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href="#Sasanian_Empire_before_the_conquest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Sasanian Empire before the conquest</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sasanian_Empire_before_the_conquest-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sasanian Empire before the conquest subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sasanian_Empire_before_the_conquest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_problems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_problems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Social problems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_problems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Revolt_of_the_Arab_client_states_(602)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolt_of_the_Arab_client_states_(602)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Revolt of the Arab client states (602)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolt_of_the_Arab_client_states_(602)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Byzantine–Sassanid_War_(602–628)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantine–Sassanid_War_(602–628)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Byzantine–Sassanid War (602–628)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantine–Sassanid_War_(602–628)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plague_of_Sheroe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plague_of_Sheroe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Plague of Sheroe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plague_of_Sheroe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Execution_of_Khosrau_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Execution_of_Khosrau_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Execution of Khosrau II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Execution_of_Khosrau_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muhammad's_Letter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muhammad's_Letter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.5</span> <span>Muhammad's Letter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muhammad's_Letter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_the_Caliphate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_the_Caliphate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Rise of the Caliphate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_the_Caliphate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Mesopotamia_(633–638)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Mesopotamia_(633–638)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Conquest of Mesopotamia (633–638)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conquest_of_Mesopotamia_(633–638)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conquest of Mesopotamia (633–638) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Mesopotamia_(633–638)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_invasion_(633)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_invasion_(633)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>First invasion (633)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_invasion_(633)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_invasion_(634–636)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_invasion_(634–636)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Second invasion (634–636)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_invasion_(634–636)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_of_the_Bridge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_the_Bridge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Battle of the Bridge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_the_Bridge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Qadisiyyah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Qadisiyyah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Battle of Qadisiyyah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Qadisiyyah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_campaign_and_conquest_(636–638)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_campaign_and_conquest_(636–638)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Final campaign and conquest (636–638)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_campaign_and_conquest_(636–638)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persian_raids_in_Mesopotamia_(638–641)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persian_raids_in_Mesopotamia_(638–641)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Persian raids in Mesopotamia (638–641)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persian_raids_in_Mesopotamia_(638–641)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Nahavand_(642)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Nahavand_(642)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Battle of Nahavand (642)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Nahavand_(642)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Persia_(642–651)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Persia_(642–651)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Conquest of Persia (642–651)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conquest_of_Persia_(642–651)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conquest of Persia (642–651) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Persia_(642–651)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Strategic_planning_for_the_conquest_of_Persia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategic_planning_for_the_conquest_of_Persia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Strategic planning for the conquest of Persia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategic_planning_for_the_conquest_of_Persia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Central_Iran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Central_Iran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Conquest of Central Iran</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Central_Iran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Fars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Fars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Conquest of Fars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Fars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_Muslim_invasion_and_the_successful_Sasanian_counter-attack" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Muslim_invasion_and_the_successful_Sasanian_counter-attack"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1</span> <span>First Muslim invasion and the successful Sasanian counter-attack</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Muslim_invasion_and_the_successful_Sasanian_counter-attack-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_and_last_Muslim_invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_and_last_Muslim_invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.2</span> <span>Second and last Muslim invasion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_and_last_Muslim_invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Southeastern_Persia_(Kerman_and_Makran)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Southeastern_Persia_(Kerman_and_Makran)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Conquest of Southeastern Persia (Kerman and Makran)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Southeastern_Persia_(Kerman_and_Makran)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Sakastan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Sakastan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Conquest of Sakastan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Sakastan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Iranian_Azerbaijan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Iranian_Azerbaijan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Conquest of Iranian Azerbaijan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Iranian_Azerbaijan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Armenia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Armenia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Conquest of Armenia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Armenia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Khorasan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Khorasan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8</span> <span>Conquest of Khorasan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Khorasan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persian_rebellion_and_reconquest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persian_rebellion_and_reconquest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Persian rebellion and reconquest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persian_rebellion_and_reconquest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persia_under_Muslim_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persia_under_Muslim_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Persia under Muslim rule</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Persia_under_Muslim_rule-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Persia under Muslim rule subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Persia_under_Muslim_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_of_Persia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_of_Persia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Language of Persia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_of_Persia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urbanisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urbanisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Urbanisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urbanisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Muslim conquest of Persia</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">48 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A_%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" title="الفتح الإسلامي لفارس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الفتح الإسلامي لفارس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%B7%D5%A1%D6%82%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%84%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A8_%D4%B4%D5%A7%D5%BA%D5%AB_%D5%8A%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Արաբական Արշաւանքները Դէպի Պարսկաստան – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Արաբական Արշաւանքները Դէպի Պարսկաստան" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_musulmana_de_Persia" title="Conquista musulmana de Persia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Conquista musulmana de Persia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A2%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="موسلمانلارین ایران آلینماسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="موسلمانلارین ایران آلینماسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC" title="মুসলিমদের পারস্য বিজয় – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মুসলিমদের পারস্য বিজয়" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D3%99%D1%80%D3%99%D0%BF%D1%82%D3%99%D1%80%D2%99%D0%B5%D2%A3_%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%8F%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%8B" title="Ғәрәптәрҙең Фарсияны яулауы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ғәрәптәрҙең Фарсияны яулауы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%96%D1%96" title="Арабскае заваяванне Персіі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Арабскае заваяванне Персіі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Арабско завоюване на Персия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Арабско завоюване на Персия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimansko_osvajanje_Perzije" title="Muslimansko osvajanje Perzije – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Muslimansko osvajanje Perzije" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquesta_musulmana_de_P%C3%A8rsia" title="Conquesta musulmana de Pèrsia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Conquesta musulmana de Pèrsia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimsk%C3%A9_dobyt%C3%AD_Persie" title="Muslimské dobytí Persie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Muslimské dobytí Persie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimske_erobring_af_Iran" title="Muslimske erobring af Iran – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Muslimske erobring af Iran" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_musulmana_de_Persia" title="Conquista musulmana de Persia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Conquista musulmana de Persia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islama_konkero_de_Persio" title="Islama konkero de Persio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Islama konkero de Persio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persiaren_konkista_musulmana" title="Persiaren konkista musulmana – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Persiaren konkista musulmana" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A8%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="حمله اعراب به ایران – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حمله اعراب به ایران" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conqu%C3%AAte_musulmane_de_la_Perse" title="Conquête musulmane de la Perse – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Conquête musulmane de la Perse" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EC%8A%AC%EB%9E%8C%EC%9D%98_%ED%8E%98%EB%A5%B4%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%84_%EC%A0%95%EB%B3%B5" title="이슬람의 페르시아 정복 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이슬람의 페르시아 정복" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasarar_Musulunci_a_Farisa" title="Nasarar Musulunci a Farisa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Nasarar Musulunci a Farisa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%84%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A8_%D5%8A%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Արաբական արշավանքները Պարսկաստան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արաբական արշավանքները Պարսկաստան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimansko_osvajanje_Perzije" title="Muslimansko osvajanje Perzije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Muslimansko osvajanje Perzije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penaklukan_Persia_oleh_Muslim" title="Penaklukan Persia oleh Muslim – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penaklukan Persia oleh Muslim" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_islamica_della_Persia" title="Conquista islamica della Persia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Conquista islamica della Persia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A9_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A1" title="הכיבוש המוסלמי של פרס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הכיבוש המוסלמי של פרס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A7%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90_%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0" title="ირანის დაპყრობა არაბების მიერ – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ირანის დაპყრობა არაბების მიერ" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Исламско освојување на Персија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Исламско освојување на Персија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%B2%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" title="غزو المسلمين فارس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="غزو المسلمين فارس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penaklukan_Islam_ke_atas_Parsi" title="Penaklukan Islam ke atas Parsi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penaklukan Islam ke atas Parsi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B9%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0%E6%95%99%E5%BE%92%E3%81%AE%E3%83%9A%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A2%E5%BE%81%E6%9C%8D" title="イスラーム教徒のペルシア征服 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イスラーム教徒のペルシア征服" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_islamske_erobringen_av_Persia" title="Den islamske erobringen av Persia – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den islamske erobringen av Persia" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_ar%C3%A0bia_de_P%C3%A8rsia" title="Conquista aràbia de Pèrsia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Conquista aràbia de Pèrsia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD" title="ایران دی اسلامی فتح – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایران دی اسلامی فتح" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88_%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7_%D8%AF_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84" title="د مسلمانو له خوا د فارس نيول – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د مسلمانو له خوا د فارس نيول" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabski_podb%C3%B3j_Iranu" title="Arabski podbój Iranu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Arabski podbój Iranu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_mu%C3%A7ulmana_da_P%C3%A9rsia" title="Conquista muçulmana da Pérsia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Conquista muçulmana da Pérsia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Арабское завоевание Персии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Арабское завоевание Персии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Муслиманско освајање Персије – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Муслиманско освајање Персије" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimansko_osvajanje_Perzije" title="Muslimansko osvajanje Perzije – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Muslimansko osvajanje Perzije" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_muslimivalloitus" title="Persian muslimivalloitus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Persian muslimivalloitus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamiska_er%C3%B6vringen_av_Persien" title="Islamiska erövringen av Persien – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Islamiska erövringen av Persien" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="பாரசீகம் மீதான இசுலாமியப் படையெடுப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பாரசீகம் மீதான இசுலாமியப் படையெடுப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a 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href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected until August 22, 2025 at 19:06 UTC, to prevent sock puppets of blocked or banned users from editing it"><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">7th-century conquest of the Sassanid Empire</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Muslim conquest of Persia</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:IslamicConquestsIroon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/IslamicConquestsIroon.png/220px-IslamicConquestsIroon.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/IslamicConquestsIroon.png/330px-IslamicConquestsIroon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/IslamicConquestsIroon.png/440px-IslamicConquestsIroon.png 2x" data-file-width="1006" data-file-height="893" /></a></span><br />Map of <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>, depicting the approximate territorial boundaries of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> prior to the Muslim conquests</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>633–651<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008469_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008469-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Greater Khorasan</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Muslim victory</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> <div><ul><li>Expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate into the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Plateau">Iranian Plateau</a></li><li>Rise of several Iranian dynasties in <a href="/wiki/Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Tabaristan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a> resisting the Muslim invasion</li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a><hr /><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a><br />(633–636)<br /><a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Arab Christians</a><br />(633–637)<br /><a href="/wiki/Kanarang" title="Kanarang">Kanārangīyāns</a><br />(633–651)<br /><a href="/wiki/House_of_Ispahbudhan" title="House of Ispahbudhan">House of Ispahbudhan</a><br />(633–651)<br /> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Mihran" title="House of Mihran">House of Mihran</a><br />(633–651)<br /> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Karen" title="House of Karen">House of Karen</a><br />(633–654)<br /><a href="/wiki/Dabuyids" class="mw-redirect" title="Dabuyids">Dabuyids</a><br />(642–651)<br /><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk_Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Göktürk Khaganate">Göktürk Khaganate</a><br />(651)<br /><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a><br />(651–654)<br /><small><b>Supported by:</b></small><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_(transparent).