_and_Reformation)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_Middle_Ages_(Rome_and_Reformation)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Later Middle Ages (Rome and Reformation) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_Middle_Ages_(Rome_and_Reformation)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion_of_the_West:_the_Era_of_Colonialism_(15th–20th_centuries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_of_the_West:_the_Era_of_Colonialism_(15th–20th_centuries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Expansion of the West: the Era of Colonialism (15th–20th centuries) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_of_the_West:_the_Era_of_Colonialism_(15th–20th_centuries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Early modern era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Industrial Revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Industrial_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Industrial_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Post-Industrial era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Industrial_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts_and_humanities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts_and_humanities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Arts and humanities </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arts_and_humanities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Arts and humanities subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Arts_and_humanities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Painting_and_photography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Painting_and_photography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Painting and photography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Painting_and_photography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dance_and_performing_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dance_and_performing_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Dance and performing arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dance_and_performing_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuisine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuisine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Cuisine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuisine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_and_technological_inventions_and_discoveries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_and_technological_inventions_and_discoveries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Scientific and technological inventions and discoveries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_and_technological_inventions_and_discoveries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Sport </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Themes_and_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Themes_and_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Themes and traditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Themes_and_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Western culture</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" > 48 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westerse_kultuur" title="Westerse kultuur – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Westerse kultuur" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الحضارة الغربية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحضارة الغربية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="পাশ্চাত্য সংস্কৃতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পাশ্চাত্য সংস্কৃতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Заходняя культура – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Заходняя культура" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="पच्छिमी संस्कृति – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="पच्छिमी संस्कृति" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%93%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%96%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%95%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%96%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%80%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%93%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="ནུབ་ཕྱོགས་རྒྱལ་ཁབ་ཀྱི་རིག་གནས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ནུབ་ཕྱོགས་རྒྱལ་ཁབ་ཀྱི་རིག་གནས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadna_kultura" title="Zapadna kultura – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Zapadna kultura" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_occidental" title="Cultura occidental – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cultura occidental" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1padn%C3%AD_kultura" title="Západní kultura – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Západní kultura" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Δυτικός πολιτισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δυτικός πολιτισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_occidental" title="Cultura occidental – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cultura occidental" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="فرهنگ غربی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرهنگ غربی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_occidentale" title="Société occidentale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Société occidentale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%9C%EC%96%91_%EB%AC%B8%ED%99%94" title="서양 문화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="서양 문화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D6%87%D5%B4%D5%BF%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B4%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B5%D5%A9" title="Արևմտյան մշակույթ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արևմտյան մշակույթ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="पश्चिमी संस्कृति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पश्चिमी संस्कृति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadna_kultura" title="Zapadna kultura – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zapadna kultura" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya_Barat" title="Budaya Barat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Budaya Barat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_occidental" title="Cultura occidental – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Cultura occidental" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_occidental" title="Cultura occidental – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Cultura occidental" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91" title="תרבות המערב – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תרבות המערב" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustaarabu_wa_magharibi" title="Ustaarabu wa magharibi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ustaarabu wa magharibi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_occidentalis" title="Cultura occidentalis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cultura occidentalis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rietumu_kult%C5%ABra" title="Rietumu kultūra – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rietumu kultūra" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultur_ueste" title="Cultur ueste – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Cultur ueste" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebudayaan_Barat" title="Kebudayaan Barat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kebudayaan Barat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya_Barat" title="Budaya Barat – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Budaya Barat" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westerse_cultuur" title="Westerse cultuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Westerse cultuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C%DA%81_%22%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C%22_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1" title="لویدیځ "غربی" کلتور – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لویدیځ "غربی" کلتور" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura_zachodnia" title="Kultura zachodnia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kultura zachodnia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_ocidental" title="Cultura ocidental – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cultura ocidental" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_occidental%C4%83" title="Cultura occidentală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cultura occidentală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Западная культура – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Западная культура" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura_per%C3%ABndimore" title="Kultura perëndimore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kultura perëndimore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Norms, values, customs and political systems of the Western world</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the 1979 album by Henry Cow, see <a href="/wiki/Western_Culture_(album)" title="Western Culture (album)">Western Culture (album)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg/220px-Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg/330px-Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg/440px-Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2258" data-file-height="3070" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Vitruvian_Man" title="Vitruvian Man">Vitruvian Man</a>, based on the correlations of ideal <a href="/wiki/Body_proportions" title="Body proportions">human proportions</a> with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> in Book III of his treatise <a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plato_Pio-Clemetino_Inv305.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Plato_Pio-Clemetino_Inv305.jpg/170px-Plato_Pio-Clemetino_Inv305.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Plato_Pio-Clemetino_Inv305.jpg/255px-Plato_Pio-Clemetino_Inv305.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Plato_Pio-Clemetino_Inv305.jpg/340px-Plato_Pio-Clemetino_Inv305.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1450" data-file-height="2200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, arguably the most influential figure in early <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>, has influenced virtually all of subsequent Western and Middle Eastern philosophy and theology</figcaption></figure> Western culture, also known as Western civilization, European civilization, Occidental culture, Western society, or simply the West, refers to the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">internally diverse culture</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>. The term "Western" encompasses the <a href="/wiki/Social_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Social norms">social norms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethical_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical value">ethical values</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">traditional customs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belief_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Belief systems">belief systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">political systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">artifacts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technologies</a> primarily rooted in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">European</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">Mediterranean</a> histories. A broad concept, "Western culture" does not relate to a region with fixed members or geographical confines. It generally refers to the classical era cultures of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> that expanded across the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_basin" title="Mediterranean basin">Mediterranean basin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, and later circulated around the world predominantly through <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Historically, scholars have closely associated the idea of Western culture with the classical era of <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman antiquity">Greco-Roman antiquity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-grecoroman1-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-grecoroman2-3">[3]</a> However, scholars also acknowledge that other cultures, like <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician city-states</a>, and several <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near-Eastern cultures</a> stimulated and influenced it.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> also promoted <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a>, blending Greek, Roman, and Jewish cultures. Major advances in literature, engineering, and science shaped the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Jewish</a> culture from which the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christianity" title="Jewish Christianity">earliest Christians</a> and the Greek <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> emerged.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The eventual <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a> of Europe in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late-antiquity</a> would ensure that <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, remained a dominant force in Western culture for many centuries to follow.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Western culture continued to develop during the Middle Ages as reforms triggered by the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_renaissances" title="Medieval renaissances">medieval renaissances</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">influence of the Islamic world</a> via <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Sicily">Sicily</a> (including the transfer of technology from the East, and <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">Latin translations</a> of <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Arabic texts on science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">philosophy</a> by Greek and Hellenic-influenced Islamic philosophers),<a href="#cite_note-Haskins-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sarton-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Burnett-15">[15]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> as <a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars</a> fleeing the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a> brought ancient Greek and Roman texts back to central and western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Geanakoplos_1989-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_during_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity during the Middle Ages">Medieval Christianity</a> is credited with creating the modern university,<a href="#cite_note-Rüegg,_Walter_1992-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-harnvb|Verger|1999-18">[18]</a> the modern hospital system,<a href="#cite_note-Risse_59-19">[19]</a> scientific economics,<a href="#cite_note-Schumpeter_1954-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-National_Review_Book_Service-21">[21]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> (which would later influence the creation of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>).<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> European culture developed a complex range of philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">medieval scholasticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">secular humanism</a>, setting the stage for the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> in the 16th century, which fundamentally altered religious and political life. Led by figures like <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and promoted ideas of <a href="/wiki/Individual_freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual freedom">individual freedom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_reform" title="Religious reform">religious reform</a>, paving the way for modern notions of <a href="/wiki/Personal_responsibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal responsibility">personal responsibility</a> and governance.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> in the 17th and 18th centuries shifted focus to <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Individual_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual rights">individual rights</a>, influencing <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">revolutions</a> across Europe and the Americas and the development of modern democratic institutions. Enlightenment thinkers advanced ideals of <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">political pluralism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical inquiry</a>, which, together with the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, transformed Western society. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the influence of Enlightenment <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> continued with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a>, while the Industrial Revolution fueled economic and technological growth. The expansion of <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movements" title="Civil rights movements">rights movements</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">decline of religious authority</a> marked significant cultural shifts. Tendencies that have come to define modern Western societies include the concept of <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">political pluralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>, prominent <a href="/wiki/Subcultures" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcultures">subcultures</a> or <a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">countercultures</a>, and increasing cultural <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> resulting from <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">immigration</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a></div> The West as a geographical area is unclear and undefined. There is some disagreement about which nations should or should not be included in the category, when, and why. Certainly related conceptual terminology has changed over time in scope, meaning, and use. The term "western" draws on an affiliation with, or a perception of, a shared <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">worldview</a>, political, and religious heritage grounded in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">legacy of the Roman Empire</a>, and medieval concepts of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>. For example, whether the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> (anachronistically/controversially referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire#Nomenclature" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire)</a>, or those countries heavily influenced by its legacy, should be counted as "Western" is an example of the possible ambiguity of the term. These questions[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] can be traced back to the affiliation between the <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">culture of ancient Rome</a> and that of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a>, a persistent <a href="/wiki/Greek_East_and_Latin_West" title="Greek East and Latin West">Greek East and Latin West</a> language-split within the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, and an eventual permanent splitting of the Roman Empire in 395 into <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire#Christianisation_and_partition_of_the_empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a> halves. And perhaps, at its worst,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] culminating in Pope Leo III's <a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">transfer of the Roman Empire</a> from the Eastern Roman Empire to the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Frankish</a> King <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire#Name_and_general_perception" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> in 800, the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a> of 1054, and the devastating <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> of 1204. Conversely, traditions of scholarship around <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a> had been forgotten in the Catholic west and were rediscovered by Italians from scholars fleeing the 1453 fall of the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Eastern Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Geanakoplos_1989-16">[16]</a> The subsequent <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, a conscious effort by Europeans to revive and surpass the ideas and achievements of the Greco-Roman world, eventually encouraged the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. Similarly, complicated relationships between virtually all the countries and regions within a broadly defined "West" can be discussed in the light of a persistently fragmented political landscape resulting in a lack of uniformity and significant diversity between the various cultures affiliating with this shared socio-cultural heritage. Thus, those cultures identifying with the West and with what it means to be "western" change over time as the geopolitical circumstances of a place changes and what is meant by the terminology changes. It is difficult to determine which individuals or places or trends fit into which category, and the East–West contrast is sometimes criticized as <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativistic</a> and arbitrary.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Globalization has spread Western ideas so widely that almost all modern cultures are, to some extent, influenced by aspects of Western culture. Stereotypical views of "the West" have been labeled "<a href="/wiki/Occidentalism" title="Occidentalism">Occidentalism</a>", paralleling "<a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalism</a>"—the term for the 19th-century stereotyped views of "the East". Some <a href="/wiki/Philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophers">philosophers</a> have questioned whether Western culture can be considered a historically sound, unified body of thought.<a href="#cite_note-Appiah2016-30">[30]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">Kwame Anthony Appiah</a> pointed out in 2016 that many of the fundamental influences on Western culture – such as those of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a> – are also shared by the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic world</a> to a certain extent.<a href="#cite_note-Appiah2016-30">[30]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>] Appiah argues that the origin of the Western and European <a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">identity</a> can be traced back to the 8th-century Muslim invasion of Europe via <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a>, when Christians would start to form a common Christian or European identity.<a href="#cite_note-Appiah2016-30">[30]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>] Contemporary Latin chronicles from Spain referred to the victors in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Franks" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of the Franks">Frankish</a> victory over the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a> at the 732 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours</a> as "Europeans" according to Appiah, denoting a shared sense of identity.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> A former, now less-acceptable synonym for "Western civilisation" was "the <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">white race</a>".<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> As Europeans discovered the extra-European world, old concepts adapted. The area that had formerly been considered the <a href="/wiki/Orient" title="Orient">Orient</a> ("the East") became the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> as the interests of the European powers interfered with <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiji Period">Meiji Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing China">Qing China</a> for the first time in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-davison-33">[33]</a> Thus the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">Sino-Japanese War</a> in 1894–1895 occurred in the "<a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a>" while troubles surrounding the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Ottoman Empire">decline of the Ottoman Empire</a> occurred simultaneously in the Near East.<a href="#cite_note-34">[a]</a> The term "Middle East" in the mid-19th century included the territory east of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> but west of China—<a href="/wiki/Greater_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Persia">Greater Persia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Greater India</a>—but is now used synonymously with "Near East" in most languages. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/80px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/120px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/160px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above sidebar-phi-above"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy_and_thinking" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy and thinking">Contents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Categories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_schools_and_traditions" title="Category:Philosophical schools and traditions">Philosophies</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_period" title="Category:Philosophy by period">By period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Indigenous American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">By religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The earliest <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilizations</a> which influenced the development of Western culture were those of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>; the area of the <a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a>, largely corresponding to modern-day <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, northeastern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, southeastern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and southwestern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">cradle of civilization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bronowski-35">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-36">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> similarly had a strong influence on Western culture. <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> mercantilism and the introduction of the Alphabetic script boosted state formation in the Aegean and current-day Italy and current-day Spain, spawning civilizations in the Mediterranean such as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Ancient Carthage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott201838–39-37">[36]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> contrasted themselves with both their <a href="/wiki/History_of_Anatolia" title="History of Anatolia">Eastern neighbours</a> (such as the <a href="/wiki/Troy" title="Troy">Trojans</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a>) as well as their Northern neighbours (who they considered <a href="/wiki/Barbarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarians">barbarians</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Concepts of what is the West arose out of legacies of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a> and the Eastern Roman Empire. Later, ideas of the West were formed by the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Greek_East_and_Latin_West" title="Greek East and Latin West">Latin Christendom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. What is thought of as Western thought today originates primarily from <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> and Christian traditions, with varying degrees of influence from the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a> peoples, and includes the ideals of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="The Renaissance">the Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_West_of_the_Mediterranean_Region_during_the_Antiquity">The West of the Mediterranean Region during the Antiquity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The West of the Mediterranean Region during the Antiquity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization (cultural)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alejandro_Magno,_Alexander_The_Great_Bust_Alexander_BM_1857_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Alejandro_Magno%2C_Alexander_The_Great_Bust_Alexander_BM_1857_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Alejandro_Magno%2C_Alexander_The_Great_Bust_Alexander_BM_1857_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Alejandro_Magno%2C_Alexander_The_Great_Bust_Alexander_BM_1857_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Alejandro_Magno%2C_Alexander_The_Great_Bust_Alexander_BM_1857_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Alejandro_Magno%2C_Alexander_The_Great_Bust_Alexander_BM_1857_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Alejandro_Magno%2C_Alexander_The_Great_Bust_Alexander_BM_1857_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1747" data-file-height="1949" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a>, North Africa and the Western regions of the Middle East were integral parts of the Western civilization, due to <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenization</a> and the direct cultural impact of the conquests of the Roman Empire. After the Roman conquests, the whole Mediterranean become essentially a Roman inland sea.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> While the concept of a "West" did not exist until the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, the roots of the concept can be traced back to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>. Since <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homeric</a> literature (the <a href="/wiki/Trojan_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Trojan Wars">Trojan Wars</a>), through the accounts of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Wars">Persian Wars</a> of <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> against <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persians</a> by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, and right up until the time of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, there was a <a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigm</a> of a contrast between Greeks and other civilizations.<a href="#cite_note-google-40">[39]</a> Greeks felt they were the most civilized and saw themselves (in the formulation of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>) as something between the advanced civilizations of the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> (who they viewed as soft and slavish) and the wild <a href="/wiki/Barbarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarians">barbarians</a> of most of Europe to the north. During this period writers like Herodotus and <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a> would highlight the importance of freedom in the Ancient Greek world, as opposed to the perceived slavery of the so-called barbaric world.<a href="#cite_note-google-40">[39]</a> Alexander's conquests led to the emergence of a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic civilization</a>, representing a synthesis of Greek and <a href="/wiki/Near-East" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-East">Near-Eastern</a> cultures in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> region.<a href="#cite_note-Green-41">[40]</a> The Near-Eastern civilizations of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, which came under Greek rule, became part of the Hellenistic world. The most important Hellenistic centre of learning was <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, which attracted Greek, <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptian</a>, Jewish, <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> and even <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">Indian</a> scholars.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> Hellenistic science, philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Classical_architecture" title="Classical architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical literature">literature</a> and art later provided a foundation embraced and built upon by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> as it swept up Europe and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">Mediterranean world</a>, including the Hellenistic world in its conquests in the 1st century BCE. Following the Roman conquest of the Hellenistic world, the concept of a "West" arose, as there was a cultural divide between the <a href="/wiki/Greek_East_and_Latin_West" title="Greek East and Latin West">Greek East and Latin West</a>. The Latin-speaking Western Roman Empire consisted of Western Europe and Northwest Africa, while the Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire consisted of the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. The "Greek" East was generally wealthier and more advanced than the "Latin" West.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] With the exception of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italia</a>, the wealthiest provinces of the Roman Empire were in the East, particularly Roman Egypt which was the wealthiest Roman province outside of Italia.