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/10px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/15px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/20px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Heraclian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty">Byzantine Empire</a></b> (until 641)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><i>See list</i></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><b><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Death_by_natural_causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Death by natural causes"><b>#</b></a><br /><small>(until 634)</small><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_al-Khattab" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar ibn al-Khattab">Umar ibn al-Khattab</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination"><b>X</b></a><br /> <b><a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uthman ibn Affan">Uthman ibn Affan</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination"><b>X</b></a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</a><br /><small>(633–634)</small><br /> <a href="/wiki/Al-Muthanna_ibn_Haritha" title="Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha">al-Muthanna ibn Haritha</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wounded_in_action" title="Wounded in action"><abbr title="Wounded in action">WIA</abbr></a>)<br /> <a href="/wiki/Abu_Ubayd_al-Thaqafi" title="Abu Ubayd al-Thaqafi">Abu Ubayd</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /> Al-Hakam al-Thaqafi  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Sa%60d_ibn_Abi_Waqqas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas">Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas</a><br /> Zuhra ibn Al-Hawiyya<br /> <a href="/wiki/Hashim_ibn_Utba" title="Hashim ibn Utba">Hashim ibn Utba</a><br />al-Jarud ibn al-Mu'alla  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br />'Ubayd Allah ibn Ma'mar  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27qa%27_ibn_Amr_al-Tamimi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Qa'qa' ibn Amr al-Tamimi">Qa’qa ibn Amr</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shurahbil_ibn_Simt" title="Shurahbil ibn Simt">Shurahbil ibn Simt</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Tulayha_ibn_Khuwaylid_ibn_Nawfal_al-Asadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulayha ibn Khuwaylid ibn Nawfal al-Asadi">Tulayha</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /> Jabr ibn Abi Ubayd  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Amru_bin_Ma%27adi_Yakrib" class="mw-redirect" title="Amru bin Ma'adi Yakrib">Amru bin Ma'adi Yakrib</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /> <a href="/wiki/%27Amr_ibn_al-%27As" class="mw-redirect" title="'Amr ibn al-'As">'Amr ibn al-'As</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Abu_Musa_Ashaari" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Musa Ashaari">Abu Musa Ashaari</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Ammar_ibn_Yasir" title="Ammar ibn Yasir">Ammar ibn Yasir</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Nouman_ibn_Muqarrin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nouman ibn Muqarrin">Nouman ibn Muqarrin</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Al-Ala_al-Hadhrami" title="Al-Ala al-Hadhrami">Al-Ala al-Hadhrami</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Arfajah" title="Arfajah">Arfajah</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Hudhayfah_ibn_al-Yaman" title="Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman">Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Mugheera_ibn_Shuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Mugheera ibn Shuba">Mugheera ibn Shuba</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Abi_al-As" title="Uthman ibn Abi al-As">Usman ibn Abi al-Aas</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaqa_ibn_Amr_al-Tamimi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Qaqa ibn Amr al-Tamimi">Al-Qaqa ibn Amr al-Tamimi</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Asim_ibn_%27Amr_al-Tamimi" class="mw-redirect" title="Asim ibn 'Amr al-Tamimi">Asim ibn 'Amr al-Tamimi</a><br /> al-Sawwar ibn Hammam  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Iyad_ibn_Ghanm" title="Iyad ibn Ghanm">Iyad ibn Ghanm</a><br /> Asim ibn Amr<br /> Jabr  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Urfuta" title="Khalid ibn Urfuta">Khalid ibn Urfuta</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Ahnaf_ibn_Qais" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahnaf ibn Qais">Ahnaf ibn Qais</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Aamir" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah ibn Aamir">Abdullah ibn Aamir</a><br /> Khawlah bint Azwar<br /> <a href="/wiki/Bukayr_ibn_Abdallah" title="Bukayr ibn Abdallah">Bukayr ibn Abdallah</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Kanadbak" title="Kanadbak">Kanadbak</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Busbuhra" title="Busbuhra">Busbuhra</a><br /><small>(briefly)</small><br /> <a href="/wiki/Farrukhzad" title="Farrukhzad">Farrukhzad</a></li></ul> </div><small>(briefly)</small></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><i>See list</i></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Shah Yazdegerd III</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">X</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Rostam_Farrokhzad" title="Rostam Farrokhzad">Rostam Farrokhzad</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Farrukhzad" title="Farrukhzad">Farrukhzad</a>  <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Mahbudhan<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Hormozd_Jadhuyih" title="Hormozd Jadhuyih">Hormozd Jadhuyih</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Bahman_Jadhuyih" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahman Jadhuyih">Bahman Jadhuyih</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Anoshagan <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Andarzaghar" title="Andarzaghar">Andarzaghar</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Piruz_Khosrow" title="Piruz Khosrow">Piruz Khosrow</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Jaban (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>)<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mihran_Bahram-i_Chubin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mihran Bahram-i Chubin">Mihran Bahram-i Chubin</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Hormuzan" title="Hormuzan">Hormuzan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>)<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mardanshah" title="Mardanshah">Mardanshah</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Bahram<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Isfandiyar_(Sasanian_commander)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isfandiyar (Sasanian commander)">Isfandiyar</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jalinus" title="Jalinus">Jalinus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mihran_Razi" title="Mihran Razi">Mihran Razi</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Nakhiragan<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Azadbeh" title="Azadbeh">Azadbeh</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Siyavakhsh" title="Siyavakhsh">Siyavakhsh</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Shahriyar bin Kanara <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Busbuhra" title="Busbuhra">Busbuhra</a> (<a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><abbr title="Died of wounds">DOW</abbr></a>)<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Shahriyar_of_Derbent" title="Shahriyar of Derbent">Shahriyar of Derbent</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Farrukbandadh <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mihran-i_Hamadani" title="Mihran-i Hamadani">Mihran-i Hamadani</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Shahrvaraz_Jadhuyih" title="Shahrvaraz Jadhuyih">Shahrvaraz Jadhuyih</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Karin <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mushegh_III_Mamikonian" title="Mushegh III Mamikonian">Mushegh III</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Varaztirots <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Muta_(Dailamite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muta (Dailamite)">Muta</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Narsi" title="Narsi">Narsi</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Tiruyih<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Vinduyih<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kanadbak" title="Kanadbak">Kanadbak</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Shirzad<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mardanshah_of_Damavand" title="Mardanshah of Damavand">Mardanshah of Damavand</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Javanshir" class="mw-redirect" title="Javanshir">Javanshir</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Burzin_Shah" title="Burzin Shah">Burzin Shah</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mahoe_Suri" title="Mahoe Suri">Mahoe Suri</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Shahriyar<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Siyah_al-Uswari" title="Siyah al-Uswari">Siyah al-Uswari</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Shiruya al-Uswari <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Aparviz_of_Sistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Aparviz of Sistan">Aparviz</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Shahrag" title="Shahrag">Shahrag</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Faylakan" title="Faylakan">Faylakan</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Yazdanfar" title="Yazdanfar">Yazdanfar</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Qubaz <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Ruzbih <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Zarmahr <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Jushnasmah <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Mihran bin Badhan  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Hormozd  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Mahak <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Fadhusfan<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Rabi'a bin Bujair  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Aqqa ibn Qays ibn Bashir  <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Iyas ibn Qabisah al-Ta'i<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Huzail ibn Imran<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Abd al-Masih<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Abdul-Aswad  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></span></span></span> Abjar  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a> <hr /> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_(transparent).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/10px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/15px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/20px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Emperor Heraclius</a></b><br /><small>(until 641)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> 18,000 men in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Unknown</td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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Muslim conquest of Persia"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Muslim conquest of Persia"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Muslim conquest <br /> of Persia</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b><a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Mesopotamia" title="Arab conquest of Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chains" title="Battle of Chains">Chains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_River" title="Battle of River">River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Walaja" title="Battle of Walaja">Walaja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ullais" title="Battle of Ullais">Ullais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hira" title="Battle of Hira">Hira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Al-Anbar" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Al-Anbar">Al-Anbar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayn_al-Tamr" title="Battle of Ayn al-Tamr">Ayn al-Tamr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Husayd" title="Battle of Husayd">Husayd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Muzayyah" title="Battle of Muzayyah">Muzayyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saniyy" title="Battle of Saniyy">Saniyy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zumail" title="Battle of Zumail">Zumail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Firaz" title="Battle of Firaz">Firaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Babylon_(634)" title="Battle of Babylon (634)">1st Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Namaraq" title="Battle of Namaraq">Namaraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kaskar" title="Battle of Kaskar">Kaskar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bridge" title="Battle of the Bridge">Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buwaib" title="Battle of Buwaib">Buwaib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Q%C4%81disiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of al-Qādisiyyah">al-Qādisiyyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Burs" title="Battle of Burs">Burs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Babylon_(636)" title="Battle of Babylon (636)">2nd Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ctesiphon_(637)" title="Siege of Ctesiphon (637)">Ctesiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jalula" title="Battle of Jalula">Jalula</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Khuzestan" title="Muslim conquest of Khuzestan">Khuzestan</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Shushtar" title="Siege of Shushtar">Shushtar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gundishapur" title="Siege of Gundishapur">Gundishapur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bayrudh" title="Battle of Bayrudh">Bayrudh</a></li></ul> <p><b>Central Persia</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nah%C4%81vand" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Nahāvand">Nahavand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spahan" title="Battle of Spahan">Spahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waj_Rudh" title="Battle of Waj Rudh">Waj Rudh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ray_(651)" title="Battle of Ray (651)">Ray</a></li></ul> <p><b>Caucasus</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Azerbaijan" title="Muslim conquest of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquest of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania#Islamic_era" title="Caucasian Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_rule_in_Georgia#First_conquests_and_installation_of_Arab_domination_(645–736)" title="Arab rule in Georgia">Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_ibn_Rabiah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabiah">Derbent</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Fars" title="Arab conquest of Fars">Pars</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bishapur_(643%E2%80%93644)" title="Battle of Bishapur (643–644)">Bishapur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Istakhr_(650%E2%80%93653)" title="Battle of Istakhr (650–653)">Estakhr</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Khorasan" title="Muslim conquest of Khorasan">Khorasan</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Oxus_River" title="Battle of Oxus River">Oxus River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nishapur" title="Battle of Nishapur">Nishapur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Herat_(652)" title="Siege of Herat (652)">Herat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Badghis" title="Battle of Badghis">Badghis</a></li></ul> <p><b>Other geographies</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Northern_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Northern Persia">Northern Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Kerman" title="Muslim conquest of Kerman">Kerman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Sistan" title="Muslim conquest of Sistan">Sakastan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Early_Muslim_conquests" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Early_Muslim_Expansions" title="Template:Campaignbox Early Muslim Expansions"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Early_Muslim_Expansions" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Early Muslim Expansions"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Early_Muslim_Expansions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Early Muslim Expansions"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Early_Muslim_conquests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests"><span class="wrap"> Early Muslim conquests</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabia</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim%E2%80%93Meccan_conflict" title="Early Muslim–Meccan conflict">Mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim%E2%80%93Quraysh_War" title="Muslim–Quraysh War">Quraysh</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Byzantine Empire</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Arab conquest of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Armenia" title="Muslim conquest of Armenia">Armenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arab_rule_in_Georgia" title="Arab rule in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_in_the_Middle_Ages#Arab_conquest_and_Arab-Byzantine_condominium" title="Cyprus in the Middle Ages">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges_of_Constantinople" title="List of sieges of Constantinople">Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Crete" title="Emirate of Crete">Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Sicily" title="Muslim conquest of Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Southern Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(636-637)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Jerusalem (636-637)">Israel</a></li></ul> <p><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sassanid Persia</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Fars" title="Arab conquest of Fars">Fars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Kerman" title="Muslim conquest of Kerman">Kerman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Northern_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Northern Persia">Northern Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Sistan" title="Muslim conquest of Sistan">Sistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Khorasan" title="Muslim conquest of Khorasan">Khorasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li></ul> <p><b>Caucasus</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Armenia" title="Muslim conquest of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania#Islamic_era" title="Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_rule_in_Georgia" title="Arab rule in Georgia">Caucasian Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Khazar_wars" title="Arab–Khazar wars">Khazar Khaganate</a></li></ul> <p><b>Other regions</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Makuria#Early_period_(5th–8th_century)" title="Makuria">Makurian Nubia</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_battle_of_Dongola" title="First battle of Dongola">1st</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_battle_of_Dongola" title="Second battle of Dongola">2nd</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Transoxiana" title="Muslim conquest of Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula">Visigothic Hispania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_invasion_of_Gaul" title="Umayyad invasion of Gaul"> Frankish Gaul</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>Muslim conquest of Persia</b>, also called the <b>Muslim conquest of Iran</b>, the <b>Arab conquest of Persia</b>, or the <b>Arab conquest of Iran</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a major military campaign undertaken by the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> between 632 and 654. As part of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a>, which had begun under <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> in 622, it led to the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> and the eventual decline of <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>, which had been predominant throughout <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Plateau">Persia</a> as the nation's official religion. The <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">persecution of Zoroastrians</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslims" title="Early Muslims">early Muslims</a> during and after this conflict prompted many of them to flee eastward to <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">India</a>, where they were <a href="/wiki/Parsis" title="Parsis">granted refuge</a> by various kings. </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a> was experiencing the rise of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> in the 7th century, Persia was struggling with unprecedented levels of political, social, economic, and military weakness; the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Military of the Sasanian Empire">Sasanian army</a> had greatly exhausted itself in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</a>. Following the execution of Sasanian shah <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> in 628, Persia's internal political stability began deteriorating at a rapid pace. Subsequently, ten new royal claimants were enthroned within the next four years.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly afterwards, Persia was further devastated by the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_628%E2%80%93632" title="Sasanian civil war of 628–632">Sasanian Interregnum</a>, a large-scale civil war that began in 628 and resulted in the government's decentralization by 632. </p><p>Amidst Persia's turmoil, the first Rashidun invasion of Sasanian territory took place in 633, when the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_army" title="Rashidun army">Rashidun army</a> conquered parts of <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Asoristan</a>, which was the Sasanians' political and economic centre in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, the regional Rashidun army commander <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</a> was transferred to oversee the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a>, and as the Rashidun army became increasingly focused on the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, the newly conquered Mesopotamian territories were retaken by the Sasanian army. The second Rashidun invasion began in 636, under <a href="/wiki/Sa%27d_ibn_Abi_Waqqas" title="Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas">Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas</a>, when a key victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Qadisiyyah" title="Battle of al-Qadisiyyah">Battle of al-Qadisiyyah</a> permanently ended all Sasanian control to the west of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. For the next six years, the <a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a>, a natural barrier, marked the political boundary between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sasanian Empire. In 642, <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar ibn al-Khattab</a>, eight years into his reign as Islam's second <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliph</a>, ordered a full-scale invasion of the rest of the Sasanian Empire. Directing the war from the city of <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a> in Arabia, Umar's quick conquest of Persia in a series of coordinated and multi-pronged attacks became his greatest triumph, contributing to his reputation as a great military and political strategist.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 644, however, he was assassinated by the Persian craftsman <a href="/wiki/Abu_Lu%27lu%27a_Firuz" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz">Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz</a>, who had been captured by Rashidun troops and brought to Arabia as a slave. </p><p>Some Iranian historians have defended their forebears by using Arab sources to illustrate that "contrary to the claims of some historians, Iranians, in fact, fought long and hard against the invading Arabs."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 651, most of the urban centres in Iranian lands, with the notable exception of the provinces along the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> (i.e., in <a href="/wiki/Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Tabaristan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>), had come under Muslim domination. Many localities fought against the invaders; although the Rashidun army had established hegemony over most of the country, many cities rose in rebellion by killing their Arab governors or attacking their garrisons. Eventually, military reinforcements quashed the Iranian insurgencies and imposed complete control. The <a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Iran" title="Islamization of Iran">Islamization of Iran</a> was gradual and incentivized in various ways over a period of centuries, though some Iranians never converted and there is widespread evidence of <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Zoroastrian scriptures</a> and all other pre-Islamic being systematically burnt and <a href="/wiki/Magi" title="Magi">Zoroastrian priests</a> being executed, particularly in areas that were centers of resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islam had become Iran's predominant religion by the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the majority of Iranians were <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Muslims</a> until the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">Safavids forcefully converted Iran to Shia Islam</a> in the 18th century. </p><p>This was the first time since the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> in 539 BC with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Opis" title="Battle of Opis">Battle of Opis</a>, that Mesopotamia was ruled again by <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a>-speaking people, after centuries of Persian (<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> empires), and Roman-Greek (<a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a> the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> empires) ruling periods. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography_and_recent_scholarship">Historiography and recent scholarship</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Special:EditPage/Muslim conquest of Persia">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>When Western academics first investigated the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> conquest of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Persia">Persia</a>, they relied solely on the accounts of the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian people">Armenian</a> <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> bishop <a href="/wiki/Sebeos" title="Sebeos">Sebeos</a>, and accounts in Arabic written some time after the events they describe. The most significant work was probably that of <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Christensen" title="Arthur Christensen">Arthur Christensen</a>, and his <i>L’Iran sous les Sassanides</i>, published in <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> in 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent scholarship has begun to question the traditional narrative: <a href="/wiki/Parvaneh_Pourshariati" title="Parvaneh Pourshariati">Parvaneh Pourshariati</a>, in her <i>Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran</i>, published in 2008, provides both a detailed overview of the problematic nature of trying to establish exactly what happened, and a great deal of original research that questions fundamental facts of the traditional narrative, including the timeline and specific dates. </p><p>Pourshariati's central thesis is that contrary to what was commonly assumed, the Sassanian Empire was highly decentralized, and was in fact a "confederation" with the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a>, who themselves retained a high level of independence.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite their recent victories over the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, the Parthians unexpectedly withdrew from the confederation, and the Sassanians were thus ill-prepared and ill-equipped to mount an effective and cohesive defense against the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> armies.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the powerful northern and eastern Parthian families, the kust-i khwarasan and kust-i adurbadagan, withdrew to their respective strongholds and made peace with the Arabs, refusing to fight alongside the Sassanians. </p><p>Another important theme of Pourshariati's study is a re-evaluation of the traditional timeline. Pourshariati argues that the <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Mesopotamia" title="Arab conquest of Mesopotamia">Arab conquest of Mesopotamia</a> "took place, not, as has been conventionally believed, in the years 632–634, after the accession of the last Sasanian king <a href="/wiki/Yazdgerd_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazdgerd III">Yazdgerd III</a> (632–651) to power, but in the period from 628 to 632."<sup id="cite_ref-Parvaneh_Pourshariati_2008._p._4_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parvaneh_Pourshariati_2008._p._4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An important consequence of this change in timeline means that the <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> conquest started precisely when the Sassanians and Parthians were engaged in internecine warfare over succession to the Sassanian throne.<sup id="cite_ref-Parvaneh_Pourshariati_2008._p._4_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parvaneh_Pourshariati_2008._p._4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sasanian_Empire_before_the_conquest">Sasanian Empire before the conquest</h2></div> <p>Since the <a href="/wiki/1st_century_BC" title="1st century BC">1st century BC</a>, the border between the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a>) empires had been the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> River. The border was constantly contested. Most battles, and thus most fortifications, were concentrated in the hilly regions of the north, as the vast Arabian or <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a> (Roman Arabia) separated the rival empires in the south. The only dangers expected from the south were occasional raids by nomadic <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> tribesmen. Both empires therefore allied themselves with small, semi-independent Arab principalities, which served as buffer states and protected Byzantium and Persia from <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> attacks. The Byzantine clients were the <a href="/wiki/Ghassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghassanid">Ghassanids</a>; the Persian clients were the <a href="/wiki/Lakhmid" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmid">Lakhmids</a>. The Ghassanids and Lakhmids feuded constantly, which kept them occupied, but that did not greatly affect the Byzantines or the Persians. In the 6th and 7th centuries, various factors destroyed the balance of power that had held for so many centuries. </p><p>The conflict with the Byzantines greatly contributed to its weakness, by draining Sassanid resources, leaving it a prime target for the Muslims. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_problems">Social problems</h3></div> <p>Sasanian society was divided into four classes: priests, warriors, secretaries, and commoners. The latter formed the bulk of the population, served as its sole tax base, and remained its poorest class. </p><p>At the climax of <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II's</a> ambitious Byzantine territory conquests in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and much of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, taxes rose dramatically, and most people could not pay. Years of Sassanid-Byzantine wars had ruined trade routes and industry, the population's main income sources. The existing Sassanid administrative structure proved inadequate when faced with the combined demands of a suddenly expanded empire, economy, and population.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rapid turnover of rulers and increasing provincial landholder (<a href="/wiki/Dehqan" title="Dehqan">dehqan</a>) power further diminished the Sasanians. Over a period of fourteen years and twelve successive kings, the Sassanid Empire weakened considerably, and the power of the central authority passed into the hands of its generals. Even when a strong king emerged following a series of coups, the <a href="/wiki/Sassanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanids">Sassanids</a> never completely recovered. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Events">Events</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Revolt_of_the_Arab_client_states_(602)"><span id="Revolt_of_the_Arab_client_states_.28602.29"></span>Revolt of the Arab client states (602)</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_assassination_of_Chosro%C3%ABs_Parvez.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_assassination_of_Chosro%C3%ABs_Parvez.jpg/220px-The_assassination_of_Chosro%C3%ABs_Parvez.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_assassination_of_Chosro%C3%ABs_Parvez.jpg/330px-The_assassination_of_Chosro%C3%ABs_Parvez.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_assassination_of_Chosro%C3%ABs_Parvez.jpg/440px-The_assassination_of_Chosro%C3%ABs_Parvez.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="734" /></a><figcaption>The assassination of Khosrau II in a manuscript of the <i><a href="/wiki/Shahnameh_of_Shah_Tahmasp" title="Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp">Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp</a></i> made by <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Samad" title="Abd al-Samad">Abd al-Samad</a> c. 1535</figcaption></figure> <p>The Byzantine clients, the Arab <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a>, converted to the <a href="/wiki/Monophysite" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophysite">Monophysite</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, which was regarded as <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretical</a> by the established Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>. The Byzantines attempted to suppress the heresy, alienating the Ghassanids and sparking rebellions on their desert frontiers. The <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids</a> also revolted against the Persian king Khusrau II. <a href="/wiki/Nu%27man_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Nu'man III">Nu'man III</a> (son of Al-Monder IV), the first Christian Lakhmid king, was deposed and killed by <a href="/wiki/Khusrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khusrau II">Khusrau II</a> in 602, because of his attempt to throw off Persian suzerainty. After Khusrau's assassination in 628, the Persian Empire fractured and the <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids</a> were effectively semi-independent. It is now widely believed that the annexation of the Lakhmid kingdom was one of the main factors behind the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the subsequent Islamic conquest of Persia, as the <a href="/wiki/Lakhmid" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmid">Lakhmids</a> agreed to act as spies for the <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> after being defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hira" title="Battle of Hira">Battle of Hira</a> by <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Byzantine–Sassanid_War_(602–628)"><span id="Byzantine.E2.80.93Sassanid_War_.28602.E2.80.93628.29"></span>Byzantine–Sassanid War (602–628)</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine-Sassanid_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628">Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628</a></div> <p>The Persian ruler <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II (Parviz)</a> defeated a dangerous rebellion within his own empire, <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram Chobin</a>'s rebellion. He then turned his focus to his traditional Byzantine enemies, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine-Sassanid_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628">Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628</a>. For a few years, he succeeded. From 612 to 622, he extended the Persian borders almost to the same extent that they were under the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenids" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenids">Achaemenid dynasty</a> (550–330 BC), capturing Western states as far as <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> (the conquest of the latter being assisted by a Jewish army), and more. </p><p>The Byzantines regrouped and pushed back in 622 under <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a>. Khosrau was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_(627)" title="Battle of Nineveh (627)">Battle of Nineveh</a> in 627, and the Byzantines recaptured all of <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a> and penetrated far into the Persian provinces of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. In 629, Khosrau's general <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> agreed to peace, and the border between the two empires was once again the same as it had been in 602. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plague_of_Sheroe">Plague of Sheroe</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Sheroe" title="Plague of Sheroe">Plague of Sheroe</a></div> <p>The Plague of Sheroe (627–628) was one of several epidemics that occurred in or close to Iran within two centuries after the first epidemic was brought by the Sasanian armies from its campaigns in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristensen199381_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristensen199381-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It caused the death of many Aryan and therefore contributed to the fall of the Sasanian Empire. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Execution_of_Khosrau_II">Execution of Khosrau II</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_628%E2%80%93632" title="Sasanian civil war of 628–632">Sasanian civil war of 628–632</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II</a> was executed in 628 and, as a result, there were numerous claimants to the throne; from 628 to 632 there were ten kings and queens of Persia. The last, <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazdegerd III of Persia">Yazdegerd III</a>, was a grandson of Khosrau II and was said to be a mere child aged 8 years.<sup id="cite_ref-EIr-Sasanian_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EIr-Sasanian-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Muhammad's_Letter"><span id="Muhammad.27s_Letter"></span>Muhammad's Letter</h4></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hudaybiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Hudaybiyyah">Treaty of Hudaybiyyah</a> in 628, Islamic tradition holds that <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> sent many letters to the princes, kings, and chiefs of the various tribes and kingdoms of the time, exhorting them to convert to Islam and bow to the order of God. These letters were carried by ambassadors to <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Persia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greater_Yemen" title="Greater Yemen">Yemen</a>, and the city of <a href="/wiki/Al-Hirah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Hirah">Al-Hirah</a> in Iraq on the same day.<sup id="cite_ref-seventhyear_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seventhyear-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This assertion has been brought under scrutiny by some modern historians of Islam—notably Grimme and Caetani.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Particularly in dispute is the assertion that Khosrau II received a letter from Muhammad, as the Sassanid court ceremony was notoriously intricate, and it is unlikely that a letter from what at the time was a minor regional power would have reached the hands of the Shahanshah.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With regards to Persia, Muslim histories further recount that at the beginning of the seventh year of migration, Muhammad appointed one of his officers, Abdullah Huzafah Sahmi Qarashi, to carry his letter to <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II</a> inviting him to convert: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful. From Muhammad, the Messenger of God, to the great Kisra of Persia. Peace be upon him, who seeks truth and expresses belief in God and in His Prophet and testifies that there are no gods but one God whom has no partners, and who believes that Muhammad is His servant and Prophet. Under the Command of God, I invite you to Him. He has sent me for the guidance of all people so that I may warn them all of His wrath and may present the unbelievers with an ultimatum. Embrace Islam so that you may remain safe. And if you refuse to accept Islam, you will be responsible for the sins of the Magi.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>There are differing accounts of the reaction of <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Special:EditPage/Muslim conquest of Persia">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Years of warfare between the Sasanians and the Byzantines, as well as the strain of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Perso-Turkic War">Khazar invasion of Transcaucasia</a>, had exhausted the army. No effective ruler followed <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II</a>, causing chaos in society and problems in the provincial administration, until <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a> rose to power. All these factors undermined the strength of the Persian army. Yazdegerd III was merely 8 years old when he came to the throne and, lacking experience, did not try to rebuild the army. The Sasanian Empire was highly decentralized, and was in fact a "confederation" with the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a>, who themselves retained a high level of independence.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the last Sasanian-Byzantine war, the Parthians wanted to withdraw from the confederation, and the Sasanians were thus ill-prepared and ill-equipped to mount an effective and cohesive defense against the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> armies.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the powerful northern and eastern Parthian families, the Kust-i Khwarasan and Kust-i Adurbadagan, withdrew to their respective strongholds and made peace with the Arabs, refusing to fight alongside the <a href="/wiki/Sasanians" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanians">Sasanians</a>. </p><p>Pourshariati argues that the <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Mesopotamia" title="Arab conquest of Mesopotamia">Arab conquest of Mesopotamia</a> "took place, not, as has been conventionally believed, in the years 632–634, after the accession of the last Sasanian king <a href="/wiki/Yazdgerd_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazdgerd III">Yazdgerd III</a> (632–651) to power, but in the period from 628 to 632."<sup id="cite_ref-Parvaneh_Pourshariati_2008._p._4_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parvaneh_Pourshariati_2008._p._4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An important consequence of this change in timeline means that the <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> conquest started precisely when the Sasanians and Parthians were engaged in internecine warfare over who was to succeed the Sasanian throne.<sup id="cite_ref-Parvaneh_Pourshariati_2008._p._4_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parvaneh_Pourshariati_2008._p._4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Arab squadrons made their first raids into Sasanian territory, Yazdegerd III did not consider them a threat, and he refused to send an army to encounter the invaders. When the main Arab army reached the Persian borders, Yazdegerd III procrastinated in dispatching an army against the Arabs. Even <a href="/wiki/Rostam-e_Farokhzad" class="mw-redirect" title="Rostam-e Farokhzad">Rostam-e Farokhzad</a>, who was both <a href="/wiki/Spahbod" class="mw-redirect" title="Spahbod">Eran Spahbod</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">Viceroy</a>, did not see the Arabs as a threat. Without opposition, the Arabs had time to consolidate and fortify their positions. </p><p>When hostilities between the Sasanians and the Arabs finally began, the Persian army faced fundamental problems. While their <a href="/wiki/Heavy_cavalry" title="Heavy cavalry">heavy cavalry</a> had proved effective against the Roman forces, it was too slow and regimented to act with full force against the agile and unpredictable lightly armed Arab cavalry and foot archers. </p><p>The Persian army had a few initial successes. War elephants temporarily halted the Arab army, but when Arab veterans returned from the Syrian fronts, where they had been fighting against Byzantine forces, they provided crucial instruction on how to effectively counter the war elephants. </p><p>These factors contributed to the decisive Sassanid defeat at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah. The Persians, who had only one generation before conquered Egypt and Asia Minor, lost decisive battles when nimble, lightly armed Arabs accustomed to skirmishes and desert warfare attacked them. The Arab squadrons defeated the Persian army in several more battles culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nah%C4%81vand" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Nahāvand">Battle of Nahāvand</a>, the last major battle of the Sassanids. The Sassanid dynasty came to an end with the death of Yazdegerd III in 651. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rise_of_the_Caliphate">Rise of the Caliphate</h2></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> died in June 632, and <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a> took the title of <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> and political successor at <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>. Soon after <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a>'s succession, several Arab tribes revolted, in the <a href="/wiki/Ridda_Wars" title="Ridda Wars">Ridda Wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> for the Wars of Apostasy). The Ridda Wars preoccupied the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> until March 633, and ended with the entirety of the Arab Peninsula under the authority of the Caliph at Medina. </p><p>Abu Bakr set in motion a historical trajectory (continued later by Umar and Uthman) that in a few decades led to one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest empires in history</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Donner_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donner-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> beginning with a confrontation with the Sassanid Empire under the general <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conquest_of_Mesopotamia_(633–638)"><span id="Conquest_of_Mesopotamia_.28633.E2.80.93638.29"></span>Conquest of Mesopotamia (633–638)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Mesopotamia" title="Arab conquest of Mesopotamia">Arab conquest of Mesopotamia</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_invasion_(633)"><span id="First_invasion_.28633.29"></span>First invasion (633)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil-Khalid%27s_conquest_of_Iraq.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Mohammad_adil-Khalid%27s_conquest_of_Iraq.PNG/240px-Mohammad_adil-Khalid%27s_conquest_of_Iraq.PNG" decoding="async" width="240" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Mohammad_adil-Khalid%27s_conquest_of_Iraq.PNG/360px-Mohammad_adil-Khalid%27s_conquest_of_Iraq.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Mohammad_adil-Khalid%27s_conquest_of_Iraq.PNG/480px-Mohammad_adil-Khalid%27s_conquest_of_Iraq.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1531" data-file-height="1128" /></a><figcaption>Map detailing the route of <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</a>'s conquest of Mesopotamia</figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Ridda_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Ridda wars">Ridda wars</a>, a tribal chief of northeastern Arabia, <a href="/wiki/Al-Muthanna_ibn_Haritha" title="Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha">Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha</a>, raided the Sasanian towns in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, actions that generated a considerable amount of booty was collected.<sup id="cite_ref-Najeebabadi_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Najeebabadi-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha went to Medina to inform Abu Bakr about his success and was appointed commander of his people, after which he began to raid deeper into Mesopotamia. Using the mobility of his <a href="/wiki/Light_cavalry" title="Light cavalry">light cavalry</a>, he could easily raid any town near the desert and disappear again into the desert, beyond the reach of the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Military of the Sasanian Empire">Sasanian army</a>. Al-Muthanna's acts made Abu Bakr think about the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tabari_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tabari-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To ensure victory, Abu Bakr used a volunteer army and put his best general, <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</a>, in command. After defeating the self-proclaimed prophet <a href="/wiki/Musaylimah" class="mw-redirect" title="Musaylimah">Musaylimah</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yamama" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Yamama">Battle of Yamama</a>, Khalid was still at <a href="/wiki/Al-Yamama" title="Al-Yamama">Al-Yamama</a> when Abu Bakr ordered him to invade the Sasanian Empire. Making <a href="/wiki/Al-Hirah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Hirah">Al-Hirah</a> the objective of Khalid, Abu Bakr sent reinforcements and ordered the tribal chiefs of northeastern Arabia, Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha, Mazhur bin Adi, Harmala and Sulma to operate under Khalid's command. Around the third week of March 633 (first week of <a href="/wiki/Muharram" title="Muharram">Muharram</a> 12th Hijrah) Khalid set out from Al-Yamama with an army of 10,000.<sup id="cite_ref-Tabari_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tabari-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tribal chiefs, with 2,000 warriors each, joined him, swelling his ranks to 18,000. After entering Mesopotamia, he dispatched messages to every governor and deputy who ruled the provinces calling on them to either embrace Islam or pay tribute. Khalid did not receive any responses and continued with his tactical plans.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Khalid went on to win decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chains" title="Battle of Chains">Battle of Chains</a>, fought in April; the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_River" title="Battle of River">Battle of River</a>, fought in the third week of April; the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Walaja" title="Battle of Walaja">Battle of Walaja</a> the following month (where he successfully used a <a href="/wiki/Pincer_movement" title="Pincer movement">double envelopment</a> manoeuvre), and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ullais" title="Battle of Ullais">Battle of Ullais</a>, fought in mid-May. The Persian court, already disturbed by internal problems, was thrown into chaos. In the last week of May, the important city of <a href="/wiki/Al-Hirah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Hirah">Al-Hirah</a> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hira" title="Battle of Hira">fell to the Muslims</a>. After resting his armies, in June, Khalid <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Al-Anbar" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Al-Anbar">laid siege</a> to the city of <a href="/wiki/Anbar_(town)" title="Anbar (town)">al-Anbar</a>, which surrendered in July. Khalid then moved south, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayn_al-Tamr" title="Battle of Ayn al-Tamr">conquered the city of Ayn al-Tamr</a> in the last week of July. At this point, most of what is now Iraq was under Islamic control. </p><p>Khalid received a call for aid from northern Arabia at Dawmat al-Jandal, where another Muslim Arab general, <a href="/wiki/Iyad_ibn_Ghanm" title="Iyad ibn Ghanm">Iyad ibn Ghanm</a>, was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid went there and defeated the rebels in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dawmat_al-Jandal" title="Battle of Dawmat al-Jandal">Battle of Dawmat al-Jandal</a> in the last week of August. Upon his return, he received news of the assembling of a large Persian army. He decided to defeat them all separately to avoid the risk of being defeated by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and Christian Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni and Muzieh. Khalid divided his army into three units, and employed them in well-coordinated attacks against the Persians from three different sides at night, in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Muzayyah" title="Battle of Muzayyah">Battle of Muzayyah</a>, then the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saniyy" title="Battle of Saniyy">Battle of Saniyy</a>, and finally the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zumail" title="Battle of Zumail">Battle of Zumail</a>, all during the month of November. These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Mesopotamia, and left the Persian capital <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a> vulnerable. Before attacking Ctesiphon, Khalid decided to eliminate all Persian forces in the south and west. He accordingly <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Firaz" title="Battle of Firaz">marched against the border city of Firaz</a>, where he defeated the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Military of the Sasanian Empire">combined forces of the Sasanian Persians</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Byzantines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Arabs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Arabs">Christian Arabs</a> in December. This was the last battle in his conquest of Mesopotamia. While Khalid was on his way to attack Qadissiyah (a key fort en route to Ctesiphon), Abu Bakr ordered him to the Roman front in Syria to assume command there.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_invasion_(634–636)"><span id="Second_invasion_.28634.E2.80.93636.29"></span>Second invasion (634–636)</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_the_Bridge">Battle of the Bridge</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bridge" title="Battle of the Bridge">Battle of the Bridge</a></div> <p>According to the will of Abu Bakr, Umar was to continue the conquest of Syria and Mesopotamia. On the northeastern borders of the Empire, in Mesopotamia, the situation was rapidly deteriorating. During <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a>'s era, <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</a> had left Mesopotamia with half his army of 9000 soldiers to assume command in Syria, whereupon the Persians decided to take back their lost territory. The Muslim army was forced to leave the conquered areas and concentrate on the border. Umar immediately sent reinforcements to aid Muthanna ibn Haritha in Mesopotamia under the command of <a href="/wiki/Abu_Ubaid_al-Thaqafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Ubaid al-Thaqafi">Abu Ubaid al-Thaqafi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At that time, a series of battles between the Persians and Arabs occurred in the region of <a href="/wiki/Sawad" title="Sawad">Sawad</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Namaraq" title="Battle of Namaraq">Namaraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kaskar" title="Battle of Kaskar">Kaskar</a> and Baqusiatha, in which the Arabs managed to maintain their presence in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later on, the Persians defeated Abu Ubaid in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bridge" title="Battle of the Bridge">Battle of the Bridge</a>. Muthanna bin Haritha was later victorious in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buwayb" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Buwayb">Battle of Buwayb</a>. In 635 <a href="/wiki/Yazdgerd_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazdgerd III">Yazdgerd III</a> sought an alliance with Emperor <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, marrying the latter's daughter (or, by some traditions, his granddaughter) in order to seal the arrangement. While Heraclius prepared for a major offence in the Levant, Yazdegerd ordered the concentration of massive armies to push the Muslims out of Mesopotamia for good through a series of well-coordinated attacks on two fronts. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-battlefield_of_qadisiyyah.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Mohammad_adil_rais-battlefield_of_qadisiyyah.PNG/170px-Mohammad_adil_rais-battlefield_of_qadisiyyah.PNG" decoding="async" width="170" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Mohammad_adil_rais-battlefield_of_qadisiyyah.PNG/255px-Mohammad_adil_rais-battlefield_of_qadisiyyah.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Mohammad_adil_rais-battlefield_of_qadisiyyah.PNG/340px-Mohammad_adil_rais-battlefield_of_qadisiyyah.PNG 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="342" /></a><figcaption>The site of the Battle of Qadisiyyah, showing Muslim army (in red) and Sasanian army (in blue)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shahnameh3-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Shahnameh3-1.jpg/170px-Shahnameh3-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Shahnameh3-1.jpg/255px-Shahnameh3-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Shahnameh3-1.jpg/340px-Shahnameh3-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="635" data-file-height="877" /></a><figcaption>Battle of Qadisiyyah from a manuscript of the <i><a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a></i></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Qadisiyyah">Battle of Qadisiyyah</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Qadisiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Qadisiyyah">Battle of Qadisiyyah</a></div> <p>Umar ordered his army to retreat to the Arabian border and began raising armies at <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a> for another campaign into Mesopotamia. Owing to the critical situation, Umar wished to command the army personally, but the members of <a href="/wiki/Majlis_ash-Shura" class="mw-redirect" title="Majlis ash-Shura">Majlis ash-Shura</a> demurred, claiming that the two-front war required Umar's presence in Medina. Accordingly, Umar appointed <a href="/wiki/Saad_ibn_Abi_Waqqas" class="mw-redirect" title="Saad ibn Abi Waqqas">Saad ibn Abi Waqqas</a>, a respected senior officer, even though Saad was suffering from sciatica.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saad left Medina with his army in May 636 and arrived at <a href="/wiki/Al-Q%C4%81disiyyah_(historical_city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Qādisiyyah (historical city)">Qadisiyyah</a> in June. </p><p>While Heraclius launched his offensive in May 636, Yazdegerd was unable to muster his armies in time to provide the Byzantines with Persian support. Umar, allegedly aware of this alliance and not wanting to risk a battle with two great powers simultaneously, quickly reinforced the Muslim army at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yarmouk" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Yarmouk">Yarmouk</a> to engage and defeat the Byzantines. Meanwhile, he ordered Saad to enter into peace negotiations with Yazdegerd III and invite him to convert to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> to prevent Persian forces from taking the field. Heraclius instructed his general <a href="/wiki/Vahan_(Byzantine_commander)" title="Vahan (Byzantine commander)">Vahan</a> not to engage in battle with the Muslims before receiving explicit orders. Fearing more Arab reinforcements, Vahan attacked the Muslim army in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yarmouk" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Yarmouk">Battle of Yarmouk</a> in August 636, and was routed.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the Byzantine threat ended, the Sasanian Empire was still a formidable power with vast manpower reserves, and the Arabs soon found themselves confronting a huge Persian army with troops drawn from every corner of the empire, including war elephants, and commanded by its foremost generals. Within three months, Saad defeated the Persian army in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Q%C4%81disiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of al-Qādisiyyah">Battle of al-Qādisiyyah</a>, effectively ending Sasanian rule west of Persia proper.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This victory is largely regarded as a decisive turning point in Islam's growth: with the bulk of Persian forces defeated, Saad with his companions later conquered <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Babylon_(636)" title="Battle of Babylon (636)">Battle of Babylon (636)</a>), <a href="/wiki/Kutha" title="Kutha">Kūthā</a>, Sābāṭ (<a href="/wiki/Valashabad" title="Valashabad">Valashabad</a>) and Bahurasīr (<a href="/wiki/Veh-Ardashir" title="Veh-Ardashir">Veh-Ardashir</a>). <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>, the capital of the Sassanid Empire, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ctesiphon_(637)" title="Siege of Ctesiphon (637)">fell in March 637</a> after a siege of three months. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_campaign_and_conquest_(636–638)"><span id="Final_campaign_and_conquest_.28636.E2.80.93638.29"></span>Final campaign and conquest (636–638)</h3></div> <p>In December 636, Umar ordered <a href="/wiki/Utbah_ibn_Ghazwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Utbah ibn Ghazwan">Utbah ibn Ghazwan</a> to head south to capture <a href="/wiki/Al-Ubulla" title="Al-Ubulla">al-Ubulla</a> (known as "port of Apologos" in the <a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, in order to cut ties between the Persian garrison there and <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>. Utbah ibn Ghazwan arrived in April 637, and captured the region. The Persians withdrew to the <a href="/wiki/Maysan_Governorate" title="Maysan Governorate">Maysan</a> region, which the Muslims seized later as well.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the conquest of Ctesiphon, several detachments were immediately sent west to capture <a href="/wiki/Circesium" title="Circesium">Circesium</a> and <a href="/wiki/H%C4%ABt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hīt">Heet</a>, both forts at the Byzantine border. Several fortified Persian armies were still active north-east of Ctesiphon at <a href="/wiki/Jalawla" title="Jalawla">Jalawla</a> and north of the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> at <a href="/wiki/Tikrit" title="Tikrit">Tikrit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>. </p><p>After withdrawal from Ctesiphon, the Persian armies gathered at Jalawla, a place of strategic importance due to routes leading from here to Mesopotamia, <a href="/wiki/Khurasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khurasan">Khurasan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>. The Persian forces at Jalawla were commanded by Mihran. His deputy was Farrukhzad, a brother of Rustam, who had commanded the Persian forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Qadisiyyah" title="Battle of al-Qadisiyyah">Battle of al-Qadisiyyah</a>. Umar decided to deal with Jalawla first, thereby clearing the way to the north, before taking any decisive action against Tikrit and Mosul. Umar appointed <a href="/wiki/Hashim_ibn_Utbah" class="mw-redirect" title="Hashim ibn Utbah">Hashim ibn Utbah</a> to take Jalawla and Abdullah ibn Muta'am to conquer <a href="/wiki/Tikrit" title="Tikrit">Tikrit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>. In April 637, Hashim led 12,000 troops from Ctesiphon to win a victory over the Persians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jalula" title="Battle of Jalula">Battle of Jalawla</a>. He then laid siege to Jalawla for seven months, ending in the city's capture. Then, Abdullah ibn Muta'am marched against Tikrit and captured the city with the help of <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a>, after fierce resistance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> He next sent an army to <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> which surrendered on the condition of paying <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a>. With victory at Jalawla and occupation of the Tikrit-Mosul region, the whole of Mesopotamia was under Muslim control. </p><p>Thereafter, a Muslim force under Qa'qa marched in pursuit of the escaping Persians at Khaniqeen, 25 kilometres (15 mi) from Jalawla on the road to Iran, still under the command of Mihran. Qa'qa defeated the Persian forces in the Battle of Khaniqeen and captured the city. The Persians then withdrew to <a href="/wiki/Hulwan" title="Hulwan">Hulwan</a>. Qa'qa followed and laid siege to the city, which was captured in January 638.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qa'qa sought permission to operate deeper in Persia, but Umar rejected the proposal, writing in response: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I wish that between the Suwad and the Persian hills there were walls which would prevent them from getting to us, and prevent us from getting to them.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fertile Suwad is sufficient for us; and I prefer the safety of the Muslims to the spoils of war.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Persian_raids_in_Mesopotamia_(638–641)"><span id="Persian_raids_in_Mesopotamia_.28638.E2.80.93641.29"></span>Persian raids in Mesopotamia (638–641)</h2></div> <p>By February 638 there was a lull in the fighting on the Persian front. The Suwad, the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> valley, and the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> valley were now under complete Muslim control. The Persians had withdrawn to <a href="/wiki/Persia_proper" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia proper">Persia proper</a>, east of the <a href="/wiki/Zagros_mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Zagros mountains">Zagros mountains</a>. The Persians continued raiding Mesopotamia, which remained politically unstable. It seemed the Zagros range was the dividing line between the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> and the Sassanids. In the latter part of 638, <a href="/wiki/Hormuzan" title="Hormuzan">Hormuzan</a>, who was one of the seven great chiefs of Persia, and had commanded a corps at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Qadisiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Qadisiyyah">Battle of Qadisiyyah</a>, intensified his raids in Mesopotamia. Saad, on Umar's instructions, attacked Hormuzan, while Utbah ibn Ghazwan, aided by Nouman ibn Muqarin, attacked <a href="/wiki/Ahvaz" title="Ahvaz">Ahvaz</a> and forced Hormuzan into a peace treaty, under which Ahvaz would remain in Hormuzan's possession as a Muslim vassal state and would pay tribute. Hormuzan broke the treaty, leading Umar to send <a href="/wiki/Abu_Musa_Ashaari" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Musa Ashaari">Abu Musa Ashaari</a>, governor of <a href="/wiki/Busra" class="mw-redirect" title="Busra">Busra</a>, to deal with him. After another defeat, Hormuzan signed another treaty on similar terms to the last. This peace also proved short-lived once Hormuzan was reinforced by fresh Persian troops sent by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Yazdgerd_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazdgerd III">Yazdgerd III</a> in late 640. The troops concentrated at Tuster, north of Ahvaz. Umar sent the Governor of <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammar_ibn_Yasir" title="Ammar ibn Yasir">Ammar ibn Yasir</a>, the governor of <a href="/wiki/Busra" class="mw-redirect" title="Busra">Busra</a>, Abu Musa, and Nouman ibn Muqarin there, where Hormuzan was defeated, captured and sent to Umar in Medina. Hormuzan apparently converted to Islam and remained a useful adviser to Umar throughout the remainder of the Persian campaign. He is also believed to be the mastermind behind Umar's assassination in 644. </p><p>After the victory at <a href="/wiki/Tustar" class="mw-redirect" title="Tustar">Tustar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Musa_Ashaari" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Musa Ashaari">Abu Musa</a> marched against the strategically important <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> in January 641, capturing it after a siege of a couple of months. Next, Abu Musa marched against Junde Sabur, the only place left of military importance in the Persian province of <a href="/wiki/Khuzistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzistan">Khuzistan</a>, which surrendered to the Muslims after a siege of a few weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Battle_of_Nahavand_(642)"><span id="Battle_of_Nahavand_.28642.29"></span>Battle of Nahavand (642)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nahavand" title="Battle of Nahavand">Battle of Nahavand</a></div> <p>After the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Khuzistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzistan">Khuzistan</a>, Umar wanted peace. Though considerably weakened, the image of the Persian Empire as a fearsome superpower still resonated in the minds of the newly-ascendant Arabs, and Umar was wary of unnecessary military engagement with it, preferring to leave the rump of the Persian Empire alone, commenting, "I wish there was a mountain of fire between us and the Persians, so that neither they could get to us, nor we to them."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Persian pride was hurt by the Arab conquest, making the <i>status quo</i> intolerable.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sassanid_army_helmet_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Sassanid_army_helmet_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg/220px-Sassanid_army_helmet_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Sassanid_army_helmet_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg/330px-Sassanid_army_helmet_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Sassanid_army_helmet_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg/440px-Sassanid_army_helmet_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="908" data-file-height="978" /></a><figcaption>A Sasanian army helmet.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the defeat of the Persian forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jalula" title="Battle of Jalula">Battle of Jalula</a> in 637, Yazdgerd III went to <a href="/wiki/Rey,_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rey, Iran">Rey</a> and from there moved to <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a>, where he set up his capital and directed his chiefs to conduct continuous raids in Mesopotamia. Within four years, Yazdgerd III felt powerful enough to challenge the Muslims again for control of Mesopotamia. Accordingly, he recruited 100,000 hardened veterans and young volunteers from all parts of Persia, under the command of Mardan Shah, which marched to <a href="/wiki/Nahavand" title="Nahavand">Nahavand</a> for the last titanic struggle with the Caliphate. </p><p>The Governor of <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammar_ibn_Yasir" title="Ammar ibn Yasir">Ammar ibn Yasir</a>, received intelligence of the Persian movements and concentration at Nahavand and reported them to Umar. Although Umar had expressed a desire for Mesopotamia to be his easternmost frontier, the concentration of the Persian army at Nahavand forced him to act.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He now believed that as long as Persia proper remained under Sasanian rule, the raids into Mesopotamia would continue. Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman was appointed commander of the forces of Kufa, and was ordered to march to Nahavand. Abu Musa was to march to Nahavand from <a href="/wiki/Busra" class="mw-redirect" title="Busra">Busra</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Nouman_ibn_Muqarrin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nouman ibn Muqarrin">Nouman ibn Muqarrin</a> marched from Ctesiphon. Umar decided to personally take the army concentrated at Medina to Nahavand to assume overall command. The members of the Majlis al-<a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">Shura</a> suggested that Umar should command the campaign from Medina, appointing an astute field commander for Nahavand. Umar acquiesced, appointing <a href="/wiki/Mugheera_ibn_Shuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Mugheera ibn Shuba">Mugheera ibn Shuba</a> as commander of the forces concentrated at Medina, and Nouman ibn Muqarrin as commander-in-chief at Nahavand. The Muslim army first concentrated at Tazar, and then defeated the Persians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nahavand" title="Battle of Nahavand">Battle of Nahavand</a> in December 642. Nouman died in the action, and, as per Umar's instructions, Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman became the new commander-in-chief. Thereafter, the Muslims captured the whole district of <a href="/wiki/Hamadan" title="Hamadan">Hamadan</a>, encountering only feeble resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conquest_of_Persia_(642–651)"><span id="Conquest_of_Persia_.28642.E2.80.93651.29"></span>Conquest of Persia (642–651)</h2></div> <p>After several years, Caliph Umar adopted a new offensive policy,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> preparing to launch a full-scale invasion of what remained of the Sasanian Empire. The Battle of Nahavand was one of the most decisive battles in Islamic history<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and proved to be the key to Persia. After the devastating defeat at Nahavand, the last Sassanid emperor, Yazdegerd III, fled to different parts of Persia to raise a new army, with limited success, while Umar attempted to capture him. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategic_planning_for_the_conquest_of_Persia">Strategic planning for the conquest of Persia</h3></div> <p>Umar decided to strike the Persians immediately after their defeat at Nahavand, while he still possessed a psychological advantage. Umar had to decide which of three provinces to conquer first: <a href="/wiki/Fars_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Fars Province">Fars</a> in the south, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> in the north or <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a> in the center. Umar chose Isfahan, as it was the heart of the Persian Empire and a conduit for supply and communications among the Sasanian garrisons, and its capture would isolate Fars and Azerbaijan from <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, Yazdegerd's stronghold. After he had taken Fars and Isfahan, the next attacks would be simultaneously launched against Azerbaijan, the northwestern province, and <a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Sistan</a>, the easternmost province of the Persian Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conquest of those provinces would leave Khorasan isolated and vulnerable, the last stage of the conquest of Sassanid Persia. </p><p>Preparations were complete by January 642. The success of the plan depended upon how effectively Umar could coordinate these attacks from Medina, about 1500 kilometers from Persia, and upon the skill of his field commanders. Umar adopted a different approach to the command structure. Instead of appointing a single field commander to press the campaign, Umar appointed several commanders, each assigned a different mission. Once a commander's mission ended, he would become an ordinary soldier under the new field commander for the latter's mission. The purpose of this strategy was to allow commanders to mix with their soldiers and to remind them that they are like everyone else: command is only given to the most competent, and, once the battle is over, the commander returns to his previous position. </p><p>On the eve of the campaign, Umar, in order to boost morale, decided to reinstall Khalid as field commander, four years after his dismissal.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khalid's reputation as the conqueror of the Eastern Roman provinces demoralized the Persian commanders, most of whom had already been defeated by him during his conquest of Mesopotamia in 633. Before Umar could issue the reappointment order, Khalid died in <a href="/wiki/Homs#Arab_Caliphate" title="Homs">Emesa</a>. </p><p>Throughout the Persian campaign, Umar even appointed the commanders of the wings, the center and the <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a> of the army. Umar strictly instructed his commanders to consult him before making any decisive move in Persia. All the commanders, before starting their assigned campaigns, were instructed to send a detailed report of the geography and terrain of the region and the positions of the Persian <a href="/wiki/Garrison" title="Garrison">garrisons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort">forts</a>, cities and troops. Umar then would send them a detailed plan of how he wanted the region to be captured. Only the tactical issues were left to the field commanders to tackle in accordance with the situation they faced at their fronts.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Umar appointed the best available and well-reputed commanders for the campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_Central_Iran">Conquest of Central Iran</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Choghazanbil2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Choghazanbil2.jpg/250px-Choghazanbil2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Choghazanbil2.jpg/375px-Choghazanbil2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Choghazanbil2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="488" data-file-height="308" /></a><figcaption>The ziggurat of <a href="/wiki/Choqa_Zanbil" class="mw-redirect" title="Choqa Zanbil">Choqa Zanbil</a> in Khuzestan</figcaption></figure> <p>In the wake of Khalid's demise, Umar appointed Abdullah ibn Uthman as commander of the Muslim forces for the invasion of <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>. From Nahavand, Nu'man ibn Muqaarin marched to <a href="/wiki/Hamadan" title="Hamadan">Hamadan</a>, and then proceeded 370 kilometres (230 mi) southeast to the city of <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, defeating a Sasanian army there. The Sassanian commander, <a href="/wiki/Shahrvaraz_Jadhuyih" title="Shahrvaraz Jadhuyih">Shahrvaraz Jadhuyih</a>, along with another Sasanian general, was killed during the battle.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nu'man, reinforced by fresh troops from Busra and Kufa under the command of <a href="/wiki/Abu_Musa_Ashaari" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Musa Ashaari">Abu Musa Ashaari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ahnaf_ibn_Qais" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahnaf ibn Qais">Ahnaf ibn Qais</a>, then besieged the city.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The siege continued for a few months before the city surrendered. </p><p>In 651, Nu'aym ibn Muqaarin, Nu'man's brother, marched northeast to <a href="/wiki/Rey,_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rey, Iran">Rey, Iran</a>, about 320 kilometres (200 mi) from Hamadan, and laid siege to the city, which surrendered after fierce resistance. Nu'aym then marched 240 kilometres (150 mi) northeast toward <a href="/wiki/Qom" title="Qom">Qom</a>, which was captured without much resistance. This represented the boundary of the Isfahan region. Further northeast was <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khurasan</a>, and southeast lay <a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Sistan</a>. Meanwhile, Hamadan and Rey had rebelled. Umar sent Nu'aym, whose brother Nu'man had recently died, to Hamadan to crush the rebellion and clear Isfahan's western frontier. Nu'aym recaptured Hamadan after a bloody battle, and then proceeded to Rey. There too the Persians resisted but were defeated outside the fort, and the Muslims recaptured the city.<sup id="cite_ref-Al-Tabari_1993_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Al-Tabari_1993-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Persian citizens sued for peace, agreeing to pay the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a>. From Rey, Nu'aym moved north to <a href="/wiki/Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Tabaristan</a>, south of the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Al-Tabari_1993_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Al-Tabari_1993-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ruler of <a href="/wiki/Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Tabaristan</a> then signed a peace treaty with the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Caliphate</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_Fars">Conquest of Fars</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_Muslim_invasion_and_the_successful_Sasanian_counter-attack">First Muslim invasion and the successful Sasanian counter-attack</h4></div> <p>The Muslim invasion of <a href="/wiki/Fars_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Fars Province">Fars</a> began in 638/9, when the Rashidun governor of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Bahrain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ala%27a_Al-Hadrami" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami">al-'Ala' ibn al-Hadrami</a>, having defeated some rebellious Arab tribes, seized an island in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. Although al-'Ala' and the rest of the Arabs had been ordered to not invade Fars or its surrounding islands, he and his men continued their raids into the province. Al-'Ala quickly prepared an army which he divided into three groups, one under al-Jarud ibn Mu'alla, the second under al-Sawwar ibn Hammam, and the third under Khulayd ibn al-Mundhir ibn Sawa. </p><p>When the first group entered Fars, it was quickly defeated and al-Jarud was killed. The same thing soon happened to the second group. Khulayd and the third group kept the defenders at bay, but were blocked from withdrawing to Bahrain by the Sasanians. Umar, having found out about al-'Ala's invasion of Fars, had him replaced with <a href="/wiki/Sa%27d_ibn_Abi_Waqqas" title="Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas">Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas</a> as governor. Umar then ordered <a href="/wiki/Utbah_ibn_Ghazwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Utbah ibn Ghazwan">Utbah ibn Ghazwan</a> to send reinforcements to Khulayd. Once the reinforcements arrived, Khulayd and some of his men managed to withdraw to Bahrain, while the rest withdrew to <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_and_last_Muslim_invasion">Second and last Muslim invasion</h4></div> <p>In <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 643</span>, <a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Abi_al-As" title="Uthman ibn Abi al-As">Uthman ibn Abi al-As</a> seized <a href="/wiki/Bishapur" title="Bishapur">Bishapur</a>, which signed a peace treaty. In 644, al-'Ala' once again attacked Fars from Bahrain, reaching as far as <a href="/wiki/Estakhr" class="mw-redirect" title="Estakhr">Estakhr</a>, until he was repulsed by the Persian governor (<i><a href="/wiki/Marzban" title="Marzban">marzban</a></i>) of Fars, <a href="/wiki/Shahrag" title="Shahrag">Shahrag</a>. Some time later, Uthman ibn Abi al-As managed to establish a military base at <a href="/wiki/Tawwaj" title="Tawwaj">Tawwaj</a>, and soon defeated and killed Shahrag near <a href="/wiki/Reishahr" title="Reishahr">Rew-shahr</a>. Persian convert to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, Hormoz ibn Hayyan al-'Abdi, was then sent by Uthman ibn Abi al-As to attack a fortress known as Senez on the coast of Fars. After the accession of <a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uthman ibn Affan">Uthman ibn Affan</a> as the new <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashidun Caliph">Rashidun Caliph</a> on 11 November, the inhabitants of Bishapur, under the leadership of Shahrag's brother, declared independence, but were defeated. The Persian historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Baladhuri" title="Al-Baladhuri">al-Baladhuri</a> said this occurred in 646. </p><p>In 648, 'Abd-Allah ibn al-'Ash'ari forced the governor of Estakhr, Mahak, to surrender the city. Its citizens rebelled in 649/650 while its newly appointed governor, <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Aamir" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah ibn Aamir">'Abd-Allah ibn 'Amir</a>, was trying to capture <a href="/wiki/Firuzabad,_Fars" title="Firuzabad, Fars">Gor</a>. The military governor of Estakhr, 'Ubayd Allah ibn Ma'mar, was defeated and killed. In 650/651, Yazdegerd went there to plan an organized resistance against the Arabs, and, after some time, went to Gor. Estakhr put up a weak resistance and was soon sacked by the Arabs, who killed over 40,000 defenders. The Arabs then quickly seized Gor, <a href="/wiki/Kazerun" title="Kazerun">Kazerun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siraf" class="mw-redirect" title="Siraf">Siraf</a>, while Yazdegerd fled to <a href="/wiki/Kerman_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerman Province">Kerman</a>. Muslim control of Fars remained shaky for a time, with several local rebellions following the conquest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_Southeastern_Persia_(Kerman_and_Makran)"><span id="Conquest_of_Southeastern_Persia_.28Kerman_and_Makran.29"></span>Conquest of Southeastern Persia (Kerman and Makran)</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_horse_Kerman_Louvre_MAO132.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Head_horse_Kerman_Louvre_MAO132.jpg/150px-Head_horse_Kerman_Louvre_MAO132.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Head_horse_Kerman_Louvre_MAO132.jpg/225px-Head_horse_Kerman_Louvre_MAO132.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Head_horse_Kerman_Louvre_MAO132.jpg/300px-Head_horse_Kerman_Louvre_MAO132.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1660" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption>Sassanid era horse head found in Kerman</figcaption></figure> <p>The expedition to <a href="/wiki/Kerman" title="Kerman">Kerman</a>, under Suhail ibn Adi, was sent at roughly the same time as the expeditions to <a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Sistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>. Suhail marched from Busra in 643; passing through <a href="/wiki/Shiraz" title="Shiraz">Shiraz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>, he joined with other armies and then marched against Kerman, which was subdued after a pitched battle with the local garrisons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_Sakastan">Conquest of Sakastan</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sakastan_Sasanian_era.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Sakastan_Sasanian_era.png/300px-Sakastan_Sasanian_era.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Sakastan_Sasanian_era.png/450px-Sakastan_Sasanian_era.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Sakastan_Sasanian_era.png/600px-Sakastan_Sasanian_era.png 2x" data-file-width="1788" data-file-height="921" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Sakastan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakastan">Sakastan</a> under the Sasanians</figcaption></figure> <p>The Arabs were raiding Sakastan as early as Umar's caliphate. The first real invasion took place in 650, when <a href="/wiki/Abd-Allah_ibn_Amir" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd-Allah ibn Amir">Abd-Allah ibn Amir</a>, having secured his position in Kerman, sent an army under Mujashi ibn Mas'ud there. After crossing the <a href="/wiki/Dasht-i_Lut" class="mw-redirect" title="Dasht-i Lut">Dasht-i Lut</a> desert, Mujashi ibn Mas'ud reached Sakastan, but suffered a heavy defeat and was forced to retreat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshakNegmatov1996449_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshakNegmatov1996449-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One year later, Abd-Allah ibn Amir sent an army under <a href="/wiki/Rabi_ibn_Ziyad_Harithi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabi ibn Ziyad Harithi">Rabi ibn Ziyad Harithi</a> to Sakastan. After some time, Rabi reached Zaliq, a Sakastani border town, where he forced the <a href="/wiki/Dehqan" title="Dehqan">dehqan</a> of the town to acknowledge Rashidun authority. He then did the same at the fortress of Karkuya, which had a famous <a href="/wiki/Fire_temple" title="Fire temple">fire temple</a> mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Tarikh-i_Sistan" title="Tarikh-i Sistan">Tarikh-i Sistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZarrinkub197524_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZarrinkub197524-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He then seized more land in the province. Next, he besieged the provincial capital, <a href="/wiki/Zaranj" title="Zaranj">Zrang</a>, and, after a heavy battle outside the city, its governor, <a href="/wiki/Aparviz_of_Sakastan" title="Aparviz of Sakastan">Aparviz</a>, surrendered. When Aparviz went to Rabi ibn Ziyad to negotiate a treaty, he saw that Rabi was using the bodies of two dead soldiers as a chair. This horrified Aparviz, who, in order to spare the inhabitants of Sakastan from the Arabs, made peace with them in return for a heavy tribute of 1 million <a href="/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">dirhams</a>, including 1,000 slave boys (or girls) bearing 1,000 golden vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZarrinkub197524_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZarrinkub197524-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorony1986203–210_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorony1986203–210-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rabi ibn Ziyad was then appointed governor of the province.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshakNegmatov1996450_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshakNegmatov1996450-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eighteen months later, Rabi was summoned to <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, and was replaced by 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura. The inhabitants of Sakastan used this opportunity to rebel, defeating the Muslim garrison at Zrang. When 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura reached Sakastan, he suppressed the rebellion and defeated the <a href="/wiki/Zunbils" class="mw-redirect" title="Zunbils">Zunbils</a> of <a href="/wiki/Zabulistan" title="Zabulistan">Zabulistan</a>, seizing <a href="/wiki/Lashkar_Gah" class="mw-redirect" title="Lashkar Gah">Bust</a> and a few cities in <a href="/wiki/Zabulistan" title="Zabulistan">Zabulistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZarrinkub197524_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZarrinkub197524-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshakNegmatov1996450_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshakNegmatov1996450-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_Iranian_Azerbaijan">Conquest of <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Azerbaijan">Iranian Azerbaijan</a></h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Derbent_winter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Derbent_winter.jpg/275px-Derbent_winter.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Derbent_winter.jpg/413px-Derbent_winter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Derbent_winter.jpg/550px-Derbent_winter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="557" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption>Sassanid fortress in <a href="/wiki/Derbent" title="Derbent">Derbent</a>, present day <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>. It fell to the Muslims in 643.</figcaption></figure> <p>The conquest of <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Azerbaijan">Iranian Azerbaijan</a> started in 651,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> part of a simultaneous attack launched against Kerman and Makran in the southeast (described above), against Sistan in the northeast and against Azerbaijan in the northwest. Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman was assigned Azerbaijan. Hudheifa marched from Rey in central Persia to <a href="/wiki/Zanjan,_Iran" title="Zanjan, Iran">Zanjan</a>, a well-fortified Persian stronghold in the north. The Persians came out of the city and gave battle, but Hudheifa defeated them, captured the city, and those who sought peace were granted it on the usual <i><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a></i> conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From Zanjan, Hudheifa marched to <a href="/wiki/Ardabil" title="Ardabil">Ardabil</a> which surrendered peacefully. Hudheifa then continued his march north along the western coast of the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> and captured <a href="/wiki/Bab_al-Abwab" class="mw-redirect" title="Bab al-Abwab">Bab al-Abwab</a> by force.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this point Hudheifa was recalled by <a href="/wiki/Uthman" title="Uthman">Uthman</a>, to be replaced by <a href="/wiki/Bukair_ibn_Abdullah" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukair ibn Abdullah">Bukair ibn Abdullah</a> and Utba ibn Farqad. They were sent to carry out a two-pronged attack against Azerbaijan: Bukair along the western coast of the Caspian Sea, and Uthba into the heart of Azerbaijan. On his way north Bukair was halted by a large Persian force under <a href="/wiki/Isfandiyar_(Sasanian_commander)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isfandiyar (Sasanian commander)">Isfandiyar</a>, the son of <a href="/wiki/Farrukhzad" title="Farrukhzad">Farrukhzad</a>. A pitched battle was fought, after which Isfandiyar was defeated and captured. In return for his life, he agreed to surrender his estates in Azerbaijan and persuade others to submit to Muslim rule.<sup id="cite_ref-Al-Tabari_1993_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Al-Tabari_1993-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Uthba ibn Farqad then defeated Bahram, brother of Isfandiyar. He too sued for peace. Azerbaijan then surrendered to Caliph Umar, agreeing to pay the annual <i>jizya</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_Armenia">Conquest of Armenia</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tbilisi_(20).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Tbilisi_%2820%29.jpg/200px-Tbilisi_%2820%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Tbilisi_%2820%29.jpg/300px-Tbilisi_%2820%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Tbilisi_%2820%29.jpg/400px-Tbilisi_%2820%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>View of Tbilisi, which fell to the Rashidun Caliphate in 644.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Armenia" title="Muslim conquest of Armenia">Muslim conquest of Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Armenia">Persian Armenia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marzpanate_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Marzpanate Armenia">Marzpanate Armenia</a></div> <p>The Muslims had conquered <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Armenia" title="Byzantine Armenia">Byzantine Armenia</a> in 638–639. <a href="/wiki/Persian_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Armenia">Armenia</a>, remained in Persian hands, along with <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khurasan</a>. Umar refused to take any chances; he did not consider the Persians weak, which facilitated the speedy conquest of the Persian Empire. Again Umar sent simultaneous expeditions to the far north-east and north-west of the Persian Empire, one to <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khurasan</a> in late 643 and the other to <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Armenia" title="Sasanian Armenia">Armenia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bukair_ibn_Abdullah" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukair ibn Abdullah">Bukair ibn Abdullah</a> was ordered to capture <a href="/wiki/Tiflis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiflis">Tiflis</a>. From Bab, on the western coast of the Caspian Sea, Bukair continued his march north. Umar employed his traditional successful strategy of multi-pronged attacks. While Bukair was still kilometres away from <a href="/wiki/Tiflis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiflis">Tiflis</a>, Umar instructed him to divide his army into three corps. Umar appointed Habib ibn Muslaima to capture Tiflis, Abdulrehman to march north against the mountains and Hudheifa to march against the southern mountains. With the success of all three missions, the advance into Armenia came to an end with the death of Umar in November 644. By then almost the whole of the South <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> was captured.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_Khorasan">Conquest of Khorasan</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Khorasan_highlighted.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Ancient_Khorasan_highlighted.jpg/220px-Ancient_Khorasan_highlighted.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Ancient_Khorasan_highlighted.jpg/330px-Ancient_Khorasan_highlighted.