<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a> Nevertheless, the Celts in the West created some significant literature in the ancient world whenever they were given the opportunity (an example being the poet <a href="/wiki/Caecilius_Statius" title="Caecilius Statius">Caecilius Statius</a>), and they developed a large amount of scientific knowledge themselves (as seen in their <a href="/wiki/Coligny_Calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="Coligny Calendar">Coligny Calendar</a>). <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maison_Carree_in_Nimes_(16).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Maison_Carree_in_Nimes_%2816%29.jpg/220px-Maison_Carree_in_Nimes_%2816%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Maison_Carree_in_Nimes_%2816%29.jpg/330px-Maison_Carree_in_Nimes_%2816%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Maison_Carree_in_Nimes_%2816%29.jpg/440px-Maison_Carree_in_Nimes_%2816%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4626" data-file-height="3248" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Maison_Carr%C3%A9e" class="mw-redirect" title="Maison Carrée">Maison Carrée</a> in <a href="/wiki/N%C3%AEmes" title="Nîmes">Nîmes</a>, one of the best-preserved <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Roman temples</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png/280px-Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png/420px-Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png/560px-Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png 2x" data-file-width="2534" data-file-height="1614" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (red) and its <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client states</a> (pink) at its greatest extent in 117 AD under emperor <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_330_CE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Roman_Empire_330_CE.png/280px-Roman_Empire_330_CE.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Roman_Empire_330_CE.png/420px-Roman_Empire_330_CE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Roman_Empire_330_CE.png/560px-Roman_Empire_330_CE.png 2x" data-file-width="2602" data-file-height="1393" /></a><figcaption>The Roman Empire in 330. The area in red shows the zone of influence of the Latin West, while the area in blue shows the eastern Greek part.</figcaption></figure> For about five hundred years, the Roman Empire maintained the <a href="/wiki/Greek_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek East">Greek East</a> and consolidated a Latin West, but an east–west division remained, reflected in many cultural norms of the two areas, including language. Eventually, the empire became increasingly split into a Western and Eastern part, reviving old ideas of a contrast between an advanced East, and a rugged West. From the time of Alexander the Great (the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>), Greek civilization came in contact with Jewish civilization. Christianity would eventually emerge from the <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(Greek_culture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenism (Greek culture)">Hellenic culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman culture">Roman culture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a>, gradually spreading across the Roman Empire and eclipsing its antecedents and influences.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> The Greek and Roman <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">paganism</a> was gradually replaced by Christianity, first with its legalisation with the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a> and then the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Thessalonica" title="Edict of Thessalonica">Edict of Thessalonica</a> which made it the <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">State church of the Roman Empire</a>. <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> Christianity, served as a unifying force in Christian parts of Europe, and in some respects replaced or competed with the secular authorities. The <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christian</a> tradition out of which it had emerged was all but extinguished, and <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> became increasingly entrenched or even integral to Christendom.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> Much of art and literature, law, education, and politics were preserved in the teachings of the Church. In a broader sense, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, with its fertile encounter between Greek philosophical <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a> and Levantine <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a> was not confined to the West but also stretched into the old East. The philosophy and science of Classical Greece were largely forgotten in Europe after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, other than in isolated monastic enclaves (notably in Ireland, which had become Christian but was never conquered by Rome).<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> The learning of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a> was better preserved in the Eastern Roman Empire. Justinian's <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> Roman civil law code was created in the East in his capital of Constantinople,<a href="#cite_note-The_Cambridge_Companion_to_Roman_La-49">[48]</a> and that city maintained trade and intermittent political control over outposts such as <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> in the West for centuries. Classical Greek learning was also subsumed, preserved, and elaborated in the rising Eastern world, which gradually supplanted Roman-Byzantine control as a dominant cultural-political force. Thus, much of the learning of classical antiquity was slowly reintroduced to European civilization in the centuries following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_birth_of_European_West_during_the_Middle_Ages">The birth of European West during the Middle Ages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The birth of European West during the Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanvitale03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Sanvitale03.jpg/220px-Sanvitale03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Sanvitale03.jpg/330px-Sanvitale03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Sanvitale03.jpg/440px-Sanvitale03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9228" data-file-height="5752" /></a><figcaption>Mosaic of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> with his court, circa 547–549, <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">Basilica of San Vitale</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a>, Italy)<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slovakia_region_Spis_33.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Slovakia_region_Spis_33.jpg/220px-Slovakia_region_Spis_33.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Slovakia_region_Spis_33.jpg/330px-Slovakia_region_Spis_33.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Slovakia_region_Spis_33.jpg/440px-Slovakia_region_Spis_33.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Two main symbols of the medieval Western civilization on one picture: the gothic <a href="/wiki/Spi%C5%A1sk%C3%A1_Kapitula_and_St._Martin%27s_Cathedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Spišská Kapitula and St. Martin's Cathedral">St. Martin's cathedral</a> in <a href="/wiki/Spi%C5%A1sk%C3%A9_Podhradie" title="Spišské Podhradie">Spišské Podhradie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Spi%C5%A1_Castle" title="Spiš Castle">Spiš Castle</a> behind the cathedral</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vezelay_WLM2016_La_basilique_Sainte-Marie-Madeleine_(3).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Vezelay_WLM2016_La_basilique_Sainte-Marie-Madeleine_%283%29.jpg/170px-Vezelay_WLM2016_La_basilique_Sainte-Marie-Madeleine_%283%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Vezelay_WLM2016_La_basilique_Sainte-Marie-Madeleine_%283%29.jpg/255px-Vezelay_WLM2016_La_basilique_Sainte-Marie-Madeleine_%283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Vezelay_WLM2016_La_basilique_Sainte-Marie-Madeleine_%283%29.jpg/340px-Vezelay_WLM2016_La_basilique_Sainte-Marie-Madeleine_%283%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="4203" /></a><figcaption>Stone bas-relief of Jesus, from the <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A9zelay_Abbey" title="Vézelay Abbey">Vézelay Abbey</a> (<a href="/wiki/Burgundy" title="Burgundy">Burgundy</a>, France)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Notre-Dame_de_Paris_2013-07-24.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Notre-Dame_de_Paris_2013-07-24.jpg/170px-Notre-Dame_de_Paris_2013-07-24.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Notre-Dame_de_Paris_2013-07-24.jpg/255px-Notre-Dame_de_Paris_2013-07-24.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Notre-Dame_de_Paris_2013-07-24.jpg/340px-Notre-Dame_de_Paris_2013-07-24.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3348" data-file-height="4519" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris" title="Notre-Dame de Paris">Notre-Dame</a>, the most iconic <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic</a> cathedral,<a href="#cite_note-CarlebachSchacter2011-51">[50]</a> built between 1163 and 1345</figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of Rome">fall of Rome</a>, much of Greco-Roman art, literature, science and even technology were all but lost in the western part of the old empire. However, this would become the center of a new West. Europe fell into political anarchy, with many warring kingdoms and principalities. Under the Frankish kings, it eventually, and partially, reunified, and the anarchy evolved into <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>. The Medieval West referred specifically to the Catholic "Latin" West, also called "Frankish" during <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>'s reign, in contrast to the Orthodox East, where Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire. The earliest recorded concept of Europe as a cultural sphere (instead of simply a geographic term) was formed by <a href="/wiki/Alcuin_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcuin of York">Alcuin of York</a> in the late 8th century during the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a>, limited to the territories that practised <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a> at the time. "European" as a cultural term did not include much of the territories where the Orthodox Church represented the dominant religion until the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> Much of the basis of the post-Roman cultural world had been set before the fall of the Western Roman Empire, mainly through the integration and reshaping of Roman ideas through Christian thought. The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a> founded many <a href="/wiki/Cathedrals" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathedrals">cathedrals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seminary" title="Seminary">seminaries</a>, some of which continue to exist today. After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of the Roman Empire">fall of the Roman Empire</a>, many of the classical Greek texts were translated into Arabic and preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Islamic world">medieval Islamic world</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Transmission_of_the_Greek_Classics" title="Transmission of the Greek Classics">Greek classics</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Arabic science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">philosophy</a> and technology were <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">transmitted to Western Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">translated into Latin</a>, sparking the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a> and 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-Haskins-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sarton-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Burnett-15">[15]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carlo_Crivelli_007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Carlo_Crivelli_007.jpg/170px-Carlo_Crivelli_007.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Carlo_Crivelli_007.jpg/255px-Carlo_Crivelli_007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Carlo_Crivelli_007.jpg/340px-Carlo_Crivelli_007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="3144" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Catholic_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic philosopher">Catholic philosopher</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, revived and developed natural law from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek philosophy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_during_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity during the Middle Ages">Medieval Christianity</a> is credited with creating the first modern universities.<a href="#cite_note-Rüegg,_Walter_1992-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-harnvb|Verger|1999-18">[18]</a> The Catholic Church established a hospital system in Medieval Europe that vastly improved upon the Roman valetudinaria<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a> and Greek healing temples.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a> These hospitals were established to cater to "particular social groups marginalized by poverty, sickness, and age," according to the historian of hospitals, Guenter Risse.<a href="#cite_note-Risse_59-19">[19]</a> Christianity played a role in ending practices common among pagan societies, such as human sacrifice, slavery,<a href="#cite_note-Chadwick,_Owen_p._242-55">[54]</a> infanticide and polygamy.<a href="#cite_note-Hastings,_p._309-56">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Vitoria" title="Francisco de Vitoria">Francisco de Vitoria</a>, a disciple of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> and a Catholic thinker who studied the issue regarding the human rights of colonized natives, is recognized by the United Nations as a father of international law, and now also by historians of economics and democracy as a leading light for the West's democracy and rapid economic development.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a>, an economist of the twentieth century, referring to the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastics</a>, wrote, "it is they who come nearer than does any other group to having been the 'founders' of scientific economics."<a href="#cite_note-Schumpeter_1954-20">[20]</a> The rediscovery of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Justinian Code</a> in Western Europe early in the 10th century rekindled a passion for the discipline of law, which crossed many of the re-forming boundaries between East and West. In the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> west, <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> became the foundation on which all legal concepts and systems were based. Its influence is found in all Western legal systems, although in different manners and to different extents. The study of <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a>, the legal system of the Catholic Church, fused with that of Roman law to form the basis of the refounding of Western legal scholarship. From <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>, through the Middle Ages, and onwards, while Eastern Europe was shaped by the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, Southern and Central Europe were increasingly stabilized by the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> which, as Roman imperial governance faded from view, was the only consistent force in Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Koch_1994-58">[57]</a> In 1054 came the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a> that, following the <a href="/wiki/Greek_East_and_Latin_West" title="Greek East and Latin West">Greek East and Latin West</a> divide, separated Europe into religious and cultural regions present to this day. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Later_Middle_Ages_(Rome_and_Reformation)">Later Middle Ages (Rome and Reformation)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Later Middle Ages (Rome and Reformation)">edit</a>]</div> In the 14th century, the Renaissance starting from Italy and then spreading throughout Europe,<a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a> there was a massive artistic, architectural, scientific and philosophical revival, as a result of the Christian revival of Greek philosophy, and the long Christian medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities.<a href="#cite_note-Grant9-60">[59]</a> This period is commonly referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. In the following century, this process was further enhanced by an exodus of Greek Christian priests and <a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">scholars</a> to Italian cities such as <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> after the end of the Byzantine Empire with the fall of Constantinople. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Landing_of_Columbus_(2)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Landing_of_Columbus_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Landing_of_Columbus_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Landing_of_Columbus_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Landing_of_Columbus_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Landing_of_Columbus_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Landing_of_Columbus_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2968" data-file-height="1971" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">arrives at the New World</a>.</figcaption></figure> Until the Age of Enlightenment,<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Christian culture</a> took over as the predominant force in Western civilization, guiding the course of philosophy, art, and science for many years.<a href="#cite_note-Koch_1994-58">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> Movements in art and philosophy, such as the <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanist</a> movement of the Renaissance and the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastic</a> movement of the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>, were motivated by a drive to connect <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a> with Greek and Arab thought imported by Christian pilgrims.<a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a> However, due to the division in <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a> caused by the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> and the Enlightenment, religious influence—especially the temporal power of the Pope—began to wane.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> During the Reformation and Enlightenment, the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">equality</a> before the law, <a href="/wiki/Procedural_justice" title="Procedural justice">procedural justice</a>, and democracy as the ideal form of society began to be institutionalized as principles forming the basis of modern Western culture, particularly in Protestant regions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion_of_the_West:_the_Era_of_Colonialism_(15th–20th_centuries)">Expansion of the West: the Era of Colonialism (15th–20th centuries)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Expansion of the West: the Era of Colonialism (15th–20th centuries)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constitution_of_the_United_States,_page_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg/170px-Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg/255px-Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg/340px-Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7258" data-file-height="8785" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_modern_era">Early modern era</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early modern era">edit</a>]</div> From the late 15th century to the 17th century, Western culture began to spread to other parts of the world through explorers and missionaries during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>, and by <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialists</a> from the 17th century to the early 20th century. During the <a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a>, a term coined by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Samuel Huntington</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank2001-68">[67]</a> the Western world overcame pre-modern growth constraints and emerged during the 19th century as the most powerful and wealthy world <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a> of the time, eclipsing <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Tokugawa Japan</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. The process was accompanied and reinforced by the Age of Discovery and continued into the modern period. Scholars have proposed a wide variety of theories to explain why the Great Divergence happened, including lack of government intervention, geography, colonialism, and customary traditions. The <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> faded into the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> of the 18th century, during which cultural and intellectual forces in European society emphasized reason, analysis, and individualism rather than traditional lines of authority. It challenged the authority of institutions that were deeply rooted in society, such as the Catholic Church; there was much talk of ways to reform society with toleration, science and <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a>. Philosophers of the Enlightenment included <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> (1694–1778), <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>,<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a> who influenced society by publishing widely read works. Upon learning about enlightened views, some rulers met with intellectuals and tried to apply their reforms, such as allowing for toleration, or accepting multiple religions, in what became known as <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">enlightened absolutism</a>. New ideas and beliefs spread around Europe and were fostered by an increase in literacy due to a departure from solely religious texts. Publications include <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a> (1751–72) that was edited by <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">Jean le Rond d'Alembert</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_philosophique" title="Dictionnaire philosophique">Dictionnaire philosophique</a> (Philosophical Dictionary, 1764) and <a href="/wiki/Letters_on_the_English" title="Letters on the English">Letters on the English</a> (1733) written by <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> spread the ideals of the Enlightenment. Coinciding with the Age of Enlightenment was the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolution</a>, spearheaded by Newton. This included the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">modern science</a>, during which developments in <a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics#Mathematics_during_the_Scientific_Revolution" title="History of mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_physics#Scientific_Revolution" title="History of physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy#Renaissance_Period" title="History of astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_biology#Renaissance_and_early_modern_developments" title="History of biology">biology</a> (including <a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">human anatomy</a>) and <a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry#17th_and_18th_centuries:_Early_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">chemistry</a> transformed views of society and nature.<a href="#cite_note-Galileo-70">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-Moody-71">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-Clagett-72">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hannam,_James_2011_p._342-73">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grant-74">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] While its dates are disputed, the publication in 1543 of <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>'s <a href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium" title="De revolutionibus orbium coelestium">De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</a> (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is often cited as marking the beginning of the scientific revolution, and its completion is attributed to the "grand synthesis" of Newton's 1687 <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Industrial_Revolution">Industrial Revolution</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Industrial Revolution">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water power</a>, the increasing use of <a href="/wiki/Steam_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam power">steam power</a>, and the development of <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a> These transitions began in Great Britain and spread to Western Europe and North America within a few decades.<a href="#cite_note-Harvnb|Landes|1969-77">[76]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/220px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/330px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/440px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">Watt steam engine</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a>, made of iron and fueled primarily by coal, propelled the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain and the world.<a href="#cite_note-industrial-78">[77]</a></figcaption></figure> The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth-79">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Feinstein2014-80">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-SzreterMooney2014-81">[80]</a> The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes.<a href="#cite_note-revolution-82">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-google1-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rehabilitating_the_Industrial_Revolution-84">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-lorenzen-85">[84]</a> GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> economy,<a href="#cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution-86">[85]</a> while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies.<a href="#cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_''Past_and_Future''-87">[86]</a> Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals, plants<a href="#cite_note-ReviewOfCambridge-88">[87]</a> and fire. The First Industrial Revolution evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> in the transition years between 1840 and 1870, when technological and economic progress continued with the increasing adoption of steam transport (steam-powered railways, boats, and ships), the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the increasing use of machinery in steam-powered factories.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor_1951-89">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roe1916-90">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Industrial_era">Post-Industrial era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Post-Industrial era">edit</a>]</div> Tendencies that have come to define modern Western societies include the concept of <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">political pluralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>, prominent <a href="/wiki/Subcultures" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcultures">subcultures</a> or <a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">countercultures</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> movements) and increasing cultural <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> resulting from <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> and immigration. Western culture has been heavily influenced by the Renaissance, the Ages of <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Exploration">Discovery</a> and Enlightenment and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolutions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ScienceDaily-92">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-Khana-93">[92]</a> In the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Postchristianity" title="Postchristianity">Christianity declined</a> in influence in many Western countries, mostly in the European Union where some member states have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years,<a href="#cite_note-About_SecE-94">[93]</a> and also elsewhere. <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a> (separating religion from politics and science) increased. Christianity remains the dominant religion in the Western world, where 70% are Christians.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Christianity-95">[94]</a> The West went through a series of great cultural and social changes between 1945 and 1980. The emergent mass media (film, radio, television and recorded music) created a global culture that could ignore national frontiers. Literacy became almost universal, encouraging the growth of books, magazines and newspapers. The influence of cinema and radio remained, while televisions became near essentials in every home. By the mid-20th century, Western culture was exported worldwide, and the development and growth of international transport and telecommunication (such as <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable" title="Transatlantic telegraph cable">transatlantic cable</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">radiotelephone</a>) played a decisive role in modern globalization. The West has contributed a great many technological, political, philosophical, artistic and religious aspects to modern international culture: having been a crucible of <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a>, democracy, industrialisation; the first major civilisation to seek to <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolish slavery</a> during the 19th century, the first to <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">enfranchise women</a> (beginning in <a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasia</a> at the end of the 19th century) and the first to put to use such technologies as <a href="/wiki/Steam_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam power">steam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">electric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a>. The West invented cinema, television, the personal computer, the Internet and video games; developed sports such as soccer, <a href="/wiki/Cricket" title="Cricket">cricket</a>, <a href="/wiki/Golf" title="Golf">golf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tennis" title="Tennis">tennis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rugby_football" title="Rugby football">rugby</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basketball" title="Basketball">basketball</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Volleyball" title="Volleyball">volleyball</a>; and transported humans to an <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">astronomical object</a> for the first time with the 1969 <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> <a href="/wiki/Moon_Landing" class="mw-redirect" title="Moon Landing">Moon Landing</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arts_and_humanities">Arts and humanities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Arts and humanities">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Western canon</a></div></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg/220px-Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg/330px-Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg/440px-Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2346" data-file-height="2596" /></a><figcaption>Detail of the <a href="/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry" title="Bayeux Tapestry">Bayeux Tapestry</a> showing <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> (centre), his half-brothers <a href="/wiki/Robert,_Count_of_Mortain" title="Robert, Count of Mortain">Robert, Count of Mortain</a> (right) and <a href="/wiki/Odo,_Earl_of_Kent" class="mw-redirect" title="Odo, Earl of Kent">Odo</a>, Bishop of <a href="/wiki/Bayeux" title="Bayeux">Bayeux</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Duchy of Normandy</a> (left). The Bayeux tapestry is one of the supreme achievements of the Norman <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_art" title="Romanesque art">Romanesque</a>.</figcaption></figure> While dance, music, visual art, story-telling, and architecture are human universals, they are expressed in the West in certain characteristic ways.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-96">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Music">edit</a>]</div> In music, Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern Western musical notation to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church,<a href="#cite_note-Hall100-97">[96]</a> and an enormous body of religious music has been composed for it through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of European classical music and its many derivatives. The <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> style, which encompassed music, art, and architecture, was particularly encouraged by the post-Reformation Catholic Church as such forms offered a means of religious expression that was stirring and emotional, intended to stimulate religious fervor.<a href="#cite_note-Murray45-98">[97]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Symphony" title="Symphony">symphony</a>, concerto, <a href="/wiki/Sonata" title="Sonata">sonata</a>, opera, and <a href="/wiki/Oratorio" title="Oratorio">oratorio</a> have their origins in Italy. Many <a href="/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">musical instruments</a> developed in the West have come to see widespread use all over the world; among them are the guitar, violin, piano, <a href="/wiki/Pipe_organ" title="Pipe organ">pipe organ</a>, saxophone, trombone, clarinet, <a href="/wiki/Accordion" title="Accordion">accordion</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Theremin" title="Theremin">theremin</a>. In turn, it has been claimed that some European instruments have roots in earlier Eastern instruments that were <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">adopted from the medieval Islamic world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sachs260-99">[98]</a> The solo piano, <a href="/wiki/Symphony_orchestra" class="mw-redirect" title="Symphony orchestra">symphony orchestra</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/String_quartet" title="String quartet">string quartet</a> are also significant musical innovations of the West. <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bernardo_Strozzi_-_Claudio_Monteverdi_(c.1630).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Claudio Monteverdi, 1567–1643"><img alt="Claudio Monteverdi, 1567–1643" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Bernardo_Strozzi_-_Claudio_Monteverdi_%28c.1630%29.jpg/136px-Bernardo_Strozzi_-_Claudio_Monteverdi_%28c.1630%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="136" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Bernardo_Strozzi_-_Claudio_Monteverdi_%28c.1630%29.jpg/204px-Bernardo_Strozzi_-_Claudio_Monteverdi_%28c.1630%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Bernardo_Strozzi_-_Claudio_Monteverdi_%28c.1630%29.jpg/272px-Bernardo_Strozzi_-_Claudio_Monteverdi_%28c.1630%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1648" data-file-height="2060" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Claudio_Monteverdi" title="Claudio Monteverdi">Claudio Monteverdi</a>, 1567–1643</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Vivaldi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antonio Lucio Vivaldi, 1678–1741"><img alt="Antonio Lucio Vivaldi, 1678–1741" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Vivaldi.jpg/138px-Vivaldi.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Vivaldi.jpg/207px-Vivaldi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Vivaldi.jpg/276px-Vivaldi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1595" data-file-height="1966" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Lucio_Vivaldi" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonio Lucio Vivaldi">Antonio Lucio Vivaldi</a>, 1678–1741</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Georg_Friedrich_H%C3%A4ndel.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="George Frideric Handel, 1685–1759"><img alt="George Frideric Handel, 1685–1759" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Georg_Friedrich_H%C3%A4ndel.jpg/142px-Georg_Friedrich_H%C3%A4ndel.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Georg_Friedrich_H%C3%A4ndel.jpg/212px-Georg_Friedrich_H%C3%A4ndel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Georg_Friedrich_H%C3%A4ndel.jpg/283px-Georg_Friedrich_H%C3%A4ndel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="708" data-file-height="850" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel" title="George Frideric Handel">George Frideric Handel</a>, 1685–1759</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bach.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Johann Sebastian Bach, 1685–1750"><img alt="Johann Sebastian Bach, 1685–1750" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Bach.jpg/141px-Bach.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Bach.jpg/211px-Bach.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Bach.jpg/281px-Bach.jpg 2x" data-file-width="441" data-file-height="533" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Johann Sebastian Bach</a>, 1685–1750</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Haydn.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Franz Joseph Haydn, 1732–1809"><img alt="Franz Joseph Haydn, 1732–1809" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Joseph_Haydn.jpg/134px-Joseph_Haydn.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Joseph_Haydn.jpg/202px-Joseph_Haydn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Joseph_Haydn.jpg/269px-Joseph_Haydn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1264" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_Haydn" class="mw-redirect" title="Franz Joseph Haydn">Franz Joseph Haydn</a>, 1732–1809</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Wolfgang-amadeus-mozart_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, 1756–1791"><img alt="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, 1756–1791" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Wolfgang-amadeus-mozart_1.jpg/133px-Wolfgang-amadeus-mozart_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Wolfgang-amadeus-mozart_1.jpg/199px-Wolfgang-amadeus-mozart_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Wolfgang-amadeus-mozart_1.jpg/265px-Wolfgang-amadeus-mozart_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2996" data-file-height="3840" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a>, 1756–1791</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Karl_Stieler%27s_Beethoven_mit_dem_Manuskript_der_Missa_solemnis.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ludwig van Beethoven, 1770–1827"><img alt="Ludwig van Beethoven, 1770–1827" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Joseph_Karl_Stieler%27s_Beethoven_mit_dem_Manuskript_der_Missa_solemnis.jpg/136px-Joseph_Karl_Stieler%27s_Beethoven_mit_dem_Manuskript_der_Missa_solemnis.jpg" decoding="async" width="136" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Joseph_Karl_Stieler%27s_Beethoven_mit_dem_Manuskript_der_Missa_solemnis.jpg/205px-Joseph_Karl_Stieler%27s_Beethoven_mit_dem_Manuskript_der_Missa_solemnis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Joseph_Karl_Stieler%27s_Beethoven_mit_dem_Manuskript_der_Missa_solemnis.jpg/273px-Joseph_Karl_Stieler%27s_Beethoven_mit_dem_Manuskript_der_Missa_solemnis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4330" data-file-height="5389" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a>, 1770–1827</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chopin,_by_Wodzinska.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Frédéric François Chopin, 1810–1849"><img alt="Frédéric François Chopin, 1810–1849" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Chopin%2C_by_Wodzinska.JPG/126px-Chopin%2C_by_Wodzinska.JPG" decoding="async" width="126" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Chopin%2C_by_Wodzinska.JPG/189px-Chopin%2C_by_Wodzinska.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Chopin%2C_by_Wodzinska.JPG/252px-Chopin%2C_by_Wodzinska.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1584" data-file-height="2136" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Fran%C3%A7ois_Chopin" class="mw-redirect" title="Frédéric François Chopin">Frédéric François Chopin</a>, 1810–1849</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Liszt-kaulbach.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Franz Liszt, 1811–1886"><img alt="Franz Liszt, 1811–1886" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Liszt-kaulbach.jpg/137px-Liszt-kaulbach.jpg" decoding="async" width="137" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Liszt-kaulbach.jpg/206px-Liszt-kaulbach.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Liszt-kaulbach.jpg/275px-Liszt-kaulbach.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="990" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Franz Liszt</a>, 1811–1886</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Painting_and_photography">Painting and photography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Painting and photography">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Eyck" title="Jan van Eyck">Jan van Eyck</a>, among other renaissance painters, made great advances in <a href="/wiki/Oil_painting" title="Oil painting">oil painting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Perspective_(graphical)" title="Perspective (graphical)">perspective</a> drawings and paintings had their earliest practitioners in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> In art, the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_knot" title="Celtic knot">Celtic knot</a> is a very distinctive Western repeated motif. Depictions of the nude human male and female in photography, painting, and sculpture are frequently considered to have special artistic merit. Realistic <a href="/wiki/Portrait" title="Portrait">portraiture</a> is especially valued. Photography and the motion picture as both a technology and basis for entirely new art forms were also developed in the West. <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Cubiculum_(bedroom)_from_the_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor_at_Boscoreale_MET_DP170950.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Restoration of a fresco from an Ancient Roman villa bedroom, circa 50–40 BC, dimensions of the room: 265.4 × 334 × 583.9 cm, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)"><img alt="Restoration of a fresco from an Ancient Roman villa bedroom, circa 50–40 BC, dimensions of the room: 265.4 × 334 × 583.9 cm, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cubiculum_%28bedroom%29_from_the_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor_at_Boscoreale_MET_DP170950.jpg/170px-Cubiculum_%28bedroom%29_from_the_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor_at_Boscoreale_MET_DP170950.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cubiculum_%28bedroom%29_from_the_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor_at_Boscoreale_MET_DP170950.jpg/255px-Cubiculum_%28bedroom%29_from_the_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor_at_Boscoreale_MET_DP170950.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cubiculum_%28bedroom%29_from_the_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor_at_Boscoreale_MET_DP170950.jpg/340px-Cubiculum_%28bedroom%29_from_the_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor_at_Boscoreale_MET_DP170950.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3945" data-file-height="1880" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Restoration of a fresco from an Ancient Roman villa bedroom, circa 50–40 BC, dimensions of the room: 265.4 × 334 × 583.9 cm, in the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mona_Lisa,_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1503 – 1506, perhaps continuing until circa 1517, oil on poplar panel, 77 cm × 53 cm, Louvre (Paris)"><img alt="Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1503 – 1506, perhaps continuing until circa 1517, oil on poplar panel, 77 cm × 53 cm, Louvre (Paris)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/114px-Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg" decoding="async" width="114" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/171px-Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/228px-Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7479" data-file-height="11146" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Mona_Lisa" title="Mona Lisa">Mona Lisa</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, c. 1503 – 1506, perhaps continuing until circa 1517, oil on poplar panel, 77 cm × 53 cm, <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a> (Paris)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Las_Meninas,_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez,_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Las Meninas, by Diego Velázquez, 1656, oil on canvas, 318 cm × 276 cm, El Prado (Madrid)"><img alt="Las Meninas, by Diego Velázquez, 1656, oil on canvas, 318 cm × 276 cm, El Prado (Madrid)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Las_Meninas%2C_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg/148px-Las_Meninas%2C_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg" decoding="async" width="148" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Las_Meninas%2C_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg/221px-Las_Meninas%2C_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Las_Meninas%2C_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg/295px-Las_Meninas%2C_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="26065" data-file-height="30000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Las_Meninas" title="Las Meninas">Las Meninas</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez" title="Diego Velázquez">Diego Velázquez</a>, 1656, oil on canvas, 318 cm × 276 cm, <a href="/wiki/Museo_del_Prado" title="Museo del Prado">El Prado</a> (Madrid)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pierre-Auguste_Renoir,_Le_Moulin_de_la_Galette.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dance at Le moulin de la Galette, by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1876, oil on canvas, height: 131 cm, Musée d'Orsay (Paris)"><img alt="Dance at Le moulin de la Galette, by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1876, oil on canvas, height: 131 cm, Musée d'Orsay (Paris)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pierre-Auguste_Renoir%2C_Le_Moulin_de_la_Galette.jpg/170px-Pierre-Auguste_Renoir%2C_Le_Moulin_de_la_Galette.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pierre-Auguste_Renoir%2C_Le_Moulin_de_la_Galette.jpg/255px-Pierre-Auguste_Renoir%2C_Le_Moulin_de_la_Galette.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pierre-Auguste_Renoir%2C_Le_Moulin_de_la_Galette.jpg/340px-Pierre-Auguste_Renoir%2C_Le_Moulin_de_la_Galette.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1639" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Bal_du_moulin_de_la_Galette" title="Bal du moulin de la Galette">Dance at Le moulin de la Galette</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Auguste_Renoir" title="Pierre-Auguste Renoir">Pierre-Auguste Renoir</a>, 1876, oil on canvas, height: 131 cm, <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Orsay" title="Musée d'Orsay">Musée d'Orsay</a> (Paris)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Atget_Int%C3%A9rieur_d%27un_ouvrier_rue_de_Romainville_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Photo of the interior of the apartment of Eugène Atget, taken in 1910 in Paris"><img alt="Photo of the interior of the apartment of Eugène Atget, taken in 1910 in Paris" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Atget_Int%C3%A9rieur_d%27un_ouvrier_rue_de_Romainville_%28cropped%29.jpg/136px-Atget_Int%C3%A9rieur_d%27un_ouvrier_rue_de_Romainville_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="136" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Atget_Int%C3%A9rieur_d%27un_ouvrier_rue_de_Romainville_%28cropped%29.jpg/204px-Atget_Int%C3%A9rieur_d%27un_ouvrier_rue_de_Romainville_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Atget_Int%C3%A9rieur_d%27un_ouvrier_rue_de_Romainville_%28cropped%29.jpg/272px-Atget_Int%C3%A9rieur_d%27un_ouvrier_rue_de_Romainville_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="892" data-file-height="1115" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Photo of the interior of the apartment of <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Atget" title="Eugène Atget">Eugène Atget</a>, taken in 1910 in Paris</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:F._Champenois_imprimeur-%C3%A9diteur.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rêverie, by Alphonse Mucha, poster for the publishing house Champenois (1897)"><img alt="Rêverie, by Alphonse Mucha, poster for the publishing house Champenois (1897)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/F._Champenois_imprimeur-%C3%A9diteur.jpg/127px-F._Champenois_imprimeur-%C3%A9diteur.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/F._Champenois_imprimeur-%C3%A9diteur.jpg/191px-F._Champenois_imprimeur-%C3%A9diteur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/F._Champenois_imprimeur-%C3%A9diteur.jpg/254px-F._Champenois_imprimeur-%C3%A9diteur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5868" data-file-height="7849" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Rêverie, by <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_Mucha" title="Alphonse Mucha">Alphonse Mucha</a>, poster for the publishing house Champenois (1897)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dance_and_performing_arts">Dance and performing arts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Dance and performing arts">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Swanlake001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Swanlake001.jpg/170px-Swanlake001.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Swanlake001.jpg/255px-Swanlake001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Swanlake001.jpg/340px-Swanlake001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Classical music, opera and ballet: <a href="/wiki/Swan_Lake" title="Swan Lake">Swan Lake</a> pictured</figcaption></figure> The ballet is a distinctively Western form of performance dance.<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ballroom_dance" title="Ballroom dance">ballroom dance</a> is an important Western variety of dance for the elite. The <a href="/wiki/Polka" title="Polka">polka</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Square_dance" title="Square dance">square dance</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Flamenco" title="Flamenco">flamenco</a>, and the Irish <a href="/wiki/Step_dance" title="Step dance">step dance</a> are very well known Western forms of <a href="/wiki/Folk_dance" title="Folk dance">folk dance</a>. <a href="/wiki/Greek_theater" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek theater">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Roman theatre</a> are considered the antecedents of modern theatre, and forms such as <a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">medieval theatre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Passion_Play" title="Passion Play">Passion Plays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morality_play" title="Morality play">morality plays</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Commedia_dell%27arte" title="Commedia dell'arte">commedia dell'arte</a> are considered highly influential. <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_theater" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan theater">Elizabethan theatre</a>, with playwrights including <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe" title="Christopher Marlowe">Christopher Marlowe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson" title="Ben Jonson">Ben Jonson</a>, is considered one of the most formative and important eras for modern drama. The soap opera, a popular culture dramatic form, originated in the United States first on radio in the 1930s, then a couple of decades later on television. The music video was also developed in the West in the middle of the 20th century. Musical theatre was developed in the West in the 19th and 20th Centuries, from <a href="/wiki/Music_hall" title="Music hall">music hall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comic_opera" title="Comic opera">comic opera</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vaudeville" title="Vaudeville">Vaudeville</a>; with significant contributions from the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a>, <a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">African-Americans</a>, and other marginalized peoples.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Dante_Alighieri_-_Inferno_-_Plate_9_(Canto_III_-_Charon).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Dante_Alighieri_-_Inferno_-_Plate_9_%28Canto_III_-_Charon%29.jpg/170px-Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Dante_Alighieri_-_Inferno_-_Plate_9_%28Canto_III_-_Charon%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Dante_Alighieri_-_Inferno_-_Plate_9_%28Canto_III_-_Charon%29.jpg/255px-Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Dante_Alighieri_-_Inferno_-_Plate_9_%28Canto_III_-_Charon%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Dante_Alighieri_-_Inferno_-_Plate_9_%28Canto_III_-_Charon%29.jpg/340px-Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Dante_Alighieri_-_Inferno_-_Plate_9_%28Canto_III_-_Charon%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4696" data-file-height="6458" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poem</a> by <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>. Engraving by <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9" title="Gustave Doré">Gustave Doré</a>.</figcaption></figure> Western literature encompasses the literary traditions of Europe, as well as North America, Oceania and Latin America.<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a> While epic literary works in verse such as the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> and Homer's <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a> are ancient and occurred worldwide, the prose novel as a distinct form of storytelling, with developed, consistent human characters and, typically, some connected overall plot (although both of these characteristics have sometimes been modified and played with in later times), was popularized by the West<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> in the 17th and 18th centuries. Of course, extended prose fiction had existed much earlier; both novels of adventure and romance in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> world and in <a href="/wiki/Heian_period" title="Heian period">Heian</a> Japan. Both <a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a>' <a href="/wiki/Satyricon" title="Satyricon">Satyricon</a> (c. 60 CE) and the <a href="/wiki/Tale_of_Genji" class="mw-redirect" title="Tale of Genji">Tale of Genji</a> by <a href="/wiki/Murasaki_Shikibu" title="Murasaki Shikibu">Murasaki Shikibu</a> (c. 1000 CE) have been cited as the world's first major novel but they had a very limited long-term impact on literary writing beyond their own day until much more recent times. The novel, which made its appearance in the 18th century, is an essentially European creation. Chinese and Japanese literature contain some works that may be thought of as novels, but only the European novel is couched in terms of a personal analysis of personal dilemmas.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-96">[95]</a> As in its artistic tradition, European literature pays deep tribute to human suffering.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-96">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a>, from its ritually and mythologically inspired Greek origins to modern forms where struggle and downfall are often rooted in psychological or social, rather than mythical, motives, is also widely considered a specifically European creation and can be seen as a forerunner of some aspects of both the novel and of classical opera. The validity of reason was postulated in both <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a> and the Greco-Roman classics.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-96">[95]</a> Christianity laid a stress on the inward aspects of actions and on motives, notions that were foreign to the ancient world. This subjectivity, which grew out of the Christian belief that man could achieve a personal union with God, resisted all challenges and made itself the fulcrum on which all literary exposition turned, including the 20th–21st century novels.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-96">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Architecture">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Western_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Western culture">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2022) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Important Western architectural motifs include the <a href="/wiki/Doric_order" title="Doric order">Doric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_order" title="Corinthian order">Corinthian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ionic_order" title="Ionic order">Ionic</a> orders of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">Greek architecture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baroque_architecture" title="Baroque architecture">Baroque</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Victorian_architecture" title="Victorian architecture">Victorian</a> styles, which are still widely recognized and used in contemporary Western architecture. Much of Western architecture emphasizes repetition of simple motifs, straight lines and expansive, undecorated planes. A modern ubiquitous architectural form that emphasizes this characteristic is the <a href="/wiki/Skyscraper" title="Skyscraper">skyscraper</a>, their modern equivalent first developed in New York and Chicago. The predecessor of the skyscraper can be found in the <a href="/wiki/Towers_of_Bologna" title="Towers of Bologna">medieval towers erected in Bologna</a>. <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Parthenon-2008_entzerrt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Parthenon under restoration in 2008, the most iconic Classical building, built from 447 BC to 432 BC, located in Athens"><img alt="The Parthenon under restoration in 2008, the most iconic Classical building, built from 447 BC to 432 BC, located in Athens" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Parthenon-2008_entzerrt.jpg/170px-Parthenon-2008_entzerrt.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Parthenon-2008_entzerrt.jpg/255px-Parthenon-2008_entzerrt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Parthenon-2008_entzerrt.jpg/340px-Parthenon-2008_entzerrt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3906" data-file-height="2865" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a> under restoration in 2008, the most iconic <a href="/wiki/Classical_architecture" title="Classical architecture">Classical</a> building, built from 447 BC to 432 BC, located in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Angoul%C3%AAme_16_Fa%C3%A7ade_cath%C3%A9drale_2014.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The facade of Angoulême Cathedral was built between 1110 and 1128 in the Romanesque style."><img alt="The facade of Angoulême Cathedral was built between 1110 and 1128 in the Romanesque style." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Angoul%C3%AAme_16_Fa%C3%A7ade_cath%C3%A9drale_2014.JPG/120px-Angoul%C3%AAme_16_Fa%C3%A7ade_cath%C3%A9drale_2014.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Angoul%C3%AAme_16_Fa%C3%A7ade_cath%C3%A9drale_2014.JPG/180px-Angoul%C3%AAme_16_Fa%C3%A7ade_cath%C3%A9drale_2014.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Angoul%C3%AAme_16_Fa%C3%A7ade_cath%C3%A9drale_2014.JPG/240px-Angoul%C3%AAme_16_Fa%C3%A7ade_cath%C3%A9drale_2014.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2992" data-file-height="4228" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The facade of <a href="/wiki/Angoul%C3%AAme_Cathedral" title="Angoulême Cathedral">Angoulême Cathedral</a> was built between 1110 and 1128 in the <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque</a> style.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stained glass windows of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, completed in 1248, mostly constructed between 1194 and 1220 in the Gothic style"><img alt="Stained glass windows of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, completed in 1248, mostly constructed between 1194 and 1220 in the Gothic style" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg/170px-Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg/255px-Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg/340px-Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5904" data-file-height="3936" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Stained glass windows of the <a href="/wiki/Sainte-Chapelle" title="Sainte-Chapelle">Sainte-Chapelle</a> in Paris, completed in 1248, mostly constructed between 1194 and 1220 in the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic</a> style</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Palais_Farnese.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Palazzo Farnese, in Rome, built from 1534 to 1545, was designed by Sangallo and Michelangelo and is an important example of renaissance architecture."><img alt="The Palazzo Farnese, in Rome, built from 1534 to 1545, was designed by Sangallo and Michelangelo and is an important example of renaissance architecture." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Palais_Farnese.jpg/170px-Palais_Farnese.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Palais_Farnese.jpg/255px-Palais_Farnese.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Palais_Farnese.jpg/340px-Palais_Farnese.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3263" data-file-height="2447" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Farnese" title="Palazzo Farnese">Palazzo Farnese</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, built from 1534 to 1545, was designed by <a href="/wiki/Antonio_da_Sangallo_the_Younger" title="Antonio da Sangallo the Younger">Sangallo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a> and is an important example of <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">renaissance architecture</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Paris_Opera_full_frontal_architecture,_May_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Palais Garnier in Paris, built between 1861 and 1875, a Beaux-Arts masterpiece"><img alt="The Palais Garnier in Paris, built between 1861 and 1875, a Beaux-Arts masterpiece" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Paris_Opera_full_frontal_architecture%2C_May_2009.jpg/170px-Paris_Opera_full_frontal_architecture%2C_May_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Paris_Opera_full_frontal_architecture%2C_May_2009.jpg/255px-Paris_Opera_full_frontal_architecture%2C_May_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Paris_Opera_full_frontal_architecture%2C_May_2009.jpg/340px-Paris_Opera_full_frontal_architecture%2C_May_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2079" data-file-height="1397" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Palais_Garnier" title="Palais Garnier">Palais Garnier</a> in Paris, built between 1861 and 1875, a <a href="/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecture" title="Beaux-Arts architecture">Beaux-Arts</a> masterpiece</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cuisine">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Western_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Western cuisine">Western cuisine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_food" class="mw-redirect" title="Western food">Western food</a></div></dd></dl> Western <a href="/wiki/Foodways" title="Foodways">foodways</a> were, until recently, considered to have their roots in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">cuisines of Classical Rome</a> and Greece, but the influence of Arab and <a href="/wiki/Near_Eastern_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Near Eastern cuisine">Near Eastern cuisine</a> on the West has become a topic of research in recent decades. The <a href="/wiki/Crusaders" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusaders">Crusaders</a>, known mostly for fighting over holy land, settled in the Levant and acclimated to the local culture and cuisine. <a href="/wiki/Fulcher_of_Chartres" title="Fulcher of Chartres">Fulcher of Chartres</a> said "For we who were occidentals have now become orientals." These cultural experiences, carried back to France by notables like <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_of_Aquitaine" title="Eleanor of Aquitaine">Eleanor of Aquitaine</a> influenced Western European foodways. Many Oriental ingredients were relatively new to the Western lands. Sugar, almonds, pistachios, rosewater, and dried citrus fruits were all novelties to the Crusaders who encountered them in Saracen lands. Pepper, ginger and cinnamon were the most widely used spices of the European courts and noble households. By the end of the Middle Ages, <a href="/wiki/Cloves" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloves">cloves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">nutmeg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mastic_(plant_resin)" title="Mastic (plant resin)">mastic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galangal" title="Galangal">galingale</a>, and other imported spices had become part of the Western cuisine.<a href="#cite_note-Saracens-108">[107]</a> Saracen influence can be seen in medieval cookbooks. Some recipes retain their Arabic names in Italian translations of the <a href="/wiki/Liber_de_Coquina" title="Liber de Coquina">Liber de Coquina</a>. Known as bruet Sarassinois in the cuisine of North France, the concept of sweet and sour sauce is attested to in Greek tradition when <a href="/wiki/Anthimus_(physician)" title="Anthimus (physician)">Anthimus</a> finishes his stew with vinegar and honey. Saracens combined sweet ingredients like date-juice and honey with pomegranate, lemons and citrus juices, or other sour ingredients. The technique of browning pieces of meat and simmering in liquid with vegetables is used in many recipes from the <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Hasan_al-Baghdadi" title="Muhammad bin Hasan al-Baghdadi">Baghdad cookery book</a>. The same technique appears in the late-13th century <a href="/wiki/Viandier" class="mw-redirect" title="Viandier">Viandier</a>. Fried pieces of beef simmered in wine with sugar and cloves was called bruet of Sarcynesse in English.<a href="#cite_note-Saracens-108">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_and_technological_inventions_and_discoveries">Scientific and technological inventions and discoveries</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Scientific and technological inventions and discoveries">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Woman_teaching_geometry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Woman_teaching_geometry.jpg/220px-Woman_teaching_geometry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Woman_teaching_geometry.jpg/330px-Woman_teaching_geometry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Woman_teaching_geometry.jpg/440px-Woman_teaching_geometry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1039" data-file-height="1148" /></a><figcaption>Medieval Christians believed that to seek the geometric, physical and mathematical principles that govern the world was to seek and worship God. Detail of a scene in the bowl of the letter 'P' with a woman with a set-square and dividers; using a compass to measure distances on a diagram. In her left hand she holds a square, an implement for testing or drawing right angles. She is watched by a group of students. In the Middle Ages, it is unusual to see women represented as teachers, in particular when the students appear to be monks. She is most likely the personification of Geometry, based on Martianus Capella's famous book De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii [5th c.], a standard source for allegorical imagery of the seven liberal arts. Illustration at the beginning of Euclid's Elementa, in the translation attributed to Adelard of Bath.