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Ancient_Khorasan_highlighted.jpg 2x" data-file-width="373" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Turkestan" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Turkestan">Islamic conquest of Turkestan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Afghanistan">Islamic conquest of Afghanistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Arabs_in_Afghanistan" title="History of Arabs in Afghanistan">History of Arabs in Afghanistan</a></div> <p>Khorasan was the second-largest province of the Sasanian Empire. It stretched from what is now northeastern Iran, northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan. In 651 the conquest of Khurasan was assigned to <a href="/wiki/Ahnaf_ibn_Qais" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahnaf ibn Qais">Ahnaf ibn Qais</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ahnaf marched from <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a> and took a short and less frequented route via <a href="/wiki/Rey,_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rey, Iran">Rey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a>. Rey was already in Muslim hands and Nishapur surrendered without resistance. From Nishapur, Ahnaf marched to <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a> in western Afghanistan. Herat was a fortified town, and the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Herat_(651)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Herat (651)">resulting siege</a> lasted for a few months before it surrendered, bringing the whole of southern Khorasan under Muslim control. Ahnaf then marched north directly to <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a>, in present-day <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Merv was the capital of Khurasan and here Yazdegred III held his court. On hearing of the Muslim advance, Yazdegerd III left for <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>. No resistance was offered at Merv, and the Muslims occupied the capital of Khurasan without a fight. Ahnaf stayed at Merv and waited for reinforcement from Kufa. Meanwhile, Yazdegerd had also gathered considerable power at Balkh and allied with the Turkic Khan of <a href="/wiki/Farghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Farghana">Farghana</a>, who personally led the relief contingent. Umar ordered Ahnaf to break up the alliance. The Khan of Farghana, realizing that fighting against the Muslims might endanger his own kingdom, withdrew from the alliance and pulled back to Farghana. The remainder of Yazdegerd's army was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Oxus_River" title="Battle of Oxus River">Battle of Oxus River</a> and retreated across the <a href="/wiki/Oxus" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxus">Oxus</a> to <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>. Yazdegerd himself narrowly escaped to <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">China</a>.The Muslims had now reached the outermost frontiers of Persia. Beyond that lay the lands of the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turks</a> and still further lay China. Ahnaf returned to Merv and sent a detailed report of his success to the anxiously-waiting Umar, and sought permission to cross the Oxus river and invade Transoxiana. Umar ordered Ahnaf to stand down and instead consolidate his power south of the Oxus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Persian_rebellion_and_reconquest">Persian rebellion and reconquest</h2></div> <p>Umar was assassinated in November 644 by a Persian slave named <a href="/wiki/Abu_Lu%27lu%27a_Firuz" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz">Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz</a>, after having refused to lift a tax imposed upon the latter. Soon after, Abu Lu'lu'a's was either executed or committed suicide.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In retaliation, <a href="/wiki/Ubayd_Allah_ibn_Umar" title="Ubayd Allah ibn Umar">Ubayd Allah ibn Umar</a> (one of Umar's sons) killed Abu Lu'lu'a's daughter, and declared his intention to kill all non-Arabs residing in Medina.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Acting upon a claim that they had been seen conspiring with Abu Lu'lu'a while he was holding the murder weapon, Ubayd Allah killed <a href="/wiki/Hurmuz%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurmuzān">Hurmuzān</a>, an ex-<a href="/wiki/Sasanian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanian">Sasanian</a> military officer who had been working for Umar as an adviser after his capture by the Muslims, and Jufayna, a Christian man from the city of <a href="/wiki/Al-Hira" title="Al-Hira">Al-Hira</a> in Iraq who had been taken to Medina to serve as a tutor.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Just like Abu Lu'lu'a's assassination of Umar over something as trivial as a tax burden, Ubayd Allah's retaliatory killing of apparently random non-Arabs bears witness to the strong tensions that existed between Arabs and non-Arabs in the early Islamic caliphate.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uthman ibn Affan">Uthman ibn Affan</a> (644–656) succeeded Umar as caliph. During his reign, almost the whole of the former Sassanid empire's territory rebelled from time to time, requiring him to send several military expeditions to crush the rebellions and recapture Persia and its vassal states. The main rebellions were in the Persian provinces of <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Armenia" title="Sasanian Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fars_province" title="Fars province">Fars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sakastan_(Sasanian_province)" title="Sakastan (Sasanian province)">Sistan</a> (in 649), <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a> (651), and <a href="/wiki/Makran" title="Makran">Makran</a> (650).<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, in 651, <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a>, the last Sassanid emperor, was killed near <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> by a local miller for his purse,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus putting an end to both his dynasty and to organized Persian resistance. Meanwhile, Uthman's empire expanded beyond the borders of the Sasanian Empire, to <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balochistan_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balochistan (region)">Baluchistan</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>. For many decades to come, this was the easternmost limit of Muslim rule. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Persia_under_Muslim_rule">Persia under Muslim rule</h2></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG/300px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG/450px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG/600px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>Rashidun Empire at its peak under the third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman, in 654 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#009900; color:black;"> </span> Dominion of the Rashidun Caliphate</div></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Iran" title="Islamization of Iran">Islamization of Iran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iran" title="Islam in Iran">Islam in Iran</a></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a>: </p><p>Arab Muslims conquests have been variously seen in Iran: by some as a blessing, the advent of the true faith, the end of the age of ignorance and heathenism; by others as a humiliating national defeat, the conquest and subjugation of the country by foreign invaders. Both perceptions are of course valid, depending on one's angle of vision. Iran was Islamized, but it was not Arabized. Persians remained Persians. And after an interval of silence, Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam, eventually adding a new element even to Islam itself. Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna.<sup id="cite_ref-lewis_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lewis-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administration">Administration</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Islamic_coin,_Time_of_the_Rashidun._Khosrau_type._AH_31-41_AD_651-661.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Islamic_coin%2C_Time_of_the_Rashidun._Khosrau_type._AH_31-41_AD_651-661.jpg/250px-Islamic_coin%2C_Time_of_the_Rashidun._Khosrau_type._AH_31-41_AD_651-661.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Islamic_coin%2C_Time_of_the_Rashidun._Khosrau_type._AH_31-41_AD_651-661.jpg/375px-Islamic_coin%2C_Time_of_the_Rashidun._Khosrau_type._AH_31-41_AD_651-661.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Islamic_coin%2C_Time_of_the_Rashidun._Khosrau_type._AH_31-41_AD_651-661.jpg/500px-Islamic_coin%2C_Time_of_the_Rashidun._Khosrau_type._AH_31-41_AD_651-661.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>Coin of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>. Imitation of <a href="/wiki/Sasanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanid Empire">Sasanid Empire</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II</a> type. BYS (<a href="/wiki/Bishapur" title="Bishapur">Bishapur</a>) mint. Dated YE 25 = AH 36 (AD 656). Sasanian style bust imitating <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II</a> right; <a href="/wiki/Basmala" title="Basmala">bismillah</a> in margin/ Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames; date to left, mint name to right.</figcaption></figure> <p>Under Umar and his immediate successors, the Arab conquerors attempted to maintain their political and cultural cohesion despite the attractions of the civilizations they had conquered. The Arabs initially settled in the garrison towns rather than on scattered estates. </p><p>The new non-Muslim subjects were protected by the state and known as <i><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmi</a></i> (<i>protected</i>), and were to pay a special tax, the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> (<i>tribute</i>), which was calculated at varying individual rates, usually two <a href="/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">dirhams</a> for able-bodied men of military age, in return for exemption from military service. Women and children were exempted from the jizya.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mass conversions were neither desired nor allowed, at least in the first few centuries of Arab rule.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-boyce_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boyce-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Umar is reported to have issued the following instructions about the protected people: "Make it easy for him, who can not pay tribute; help him who is weak, let them keep their titles, but do not give them our <a href="/wiki/Kuniyat" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuniyat">kuniyat</a> [<i>Arabic traditional nicknames or titles</i>]."<sup id="cite_ref-Their_Non-Muslim_Subjects_pg.138_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Their_Non-Muslim_Subjects_pg.138-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Umar's liberal policies were continued by at least his immediate successors. In his dying charge to Uthman, he is reported to have said, "I charge the caliph after me to be kind to the dhimmis, to keep their covenant, to protect them and not to burden them over their strength."<sup id="cite_ref-Their_Non-Muslim_Subjects_pg.138_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Their_Non-Muslim_Subjects_pg.138-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a matter of practicality, the jizya replaced the Sasanian poll taxes, which tended to be much higher than the jizya. In addition to the jizya, the old Sasanian <i>land tax</i> (known in Arabic as <i>Kharaj</i>) was also adopted. Umar is said to have occasionally set up commissions to survey tax burdens in order to ensure that they wouldn't be more than the land could bear.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is reported that Zoroastrians were subjected to humiliation and ridicule when paying the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> in order to make them feel inferior.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce2001146_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce2001146-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At least under the Rashiduns and early Ummayads, the administrative system of the late Sasanian period was largely retained: a pyramidal system where each quarter of the state was divided into provinces, the provinces into districts, and the districts into sub-districts. Provinces were called <i>ustan</i> (Middle Persian <i>ostan</i>), and the districts <i>shahrs</i>, centered upon a district capital known as a <i>shahristan</i>. The subdistricts were called <i>tasok</i> in Middle Persian, which was adopted into Arabic as <i>tassuj</i> (plural <i>tasasij</i>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Iran" title="Islamization of Iran">Islamization of Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Persecution of Zoroastrians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Missionary_Activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Missionary Activity">Islamic Missionary Activity</a></div> <p>Zoroastrians were made to pay an extra tax called <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a>, or be killed, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">enslaved</a> or imprisoned. Those paying jizya were subjected to insults and humiliation by the tax collectors.<sup id="cite_ref-boy148_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boy148-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ann205_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ann205-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mb878_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mb878-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zoroastrians who were captured as slaves in wars were given their freedom if they converted to Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-boy148_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boy148-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fez_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fez-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While giving freedom of choice, the Arab conquerors designated privileges for those who converted to Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conversion process was slow and uncompleted, stretching over many centuries, with a majority of Persians still following Zoroastrianism at the turn of the millennium.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> leaders in their effort to win converts encouraged attendance at Muslim prayer with promises of money and allowed the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> to be recited in <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> instead of Arabic so that it would be intelligible to all.<sup id="cite_ref-Arnold_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arnold-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islam was readily accepted by <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrians">Zoroastrians</a> who were employed in industrial and artisan positions because, according to Zoroastrian dogma, such occupations that involved defiling fire made them impure.<sup id="cite_ref-Arnold_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arnold-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, Muslim missionaries did not encounter difficulty in explaining Islamic tenets to Zoroastrians, as there were many similarities between the faiths. According to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Walker_Arnold" title="Thomas Walker Arnold">Thomas Walker Arnold</a>, the Persian would meet <a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ahriman" title="Ahriman">Ahriman</a> under the names of <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iblis" title="Iblis">Iblis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Arnold_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arnold-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, Islam was spread due to <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> missionary efforts particularly under the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Hisham_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik">Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_Abd_al-Aziz" title="Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz">Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Arnold_74-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arnold-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were also large and thriving <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a> communities, along with smaller numbers of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhists</a> and other groups. The population moved slowly and steadily toward <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>. The nobility and citizens converted first. Islam spread more slowly among the peasantry and the <i><a href="/wiki/Dihqan" class="mw-redirect" title="Dihqan">dihqans</a></i>, or landed gentry. By the late 10th century, the majority of the Persians had become Muslim. </p><p>Until the 15th century, most Persian Muslims were <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Muslims</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'i">Shafi'i</a><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a> legal schools, with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Safavid" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid">Safavids</a> in the early 16th century and their <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">forced conversion of Sunnis</a>, Shi'a Islam came to dominate the land. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_of_Persia">Language of Persia</h2></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>, the official language of Persia (including Mesopotamia) remained <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian (Pahlavi)</a>, just as the official languages of <a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Egypt</a> remained <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, both languages came to the region through the conquering Greek Macedonian and Persian Achaemenid empires. During the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, the Ummayads made <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> the primary language of their subjected people throughout their empire. Particularly, <a href="/wiki/Al-Hajjaj_ibn_Yusuf" title="Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf">Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf</a> (661–714) officially changed the administrative language of Iraq from Middle Persian (Pahlavi) to Arabic, this was the first since the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> that a Semitic language was reinstated as an official language in Mesopotamia (<a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>). Arabic mainly supplanted other <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> <a href="/wiki/Sister_language" title="Sister language">sister languages</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> in Egypt and <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> region (Berber is still spoken and official in Algeria and Morocco), but the more distant <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> languages like Middle Persian and Kurdish proved to be more enduring. Most of Middle Persian structure and vocabulary survived, evolving into <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">New Persian</a>. Persian incorporated a certain amount of Arabic vocabulary, especially words pertaining to religion (and later to science and arts), and it switched from the <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">Pahlavi scripts</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Perso-Arabic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Perso-Arabic alphabet">modified version of the Arabic alphabet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today Persian is spoken officially in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Urbanisation">Urbanisation</h2></div> <p>The Arab conquest of Persia led to a period of extreme <a href="/wiki/Urbanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanisation">urbanisation</a> in Iran, starting with the ascension of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasids" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasids">Abbasid</a> dynasty and ending in the 11th century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-youtube.com_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youtube.com-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was particularly true for the eastern parts of the country, for regions like <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, Iran saw the development of massive metropolises, some reaching population numbers of up to 200,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-youtube.com_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youtube.com-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This period of extreme urbanisation was followed in the late 11th and early 12th century by a collapse of the Iranian economy, which led to large scale emigrations of Iranians into Central Asia, India, the rest of the Middle East, and Anatolia. This catastrophe has been cited by some as reason for the Persian language becoming widespread throughout Central Asia and large parts of the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab-Persians" title="Arab-Persians">Arab-Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab-Byzantine_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab-Byzantine Wars">Arab-Byzantine Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_rule_in_Georgia" title="Arab rule in Georgia">Arab rule in Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Tbilisi" title="Emirate of Tbilisi">Emirate of Tbilisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arabs_in_Afghanistan" title="History of Arabs in Afghanistan">History of Arabs in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">History of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xwedodah" title="Xwedodah">Xwedodah</a>, Consanguine marriage</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iran" title="Islam in Iran">Islam in Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Afghanistan">Islamic conquest of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Iran" title="Islamization of Iran">Islamization of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Iran" title="Military history of Iran">Military history of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Transoxiana" title="Muslim conquest of Transoxiana">Muslim conquest of Transoxiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran_after_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iran after Islam">History of Iran after Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_during_the_Caliphate" title="Iran during the Caliphate">Iran during the Caliphate</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008469-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008469_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, pp. 469.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGalbinst" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Galbinst, Yuri. "Conquest of the Sassanid Empire". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fePNDwAAQBAJ"><i>Fra Rashidun kalifat til abbasid kalifat</i></a> (in Danish). Cambridge Stanford Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conquest+of+the+Sassanid+Empire&rft.btitle=Fra+Rashidun+kalifat+til+abbasid+kalifat&rft.pub=Cambridge+Stanford+Books&rft.aulast=Galbinst&rft.aufirst=Yuri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfePNDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-ii">"ʿARAB ii. Arab conquest of Iran"</a>. <i>iranicaonline.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170926143303/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-ii">Archived</a> from the original on 26 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iranicaonline.org&rft.atitle=%CA%BFARAB+ii.