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dphil_gown.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Dphil_gown.jpg/170px-Dphil_gown.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Dphil_gown.jpg/255px-Dphil_gown.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Dphil_gown.jpg/340px-Dphil_gown.jpg 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption>A doctor of philosophy of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>, in full academic dress. The typical dress for graduation are gowns and hoods or hats adapted from the daily dress of university staff in the Middle Ages, which was in turn based on the attire worn by medieval clergy.<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antikythera_model_front_panel_Mogi_Vicentini_2007.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Antikythera_model_front_panel_Mogi_Vicentini_2007.JPG/170px-Antikythera_model_front_panel_Mogi_Vicentini_2007.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Antikythera_model_front_panel_Mogi_Vicentini_2007.JPG/255px-Antikythera_model_front_panel_Mogi_Vicentini_2007.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Antikythera_model_front_panel_Mogi_Vicentini_2007.JPG/340px-Antikythera_model_front_panel_Mogi_Vicentini_2007.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The Greek <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a> is generally referred to as the first known <a href="/wiki/Analogue_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Analogue computer">analogue computer</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buzz_salutes_the_U.S._Flag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Buzz_salutes_the_U.S._Flag.jpg/220px-Buzz_salutes_the_U.S._Flag.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Buzz_salutes_the_U.S._Flag.jpg/330px-Buzz_salutes_the_U.S._Flag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Buzz_salutes_the_U.S._Flag.jpg/440px-Buzz_salutes_the_U.S._Flag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3929" data-file-height="3967" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> astronaut <a href="/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin" title="Buzz Aldrin">Buzz Aldrin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Lunar_Module" title="Apollo Lunar Module">Apollo Lunar Module</a> pilot of the first crewed mission to land on the Moon, poses for a photograph beside the deployed <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">United States flag</a> during his Extravehicular Activity (EVA) on the lunar surface.</figcaption></figure> A notable feature of Western culture is its strong emphasis and focus on innovation and invention through science and technology, and its ability to generate new processes, materials and material artifacts with its roots dating back to the Ancient Greeks. The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> as "a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses" was fashioned by the 17th-century Italian <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>,<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a> with roots in the work of medieval scholars such as the 11th-century <a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Iraqi physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a><a href="#cite_note-news.bbc.co.uk-112">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a> and the 13th-century English friar <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a> By the <a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">will</a> of the Swedish inventor <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Nobel" title="Alfred Nobel">Alfred Nobel</a> the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prizes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prizes">Nobel Prizes</a> were established in 1895. The prizes in <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a> were first awarded in 1901.<a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a> The percentage of ethnically European Nobel prize winners during the first and second halves of the 20th century were respectively 98 and 94 percent.<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a> The West is credited with the development of the <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> and adapting its use into factories, and for the generation of <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">electric power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wiser-117">[116]</a> The electrical <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">motor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical generator">dynamo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">transformer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_light" title="Electric light">electric light</a>, and most of the familiar electrical appliances, were inventions of the West.<a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gordon-119">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bedell_(1942)-120">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-Freebert-121">[120]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Four-stroke_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Four-stroke cycle">Otto</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Diesel_engine" title="Diesel engine">Diesel</a> <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engines</a> are products whose genesis and early development were in the West.<a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a> stations are derived from the first <a href="/wiki/Atomic_pile" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic pile">atomic pile</a> constructed in Chicago in 1942.<a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a> Communication devices and systems including the <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraph</a>, the telephone, radio, television, <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">communications</a> and <a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite navigation system">navigation satellites</a>, mobile phone, and the Internet were all invented by Westerners.<a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-John_F._Mitchell_Biography-127">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-Who_invented_the_cell_phone-128">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-archive-131">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-sfmuseum-132">[131]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pencil" title="Pencil">pencil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ballpoint_pen" title="Ballpoint pen">ballpoint pen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">Cathode ray tube</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">liquid-crystal display</a>, <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diode</a>, camera, <a href="/wiki/Photocopier" title="Photocopier">photocopier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laser_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser printer">laser printer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ink_jet_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Ink jet printer">ink jet printer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasma_display" title="Plasma display">plasma display</a> screen and <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> were also invented in the West.<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-Losev-135">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> Ubiquitous materials including aluminum, clear glass, <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_rubber" title="Synthetic rubber">synthetic rubber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_diamond" title="Synthetic diamond">synthetic diamond</a> and the plastics <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">polypropylene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">polyvinyl chloride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a> were discovered and developed or invented in the West. Iron and steel ships, bridges and skyscrapers first appeared in the West. <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">Nitrogen fixation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Petrochemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemicals">petrochemicals</a> were invented by Westerners. Most of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a> were discovered and named in the West, as well as the contemporary <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">atomic theories</a> to explain them.<a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[144]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a>, memory chip, first <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> and computer were all first seen in the West. The <a href="/wiki/Longitude_by_chronometer" title="Longitude by chronometer">ship's chronometer</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Screw_propeller" class="mw-redirect" title="Screw propeller">screw propeller</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Locomotive" title="Locomotive">locomotive</a>, bicycle, <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobile</a>, and airplane were all invented in the West. <a href="/wiki/Glasses" title="Glasses">Eyeglasses</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscope</a>, all the varieties of <a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">chromatography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protein_sequencing" title="Protein sequencing">protein</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computerized_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computerized tomography">computerised tomography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">nuclear magnetic resonance</a>, <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">x-rays</a>, and light, ultraviolet and infrared <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a>, were all first developed and applied in Western laboratories, hospitals and factories.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In medicine, the pure <a href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">antibiotics</a> were created in the West. The method of preventing <a href="/wiki/Rh_disease" title="Rh disease">Rh disease</a>, the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Germ theory">germ theory</a> of disease were discovered by Westerners. The eradication of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, was led by a Westerner, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Henderson" title="Donald Henderson">Donald Henderson</a>. <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">Radiography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed tomography">computed tomography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">positron emission tomography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medical_ultrasonography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical ultrasonography">medical ultrasonography</a> are important diagnostic tools developed in the West. Other important diagnostic tools of <a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">clinical chemistry</a>, including the methods of <a href="/wiki/Spectrophotometry" title="Spectrophotometry">spectrophotometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">electrophoresis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immunoassay" title="Immunoassay">immunoassay</a>, were first devised by Westerners. So were the <a href="/wiki/Stethoscope" title="Stethoscope">stethoscope</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Electrocardiograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrocardiograph">electrocardiograph</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Endoscope" title="Endoscope">endoscope</a>. <a href="/wiki/Vitamins" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamins">Vitamins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hormonal_contraception" title="Hormonal contraception">hormonal contraception</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormones">hormones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beta_blocker" title="Beta blocker">beta blockers</a> and <a href="/wiki/ACE_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="ACE inhibitors">ACE inhibitors</a>, along with a host of other medically proven drugs, were first used to treat disease in the West. The <a href="/wiki/Double-blind" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-blind">double-blind</a> study and <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">evidence-based medicine</a> are critical scientific techniques widely used in the West for medical purposes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonhard_Euler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Leonhard_Euler.jpg/170px-Leonhard_Euler.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Leonhard_Euler.jpg/255px-Leonhard_Euler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Leonhard_Euler.jpg/340px-Leonhard_Euler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4672" data-file-height="6040" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Euler</a> is widely regarded to be one of the greatest mathematicians in history.</figcaption></figure> In mathematics, <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>, statistics, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vector_(geometric)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (geometric)">vectors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tensor" title="Tensor">tensors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Complex_analysis" title="Complex analysis">complex analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Group_theory" title="Group theory">group theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abstract_algebra" title="Abstract algebra">abstract algebra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Topology" title="Topology">topology</a> were developed by Westerners.<a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dodge-148">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kline-151">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a> In biology, <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosomes">chromosomes</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and the methods of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> are creations of the West. In physics, the science of <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">relativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a> were all developed by Westerners. The discoveries and inventions by Westerners in <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a> include <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb's law</a> (1785), the first <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">battery</a> (1800), the unity of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electricity and magnetism</a> (1820), <a href="/wiki/Biot%E2%80%93Savart_law" title="Biot–Savart law">Biot–Savart law</a> (1820), <a href="/wiki/Ohm%27s_law" title="Ohm's law">Ohm's law</a> (1827), and <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a> (1871). The <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a> were all unveiled by Westerners.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The world's most widely adopted system of measurement, the <a href="/wiki/International_System_of_Units" title="International System of Units">International System of Units</a>, derived from the <a href="/wiki/Metric_system" title="Metric system">metric system</a>, was first developed in France and evolved through contributions from various Westerners.<a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a> In business, economics, and finance, <a href="/wiki/Double-entry_bookkeeping_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-entry bookkeeping system">double entry bookkeeping</a>, credit cards, and the <a href="/wiki/Charge_card" title="Charge card">charge card</a> were all first used in the West.<a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a> Westerners are also known for their explorations of the globe and <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>. The first expedition to <a href="/wiki/Magellan%27s_circumnavigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Magellan's circumnavigation">circumnavigate the Earth</a> (1522) was by Westerners, as well as the first journey to the South Pole (1911), and the first Moon landing (1969).<a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-Orloff-158">[157]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Rovers" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars Exploration Rovers">landing of robots on Mars</a> (2004 and 2012) and on an <a href="/wiki/NEAR_Shoemaker" title="NEAR Shoemaker">asteroid</a> (2001), the <a href="/wiki/Voyager_2" title="Voyager 2">Voyager 2</a> explorations of the outer planets (<a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a> in 1986 and <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a> in 1989), <a href="/wiki/Voyager_1" title="Voyager 1">Voyager 1</a>'s passage into interstellar space (2013), and <a href="/wiki/New_Horizons" title="New Horizons">New Horizons</a>' flyby of <a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a> (2015) were significant recent Western achievements.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-Spirit-159">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-Opportunity-160">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-phone-161">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20150714-kn-162">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-ESBS-163">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Media">Media</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Media">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Western media</a></div> The roots of modern-day Western mass media can be traced back to the late 15th century, when <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing presses</a> began to operate throughout wealthy European cities. The emergence of news media in the 17th century has to be seen in close connection with the <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_the_printing_press" class="mw-redirect" title="Spread of the printing press">spread of the printing press</a>, from which the publishing <a href="/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">press</a> derives its name.<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> In the 16th century, a decrease in the preeminence of <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Latin</a> in its literary use, along with the impact of economic change, the discoveries arising from trade and travel, navigation to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, science and arts and the development of increasingly rapid communications through print led to a rising corpus of vernacular media content in European society.<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a> After the launch of the satellite <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a> by the Soviet Union in 1957, satellite transmission technology was dramatically realised, with the United States launching <a href="/wiki/Telstar" title="Telstar">Telstar</a> in 1962 linking live media broadcasts from the UK to the US. The first digital broadcast satellite (DBS) system began transmitting in US in 1975.<a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a> Beginning in the 1990s, the Internet has contributed to a tremendous increase in the accessibility of Western media content. Departing from media offered in bundled content packages (magazines, CDs, <a href="/wiki/News_broadcasting" title="News broadcasting">television and radio slots</a>), the Internet has primarily offered unbundled content items (<a href="/wiki/Digital_journalism" title="Digital journalism">articles</a>, audio and video files).<a href="#cite_note-167">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Western religions</a></div> The native religions of Europe were <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheistic</a> but not homogenous – however, they were similar insofar as they were predominantly <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European religion">Indo-European</a> in origin. <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman religion</a> was similar to but not the same as <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in ancient Greece">Hellenic religion</a> – likewise for <a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">indigenous Germanic polytheism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic polytheism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic polytheism</a>. Before this time many Europeans from the north, especially Scandinavians, remained polytheistic, though southern Europe was predominantly Christian from the 5th century onwards. Western culture at a fundamental level is influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian" title="Judeo-Christian">Judeo-Christian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> traditions.<a href="#cite_note-PerryChase2012-168">[167]</a> These cultures had a number of similarities, such as a common emphasis on the individual, but they also embody fundamentally conflicting worldviews. For example, in Judaism and Christianity, God is the ultimate authority, while Greco-Roman tradition considers the ultimate authority to be <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>. Christian attempts to reconcile these frameworks were responsible for the preservation of <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PerryChase2012-168">[167]</a> Historically, Europe has been the center and cradle of <a href="/wiki/Christian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian civilization">Christian civilization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saint_Peter%27s_Basilica_facade,_Rome,_Italy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Saint_Peter%27s_Basilica_facade%2C_Rome%2C_Italy.jpg/220px-Saint_Peter%27s_Basilica_facade%2C_Rome%2C_Italy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Saint_Peter%27s_Basilica_facade%2C_Rome%2C_Italy.jpg/330px-Saint_Peter%27s_Basilica_facade%2C_Rome%2C_Italy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Saint_Peter%27s_Basilica_facade%2C_Rome%2C_Italy.jpg/440px-Saint_Peter%27s_Basilica_facade%2C_Rome%2C_Italy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4470" data-file-height="2975" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">St. Peter's Basilica</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican</a>, the epicenter of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>.</figcaption></figure> According to a survey by <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> from 2011, Christianity remains the dominant religion in the Western world where 70–84% are Christians,<a href="#cite_note-Global_Christianity-95">[94]</a> According to this survey, 76% of Europeans described themselves as Christians,<a href="#cite_note-Global_Christianity-95">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-landscape-christians-174">[173]</a> and about 86% of the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>' population identified themselves as Christians,<a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a> (90% in Latin America and 77% in North America).<a href="#cite_note-landscape-christians-174">[173]</a> 73% in Oceania self-identify as Christian, and 76% in South Africa are Christian.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Christianity-95">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eurobarometer" title="Eurobarometer">Eurobarometer</a> polls about religiosity in the European Union in 2012 found that Christianity was the largest religion in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, accounting for 72% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-EU2012-176">[175]</a> <a href="/wiki/Catholics" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholics">Catholics</a> are the largest <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> group, accounting for 48%, while <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestants</a> make up 12%, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> make up 8% and other Christians make up 4% of the population respectively.<a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a> In addition, <a href="/wiki/Agnostic" class="mw-redirect" title="Agnostic">Non-believers/Agnostics</a> account for 16%,<a href="#cite_note-EU2012-176">[175]</a> <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheists</a> account for 7%,<a href="#cite_note-EU2012-176">[175]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a> account for 2% of the population respectively.<a href="#cite_note-EU2012-176">[175]</a> According to Scholars, in 2017, Europe's population was 77.8% Christian (up from 74.9% 1970),<a href="#cite_note-ReligiousDemography2017-178">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a> these changes were largely largely ascribed to the <a href="/wiki/Collapse_of_Communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collapse of Communism">collapse of Communism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Convert_to_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Convert to Christianity">switching to Christianity</a> in the former Soviet Union and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> countries.<a href="#cite_note-ReligiousDemography2017-178">[177]</a> At the same time, there has been an increase in the share of agnostic or <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a> residents in Europe that accounted for 18% of the European population in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a> In particular, over half of the population of the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Religion in the Czech Republic">79%</a>) was agnostic, atheist or irreligious, compared to the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> (<a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">52%</a>), <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> (<a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">25–33%</a>),<a href="#cite_note-2001-2009-181">[180]</a> <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> (30–35%)<a href="#cite_note-IpsosMORI2011-182">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-CSA2001-183">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-stategov-184">[183]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> (39–44%). As in other areas, the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a> and Judaism exist in the Western world. There are also small but increasing numbers of people across the Western world who seek to revive the indigenous religions of their European ancestors; such <a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstructionist Paganism">groups</a> include <a href="/wiki/Germanic_Polytheistic_Reconstructionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Polytheistic Reconstructionism">Germanic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_polytheistic_reconstructionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman polytheistic reconstructionism">Roman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_Polytheistic_Reconstructionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism">Hellenic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtic_reconstructionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic reconstructionism">Celtic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavic_Neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic Neopaganism">Slavic</a>, and polytheistic reconstructionist movements. Likewise, <a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a>, New Age spirituality and other <a href="/wiki/Neopagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Neopagan">neo-pagan</a> belief systems enjoy notable minority support in Western states. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sport">Sport</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sport">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Western sports</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bull-leaping.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bull-leaping.jpg/220px-Bull-leaping.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bull-leaping.jpg/330px-Bull-leaping.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bull-leaping.jpg/440px-Bull-leaping.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="325" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bull-Leaping_Fresco" title="Bull-Leaping Fresco">Bull-Leaping Fresco</a> from the Great Palace at <a href="/wiki/Knossos" title="Knossos">Knossos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>. Sport has been an important part of Western culture since <a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baron_Pierre_de_Coubertin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Baron_Pierre_de_Coubertin.jpg/170px-Baron_Pierre_de_Coubertin.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Baron_Pierre_de_Coubertin.jpg/255px-Baron_Pierre_de_Coubertin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Baron_Pierre_de_Coubertin.jpg/340px-Baron_Pierre_de_Coubertin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2327" data-file-height="3284" /></a><figcaption>Baron <a href="/wiki/Pierre_de_Coubertin" title="Pierre de Coubertin">Pierre de Coubertin</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee" title="International Olympic Committee">International Olympic Committee</a>, and considered father of the modern <a href="/wiki/Olympic_Games" title="Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a></figcaption></figure> Since <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, sport has been an important facet of Western cultural expression.<a href="#cite_note-185">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a> A wide range of sports was already established by the time of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> and the military culture and the development of sports in Greece influenced one another considerably. Sports became such a prominent part of their culture that the Greeks created the <a href="/wiki/Olympic_Games" title="Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a>, which in ancient times were held every four years in a small village in the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnesus</a> called <a href="/wiki/Olympia,_Greece" title="Olympia, Greece">Olympia</a>. Baron <a href="/wiki/Pierre_de_Coubertin" title="Pierre de Coubertin">Pierre de Coubertin</a>, a Frenchman, instigated the modern revival of the Olympic movement. The first modern Olympic games were held at <a href="/wiki/1896_Summer_Olympics" title="1896 Summer Olympics">Athens in 1896</a>. The Romans built immense structures such as the <a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">amphitheatres</a> to house their festivals of sport. The Romans exhibited a passion for <a href="/wiki/Blood_sports" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood sports">blood sports</a>, such as the infamous <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">Gladiatorial</a> battles that pitted contestants against one another in a fight to the death. The Olympic Games revived many of the sports of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>—such as <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_wrestling" title="Greco-Roman wrestling">Greco-Roman wrestling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Discus" class="mw-redirect" title="Discus">discus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Javelin" title="Javelin">javelin</a>. The sport of <a href="/wiki/Bullfighting" title="Bullfighting">bullfighting</a> is a traditional spectacle of Spain, Portugal, southern France, and some Latin American countries. It traces its roots to prehistoric <a href="/wiki/Bull_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Bull worship">bull worship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">sacrifice</a> and is often linked to Rome, where many human-versus-animal events were held. Bullfighting spread from Spain to its American colonies, and in the 19th century to France, where it developed into a distinctive form in its own right.<a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jousting" title="Jousting">Jousting</a> and hunting were popular sports in the European Middle Ages, and the aristocratic classes developed passions for leisure activities. A great number of popular global sports were first developed or codified in Europe. The modern game of <a href="/wiki/Golf" title="Golf">golf</a> originated in Scotland, where the first written record of golf is <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_Scotland" title="James II of Scotland">James II</a>'s banning of the game in 1457, as an unwelcome distraction to learning <a href="/wiki/Archery" title="Archery">archery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-188">[187]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> that began in Great Britain in the 18th century brought increased leisure time, leading to more opportunities for citizens to participate in athletic activities and also follow spectator sports. These trends continued with the advent of mass media and global communication. The bat and ball sport of <a href="/wiki/Cricket" title="Cricket">cricket</a> was first played in England during the 16th century and was exported around the globe via the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>. A number of popular modern sports were devised or codified in the United Kingdom during the 19th century and obtained global prominence; these include <a href="/wiki/Ping_pong" class="mw-redirect" title="Ping pong">ping pong</a>, modern <a href="/wiki/Tennis" title="Tennis">tennis</a>, association football, <a href="/wiki/Netball" title="Netball">netball</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rugby_football" title="Rugby football">rugby</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[188]</a> <a href="/wiki/Association_football" title="Association football">Football</a> (or soccer) remains hugely popular in Europe, but has grown from its origins to be known as the world game. Similarly, sports such as cricket, rugby, and netball were exported around the world, particularly among countries in the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a>, thus India and Australia are among the strongest cricketing states, while victory in the <a href="/wiki/Rugby_World_Cup" title="Rugby World Cup">Rugby World Cup</a> has been shared among New Zealand, Australia, England, and South Africa. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Rules_Football" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Rules Football">Australian Rules Football</a>, an Australian variation of football with similarities to <a href="/wiki/Gaelic_football" title="Gaelic football">Gaelic football</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rugby_football" title="Rugby football">rugby</a>, evolved in the British <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Victoria" title="Colony of Victoria">colony of Victoria</a> in the mid-19th century. The United States also developed unique variations of English sports. English migrants took antecedents of <a href="/wiki/Baseball" title="Baseball">baseball</a> to America during the colonial period. The history of <a href="/wiki/American_football" title="American football">American football</a> can be traced to early versions of rugby football and association football. Many games are known as "football" were being played at colleges and universities in the United States in the first half of the 19th century. American football resulted from several major divergences from rugby, most notably the rule changes instituted by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Camp" title="Walter Camp">Walter Camp</a>, the "Father of American football". <a href="/wiki/Basketball" title="Basketball">Basketball</a> was invented in 1891 by <a href="/wiki/James_Naismith" title="James Naismith">James Naismith</a>, a Canadian physical education instructor working in <a href="/wiki/Springfield,_Massachusetts" title="Springfield, Massachusetts">Springfield, Massachusetts</a>, in the United States. <a href="/wiki/Volleyball" title="Volleyball">Volleyball</a> was created in <a href="/wiki/Holyoke,_Massachusetts" title="Holyoke, Massachusetts">Holyoke, Massachusetts</a>, a city directly north of Springfield, in 1895. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Themes_and_traditions">Themes and traditions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Themes and traditions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anonymous_Madonna_with_big_breasts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Anonymous_Madonna_with_big_breasts.jpg/170px-Anonymous_Madonna_with_big_breasts.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Anonymous_Madonna_with_big_breasts.jpg/255px-Anonymous_Madonna_with_big_breasts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Anonymous_Madonna_with_big_breasts.jpg/340px-Anonymous_Madonna_with_big_breasts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1910" data-file-height="2424" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Madonna_and_Child" class="mw-redirect" title="Madonna and Child">Madonna and Child</a> painting by an anonymous Italian from the first half of the 19th century, oil on canvas</figcaption></figure> Western culture has developed many themes and traditions, the most significant of which are:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <ul><li>Greco-Roman classic letters, arts, architecture, philosophical and cultural tradition, which include the influence of preeminent authors and philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero">Cicero</a>, as well as a long <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">mythologic tradition</a>.</li> <li>Christian ethical, philosophical, and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">mythological</a> tradition, stemming largely from the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Christian Bible</a>, particularly the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> Gospels.<a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[191]</a></li> <li>Monasteries, schools, libraries, books, book making, universities, teaching, education, and lecture halls.</li> <li>A tradition of the importance of <a href="/wiki/The_rule_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="The rule of law">the rule of law</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> and Enlightenment thought. This set the basis for a new critical attitude and open questioning of religion, favouring <a href="/wiki/Freethinking" class="mw-redirect" title="Freethinking">freethinking</a> and questioning of the church as an authority, which resulted in open-minded and reformist ideals inside, such as <a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">liberation theology</a>, which partly adopted these currents, and secular and political tendencies such as <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</a> (sometimes termed laicism), agnosticism and <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>.</li> <li>Generalized usage of some form of the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>, and derived forms, such as <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a>, used by those southern and eastern Slavic countries of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Christian Orthodox</a> tradition, historically under the Byzantine Empire and later within the Russian <a href="/wiki/Czarist" class="mw-redirect" title="Czarist">czarist</a> or the Soviet area of influence. Other variants of the Latin or Greek alphabets are found in the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic alphabets</a>, which historically superseded older scripts, such as <a href="/wiki/Runic" class="mw-redirect" title="Runic">runes</a>, and the Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphic">Hieroglyphic</a> systems.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a>, human rights, <a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">constitutionalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parliamentarism" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentarism">parliamentarism</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Presidentialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidentialism">presidentialism</a>) and formal <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a> in recent times—prior to the 19th century, most Western governments were still monarchies.</li> <li>A large influence, in <a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">modern times</a>, of many of the ideals and values developed and inherited from <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>.</li> <li>An emphasis on, and use of, science as a means of understanding the natural world and humanity's place in it.</li> <li>More pronounced use and application of innovation and scientific developments, as well as a more rational approach to scientific progress (what has been known as the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output 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tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_during_the_Cold_War" title="Culture during the Cold War">Culture during the Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_world" title="Eastern world">Eastern world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_world#Culture" title="Eastern world">Eastern culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="European diaspora">European diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Western education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Western religion">Western religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values_(West)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western values (West)">Western values</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> British archaeologist <a href="/wiki/David_George_Hogarth" title="David George Hogarth">D. G. Hogarth</a> published The Nearer East in 1902, which helped to define the term and its extent, including <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, all <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> lands, the entire <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, and Western parts of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHanson2007" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Victor Davis (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C">Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power</a>. Knopf Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8"><bdi>978-0-307-42518-8</bdi></a>. <q>the term "Western" — refer to the culture of classical antiquity that arose in Greece and Rome; survived the collapse of the Roman Empire; spread to western and northern Europe; then during the great periods of exploration and colonization of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries expanded to the Americas, Australia and areas of Asia and Africa; and now exercises global political, economic, cultural, and military power far greater than the size of its territory or population might otherwise suggest.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carnage+and+Culture%3A+Landmark+Battles+in+the+Rise+to+Western+Power&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-307-42518-8&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor+Davis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXGr16-CxpH8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-grecoroman1-2"><a href="#cite_ref-grecoroman1_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2000" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Charles (September 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sPcNAQAAMAAJ">The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-029323-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-029323-4"><bdi>978-0-14-029323-4</bdi></a>. <q>The Greeks provided the chromosomes of Western civilization. One does not have to idealize the Greeks to sustain that point. Greek ways of exploring the cosmos, defining the problems of knowledge (and what is meant by knowledge itself), creating the language in which such problems are explored, representing the physical world and human society in the arts, defining the nature of value, describing the past, still underlie the Western cultural tradition</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+Achievement%3A+The+Foundation+of+the+Western+World&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2000-09&rft.isbn=978-0-14-029323-4&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsPcNAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCartledge2002" class="citation book cs1">Cartledge, Paul (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r-I4gcBlTqcC">The Greeks: A Portrait of Self and Others</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-157783-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-157783-3"><bdi>978-0-19-157783-3</bdi></a>. <q>Greekness was identified with freedom-spiritual and social as well as political-and slavery was equated with being barbarian, [...] 'democracy' was a Greek invention (celebrating its 2,500th anniversary in 1993/4) [...] an ancient culture, that of the Greeks — is both a foundation stone of our own (Western) civilization and at the same time in key respects a deeply alien phenomenon.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greeks%3A+A+Portrait+of+Self+and+Others&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-157783-3&rft.aulast=Cartledge&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr-I4gcBlTqcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPagden2008" class="citation book cs1">Pagden, Anthony (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m80kwkt8YW4C">Worlds at War: The 2,500 - Year Struggle Between East and West</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923743-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923743-2"><bdi>978-0-19-923743-2</bdi></a>. <q>Had the Persians overrun all of mainland Greece, had they then transformed the Greek city-states into satrapies of the Persian Empire, had Greek democracy been snuffed out, there would have been no Greek theater, no Greek science, no Plato, no Aristotle, no Sophocles, no Aeschylus. The incredible burst of creative energy that took place during the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. and that laid the foundation for all of later Western civilization would never have happened. [...] in the years between 490 and 479 B.C.E., the entire future of the Western world hung precariously in the balance</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worlds+at+War%3A+The+2%2C500+-+Year+Struggle+Between+East+and+West&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-923743-2&rft.aulast=Pagden&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm80kwkt8YW4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-grecoroman2-3"><a href="#cite_ref-grecoroman2_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard2010" class="citation book cs1">Richard, Carl J. (16 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dlMr4UhqQlQC">Why We're All Romans: The Roman Contribution to the Western World</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6780-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6780-1"><bdi>978-0-7425-6780-1</bdi></a>. <q>In 1,200 years the tiny village of Rome established a republic, conquered all of the Mediterranean basin and western Europe, lost its republic, and finally, surrendered its empire. In the process the Romans laid the foundation of Western civilization. [...] The pragmatic Romans brought Greek and Hebrew ideas down to earth, modified them, and transmitted them throughout western Europe. [...] Roman law remains the basis for the legal codes of most western European and Latin American countries — Even in English-speaking countries, where common law prevails, Roman law has exerted substantial influence</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+We%27re+All+Romans%3A+The+Roman+Contribution+to+the+Western+World&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2010-04-16&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-6780-1&rft.aulast=Richard&rft.aufirst=Carl+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdlMr4UhqQlQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharon2004" class="citation book cs1">Sharon, Moshe (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XMX4xSQtkEAC">Studies in Modern Religions, Religious Movements and the Båabåi-Bahåa'åi Faiths</a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13904-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13904-6"><bdi>978-90-04-13904-6</bdi></a>. <q>Side by side with Christianity, the classical Greco-Roman world forms the sound foundation of Western civilization. Greek philosophy is also the origin for the methods and contents of the philosophical thought and theological investigation in Islam and Judaism</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Modern+Religions%2C+Religious+Movements+and+the+B%C3%A5ab%C3%A5i-Bah%C3%A5a%27%C3%A5i+Faiths&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-04-13904-6&rft.aulast=Sharon&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXMX4xSQtkEAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1991" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Michael (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/foundersofwester0000gran">The Founders of the Western World: A History of Greece and Rome</a>. Scribner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-19303-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-19303-8"><bdi>978-0-684-19303-8</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Founders+of+the+Western+World%3A+A+History+of+Greece+and+Rome&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-684-19303-8&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffoundersofwester0000gran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerryChaseJacobJacob2012" class="citation book cs1">Perry, Marvin; Chase, Myrna; Jacob, James; Jacob, Margaret; Laue, Theodore H. Von (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N6jytVCocwMC">Western Civilization: Since 1400</a>. Cengage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-83169-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-111-83169-1"><bdi>978-1-111-83169-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+Since+1400&rft.pub=Cengage&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-111-83169-1&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rft.au=Chase%2C+Myrna&rft.au=Jacob%2C+James&rft.au=Jacob%2C+Margaret&rft.au=Laue%2C+Theodore+H.+Von&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN6jytVCocwMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNightingale2007" class="citation book cs1">Nightingale, Andrea (2007). "The Philosophers in Archaic Greek Culture". In Shapiro, H. A.; Antonaccio, Carla M. (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Archaic Greece. Cambridge companions to the ancient world. Cambridge University Press. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52929-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52929-7"><bdi>978-0-521-52929-7</bdi></a>. <q>We have ample evidence that the Greek thinkers encountered and responded to many different cultures and ideologies. Consider, for example, the city of Miletus, which was the center of intellectual activity in sixth-century Ionia. Miletus bordered on the Lydian and, later, the Persian empires and had extensive dealings with these cultures.In addition, it had trading relations all over the Mediterranean and sent out numerous colonies to Egypt and Thrace. The Milesian thinkers thus encountered ideas and practices from all over the "known" world. In the Archaic period, the interaction of different peoples from Greece, Italy, Egypt, and the Near East created a cultural ferment that had a profound impact on Greek life and thought.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Philosophers+in+Archaic+Greek+Culture&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Archaic+Greece&rft.series=Cambridge+companions+to+the+ancient+world&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-52929-7&rft.aulast=Nightingale&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoardman1982" class="citation cs2">Boardman, John (1982), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-ancient-history/material-culture-of-archaic-greece/5A560E907896C32DF55E224DB6C8EFC4">"The material culture of Archaic Greece"</a>, in Boardman, John; Hammond, N. G. L. (eds.), The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 3 (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 450, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521234474.018">10.1017/chol9780521234474.018</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23447-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23447-4"><bdi>978-0-521-23447-4</bdi></a>, retrieved 20 October 2024, <q>Knowledge of Egyptian art after the mid century led to Greek exploitation of the harder stone, their white island marble, for the first time, and the creation of figures at life size or more. We know these best—the kouroi and korai—as dedications and grave markers, but a prime use for monumental statuary must have been as cult images and it is at about this time that the temple-houses, oikoi, for these images begin to receive a monumental form and, again probably through inspiration from Egypt are decorated with architectural orders: first the Doric in homeland Greece, then the orientalizing Ionic in the East Greek world.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+material+culture+of+Archaic+Greece&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.pages=450&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fchol9780521234474.018&rft.isbn=978-0-521-23447-4&rft.aulast=Boardman&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fcambridge-ancient-history%2Fmaterial-culture-of-archaic-greece%2F5A560E907896C32DF55E224DB6C8EFC4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2018" class="citation journal cs1">Scott, John C (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2047&context=ccr">"The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World"</a>. Comparative Civilizations Review. 78 (78). <a href="/wiki/Brigham_Young_University" title="Brigham Young University">Brigham Young University</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0733-4540">0733-4540</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Civilizations+Review&rft.atitle=The+Phoenicians+and+the+Formation+of+the+Western+World&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=78&rft.date=2018&rft.issn=0733-4540&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=John+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarsarchive.byu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D2047%26context%3Dccr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alexander-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2008" class="citation book cs1">Green, P. (2008). Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age. Phoenix. p. xiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2413-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2413-9"><bdi>978-0-7538-2413-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+The+Great+and+the+Hellenistic+Age&rft.pages=xiii&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7538-2413-9&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorter2013" class="citation book cs1">Porter, Stanley E. (2013). Early Christianity in its Hellenistic context. Volume 2, Christian origins and Hellenistic Judaism: social and literary contexts for the New Testament. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004234765" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004234765"><bdi>978-9004234765</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Christianity+in+its+Hellenistic+context.+Volume+2%2C+Christian+origins+and+Hellenistic+Judaism%3A+social+and+literary+contexts+for+the+New+Testament&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-9004234765&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=Stanley+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHengel2003" class="citation book cs1">Hengel, Martin (2003). Judaism and Hellenism: studies in their encounter in Palestine during the early Hellenistic period. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59244-186-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59244-186-0"><bdi>978-1-59244-186-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judaism+and+Hellenism%3A+studies+in+their+encounter+in+Palestine+during+the+early+Hellenistic+period&rft.place=Eugene%2C+OR&rft.pub=Wipf+%26+Stock&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-59244-186-0&rft.aulast=Hengel&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpielvogel2016" class="citation book cs1">Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2016). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1715 (Cengage Learning ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-63347-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-305-63347-6"><bdi>978-1-305-63347-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+A+Brief+History%2C+Volume+I%3A+To+1715&rft.pages=156&rft.edition=Cengage+Learning&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-305-63347-6&rft.aulast=Spielvogel&rft.aufirst=Jackson+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeill1957" class="citation book cs1">Neill, Thomas Patrick (1957). Readings in the History of Western Civilization, Volume 2 (Newman Press ed.). p. 224.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readings+in+the+History+of+Western+Civilization%2C+Volume+2&rft.pages=224&rft.edition=Newman+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Neill&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'CollinsFarrugia2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerald_O%27Collins" title="Gerald O'Collins">O'Collins, Gerald</a>; Farrugia, Maria (2003). Catholicism: The Story of Catholic Christianity. Oxford University Press. p. v. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925995-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925995-3"><bdi>978-0-19-925995-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catholicism%3A+The+Story+of+Catholic+Christianity&rft.pages=v&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-925995-3&rft.aulast=O%27Collins&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft.au=Farrugia%2C+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haskins-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haskins_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haskins_13-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaskins1927" class="citation cs2">Haskins, Charles Homer (1927), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/renaissanceoftw00char">The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century</a>, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6747-6075-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6747-6075-2"><bdi>978-0-6747-6075-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Renaissance+of+the+Twelfth+Century&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1927&rft.isbn=978-0-6747-6075-2&rft.aulast=Haskins&rft.aufirst=Charles+Homer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frenaissanceoftw00char&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sarton-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sarton_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarton_14-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/guidetohistoryof00sart">George Sarton: A Guide to the History of Science</a> Waltham Mass. U.S.A. 1952 </li> <li id="cite_note-Burnett-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burnett_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burnett_15-1">b</a> Burnett, Charles. "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century", Science in Context, 14 (2001): 249–288. </li> <li id="cite_note-Geanakoplos_1989-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Geanakoplos_1989_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Geanakoplos_1989_16-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeanakoplos1989" class="citation book cs1">Geanakoplos, Deno John (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/19353503">Constantinople and the West : essays on the late Byzantine (Palaeologan) and Italian Renaissances and the Byzantine and Roman churches</a>. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-11880-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-299-11880-0"><bdi>0-299-11880-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/19353503">19353503</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constantinople+and+the+West+%3A+essays+on+the+late+Byzantine+%28Palaeologan%29+and+Italian+Renaissances+and+the+Byzantine+and+Roman+churches&rft.place=Madison%2C+Wis.&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F19353503&rft.isbn=0-299-11880-0&rft.aulast=Geanakoplos&rft.aufirst=Deno+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F19353503&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rüegg,_Walter_1992-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rüegg,_Walter_1992_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rüegg,_Walter_1992_17-1">b</a> Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36105-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36105-2">0-521-36105-2</a>, pp. xix–xx </li> <li id="cite_note-harnvb|Verger|1999-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-harnvb|Verger|1999_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-harnvb|Verger|1999_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFVerger1999">Verger 1999</a> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFVerger1999 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Risse_59-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Risse_59_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Risse_59_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRisse1999" class="citation book cs1">Risse, Guenter B. (April 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mendingbodiessav00riss">Mending Bodies, Saving Souls: A History of Hospitals</a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mendingbodiessav00riss/page/n79">59</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505523-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505523-8"><bdi>978-0-19-505523-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mending+Bodies%2C+Saving+Souls%3A+A+History+of+Hospitals&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999-04&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505523-8&rft.aulast=Risse&rft.aufirst=Guenter+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmendingbodiessav00riss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schumpeter_1954-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schumpeter_1954_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schumpeter_1954_20-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchumpeter1954" class="citation book cs1">Schumpeter, Joseph (1954). History of Economic Analysis. London: Allen & Unwin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Economic+Analysis&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Schumpeter&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-National_Review_Book_Service-21"><a href="#cite_ref-National_Review_Book_Service_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060822150152/http://www.nrbookservice.com/products/BookPage.asp?prod_cd=c6664">"Review of How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization by Thomas Woods, Jr"</a>. National Review Book Service. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrbookservice.com/products/bookpage.asp?prod_cd=c6664">the original</a> on 22 August 2006. Retrieved 16 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Review+Book+Service&rft.atitle=Review+of+How+the+Catholic+Church+Built+Western+Civilization+by+Thomas+Woods%2C+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrbookservice.com%2Fproducts%2Fbookpage.asp%3Fprod_cd%3Dc6664&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Cf. <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Waldron" title="Jeremy Waldron">Jeremy Waldron</a> (2002), God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89057-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89057-1">978-0-521-89057-1</a>, pp. 189, 208 </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Protestant-Heritage-1354359/Protestantisms-influence-in-the-modern-world">The Protestant Heritage</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180223053548/https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Protestant-Heritage-1354359/Protestantisms-influence-in-the-modern-world">Archived</a> 23 February 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Britannica </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeill2010" class="citation book cs1">McNeill, William H. (2010). History of Western Civilization: A Handbook (University of Chicago Press ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 204. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-56162-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-56162-2"><bdi>978-0-226-56162-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Western+Civilization%3A+A+Handbook&rft.pages=204&rft.edition=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-226-56162-2&rft.aulast=McNeill&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaltinMelanie_J._Wright2007" class="citation book cs1">Faltin, Lucia; Melanie J. Wright (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religiousrootsco00falt">The Religious Roots of Contemporary European Identity</a> (A&C Black ed.). A&C Black. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religiousrootsco00falt/page/n99">83</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-9482-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-9482-5"><bdi>978-0-8264-9482-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religious+Roots+of+Contemporary+European+Identity&rft.pages=83&rft.edition=A%26C+Black&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-9482-5&rft.aulast=Faltin&rft.aufirst=Lucia&rft.au=Melanie+J.+Wright&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freligiousrootsco00falt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317–319, 325–326 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Yin Cheong Cheng, New Paradigm for Re-engineering Education. p. 369 </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ainslie_Thomas_Embree" class="mw-redirect" title="Ainslie Thomas Embree">Ainslie Thomas Embree</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carol_Gluck" title="Carol Gluck">Carol Gluck</a>, Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching. p. xvi </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Kwang-Sae Lee, East and West: Fusion of Horizons[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-Appiah2016-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Appiah2016_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Appiah2016_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Appiah2016_30-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKwame_Anthony_Appiah2016" class="citation news cs1">Kwame Anthony Appiah (9 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/09/western-civilisation-appiah-reith-lecture">"There Is No Such Thing As Western Civilization"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=There+Is+No+Such+Thing+As+Western+Civilization&rft.date=2016-11-09&rft.au=Kwame+Anthony+Appiah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2016%2Fnov%2F09%2Fwestern-civilisation-appiah-reith-lecture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKwame_Anthony_Appiah2016" class="citation news cs1">Kwame Anthony Appiah (9 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/09/western-civilisation-appiah-reith-lecture">"There Is No Such Thing As Western Civilization"</a>. <q>[...] the first recorded use of a word for Europeans as a kind of person, so far as I know, comes out of this history of conflict. In a Latin chronicle, written in 754 in Spain, the author refers to the victors of the Battle of Tours as Europenses, Europeans. So, simply put, the very idea of a 'European' was first used to contrast Christians and Muslims.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=There+Is+No+Such+Thing+As+Western+Civilization&rft.date=2016-11-09&rft.au=Kwame+Anthony+Appiah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2016%2Fnov%2F09%2Fwestern-civilisation-appiah-reith-lecture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraeberWengrow2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">Graeber, David</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Wengrow" title="David Wengrow">Wengrow, David</a> (9 November 2021). "Farewell to Humanity's Childhood". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9xkQEAAAQBAJ">The Dawn of Everything: A New History of Humanity</a>. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780374721107" title="Special:BookSources/9780374721107"><bdi>9780374721107</bdi></a>. Retrieved 28 February 2023. <q>[...] that one group of humans who used to refer to themselves as 'the white race' (and now, generally, call themselves by its more accepted synonym, 'Western civilization') [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Farewell+to+Humanity%27s+Childhood&rft.btitle=The+Dawn+of+Everything%3A+A+New+History+of+Humanity&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2021-11-09&rft.isbn=9780374721107&rft.aulast=Graeber&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Wengrow%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9xkQEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-davison-33"><a href="#cite_ref-davison_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson,_Roderic_H.1960" class="citation journal cs1">Davidson, Roderic H. (1960). "Where is the Middle East?". Foreign Affairs. 38 (4): 665–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20029452">10.2307/20029452</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20029452">20029452</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:157454140">157454140</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=Where+is+the+Middle+East%3F&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E665-%3C%2Fspan%3E75&rft.date=1960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A157454140%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20029452%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20029452&rft.au=Davidson%2C+Roderic+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bronowski-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Bronowski_35-0">^</a> Jacobus Bronowski; The Ascent of Man; Angus & Robertson, 1973 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-563-17064-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-563-17064-6">0-563-17064-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-36"><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_36-0">^</a> Geoffrey Blainey; A Very Short History of the World; Penguin Books, 2004 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott201838–39-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott201838–39_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFScott2018">Scott 2018</a>, pp. 38–39. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStearns2003" class="citation book cs1">Stearns, Peter N. (2003). Western civilization in world history. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134374755" title="Special:BookSources/9781134374755"><bdi>9781134374755</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+civilization+in+world+history&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781134374755&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolybius1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> (1980). The Rise of the Roman Empire. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780140443622" title="Special:BookSources/9780140443622"><bdi>9780140443622</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=177&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=9780140443622&rft.au=Polybius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-google-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-google_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-google_40-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson2007" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Victor Davis (18 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C">Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power</a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8"><bdi>978-0-307-42518-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carnage+and+Culture%3A+Landmark+Battles+in+the+Rise+to+Western+Power&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007-12-18&rft.isbn=978-0-307-42518-8&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor+Davis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXGr16-CxpH8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Green-41"><a href="#cite_ref-Green_41-0">^</a> Green, Peter. Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> George G. Joseph (2000). The Crest of the Peacock, pp. 7–8. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-00659-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-00659-8">0-691-00659-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Angus_Maddison" title="Angus Maddison">Maddison, Angus</a> (2007), Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History, p. 55, table 1.14, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922721-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922721-1">978-0-19-922721-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHero1899" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Hero</a> (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/heronsvonalexandhero#page/228/mode/2up">"Pneumatika, Book ΙΙ, Chapter XI"</a>. Herons von Alexandria Druckwerke und Automatentheater (in Greek and German). Translated by Wilhelm Schmidt. Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. pp. 228–232.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pneumatika%2C+Book+%CE%99%CE%99%2C+Chapter+XI&rft.btitle=Herons+von+Alexandria+Druckwerke+und+Automatentheater&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E228-%3C%2Fspan%3E232&rft.pub=B.G.+Teubner&rft.date=1899&rft.au=Hero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fheronsvonalexandhero%23page%2F228%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Gordon, Cyrus H., The Common Background of the Greek and Hebrew Civilizations, W. W. Norton and Company, New York 1965 </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholls1995" class="citation book cs1">Nicholls, William (1995). Christian Antisemitism: A History of Hate (1st Jason Aronson softcover ed.). Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56821-519-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56821-519-8"><bdi>978-1-56821-519-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34892303">34892303</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Antisemitism%3A+A+History+of+Hate&rft.place=Northvale%2C+New+Jersey&rft.edition=1st+Jason+Aronson+softcover&rft.pub=Jason+Aronson&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F34892303&rft.isbn=978-1-56821-519-8&rft.aulast=Nicholls&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGager1983" class="citation book cs1">Gager, John G. (1983). The origins of anti-semitism : attitudes toward Judaism in Pagan and Christian antiquity. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503607-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503607-7"><bdi>978-0-19-503607-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9112202">9112202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+origins+of+anti-semitism+%3A+attitudes+toward+Judaism+in+Pagan+and+Christian+antiquity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9112202&rft.isbn=978-0-19-503607-7&rft.aulast=Gager&rft.aufirst=John+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> "How The Irish Saved Civilisation", by Thomas Cahill, 1995[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Cambridge_Companion_to_Roman_La-49"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Cambridge_Companion_to_Roman_La_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaiser2015" class="citation book cs1">Kaiser, Wolfgang (2015). The Cambridge Companion to Roman Law. pp. 119–148.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Roman+Law&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E119-%3C%2Fspan%3E148&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Kaiser&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFortenberry2017" class="citation book cs1">Fortenberry, Diane (2017). THE ART MUSEUM. Phaidon. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-7502-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-7502-6"><bdi>978-0-7148-7502-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=THE+ART+MUSEUM&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6&rft.aulast=Fortenberry&rft.aufirst=Diane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CarlebachSchacter2011-51"><a href="#cite_ref-CarlebachSchacter2011_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElisheva_CarlebachJacob_J._Schacter2011" class="citation book cs1">Elisheva Carlebach; Jacob J. Schacter (25 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E90FkMEurOYC&pg=PA38">New Perspectives on Jewish-Christian Relations</a>. BRILL. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-22117-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-22117-8"><bdi>978-90-04-22117-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Perspectives+on+Jewish-Christian+Relations&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2011-11-25&rft.isbn=978-90-04-22117-8&rft.au=Elisheva+Carlebach&rft.au=Jacob+J.+Schacter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE90FkMEurOYC%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanjay_Kumar2021" class="citation book cs1">Sanjay Kumar (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iGc9EAAAQBAJ">A Handbook of Political Geography</a>. K.K. Publications. pp. 125–127.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Political+Geography&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E125-%3C%2Fspan%3E127&rft.pub=K.K.+Publications&rft.date=2021&rft.au=Sanjay+Kumar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiGc9EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181005164628/http://broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/techniques/valetudinaria">"Valetudinaria"</a>. broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/techniques/valetudinaria">the original</a> on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 22 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk&rft.atitle=Valetudinaria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbroughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk%2Fbroughttolife%2Ftechniques%2Fvaletudinaria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRisse1999" class="citation book cs1">Risse, Guenter B. (15 April 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=htLTvdz5HDEC&q=History+of+Hospital+Asclepieion&pg=PA56">Mending Bodies, Saving Souls: A History of Hospitals</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974869-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974869-3"><bdi>978-0-19-974869-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mending+Bodies%2C+Saving+Souls%3A+A+History+of+Hospitals&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999-04-15&rft.isbn=978-0-19-974869-3&rft.aulast=Risse&rft.aufirst=Guenter+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhtLTvdz5HDEC%26q%3DHistory%2Bof%2BHospital%2BAsclepieion%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chadwick,_Owen_p._242-55"><a href="#cite_ref-Chadwick,_Owen_p._242_55-0">^</a> Chadwick, Owen p. 242. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hastings,_p._309-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Hastings,_p._309_56-0">^</a> Hastings, p. 309. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Torre1997" class="citation web cs1">de Torre, Fr. Joseph M. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/politics/pg0010.html">"A Philosophical and Historical Analysis of Modern Democracy, Equality, and Freedom Under the Influence of Christianity"</a>. Catholic Education Resource Center.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Philosophical+and+Historical+Analysis+of+Modern+Democracy%2C+Equality%2C+and+Freedom+Under+the+Influence+of+Christianity&rft.pub=Catholic+Education+Resource+Center&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=de+Torre&rft.aufirst=Fr.+Joseph+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catholiceducation.org%2Farticles%2Fpolitics%2Fpg0010.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koch_1994-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_1994_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_1994_58-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch1994" class="citation book cs1">Koch, Carl (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchjo00koch">The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission</a>. Early Middle Ages: St. Mary's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-298-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-298-4"><bdi>978-0-88489-298-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Church%3A+Journey%2C+Wisdom%2C+and+Mission&rft.place=Early+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=St.+Mary%27s+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-88489-298-4&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatholicchurchjo00koch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Burke, P., The European Renaissance: Centre and Peripheries (1998) </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant9-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Grant9_60-0">^</a> Grant God and Reason p. 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch1994" class="citation book cs1">Koch, Carl (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchjo00koch">"The Age of Enlightenment"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchjo00koch">The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission</a>. St. Mary's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-298-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-298-4"><bdi>978-0-88489-298-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Age+of+Enlightenment&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Church%3A+Journey%2C+Wisdom%2C+and+Mission&rft.pub=St.+Mary%27s+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-88489-298-4&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatholicchurchjo00koch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawsonGlenn_Olsen1961" class="citation book cs1">Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). CUA Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-1683-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-1683-6"><bdi>978-0-8132-1683-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crisis+in+Western+Education&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=CUA+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=978-0-8132-1683-6&rft.aulast=Dawson&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Glenn+Olsen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch1994" class="citation book cs1">Koch, Carl (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchjo00koch">"High Middle Ages"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchjo00koch">The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission</a>. St. Mary's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-298-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-298-4"><bdi>978-0-88489-298-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=High+Middle+Ages&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Church%3A+Journey%2C+Wisdom%2C+and+Mission&rft.pub=St.+Mary%27s+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-88489-298-4&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatholicchurchjo00koch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch1994" class="citation book cs1">Koch, Carl (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchjo00koch">"Renaissance"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchjo00koch">The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission</a>. St. Mary's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-298-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-298-4"><bdi>978-0-88489-298-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Renaissance&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Church%3A+Journey%2C+Wisdom%2C+and+Mission&rft.pub=St.+Mary%27s+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-88489-298-4&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatholicchurchjo00koch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawsonGlenn_Olsen1961" class="citation book cs1">Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). CUA Press. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-1683-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-1683-6"><bdi>978-0-8132-1683-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crisis+in+Western+Education&rft.pages=25&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=CUA+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=978-0-8132-1683-6&rft.aulast=Dawson&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Glenn+Olsen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch1994" class="citation book cs1">Koch, Carl (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchjo00koch">"Reformation"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchjo00koch">The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission</a>. St. Mary's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-298-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-298-4"><bdi>978-0-88489-298-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reformation&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Church%3A+Journey%2C+Wisdom%2C+and+Mission&rft.pub=St.+Mary%27s+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-88489-298-4&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatholicchurchjo00koch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch1994" class="citation book cs1">Koch, Carl (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchjo00koch">"Enlightenment"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchjo00koch">The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission</a>. St. Mary's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-298-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-298-4"><bdi>978-0-88489-298-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Enlightenment&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Church%3A+Journey%2C+Wisdom%2C+and+Mission&rft.pub=St.+Mary%27s+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-88489-298-4&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatholicchurchjo00koch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank2001-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrank2001_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrank2001">Frank 2001</a>. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFrank2001 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Sootin, Harry. "Isaac Newton." New York, Messner (1955) </li> <li id="cite_note-Galileo-70"><a href="#cite_ref-Galileo_70-0">^</a> Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences, trans. <a href="/wiki/Stillman_Drake" title="Stillman Drake">Stillman Drake</a>, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1974), pp. 217, 225, 296–97. </li> <li id="cite_note-Moody-71"><a href="#cite_ref-Moody_71-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErnest_A._Moody1951" class="citation journal cs1">Ernest A. Moody (1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (I)". 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_701509067/Scientific_Revolution.html">the original</a> on 28 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encarta&rft.atitle=Scientific+Revolution&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencarta.msn.com%2Fencyclopedia_701509067%2FScientific_Revolution.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLandes1969">Landes 1969</a>, p. 40 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLandes1969 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvnb|Landes|1969-77"><a href="#cite_ref-Harvnb|Landes|1969_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLandes1969">Landes 1969</a> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLandes1969 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-industrial-78"><a href="#cite_ref-industrial_78-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">Watt steam engine</a> File: located in the lobby of into the Superior Technical School of Industrial Engineers of the UPM (Madrid) </li> <li id="cite_note-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth-79"><a href="#cite_ref-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas2002" class="citation book cs1">Lucas, Robert E. Jr. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lecturesoneconom00luca">Lectures on Economic Growth</a>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lecturesoneconom00luca/page/109">109–10</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01601-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01601-9"><bdi>978-0-674-01601-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+Economic+Growth&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=109-10&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01601-9&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flecturesoneconom00luca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Feinstein2014-80"><a href="#cite_ref-Feinstein2014_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeinstein1998" class="citation journal cs1">Feinstein, Charles (September 1998). "Pessimism Perpetuated: Real Wages and the Standard of Living in Britain during and after the Industrial Revolution". Journal of Economic History. 58 (3): 625–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0022050700021100">10.1017/s0022050700021100</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54816980">54816980</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Pessimism+Perpetuated%3A+Real+Wages+and+the+Standard+of+Living+in+Britain+during+and+after+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E625-%3C%2Fspan%3E58&rft.date=1998-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0022050700021100&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54816980%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Feinstein&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SzreterMooney2014-81"><a href="#cite_ref-SzreterMooney2014_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzreterMooney1998" class="citation journal cs1">Szreter, Simon; Mooney, Graham (February 1998). "Urbanization, Mortality, and the Standard of Living Debate: New Estimates of the Expectation of Life at Birth in Nineteenth-Century British Cities". The Economic History Review. 51 (1): 104. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-0289.00084">10.1111/1468-0289.00084</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10.1111%2F1468-0289.00084">10.1111/1468-0289.00084</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Urbanization%2C+Mortality%2C+and+the+Standard+of+Living+Debate%3A+New+Estimates+of+the+Expectation+of+Life+at+Birth+in+Nineteenth-Century+British+Cities&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=104&rft.date=1998-02&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10.1111%2F1468-0289.00084&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1468-0289.00084&rft.aulast=Szreter&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Mooney%2C+Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-revolution-82"><a href="#cite_ref-revolution_82-0">^</a> Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848, Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd., p. 27 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-349-10484-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-349-10484-0">0-349-10484-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-google1-83"><a href="#cite_ref-google1_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_E_Inikori" class="citation book cs1">Joseph E Inikori. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y7rhKYWhCyIC&pg=PA102">Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-01079-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-01079-9"><bdi>0-521-01079-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africans+and+the+Industrial+Revolution+in+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.isbn=0-521-01079-9&rft.au=Joseph+E+Inikori&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy7rhKYWhCyIC%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-Rehabilitating_the_Industrial_Revolution-84"><a href="#cite_ref-Rehabilitating_the_Industrial_Revolution_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerg,_MaxineHudson,_Pat1992" class="citation journal cs1">Berg, Maxine; <a href="/wiki/Pat_Hudson" title="Pat Hudson">Hudson, Pat</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/research/workingpapers/1989-1994/twerp351.pdf">"Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution"</a> (PDF). The Economic History Review. 45 (1): 24–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2598327">10.2307/2598327</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2598327">2598327</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Rehabilitating+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E24-%3C%2Fspan%3E50&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2598327&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2598327%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Berg%2C+Maxine&rft.au=Hudson%2C+Pat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarwick.ac.uk%2Ffac%2Fsoc%2Feconomics%2Fresearch%2Fworkingpapers%2F1989-1994%2Ftwerp351.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lorenzen-85"><a href="#cite_ref-lorenzen_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJulie_Lorenzen" class="citation web cs1">Julie Lorenzen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.julielorenzen.net/berg.html">"Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061109022755/http://www.julielorenzen.net/berg.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2006. Retrieved 9 November 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rehabilitating+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.au=Julie+Lorenzen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.julielorenzen.net%2Fberg.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution-86"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_86-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Lucas_Jr.2003" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Lucas,_Jr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Lucas, Jr (page does not exist)">Robert Lucas Jr.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071127032512/http://minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm">"The Industrial Revolution"</a>. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm">the original</a> on 27 November 2007. Retrieved 14 November 2007. <q>it is fairly clear that up to 1800 or maybe 1750, no society had experienced sustained growth in per capita income. (Eighteenth century population growth also averaged one-third of 1 percent, the same as production growth.) That is, up to about two centuries ago, per capita <a href="/wiki/Real_income" title="Real income">incomes</a> in all societies were stagnated at around $400 to $800 per year.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution&rft.pub=Federal+Reserve+Bank+of+Minneapolis&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Robert+Lucas+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minneapolisfed.org%2Fpubs%2Fregion%2F04-05%2Fessay.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_''Past_and_Future''-87"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_''Past_and_Future''_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas2003" class="citation web cs1">Lucas, Robert (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071127032512/http://minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm">"The Industrial Revolution Past and Future"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm">the original</a> on 27 November 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2016. <q>[consider] annual growth rates of 2.4 percent for the first 60 years of the 20th century, of 1 percent for the entire 19th century, of one-third of 1 percent for the 18th century</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+Past+and+Future&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minneapolisfed.org%2Fpubs%2Fregion%2F04-05%2Fessay.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReviewOfCambridge-88"><a href="#cite_ref-ReviewOfCambridge_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCloskey2004" class="citation web cs1">McCloskey, Deidre (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deirdremccloskey.org/articles/floud.php">"Review of The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain (edited by Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson), Times Higher Education Supplement, 15 January 2004"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Review+of+The+Cambridge+Economic+History+of+Modern+Britain+%28edited+by+Roderick+Floud+and+Paul+Johnson%29%2C+Times+Higher+Education+Supplement%2C+15+January+2004&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=McCloskey&rft.aufirst=Deidre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeirdremccloskey.org%2Farticles%2Ffloud.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor_1951-89"><a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_1951_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1951" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, George Rogers (1951). The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860. M.E. Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-101-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-101-3"><bdi>978-0-87332-101-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transportation+Revolution%2C+1815%E2%80%931860&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1951&rft.isbn=978-0-87332-101-3&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=George+Rogers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> No name is given to the transition years. The "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Transportation_Revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transportation Revolution (page does not exist)">Transportation Revolution</a>" began with improved roads in the late 18th century. </li> <li id="cite_note-Roe1916-90"><a href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_90-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoe1916" class="citation cs2">Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ">English and American Tool Builders</a>, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/16011753">16011753</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+and+American+Tool+Builders&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F16011753&rft.aulast=Roe&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Wickham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX-EJAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988">. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (<a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/27024075">27-24075</a>); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-917914-73-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-917914-73-7">978-0-917914-73-7</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHunter1985">Hunter 1985</a> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHunter1985 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-ScienceDaily-92"><a href="#cite_ref-ScienceDaily_92-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/western_culture.htm">"Western culture"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Science_Daily" class="mw-redirect" title="Science Daily">Science Daily</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Western+culture&rft.pub=Science+Daily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Fterms%2Fwestern_culture.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khana-93"><a href="#cite_ref-Khana_93-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/cultures-religions-ap-arthistory/a/a-brief-history-of-western-culture">"A brief history of Western culture"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Khan_Academy" title="Khan Academy">Khan Academy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+brief+history+of+Western+culture&rft.pub=Khan+Academy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.khanacademy.org%2Fhumanities%2Fap-art-history%2Fcultures-religions-ap-arthistory%2Fa%2Fa-brief-history-of-western-culture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-About_SecE-94"><a href="#cite_ref-About_SecE_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFord2005" class="citation news cs1">Ford, Peter (22 February 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-02-21-god-europe_x.htm">"What place for God in Europe"</a>. USA Today. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=What+place+for+God+in+Europe&rft.date=2005-02-22&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2F2005-02-21-god-europe_x.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Global_Christianity-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Christianity_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Christianity_95-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Christianity_95-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Christianity_95-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFANALYSIS2011" class="citation web cs1">ANALYSIS (19 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-exec.aspx">"Global Christianity"</a>. Pewforum.org. Retrieved 17 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Global+Christianity&rft.pub=Pewforum.org&rft.date=2011-12-19&rft.au=ANALYSIS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2FChristian%2FGlobal-Christianity-exec.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopedia-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_96-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_96-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_96-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_96-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeak1996" class="citation book cs1">Deak, Istvan (1996). 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New York : Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65474-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65474-6"><bdi>978-0-521-65474-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+diamond+makers&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65474-6&rft.aulast=Hazen&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdiamondmakers00haze&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100121071050/http://archive.thisischeshire.co.uk/2006/8/23/275808.html">"This Is Cheshire - Winnington history in the making"</a>. 21 January 2010. 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Chemical Heritage Foundation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-941901-03-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-941901-03-1"><bdi>978-0-941901-03-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polymer+Pioneers%3A+A+Popular+History+of+the+Science+and+Technology+of+Large+Molecules&rft.pub=Chemical+Heritage+Foundation&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-941901-03-1&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGjtJfmxvSWgC%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiebig1872" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Liebig, Justus Freiherr von (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HNXyAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA308">Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie</a> (in German). C.F. Winter'sche.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annalen+der+Chemie+und+Pharmacie&rft.pub=C.F.+Winter%27sche&rft.date=1872&rft.aulast=Liebig&rft.aufirst=Justus+Freiherr+von&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHNXyAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA308&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiebig" class="citation journal cs1">Liebig, Justus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x002457910&view=1up&seq=277">"Justus Liebig's Annalen der Chemie. v.31-32 1839"</a>. Annalen der Chemie. 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(2006) The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms, OUP. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-920613-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-920613-9">0-19-920613-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Archimedes, Method, in The Works of Archimedes <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66160-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66160-7">978-0-521-66160-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">The Oxford English Dictionary (2nd. ed.). 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Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicalthou00morr/page/1122">1122–1127</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506137-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506137-6"><bdi>978-0-19-506137-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematical+thought+from+ancient+to+modern+times%2C+Vol.+3&rft.pages=1122-1127&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-19-506137-6&rft.aulast=Kline&rft.aufirst=Morris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmathematicalthou00morr%2Fpage%2F1122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroom1989" class="citation book cs1">Croom, Fred H (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/principlesoftopo0000croo">Principles of Topology</a>. Saunders College Publishings. pp. 1122–27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-029804-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-029804-2"><bdi>978-0-03-029804-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Topology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1122-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.pub=Saunders+College+Publishings&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-03-029804-2&rft.aulast=Croom&rft.aufirst=Fred+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprinciplesoftopo0000croo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://usma.org/metrication-in-other-countries">"Metrication in other countries"</a>. USMA. US Metric Association. Retrieved 24 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USMA&rft.atitle=Metrication+in+other+countries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fusma.org%2Fmetrication-in-other-countries&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/si-brochure/SI-Brochure-9.pdf">The International System of Units</a> (PDF) (9 ed.). BIPM. 2019. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-822-2272-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-822-2272-0"><bdi>978-92-822-2272-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 24 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+International+System+of+Units&rft.edition=9&rft.pub=BIPM&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-92-822-2272-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Futils%2Fcommon%2Fpdf%2Fsi-brochure%2FSI-Brochure-9.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauwersWillekens1994" class="citation journal cs1">Lauwers, Luc; Willekens, Marleen (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110820033441/https://lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/123456789/119065/1/TEM1994-3_289-304p.pdf">"Five Hundred Years of Bookkeeping: A Portrait of Luca Pacioli"</a> (PDF). Tijdschrift voor Economie en Management. 39 (3): 289–304 [p. 300]. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0772-7674">0772-7674</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/123456789/119065/1/TEM1994-3_289-304p.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 20 August 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tijdschrift+voor+Economie+en+Management&rft.atitle=Five+Hundred+Years+of+Bookkeeping%3A+A+Portrait+of+Luca+Pacioli&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=289-304+p.+300&rft.date=1994&rft.issn=0772-7674&rft.aulast=Lauwers&rft.aufirst=Luc&rft.au=Willekens%2C+Marleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flirias.kuleuven.be%2Fbitstream%2F123456789%2F119065%2F1%2FTEM1994-3_289-304p.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> (Chapters 9, 10, 11, 13, 25 and 26) and three times (Chapters 4, 8 and 19) in its sequel, Equality </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHumble1978" class="citation book cs1">Humble, Richard (1978). The Seafarers – The Explorers. 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Washington, D.C. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-050631-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-16-050631-4"><bdi>978-0-16-050631-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/00061677">00061677</a>. NASA SP-2000-4029. Retrieved 12 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Table+of+Contents&rft.btitle=Apollo+by+the+Numbers%3A+A+Statistical+Reference&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.series=NASA+History+Series&rft.date=2004-09&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F00061677&rft.isbn=978-0-16-050631-4&rft.aulast=Orloff&rft.aufirst=Richard+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.nasa.gov%2FSP-4029%2FApollo_00g_Table_of_Contents.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-NASA-Spirit-159"><a href="#cite_ref-NASA-Spirit_159-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson" class="citation web cs1">Nelson, Jon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180128115920/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/details.php?id=5917">"Mars Exploration Rover – Spirit"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/details.php?id=5917">the original</a> on 28 January 2018. Retrieved 2 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA&rft.atitle=Mars+Exploration+Rover+%E2%80%93+Spirit&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpl.nasa.gov%2Fmissions%2Fdetails.php%3Fid%3D5917&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NASA-Opportunity-160"><a href="#cite_ref-NASA-Opportunity_160-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson" class="citation web cs1">Nelson, Jon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/mars-exploration-rover-opportunity-mer/">"Mars Exploration Rover -Opportunity"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. Retrieved 2 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA&rft.atitle=Mars+Exploration+Rover+-Opportunity&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpl.nasa.gov%2Fmissions%2Fmars-exploration-rover-opportunity-mer%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-phone-161"><a href="#cite_ref-phone_161-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorth2001" class="citation news cs1">Worth, Helen (28 February 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://near.jhuapl.edu/news/flash/01feb28.html">"The End of an Asteroidal Adventure: NEAR Shoemaker Phones Home for the Last Time"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Applied_Physics_Lab" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied Physics Lab">Applied Physics Lab</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+End+of+an+Asteroidal+Adventure%3A+NEAR+Shoemaker+Phones+Home+for+the+Last+Time&rft.date=2001-02-28&rft.aulast=Worth&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnear.jhuapl.edu%2Fnews%2Fflash%2F01feb28.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NASA-20150714-kn-162"><a href="#cite_ref-NASA-20150714-kn_162-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownCantilloBuckleyStotoff2015" class="citation web cs1">Brown, Dwayne; Cantillo, Laurie; Buckley, Mike; Stotoff, Maria (14 July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasas-three-billion-mile-journey-to-pluto-reaches-historic-encounter">"15-149 NASA's Three-Billion-Mile Journey to Pluto Reaches Historic Encounter"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. Retrieved 14 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA&rft.atitle=15-149+NASA%27s+Three-Billion-Mile+Journey+to+Pluto+Reaches+Historic+Encounter&rft.date=2015-07-14&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Dwayne&rft.au=Cantillo%2C+Laurie&rft.au=Buckley%2C+Mike&rft.au=Stotoff%2C+Maria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fpress-release%2Fnasas-three-billion-mile-journey-to-pluto-reaches-historic-encounter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ESBS-163"><a href="#cite_ref-ESBS_163-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButrica" class="citation book cs1">Butrica, Andrew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4219/Chapter11.html">From Engineering Science to Big Science</a>. p. 267. Retrieved 4 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Engineering+Science+to+Big+Science&rft.pages=267&rft.aulast=Butrica&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.nasa.gov%2FSP-4219%2FChapter11.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeber2006" class="citation journal cs1">Weber, Johannes (2006). "Strassburg, 1605: The Origins of the Newspaper in Europe". German History. 24 (3): 387–412 (387). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1191%2F0266355406gh380oa">10.1191/0266355406gh380oa</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=German+History&rft.atitle=Strassburg%2C+1605%3A+The+Origins+of+the+Newspaper+in+Europe&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=387-412+%28387%29&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1191%2F0266355406gh380oa&rft.aulast=Weber&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988">: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">At the same time, then as the printing press in the physical technological sense was invented, 'the press' in the extended sense of the word also entered the historical stage. The phenomenon of publishing was now born.</blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardy2010" class="citation book cs1">Hardy, Jonathan (25 February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eMaNAgAAQBAJ&q=western+media">Western Media Systems</a>. Routledge. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-25370-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-25370-7"><bdi>978-1-135-25370-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Media+Systems&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010-02-25&rft.isbn=978-1-135-25370-7&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeMaNAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dwestern%2Bmedia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardy2010" class="citation book cs1">Hardy, Jonathan (25 February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eMaNAgAAQBAJ&q=western+media">Western Media Systems</a>. Routledge. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-25370-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-25370-7"><bdi>978-1-135-25370-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Media+Systems&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010-02-25&rft.isbn=978-1-135-25370-7&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeMaNAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dwestern%2Bmedia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKüngPicardTowse2008" class="citation book cs1">Küng, Lucy; Picard, Robert G.; Towse, Ruth (14 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JzilLEyul5YC&q=media+internet">The Internet and the Mass Media</a>. SAGE. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-4566-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-4566-8"><bdi>978-1-4462-4566-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Internet+and+the+Mass+Media&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=SAGE&rft.date=2008-05-14&rft.isbn=978-1-4462-4566-8&rft.aulast=K%C3%BCng&rft.aufirst=Lucy&rft.au=Picard%2C+Robert+G.&rft.au=Towse%2C+Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJzilLEyul5YC%26q%3Dmedia%2Binternet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PerryChase2012-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PerryChase2012_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PerryChase2012_168-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerryChaseJacobJacob2012" class="citation book cs1">Perry, Marvin; Chase, Myrna; Jacob, James; Jacob, Margaret; Von Laue, Theodore H. (1 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_2901111831690/page/n27/mode/2up">Western Civilization: Since 1400</a>. Cengage Learning. p. XXIX. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-83169-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-111-83169-1"><bdi>978-1-111-83169-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+Since+1400&rft.pages=XXIX&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2012-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-111-83169-1&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rft.au=Chase%2C+Myrna&rft.au=Jacob%2C+James&rft.au=Jacob%2C+Margaret&rft.au=Von+Laue%2C+Theodore+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_2901111831690%2Fpage%2Fn27%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._J._Richards2010" class="citation book cs1">A. J. Richards, David (2010). Fundamentalism in American Religion and Law: Obama's Challenge to Patriarchy's Threat to Democracy. University of Philadelphia Press. p. 177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139484138" title="Special:BookSources/9781139484138"><bdi>9781139484138</bdi></a>. <q>..for the Jews in twentieth-century Europe, the cradle of Christian civilization.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentalism+in+American+Religion+and+Law%3A+Obama%27s+Challenge+to+Patriarchy%27s+Threat+to+Democracy&rft.pages=177&rft.pub=University+of+Philadelphia+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781139484138&rft.aulast=A.+J.+Richards&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'Anieri2019" class="citation book cs1">D'Anieri, Paul (2019). Ukraine and Russia: From Civilied Divorce to Uncivil War. Cambridge University Press. p. 94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108486095" title="Special:BookSources/9781108486095"><bdi>9781108486095</bdi></a>. <q>..for the Jews in twentieth-century Europe, the cradle of Christian civilization.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine+and+Russia%3A+From+Civilied+Divorce+to+Uncivil+War&rft.pages=94&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781108486095&rft.aulast=D%27Anieri&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL._Allen2005" class="citation book cs1">L. Allen, John (2005). The Rise of Benedict XVI: The Inside story of How the Pope Was Elected and What it Means for the World. Penguin UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780141954714" title="Special:BookSources/9780141954714"><bdi>9780141954714</bdi></a>. <q>Europe is historically the cradle of Christian culture, it is still the primary center of institutional and pastoral energy in the Catholic Church...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Benedict+XVI%3A+The+Inside+story+of+How+the+Pope+Was+Elected+and+What+it+Means+for+the+World&rft.pub=Penguin+UK&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780141954714&rft.aulast=L.+Allen&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRietbergen2014" class="citation book cs1">Rietbergen, Peter (2014). 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Routledge. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317606307" title="Special:BookSources/9781317606307"><bdi>9781317606307</bdi></a>. <q>Europe is historically the cradle of Christian culture, it is still the primary center of institutional and pastoral energy in the Catholic Church...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe%3A+A+Cultural+History&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781317606307&rft.aulast=Rietbergen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-europe.aspx">"Europe"</a>. 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Retrieved 31 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Global+Religious+Landscape+-+Christians&rft.pub=Pew+Forum+on+Religion+%26+Public+Life&rft.date=2012-12-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2Fglobal-religious-landscape-christians.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120910023547/http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-americas.aspx">"Global Christianity - A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World' s Christian Population - Americas"</a>. Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. 19 December 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-americas.aspx">the original</a> on 10 September 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Global+Christianity+-+A+Report+on+the+Size+and+Distribution+of+the+World%27+s+Christian+Population+-+Americas&rft.pub=Pew+Forum+on+Religion+%26+Public+Life&rft.date=2011-12-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2FChristian%2FGlobal-Christianity-americas.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EU2012-176">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EU2012_176-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EU2012_176-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EU2012_176-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EU2012_176-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_393_en.pdf">"Discrimination in the EU in 2012"</a> (PDF), <a href="/wiki/Eurobarometer" title="Eurobarometer">Special Eurobarometer</a>, 393, <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>: <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a>, p. 233, 2012, retrieved 14 August 2013</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Special+Eurobarometer&rft.atitle=Discrimination+in+the+EU+in+2012&rft.pages=233&rft.date=2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fpublic_opinion%2Farchives%2Febs%2Febs_393_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> The question asked was "Do you consider yourself to be...?" With a card showing: Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, Other Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu, Atheist, and Non-believer/Agnostic. Space was given for Other (SPONTANEOUS) and DK. Jewish, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu did not reach the 1% threshold. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121202023700/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_393_en.pdf">"Discrimination in the EU in 2012"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Eurobarometer" title="Eurobarometer">Special Eurobarometer</a>. 383: 233. 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_393_en.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2 December 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Special+Eurobarometer&rft.atitle=Discrimination+in+the+EU+in+2012&rft.pages=233&rft.date=2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fpublic_opinion%2Farchives%2Febs%2Febs_393_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReligiousDemography2017-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReligiousDemography2017_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReligiousDemography2017_178-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZurloSkirbekkGrim2019" class="citation book cs1">Zurlo, Gina; Skirbekk, Vegard; Grim, Brian (2019). Yearbook of International Religious Demography 2017. BRILL. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004346307" title="Special:BookSources/9789004346307"><bdi>9789004346307</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yearbook+of+International+Religious+Demography+2017&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9789004346307&rft.aulast=Zurlo&rft.aufirst=Gina&rft.au=Skirbekk%2C+Vegard&rft.au=Grim%2C+Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgbonnaya2017" class="citation book cs1">Ogbonnaya, Joseph (2017). African Perspectives on Culture and World Christianity. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 2–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781443891592" title="Special:BookSources/9781443891592"><bdi>9781443891592</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Perspectives+on+Culture+and+World+Christianity&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781443891592&rft.aulast=Ogbonnaya&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-unaffiliated.aspx">"Religiously Unaffiliated"</a>. Pewforum.org. 18 December 2012. Retrieved 31 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Religiously+Unaffiliated&rft.pub=Pewforum.org&rft.date=2012-12-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2Fglobal-religious-landscape-unaffiliated.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2001-2009-181"><a href="#cite_ref-2001-2009_181-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90177.htm">"Germany"</a>. State.gov. 14 September 2007. Retrieved 31 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Germany&rft.pub=State.gov&rft.date=2007-09-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F2001-2009.state.gov%2Fg%2Fdrl%2Frls%2Firf%2F2007%2F90177.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IpsosMORI2011-182"><a href="#cite_ref-IpsosMORI2011_182-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fgi-tbff.org/sites/default/files/elfinder/FGIImages/Research/fromresearchtopolicy/ipsos_mori_briefing_pack.pdf">Views on globalisation and faith</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130117013643/http://www.fgi-tbff.org/sites/default/files/elfinder/FGIImages/Research/fromresearchtopolicy/ipsos_mori_briefing_pack.pdf">Archived</a> 17 January 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ipsos_MORI" title="Ipsos MORI">Ipsos MORI</a>, 5 July 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-CSA2001-183"><a href="#cite_ref-CSA2001_183-0">^</a> (in French) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://actualitechretienne.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/sondagecsalacroixcatholicismeetprotestantismefrance.pdf">Catholicisme et protestantisme en France: Analyses sociologiques et données de l'Institut CSA pour La Croix</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110811032739/http://actualitechretienne.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/sondagecsalacroixcatholicismeetprotestantismefrance.pdf">Archived</a> 11 August 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Groupe CSA TMO for <a href="/wiki/La_Croix_(newspaper)" title="La Croix (newspaper)">La Croix</a>, 2001 </li> <li id="cite_note-stategov-184"><a href="#cite_ref-stategov_184-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007">"International Religious Freedom Report 2007"</a>. 14 September 2007. Retrieved 8 February 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+Religious+Freedom+Report+2007&rft.date=2007-09-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F2001-2009.state.gov%2Fg%2Fdrl%2Frls%2Firf%2F2007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> William Joseph Baker, Sports in the western world (University of Illinois Press, 1988). </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> David G. McComb, Sports in world history (Routledge, 2004). </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Barbara Schrodt, "Sports of the Byzantine empire." Journal of Sport History 8.3 (1981): 40-59. </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> Sall E. D. Wilkins, Sports and games of medieval cultures (Greenwood, 2002). </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> Tranter, N. L. "Popular sports and the industrial revolution in Scotland: the evidence of the statistical accounts." International Journal of the History of Sport 4.1 (1987): 21-38. </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG._Koenig2009" class="citation book cs1">G. Koenig, Harold (2009). Religion and Spirituality in Psychiatry. Cambridge University Press. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521889520" title="Special:BookSources/9780521889520"><bdi>9780521889520</bdi></a>. <q>The Bible is the most globally influential and widely read book ever written. ... it has been a major influence on the behavior, laws, customs, education, art, literature, and morality of Western civilization.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Spirituality+in+Psychiatry&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780521889520&rft.aulast=G.+Koenig&rft.aufirst=Harold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurnside2011" class="citation book cs1">Burnside, Jonathan (2011). God, Justice, and Society: Aspects of Law and Legality in the Bible. Oxford University Press. p. XXVI. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199759217" title="Special:BookSources/9780199759217"><bdi>9780199759217</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%2C+Justice%2C+and+Society%3A+Aspects+of+Law+and+Legality+in+the+Bible&rft.pages=XXVI&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780199759217&rft.aulast=Burnside&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFV._Reid1987" class="citation book cs1">V. Reid, Patrick (1987). Readings in Western Religious Thought: The ancient world. Paulist Press. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780809128501" title="Special:BookSources/9780809128501"><bdi>9780809128501</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readings+in+Western+Religious+Thought%3A+The+ancient+world&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Paulist+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9780809128501&rft.aulast=V.+Reid&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnkerl2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Ankerl, Guy (2000). Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol. 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-88155-004-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-88155-004-1"><bdi>978-2-88155-004-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+communication+without+universal+civilization&rft.place=Geneva&rft.series=INU+societal+research&rft.pub=INU+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-2-88155-004-1&rft.aulast=Ankerl&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+culture" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Ankerl, Guy (2000). Coexisting Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INUPRESS, Geneva, 119–244. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-88155-004-5" title="Special:BookSources/2-88155-004-5">2-88155-004-5</a>.</li> <li>Atle Hesmyr (2013). Civilization, Oikos, and Progress <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1468924190" title="Special:BookSources/978-1468924190">978-1468924190</a></li> <li>Barzun, Jacques <a href="/wiki/From_Dawn_to_Decadence" title="From Dawn to Decadence">From Dawn to Decadence</a>: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life 1500 to the Present HarperCollins (2000) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-017586-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-017586-9">0-06-017586-9</a>.</li> <li>Daly, Jonathan. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/the-rise-of-western-power-9781441161314/">The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170630100152/http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/the-rise-of-western-power-9781441161314/">Archived</a> 30 June 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" (London and New York: Bloomsbury, 2014). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1441161314" title="Special:BookSources/978-1441161314">978-1441161314</a>.</li> <li>Daly, Jonathan. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfindia.com/books/details/9781138774810/">Historians Debate the Rise of the West</a>" (London and New York: Routledge, 2015). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138774810" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138774810">978-1138774810</a>.</li> <li>Derry, T. K. and Williams, Trevor I. A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900 Dover (1960) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-27472-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-27472-1">0-486-27472-1</a>.</li> <li>Duran, Eduardo, Bonnie Dyran <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qgVoY7mypa4C">Native American Postcolonial Psychology</a> 1995 Albany: State University of New York Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-2353-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-2353-0">0-7914-2353-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Davis_Hanson" title="Victor Davis Hanson">Hanson, Victor Davis</a>; Heath, John (2001). Who Killed Homer: The Demise of Classical Education and the Recovery of Greek Wisdom, Encounter Books.</li> <li>Jones, Prudence and Pennick, Nigel A History of Pagan Europe Barnes & Noble (1995) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7607-1210-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7607-1210-7">0-7607-1210-7</a>.</li> <li>Meaney, Thomas <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/11/opinion/nato-russia-the-west-ukraine.html">"The Return of 'The West'" New York Times March 11, 2022.</a></li> <li>Merriman, John Modern Europe: From the Renaissance to the Present W. W. Norton (1996) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-96885-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-96885-5">0-393-96885-5</a>.</li> <li>McClellan, James E. III and Dorn, Harold Science and Technology in World History Johns Hopkins University Press (1999) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-5869-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-5869-0">0-8018-5869-0</a>.</li> <li>Stein, Ralph The Great Inventions Playboy Press (1976) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87223-444-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-87223-444-4">0-87223-444-4</a>.</li> <li>Asimov, Isaac Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology: The Lives & Achievements of 1510 Great Scientists from Ancient Times to the Present Revised second edition, Doubleday (1982) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-17771-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-17771-2">0-385-17771-2</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Pastor" title="Ludwig von Pastor">Pastor, Ludwig von</a>, History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages; Drawn from the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Secret_Archives" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatican Secret Archives">Secret Archives of the Vatican</a> and other original sources, 40 vols. St. Louis, B. Herder (1898ff.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Joseph_Walsh" title="James Joseph Walsh">Walsh, James Joseph</a>, The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time, Fordham University Press, 1908, reprinted 2003, Kessinger Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7661-3646-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7661-3646-9">0-7661-3646-9</a> Reviews: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G57Y1rlQVP0C&dq=%22the+popes+and+science%22&pg=PT2">p. 462</a>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1407075/">[1]</a></li> <li>Stearns, P.N. (2003). Western Civilization in World History, Routledge, New York.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Thornton_(classicist)" title="Bruce Thornton (classicist)">Thornton, Bruce</a> (2002). Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization, Encounter Books.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niall_Ferguson" title="Niall Ferguson">Ferguson, Niall</a>, Civilization. The West and the rest, Penguin Press, 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-54802-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-54802-8">978-1-101-54802-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Pinker, Steven</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_Now:_The_Case_for_Reason,_Science,_Humanism,_and_Progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress">Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress</a>, Penguin Books, 2018. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-525-42757-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-525-42757-5">978-0-525-42757-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henrich" title="Joseph Henrich">Henrich, Joseph</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_WEIRDest_People_in_the_World" title="The WEIRDest People in the World">The WEIRDest People in the World</a>: How the West Became Psychologically Peculiar and Particularly Prosperous, <a href="/wiki/Farrar,_Straus_and_Giroux" title="Farrar, Straus and Giroux">Farrar, Straus and Giroux</a>, 2020. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0374173227" title="Special:BookSources/978-0374173227">978-0374173227</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Stark, Rodney</a>, The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism, and Western Success, <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812972337" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812972337">978-0812972337</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Stark, Rodney</a>, How the West Won: The Neglected Story of the Triumph of Modernity, <a href="/wiki/Intercollegiate_Studies_Institute" title="Intercollegiate Studies Institute">Intercollegiate Studies Institute</a>, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1497603257" title="Special:BookSources/978-1497603257">978-1497603257</a></li> <li>Headley, John M. The Europeanization of the World: On the Origins of Human Rights and Democracy, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691171487" title="Special:BookSources/9780691171487">9780691171487</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Barzun, Jacques. <a href="//archive.org/details/fromdawntodecade00barz_0" class="extiw" title="iarchive:fromdawntodecade00barz 0">From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life : 1500 to the Present</a>. New York: HarperCollins, 2001.