+Arab+conquest+of+Iran&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Farab-ii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 1 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4">978-0-19-597713-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_Humphreys1999" class="citation book cs1">Stephen Humphreys, R. (January 1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/betweenmemorydes1999hump"><i>Between Memory and Desire</i></a></span>. University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/betweenmemorydes1999hump/page/180">180</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520214118" title="Special:BookSources/9780520214118"><bdi>9780520214118</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Memory+and+Desire&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1999-01&rft.isbn=9780520214118&rft.aulast=Stephen+Humphreys&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbetweenmemorydes1999hump&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Milani A. <i>Lost Wisdom</i>. 2004 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-934211-90-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-934211-90-1">978-0-934211-90-1</a> p.15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Balāḏori, Fotuḥ, p. 421; Biruni, Āṯār, p. 35)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mohammad Mohammadi Malayeri, <i>Tarikh-i Farhang-i Iran</i> (Iran's Cultural History). 4 volumes. Tehran. 1982.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFʻAbd_al-Ḥusayn_Zarrīnʹkūb2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Abdolhossein_Zarinkoob" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdolhossein Zarinkoob">ʻAbd al-Ḥusayn Zarrīnʹkūb</a> (2000) [1379]. <i>Dū qarn-i sukūt : sarguz̲asht-i ḥavādis̲ va awz̤āʻ-i tārīkhī dar dū qarn-i avval-i Islām (Two Centuries of Silence)</i>. Tihrān: Sukhan. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/46632917">46632917</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=D%C5%AB+qarn-i+suk%C5%ABt+%3A+sarguz%CC%B2asht-i+%E1%B8%A5av%C4%81dis%CC%B2+va+awz%CC%A4%C4%81%CA%BB-i+t%C4%81r%C4%ABkh%C4%AB+dar+d%C5%AB+qarn-i+avval-i+Isl%C4%81m+%28Two+Centuries+of+Silence%29&rft.place=Tihr%C4%81n&rft.pub=Sukhan&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F46632917&rft.au=%CA%BBAbd+al-%E1%B8%A4usayn+Zarr%C4%ABn%CA%B9k%C5%ABb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur Christensen, <i>L’Iran sous les Sassanides</i>, Copenhagen, 1944 (Christensen 1944).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Parvaneh Pourshariati, <i>Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire</i>, (I.B.Tauris, 2009), 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Parvaneh Pourshariati, <i>Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran</i>, I.B. Tauris, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parvaneh_Pourshariati_2008._p._4-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Parvaneh_Pourshariati_2008._p._4_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Parvaneh_Pourshariati_2008._p._4_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Parvaneh_Pourshariati_2008._p._4_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Parvaneh_Pourshariati_2008._p._4_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Parvaneh Pourshariati, <i>Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran</i>, I.B. Tauris, 2008. (p. 4)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Khodadad Rezakhani, "Arab Conquests and Sasanian Iran" page 34 "History Today" April 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Iraq After the Muslim Conquest By <a href="/wiki/Michael_G._Morony" title="Michael G. Morony">Michael G. Morony</a>, pg. 233</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristensen199381-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristensen199381_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChristensen1993">Christensen 1993</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EIr-Sasanian-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EIr-Sasanian_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShapur_Shahbazi2005">Shapur Shahbazi 2005</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-seventhyear-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-seventhyear_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120805184742/http://www.al-islam.org/message/43.htm">"The Events of the Seventh Year of Migration"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ahlul_Bayt_Digital_Islamic_Library_Project" title="Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project">Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.al-islam.org/message/43.htm">the original</a> on 5 August 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Events+of+the+Seventh+Year+of+Migration&rft.pub=Ahlul+Bayt+Digital+Islamic+Library+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-islam.org%2Fmessage%2F43.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leone Caetani, Annali dell' Islam, vol. 4, p. 74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leone Caetani, <i>Annali dell'Islam</i>, vol. 2, chapter 1, paragraph 45–46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Tabaqat-i Kubra, vol. I, page 360; Tarikh-i Tabari, vol. II, pp. 295, 296; Tarikh-i Kamil, vol. II, page 81 and Biharul Anwar, vol. XX, page 389</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Kisra", M. Morony, <i>The Encyclopaedia of Islam</i>, Vol. V, ed.C.E. Bosworth, E.van Donzel, B. Lewis and C. Pellat, (E.J.Brill, 1980), 185.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xJY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA185">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230811084225/https://books.google.com/books?id=xJY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA185">Archived</a> 11 August 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Donner-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Donner_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fred M. Donner, "Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam", Harvard University Press, 2010, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05097-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05097-6">978-0-674-05097-6</a> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qBzRj7OajmEC&pg=PP1">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230811084226/https://books.google.com/books?id=qBzRj7OajmEC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> 11 August 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Najeebabadi-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Najeebabadi_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Akbar Shah Najeebabadi, The history of Islam. B0006RTNB4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tabari-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tabari_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tabari_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 554.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhalid" class="citation book cs1">Khalid. <i>Men Around the Messenger</i>. Al Manar. p. 234.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Men+Around+the+Messenger&rft.pages=234&rft.pub=Al+Manar&rft.au=Khalid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Akram, chapters 19–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFنجاة_سليم_محاسيس2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">نجاة سليم محاسيس (2011). <i>معجم المعارك التاريخية</i> (in Arabic). Al Manhal. p. 285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9796500011615" title="Special:BookSources/9796500011615"><bdi>9796500011615</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%AC%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%83+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A9&rft.pages=285&rft.pub=Al+Manhal&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9796500011615&rft.au=%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A9+%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85+%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160811140834/http://www.taqawalife.com/2012/02/saad-bin-abi-waqqas-raziallah-unho.html">"Taqawa Leads to Success: Saad Bin Abi Waqqas RaziAllah Unho"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.taqawalife.com/2012/02/saad-bin-abi-waqqas-raziallah-unho.html">the original</a> on 11 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Taqawa+Leads+to+Success%3A+Saad+Bin+Abi+Waqqas+RaziAllah+Unho&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.taqawalife.com%2F2012%2F02%2Fsaad-bin-abi-waqqas-raziallah-unho.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, by Mohammad Allias Aadil, page no:67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkram1975" class="citation book cs1">Akram, A.I. (1975). "5". <i>The Muslim Conquest of Persia</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4"><bdi>978-0-19-597713-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=5&rft.btitle=The+Muslim+Conquest+of+Persia&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-19-597713-4&rft.aulast=Akram&rft.aufirst=A.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Tabari" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">Al-Tabari</a>. <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Prophets_and_Kings" title="History of the Prophets and Kings"><i>History of the Prophets and Kings</i></a>. pp. 590–595.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Prophets+and+Kings&rft.pages=590-595&rft.au=Al-Tabari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkram1975" class="citation book cs1">Akram, A. I. (1975). "6". <i>The Muslim Conquest of Persia</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4"><bdi>978-0-19-597713-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6&rft.btitle=The+Muslim+Conquest+of+Persia&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-19-597713-4&rft.aulast=Akram&rft.aufirst=A.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaykal" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Husayn_Haykal" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Husayn Haykal">Haykal, Muhammad Husayn</a>. "5". <i>Al Farooq, Umar</i>. p. 130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=5&rft.btitle=Al+Farooq%2C+Umar&rft.pages=130&rft.aulast=Haykal&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+Husayn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 7 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4">978-0-19-597713-4</a>, 9780195977134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkram1975" class="citation book cs1">Akram, A.I. (1975). "8". <i>The Muslim Conquest of Persia</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4"><bdi>978-0-19-597713-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=8&rft.btitle=The+Muslim+Conquest+of+Persia&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-19-597713-4&rft.aulast=Akram&rft.aufirst=A.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersen" class="citation book cs1">Petersen, Anderew. <i>Dictionary of Islamic Architecture</i>. p. 120.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Islamic+Architecture&rft.pages=120&rft.aulast=Petersen&rft.aufirst=Anderew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilcox" class="citation book cs1">Wilcox, Peter. <i>Rome's Enemies 3: Parthians and Sassanids</i>. Osprey Publishing. p. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%27s+Enemies+3%3A+Parthians+and+Sassanids&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.aulast=Wilcox&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Al Farooq, Umar</i> By <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Husayn_Haykal" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Husayn Haykal">Muhammad Husayn Haykal</a>. chapter 18-page 130</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_40-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkram1975" class="citation book cs1">Akram, A.I. (1975). "10". <i>The Muslim Conquest of Persia</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4"><bdi>978-0-19-597713-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=10&rft.btitle=The+Muslim+Conquest+of+Persia&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-19-597713-4&rft.aulast=Akram&rft.aufirst=A.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The History of Al-Tabari: The Challenge to the Empires</i>, translated by Khalid Yahya Blankinship, Published by SUNY Press, 1993, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0852-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0852-0">978-0-7914-0852-0</a>,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuhammad_Husayn_Haykal" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Husayn_Haykal" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Husayn Haykal">Muhammad Husayn Haykal</a>. "19". <i>Al Farooq, Umar</i>. p. 130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=19&rft.btitle=Al+Farooq%2C+Umar&rft.pages=130&rft.au=Muhammad+Husayn+Haykal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pourshariati (2008), p. 247</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated3-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:11 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4">978-0-19-597713-4</a>,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Al-Tabari_1993-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Al-Tabari_1993_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Al-Tabari_1993_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Al-Tabari_1993_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The History of Al-Tabari: The Challenge to the Empires, Translated by Khalid Yahya Blankinship, Published by SUNY Press, 1993, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0852-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0852-0">978-0-7914-0852-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshakNegmatov1996449-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshakNegmatov1996449_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarshakNegmatov1996">Marshak & Negmatov 1996</a>, p. 449.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZarrinkub197524-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZarrinkub197524_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZarrinkub197524_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZarrinkub197524_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZarrinkub1975">Zarrinkub 1975</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorony1986203–210-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorony1986203–210_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorony1986">Morony 1986</a>, pp. 203–210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshakNegmatov1996450-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshakNegmatov1996450_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshakNegmatov1996450_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarshakNegmatov1996">Marshak & Negmatov 1996</a>, p. 450.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pourshariati (2008), p. 468</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated4-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated4_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkram1975" class="citation book cs1">Akram, A.I. (1975). "15". <i>The Muslim Conquest of Persia</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4"><bdi>978-0-19-597713-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=15&rft.btitle=The+Muslim+Conquest+of+Persia&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-19-597713-4&rft.aulast=Akram&rft.aufirst=A.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:16 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4">978-0-19-597713-4</a>,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:17 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4">978-0-19-597713-4</a>,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPellat2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Charles</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/abu-loloa-a-persian-slave-of-mogira-b">"Abū Loʾloʾa"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ehsan_Yarshater" title="Ehsan Yarshater">Yarshater, Ehsan</a> (ed.). <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ab%C5%AB+Lo%CA%BElo%CA%BEa&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Pellat&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fabu-loloa-a-persian-slave-of-mogira-b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadelung1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung" title="Wilferd Madelung">Madelung, Wilferd</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC"><i>The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-56181-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-56181-7"><bdi>0-521-56181-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230811084226/https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Succession+to+Muhammad%3A+A+Study+of+the+Early+Caliphate&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-521-56181-7&rft.aulast=Madelung&rft.aufirst=Wilferd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2QKBUwBUWWkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span> p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 69 (cf. p. 404, where Madelung refers to him as "Jufayna al-Naṣrānī").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._I._Akram2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Agha_Ibrahim_Akram" title="Agha Ibrahim Akram">A. 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Akram</a> (19 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/TheMuslimConquestOfPersia"><i>The Muslim Conquest Of Persia</i></a>. p. 288. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-597713-4"><bdi>978-0-19-597713-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Muslim+Conquest+Of+Persia&rft.pages=288&rft.date=2018-04-19&rft.isbn=978-0-19-597713-4&rft.au=A.+I.+Akram&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FTheMuslimConquestOfPersia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=106324&fullArticle=true&tocId=9106324">"Iran"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130813184232/http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=106324&fullArticle=true&tocId=9106324">Archived</a> from the original on 13 August 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Iran&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fp2.www.britannica.com%2Foscar%2Fprint%3FarticleId%3D106324%26fullArticle%3Dtrue%26tocId%3D9106324&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lewis-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lewis_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis" class="citation web cs1">Lewis, Bernard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070429144545/http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/mel/lewis.html">"Iran in history"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv_University" title="Tel Aviv University">Tel Aviv University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/mel/lewis.html">the original</a> on 29 April 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Iran+in+history&rft.pub=Tel+Aviv+University&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tau.ac.il%2Fdayancenter%2Fmel%2Flewis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy,_Hugh2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. Kennedy">Kennedy, Hugh</a> (2004). <i>The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates</i>. Longman. p. 68.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prophet+and+the+Age+of+the+Caliphates&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrye1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nelson_Frye" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Nelson Frye">Frye, R.N</a> (1975). <i>The Golden Age of Persia</i>. Phoenix Press. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84212-011-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84212-011-8"><bdi>978-1-84212-011-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Golden+Age+of+Persia&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Phoenix+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-1-84212-011-8&rft.aulast=Frye&rft.aufirst=R.N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Tabari" class="mw-redirect" title="Tabari">Tabari</a>. Series I. pp. 2778–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-boyce-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-boyce_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boyce, Mary (1979), Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, London: Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23903-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23903-5">978-0-415-23903-5</a> pg.150</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Their_Non-Muslim_Subjects_pg.138-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Their_Non-Muslim_Subjects_pg.138_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Their_Non-Muslim_Subjects_pg.138_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects</i>. By A. S. Tritton, pg.138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects</i>. By A. S. Tritton, pg.139.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce2001146-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce2001146_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoyce2001">Boyce 2001</a>, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-boy148-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-boy148_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-boy148_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoyce2001">Boyce 2001</a>, p. 148</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ann205-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ann205_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambton1981">Lambton 1981</a>, p. 205</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mb878-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mb878_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeriBacharach2006">Meri & Bacharach 2006</a>, p. 878</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fez-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fez_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080505090009/http://zoreled.org/historyzorislamiciran.aspx">"History of Zoroastrians in Islamic Iran"</a>. <i>FEZANA Religious Education</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zoreled.org/historyzorislamiciran.aspx">the original</a> on 5 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FEZANA+Religious+Education&rft.atitle=History+of+Zoroastrians+in+Islamic+Iran&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fzoreled.org%2Fhistoryzorislamiciran.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Cambridge History of Iran Volume4 The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs, p. 483</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/fars-iii">"FĀRS iii. History in the Islamic Period – Encyclopaedia Iranica"</a>. <i>iranicaonline.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201118150626/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/fars-iii">Archived</a> from the original on 18 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iranicaonline.org&rft.atitle=F%C4%80RS+iii.+History+in+the+Islamic+Period+%E2%80%93+Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Ffars-iii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arnold-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arnold_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arnold_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arnold_74-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arnold_74-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Walker_Arnold" title="Thomas Walker Arnold">Thomas Walker Arnold</a>, pg.170–180</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLombard2004" class="citation book cs1">Lombard, Maurice (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cNG8MKDPVUMC&dq=safavid+persia+conversion&pg=PR14"><i>The Golden Age of Islam</i></a>. Markus Wiener Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-322-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-322-7"><bdi>978-1-55876-322-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Golden+Age+of+Islam&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-322-7&rft.aulast=Lombard&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcNG8MKDPVUMC%26dq%3Dsafavid%2Bpersia%2Bconversion%26pg%3DPR14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051210024444/http://www.languages.umd.edu/persian/persianlanguage1.php">"What is Persian?"