</li> <li>Hesmyr, Atle Kultorp: Civilization; Its Economic Basis, Historical Lessons and Future Prospects (Telemark: Nisus Publications, 2020).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Western_culture" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Western culture">Western culture</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usu.edu/markdamen/1320Hist&Civ/PP/slides/00westciv.pdf">An overview of the Western Civilization</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211024231522/http://www.usu.edu/markdamen/1320Hist%26Civ/PP/slides/00westciv.pdf">Archived</a> 24 October 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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Generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Generation" title="Silent Generation">Silent Generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_boomers" title="Baby boomers">Baby boomers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_X" title="Generation X">Generation X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennials" title="Millennials">Millennials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_Z" title="Generation Z">Generation Z</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_Alpha" title="Generation Alpha">Generation Alpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_Beta" title="Generation Beta">Generation Beta</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cusper" title="Cusper">Cuspers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interbellum_Generation" title="Interbellum Generation">Interbellum Generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_Jones" title="Generation Jones">Generation Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xennials" title="Xennials">Xennials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zillennials" title="Zillennials">Zillennials</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boomerang_Generation" title="Boomerang Generation">Boomerang Generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Me_generation" title="Me generation">Me generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MTV_Generation" title="MTV Generation">MTV Generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Country-specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post_70s_Generation" title="Post 70s Generation">Post-70s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-80s" title="Post-80s">Post-80s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-90s" title="Post-90s">Post-90s</a></li></ul></li> <li>Czechoslovakia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hus%C3%A1k%27s_Children" title="Husák's Children">Husák's Children</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iran <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burnt_Generation" title="Burnt Generation">Burnt Generation</a></li></ul></li> <li>Japan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satori_generation" title="Satori generation">Satori generation</a></li></ul></li> <li>Poland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generation_of_Columbuses" title="Generation of Columbuses">Generation of Columbuses</a></li></ul></li> <li>Romania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decre%C8%9Bei" class="mw-redirect" title="Decreței">Decreței</a></li></ul></li> <li>Singapore <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Generation_Package" title="Pioneer Generation Package">Pioneer Generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merdeka_Generation_Package" title="Merdeka Generation Package">Merdeka Generation</a></li></ul></li> <li>South Korea <ul><li><a href="/wiki/386_Generation" title="386 Generation">386 Generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampo_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sampo generation">Sampo generation</a></li></ul></li> <li>Taiwan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strawberry_generation" title="Strawberry generation">Strawberry generation</a></li></ul></li> <li>United States <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Millennials_in_the_United_States" title="Millennials in the United States">Millennials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_Z_in_the_United_States" title="Generation Z in the United States">Generation Z</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><a href="/wiki/9X_Generation" title="9X Generation">9X Generation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Future_generations" title="Future generations">Future generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigrant_generations" title="Immigrant generations">Immigrant generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_generation" title="Revolutionary generation">Revolutionary generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generation_gap" title="Generation gap">Generation gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generational_accounting" title="Generational accounting">Generational accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generationism" title="Generationism">Generationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergenerationality" title="Intergenerationality">Intergenerationality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intergenerational_equity" title="Intergenerational equity">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergenerational_policy" title="Intergenerational policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergenerational_shared_site" title="Intergenerational shared site">Shared site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergenerational_struggle" title="Intergenerational struggle">Struggle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory" title="Strauss–Howe generational theory">Strauss–Howe generational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_generations" title="Theory of generations">Theory of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_design" title="Transgenerational design">Transgenerational design</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beat_Generation" title="Beat Generation">Beat Generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_native" title="Digital native">Digital native</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OK_boomer" title="OK boomer">OK boomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Greatest_Generation_(book)" title="The Greatest Generation (book)">The Greatest Generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture240" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture240" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Culture577" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Culture" title="Template:Culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Culture" title="Template talk:Culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Culture577" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_culture" title="Outline of culture">Outline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_astronomy" title="Cultural astronomy">Cultural astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_ecology" title="Cultural ecology">Cultural ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience" title="Cultural neuroscience">Cultural neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturology" title="Culturology">Culturology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioculture" title="Bioculture">Bioculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication" title="Cross-cultural communication">Cross-cultural communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_leadership" title="Cross-cultural leadership">Cross-cultural leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychiatry" title="Cross-cultural psychiatry">Cross-cultural psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_analytics" title="Cultural analytics">Cultural analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_economics" title="Cultural economics">Cultural economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insects_in_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Insects in culture">Cultural entomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">Cultural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mapping" title="Cultural mapping">Cultural mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mediation" title="Cultural mediation">Cultural mediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Cultural values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturomics" title="Culturomics">Culturomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_learning" title="Intercultural learning">Intercultural learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_relations" title="Intercultural relations">Intercultural relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_culture" title="Internet culture">Internet culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture_studies" title="Popular culture studies">Popular culture studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics_of_culture" title="Semiotics of culture">Semiotics of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Sociology of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound culture">Sound culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_culture" title="Theology of culture">Theology of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcultural_nursing" title="Transcultural nursing">Transcultural nursing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructed culture">Constructed culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_culture" title="Dominant culture">Dominant culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">Folk culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">High culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualistic_culture" title="Individualistic culture">Individualistic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_culture" title="Legal culture">Legal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_culture" title="Low culture">Low culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microculture" title="Microculture">Microculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_culture" title="Official culture">Official culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_culture" title="Political culture">Political culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civic_political_culture" title="Civic political culture">Civic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">Popular culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_pop_culture" title="Urban pop culture">Urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Primitive culture">Primitive culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_through_culture" title="Resistance through culture">Resistance through culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subculture" title="Subculture">Subculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_culture" title="Alternative culture">Alternative culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fandom" title="Fandom">Fandom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_subcultures" title="Far-right subcultures">Far-right subcultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_subculture" title="Youth subculture">Youth subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcultures" title="List of subcultures">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_culture" title="Super culture">Super culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_culture" title="Underground culture">Underground culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_culture" title="Vernacular culture">Vernacular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Culture_by_location" title="Category:Culture by location">Culture by location</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acculturation" title="Acculturation">Acculturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_appreciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural appreciation">Cultural appreciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">Cultural appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_area" title="Cultural area">Cultural area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">Cultural artifact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_baggage" title="Cultural baggage">Cultural baggage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_behavior" title="Cultural behavior">Cultural behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_bias" title="Cultural bias">Cultural bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_capital" title="Cultural capital">Cultural capital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_capital" title="Cross-cultural capital">Cross-cultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_communication" title="Cultural communication">Cultural communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_conflict" title="Cultural conflict">Cultural conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_cringe" title="Cultural cringe">Cultural cringe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_dissonance" title="Cultural dissonance">Cultural dissonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_emphasis" title="Cultural emphasis">Cultural emphasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_framework" title="Cultural framework">Cultural framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_destroyed_heritage" title="List of destroyed heritage">Destroyed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_icon" title="Cultural icon">Cultural icon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">Cultural identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural industry">Cultural industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_invention" title="Cultural invention">Cultural invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_landscape" title="Cultural landscape">Cultural landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_learning" title="Cultural learning">Cultural learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_leveling" title="Cultural leveling">Cultural leveling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_memory" title="Cultural memory">Cultural memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_practice" title="Cultural practice">Cultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_property" title="Cultural property">Cultural property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_reproduction" title="Cultural reproduction">Cultural reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_system" title="Cultural system">Cultural system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_technology" title="Cultural technology">Cultural technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Cultural universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultureme" title="Cultureme">Cultureme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enculturation" title="Enculturation">Enculturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-_and_low-context_cultures" class="mw-redirect" title="High- and low-context cultures">High- and low-context cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interculturality" class="mw-redirect" title="Interculturality">Interculturality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuscript_culture" title="Manuscript culture">Manuscript culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">Material culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-material_culture" title="Non-material culture">Non-material culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_culture" title="Organizational culture">Organizational culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Print_culture" title="Print culture">Print culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoculture" title="Protoculture">Protoculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_mobility" title="Relational mobility">Relational mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_culture" title="Safety culture">Safety culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoculture" title="Technoculture">Technoculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Trans-cultural diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transculturation" title="Transculturation">Transculturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_culture" title="Visual culture">Visual culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_mentality" title="Colonial mentality">Colonial mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_capitalism" title="Consumer capitalism">Consumer capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_cultural_sensitivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross cultural sensitivity">Cross cultural sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_attach%C3%A9" title="Cultural attaché">Cultural attaché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_backwardness" title="Cultural backwardness">Cultural backwardness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Bolshevism" title="Cultural Bolshevism">Cultural Bolshevism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_conservatism" title="Cultural conservatism">Cultural conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_contracts" title="Cultural contracts">Cultural contracts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_deprivation" title="Cultural deprivation">Cultural deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_diplomacy" title="Cultural diplomacy">Cultural diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism" title="Cultural environmentalism">Cultural environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_exception" title="Cultural exception">Cultural exception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_feminism" title="Cultural feminism">Cultural feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_globalization" title="Cultural globalization">Cultural globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">Cultural hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">Cultural imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_intelligence" title="Cultural intelligence">Cultural intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_nationalism" title="Cultural nationalism">Cultural nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_policy" title="Cultural policy">Cultural policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_racism" title="Cultural racism">Cultural racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_radicalism" title="Cultural radicalism">Cultural radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_retention" title="Cultural retention">Cultural retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_rights" title="Cultural rights">Cultural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_safety" title="Cultural safety">Cultural safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_silence" title="Cultural silence">Cultural silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_subsidy" title="Cultural subsidy">Cultural subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Zionism" title="Cultural Zionism">Cultural Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_change" title="Culture change">Culture change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_minister" title="Culture minister">Culture minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_fear" title="Culture of fear">Culture of fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_war" title="Culture war">Culture war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deculturalization" title="Deculturalization">Deculturalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominator_culture" title="Dominator culture">Dominator culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Interculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Monoculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biculturalism" title="Biculturalism">Biculturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiracial_democracy" title="Multiracial democracy">Multiracial democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluriculturalism" title="Pluriculturalism">Pluriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transculturism" class="mw-redirect" title="Transculturism">Transculturism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic culture">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_culture" title="Protestant culture">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role of Christianity in civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox Culture">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Hindus" title="Cultural Hindus">Cultural Hindus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Muslims" title="Cultural Muslims">Cultural Muslims</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_art_and_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh art and culture">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_culture" title="Animal culture">Animal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">Archaeological culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bennett_scale" title="Bennett scale">Bennett scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_culture" title="Cannabis culture">Cannabis culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_of_culture" title="Circuit of culture">Circuit of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">Civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_culture" title="Coffee culture">Coffee culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural" title="Cross-cultural">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_center" title="Cultural center">Cultural center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence" title="Cultural competence">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural critic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_diversity" title="Cultural diversity">Cultural diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolutionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural evolutionism">Cultural evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_homogenization" title="Cultural homogenization">Cultural homogenization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_institution" title="Cultural institution">Cultural institution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_jet_lag" title="Cultural jet lag">Cultural jet lag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_lag" title="Cultural lag">Cultural lag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mosaic" title="Cultural mosaic">Cultural mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_movement" title="Cultural movement">Cultural movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mulatto" title="Cultural mulatto">Cultural mulatto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_probe" title="Cultural probe">Cultural probe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_tourism" title="Cultural tourism">Cultural tourism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pop-culture_tourism" title="Pop-culture tourism">Pop-culture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_translation" title="Cultural translation">Cultural translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_turn" title="Cultural turn">Cultural turn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_sensibility" title="Cultural sensibility">Cultural sensibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_menstruation" title="Culture and menstruation">Culture and menstruation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_positive_psychology" title="Culture and positive psychology">Culture and positive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_social_cognition" title="Culture and social cognition">Culture and social cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_gap" title="Culture gap">Culture gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_hero" title="Culture hero">Culture hero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_industry" title="Culture industry">Culture industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_shock" title="Culture shock">Culture shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturgen" title="Culturgen">Culturgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_culture" title="Children's culture">Children's culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyberculture">Cyberculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_culture" title="Death and culture">Death and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_culture" title="Disability culture">Disability culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deaf_culture" title="Deaf culture">Deaf culture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_culture" title="Drinking culture">Drinking culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_culture" title="Drug culture">Drug culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_culture" title="Eastern culture">Eastern culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotions_and_culture" title="Emotions and culture">Emotions and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_communication" title="Intercultural communication">Intercultural communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_competence" class="mw-redirect" title="Intercultural competence">Intercultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languaculture" title="Languaculture">Languaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_things_in_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Living things in culture">Living things in culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">Media culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppositional_culture" title="Oppositional culture">Oppositional culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_culture" title="Participatory culture">Participatory culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permission_culture" title="Permission culture">Permission culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_culture" title="Rape culture">Rape culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remix_culture" title="Remix culture">Remix culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_culture" title="Tea culture">Tea culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation of culture">Transformation of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_culture" title="Urban culture">Urban culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_culture" title="Welfare culture">Welfare culture</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Western culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_culture" title="Youth culture">Youth culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Culture" title="Category:Culture">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a 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[\"CITEREFErnest_A._Moody1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaltinMelanie_J._Wright2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeinstein1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFermi1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFord2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFortenberry2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreebert2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeman2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFG._Koenig2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGager1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeanakoplos1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGernsheim,_Helmut1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraeberWengrow2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanson2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHardy2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHaskins1927\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHazen1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHengel2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHero1899\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumble1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJim_Al-Khalili2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonathan_W._SteedJerry_L._Atwood2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph_E_Inikori\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJulie_Lorenzen\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaiser2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKline1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoch1994\"] = 6,\n [\"CITEREFKwame_Anthony_Appiah2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKüngPicardTowse2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFL._Allen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLane2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLauwersWillekens1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiebig\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiebig1872\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLosev1928\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLucas2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLucas2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCloskey2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNeill2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMost2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Research_Council_(U.S.)._Committee_on_the_Future_of_the_Global_Positioning_SystemNational_Academy_of_Public_Administration1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeill1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelson\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNicholls1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNightingale2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;CollinsFarrugia2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOgbonnaya2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrloff2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPagden2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerryChaseJacobJacob2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPolybius1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorter2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRietbergen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRisse1999\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Lucas_Jr.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoe1916\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSachs1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanjay_Kumar2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchiffer,_Michael_B.Hollenback,_Kacy_L.Bell,_Carrie_L.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchumpeter1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharon2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpielvogel2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStearns2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzreterMooney1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTracey_Tokuhama-Espinosa2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFV._Reid1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeber2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiser2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorth2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZurloSkirbekkGrim2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Torre1997\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"'\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 6,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 81,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 15,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 30,\n [\"Columns-list\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Cultural gens\"] = 1,\n [\"Culture\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"Excessive citations inline\"] = 1,\n [\"For\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Google books\"] = 1,\n [\"Harnvb\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 3,\n [\"History of Western philosophy\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 29,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"LCCN\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"More citations needed section\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiref2\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Request quotation\"] = 2,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 9,\n [\"Western culture\"] = 1,\n [\"Which\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\nno target: CITEREFFrank2001\nno target: CITEREFVerger1999\nno target: CITEREFLandes1969\nno target: CITEREFLandes1969\nno target: CITEREFHunter1985\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","300","25.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","13.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","120","10.0"],["type","80","6.7"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","6.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","60","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","40","3.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","40","3.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","40","3.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","40","3.3"],["[others]","240","20.0"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-54bc5bdf84-6lb2x","timestamp":"20250217172530","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Western culture","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Western_culture","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q478958","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q478958","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-01-18T14:11:00Z","dateModified":"2025-02-17T17:25:20Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/22\/Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg","headline":"heritage of norms, customs, belief and political systems, and artifacts and technologies associated with Europe (both indigenous and foreign origin)"}</script> </body> </html>