</a>. The center for Persian studies. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.languages.umd.edu/persian/persianlanguage1.php">the original</a> on 10 December 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Persian%3F&rft.pub=The+center+for+Persian+studies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.languages.umd.edu%2Fpersian%2Fpersianlanguage1.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-youtube.com-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-youtube.com_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-youtube.com_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C0i7MMO0orE"><span class="plainlinks">Professor R. Bulliet on Iran's urbanisation (1h 10m 29s)</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWink2002" class="citation book cs1">Wink, André (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uQ7k2vQlYxEC&pg=PA50"><i>Al-Hind: The Slavic Kings and the Islamic conquest, 11th–13th centuries</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0391041746" title="Special:BookSources/0391041746"><bdi>0391041746</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410122239/https://books.google.com/books?id=uQ7k2vQlYxEC&pg=PA50">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2015</span> – via google.nl.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Hind%3A+The+Slavic+Kings+and+the+Islamic+conquest%2C+11th%E2%80%9313th+centuries&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0391041746&rft.aulast=Wink&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuQ7k2vQlYxEC%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C0i7MMO0orE"><span class="plainlinks">Professor R. Bulliet on Iran's urbanisation (1h 11m 48s)</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBashear1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Suliman_Bashear" title="Suliman Bashear">Bashear, Suliman</a> (1997). <i>Arabs and Others in Early Islam</i>. Darwin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87850-126-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87850-126-7"><bdi>978-0-87850-126-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabs+and+Others+in+Early+Islam&rft.pub=Darwin+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-87850-126-7&rft.aulast=Bashear&rft.aufirst=Suliman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosworth1997" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-1/sistan-SIM_5452?s.num=247&s.rows=100&s.start=180">"Sīstān"</a>. <i>The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume IX: San–Sze</i>. Leiden, and New York: BRILL. pp. 681–685. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004082656" title="Special:BookSources/9789004082656"><bdi>9789004082656</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=S%C4%ABst%C4%81n&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Islam%2C+New+Edition%2C+Volume+IX%3A+San%E2%80%93Sze&rft.place=Leiden%2C+and+New+York&rft.pages=681-685&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9789004082656&rft.aulast=Bosworth&rft.aufirst=Clifford+Edmund&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-1%2Fsistan-SIM_5452%3Fs.num%3D247%26s.rows%3D100%26s.start%3D180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosworth2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bosworth, C. 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In the Islamic period". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sistan-ii-islamic-period"><i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=SIST%C4%80N+ii.+In+the+Islamic+period&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Bosworth&rft.aufirst=C.+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fsistan-ii-islamic-period&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyce2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Boyce" title="Mary Boyce">Boyce, Mary</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&q=Zoroastrians:+their+religious+beliefs+and+practices+By+Mary+Boyce"><i>Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23902-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23902-8"><bdi>978-0-415-23902-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoroastrians%3A+Their+Religious+Beliefs+and+Practices&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-415-23902-8&rft.aulast=Boyce&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da6gbxVfjtUEC%26q%3DZoroastrians%3A%2Btheir%2Breligious%2Bbeliefs%2Band%2Bpractices%2BBy%2BMary%2BBoyce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristensen1993" class="citation book cs1">Christensen, Peter (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ebB_ac13v3UC&q=false"><i>The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environments in the History of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500</i></a>. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 1–351. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788772892597" title="Special:BookSources/9788772892597"><bdi>9788772892597</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+of+Iranshahr%3A+Irrigation+and+Environments+in+the+History+of+the+Middle+East%2C+500+B.C.+to+A.D.+1500&rft.pages=1-351&rft.pub=Museum+Tusculanum+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9788772892597&rft.aulast=Christensen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DebB_ac13v3UC%26q%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elton_Daniel" class="mw-redirect" title="Elton Daniel">Daniel, Elton</a> (2001). <i>The History of Iran</i>. Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30731-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30731-7"><bdi>978-0-313-30731-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Iran&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-313-30731-7&rft.aulast=Daniel&rft.aufirst=Elton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaryaee2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Touraj_Daryaee" title="Touraj Daryaee">Daryaee, Touraj</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LU0BAwAAQBAJ"><i>Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire</i></a>. I.B.Tauris. pp. 1–240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0857716668" title="Special:BookSources/978-0857716668"><bdi>978-0857716668</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sasanian+Persia%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+an+Empire&rft.pages=1-240&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0857716668&rft.aulast=Daryaee&rft.aufirst=Touraj&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLU0BAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaryaee" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Touraj_Daryaee" title="Touraj Daryaee">Daryaee, Touraj</a>. "Collapse of Sasanian Power in Fars". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/956827"><i>Collapse of Sasanian Power in Fars</i></a>. Fullerton, California: California State University. pp. 3–18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Collapse+of+Sasanian+Power+in+Fars&rft.btitle=Collapse+of+Sasanian+Power+in+Fars&rft.place=Fullerton%2C+California&rft.pages=3-18&rft.pub=California+State+University&rft.aulast=Daryaee&rft.aufirst=Touraj&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F956827&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonner1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Donner" title="Fred Donner">Donner, Fred</a> (1981). <i>The Early Islamic Conquests</i>. Princeton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05327-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05327-1"><bdi>978-0-691-05327-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Islamic+Conquests&rft.pub=Princeton&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-691-05327-1&rft.aulast=Donner&rft.aufirst=Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazerani2015" class="citation book cs1">Gazerani, Saghi (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=92zsCgAAQBAJ&q=false"><i>The Sistani Cycle of Epics and Iran's National History: On the Margins of Historiography</i></a>. BRILL. pp. 1–250. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004282964" title="Special:BookSources/9789004282964"><bdi>9789004282964</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sistani+Cycle+of+Epics+and+Iran%27s+National+History%3A+On+the+Margins+of+Historiography&rft.pages=1-250&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9789004282964&rft.aulast=Gazerani&rft.aufirst=Saghi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D92zsCgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreatrexLieu2002" class="citation book cs1">Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zc8iAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD)</i></a>. New York, New York and London, United Kingdom: Routledge (Taylor & Francis). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-14687-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-14687-9"><bdi>0-415-14687-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Eastern+Frontier+and+the+Persian+Wars+%28Part+II%2C+363%E2%80%93630+AD%29&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York+and+London%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pub=Routledge+%28Taylor+%26+Francis%29&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-415-14687-9&rft.aulast=Greatrex&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft.au=Lieu%2C+Samuel+N.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzc8iAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambton1981" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">A. 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Shabani Samghabadi (ed.). <i>History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III: The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750</i>. UNESCO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-3-103211-9" title="Special:BookSources/92-3-103211-9"><bdi>92-3-103211-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sogdiana&rft.btitle=History+of+Civilizations+of+Central+Asia%2C+Volume+III%3A+The+Crossroads+of+Civilizations%3A+A.D.+250+to+750&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=92-3-103211-9&rft.aulast=Marshak&rft.aufirst=B.I.&rft.au=Negmatov%2C+N.N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeriBacharach2006" class="citation cs2">Meri, Josef W.; Bacharach, Jere L. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LaV-IGZ8VKIC&pg=PP1"><i>Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index</i></a>, Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, vol. II (illustrated ed.), Taylor & Francis, p. 878, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415966924" title="Special:BookSources/9780415966924"><bdi>9780415966924</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+Civilization%3A+L-Z%2C+index&rft.series=Medieval+Islamic+Civilization%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=878&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780415966924&rft.aulast=Meri&rft.aufirst=Josef+W.&rft.au=Bacharach%2C+Jere+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLaV-IGZ8VKIC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorony1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Michael_G._Morony" title="Michael G. 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London and New York: I.B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-645-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-645-3"><bdi>978-1-84511-645-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Sasanian+Empire%3A+The+Sasanian-Parthian+Confederacy+and+the+Arab+Conquest+of+Iran&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84511-645-3&rft.aulast=Pourshariati&rft.aufirst=Parvaneh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI-xtAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapur_Shahbazi2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Shapur Shahbazi, A. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty">"SASANIAN DYNASTY"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=SASANIAN+DYNASTY&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Online+Edition&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Shapur+Shahbazi&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fsasanian-dynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSicker2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Sicker&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Sicker (page does not exist)">Sicker, Martin</a> (2000). <i>The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna</i>. Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-96892-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-96892-2"><bdi>978-0-275-96892-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Islamic+World+in+Ascendancy%3A+From+the+Arab+Conquests+to+the+Siege+of+Vienna&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-275-96892-2&rft.aulast=Sicker&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpuler2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertold_Spuler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bertold Spuler (page does not exist)">Spuler, Bertold</a> (2003). <i>Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey</i>. Translated by <a href="/w/index.php?title=M._Ismail_Marcinkowski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="M. Ismail Marcinkowski (page does not exist)">M. Ismail Marcinkowski</a>, M. Ismail. <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Edmund_Bosworth" title="Clifford Edmund Bosworth">Clifford Edmund Bosworth</a> (foreword). Singapore: Pustaka Nasional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9971-77-488-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-9971-77-488-2"><bdi>978-9971-77-488-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persian+Historiography+and+Geography%3A+Bertold+Spuler+on+Major+Works+Produced+in+Iran%2C+the+Caucasus%2C+Central+Asia%2C+India+and+Early+Ottoman+Turkey&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pub=Pustaka+Nasional&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-9971-77-488-2&rft.aulast=Spuler&rft.aufirst=Bertold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZarrin'kub1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Abdolhossein_Zarinkoob" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdolhossein Zarinkoob">Zarrin'kub, Abd al-Husayn</a> (1999). <i>Ruzgaran: tarikh-i Iran az aghz ta saqut saltnat Pahlvi</i>. Sukhan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-964-6961-11-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-964-6961-11-1"><bdi>978-964-6961-11-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ruzgaran%3A+tarikh-i+Iran+az+aghz+ta+saqut+saltnat+Pahlvi&rft.pub=Sukhan&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-964-6961-11-1&rft.aulast=Zarrin%27kub&rft.aufirst=Abd+al-Husayn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZarrinkub1975" class="citation book cs1">Zarrinkub, Abd al-Husain (1975). "The Arab conquest of Iran and its aftermath". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC"><i>The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20093-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20093-6"><bdi>978-0-521-20093-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Arab+conquest+of+Iran+and+its+aftermath&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran%2C+Volume+4%3A+From+the+Arab+Invasion+to+the+Saljuqs&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=1-57&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-521-20093-6&rft.aulast=Zarrinkub&rft.aufirst=Abd+al-Husain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhvx9jq_2L3EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMuslim+conquest+of+Persia" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranchamber.com/history/islamic_conquest/islamic_conquest.php">History of Iran: Islamic Conquest</a> from the Iran Chamber Society.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=ebe#644">The Arab conquests</a> at History World.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121028181103/http://www.meccabooks.com/Categories/729-muslim-conquest-of-persia-9780954866532.html">Muslim Conquest of Persia</a> at Mecca Books.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Sasanian_Empire&#124;link=Sasanian_Empire_Sasanian_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire">List of monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Timeline of the Sasanian Empire">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynasty</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Sasan" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Sasan">House of Sasan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_family_tree" title="Sasanian family tree">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Great_Houses_of_Iran" title="Seven Great Houses of Iran">Seven Great Houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Kayus" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Kayus">Kayus</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Senmurv.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Senmurv.svg/100px-Senmurv.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Senmurv.svg/150px-Senmurv.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Senmurv.svg/200px-Senmurv.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="644" data-file-height="645" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_architecture" title="Sasanian architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_art" title="Sasanian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_coinage" title="Sasanian coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_crowns" title="Sasanian crowns">Crowns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_dress" title="Sasanian dress">Dressing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Gondishapur" title="Academy of Gondishapur">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_glass" title="Sasanian glass">Glassware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sasanian_inscriptions" title="List of Sasanian inscriptions">Inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian_literature" title="Middle Persian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_music" title="Sasanian music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment_in_Sasanian_culture" title="Punishment in Sasanian culture">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Women in the Sasanian Empire">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military and wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Military of the Sasanian Empire">Military of the Sasanian Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_navy" title="Sasanian navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_defense_lines" title="Sasanian defense lines">Defense lines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapur_II%27s_Arab_campaign" title="Shapur II's Arab campaign">Arab tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalite%E2%80%93Sasanian_Wars" title="Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars">Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk%E2%80%93Persian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Göktürk–Persian wars">Göktürk–Persian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aksumite%E2%80%93Persian_wars" title="Aksumite–Persian wars">Aksumite–Persian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sasanian_revolts_and_civil_wars" title="List of Sasanian revolts and civil wars">Revolts and civil wars</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Muslim conquest of Persia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Descendants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty" title="Dabuyid dynasty">Dabuyids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavand_dynasty" title="Bavand dynasty">Bavands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baduspanids" title="Baduspanids">Baduspanids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banu_al-Munajjim" title="Banu al-Munajjim">Banu al-Munajjim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikalids" title="Mikalids">Mikalids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarinvand_dynasty" title="Qarinvand dynasty">Qarinvand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_roads" title="Sasanian roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_economy" title="Sasanian economy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Iran_(word)" title="Iran (word)">ērān</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Aneran" title="Aneran">anērān</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Sasanian_Empire" title="Category:Sasanian Empire">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Iranian_wars" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Iranian_wars" title="Template:Ancient Iranian wars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Iranian_wars" title="Template talk:Ancient Iranian wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Iranian_wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Iranian wars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Iranian_wars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Ancient Iranian wars</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Median_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Median state">Median state</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medo-Babylonian_conquest_of_the_Assyrian_Empire" title="Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire">Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_(612_BC)" title="Battle of Nineveh (612 BC)">Fall of Nineveh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eclipse" title="Battle of the Eclipse">Battle of the Eclipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medo-Persian_conflict" title="Medo-Persian conflict">Medo-Persian conflict (Persian Revolt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hyrba" title="Battle of Hyrba">Battle of Hyrba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Border" title="Battle of the Persian Border">Battle of the Persian Border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes#Rise_and_fall" title="Medes">Siege of Pasargadae Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Battle of Pasargadae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes#Rise_and_fall" title="Medes">Fall of Ecbatana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sardis_(547_BC)" title="Siege of Sardis (547 BC)">Conquest of Asia Minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pelusium" title="Battle of Pelusium">First conquest of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great#Military_campaigns" title="Darius the Great">Revolts against Darius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I" title="Scythian campaign of Darius I">Scythian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Conquest of Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Invasions of Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">2nd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cunaxa" title="Battle of Cunaxa">Revolt of Cyrus the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadusian_campaign_of_Artaxerxes_II" title="Cadusian campaign of Artaxerxes II">Cadusian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Satraps%27_Revolt" title="Great Satraps' Revolt">Great Satraps' Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdashtart_I#Revolt_against_the_Achaemenid_Empire" title="Abdashtart I">Abdashtart I' revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great#Persia" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Fall of the Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parni_conquest_of_Parthia" title="Parni conquest of Parthia">Parni conquest of Parthia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Seleucid–Parthian Wars">Seleucid Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian%E2%80%93Bactrian_War" title="Parthian–Bactrian War">Bactrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scythian%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scythian–Parthian Wars (page does not exist)">Scythian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Parthian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian–Parthian War">Armenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hormozdgan" title="Battle of Hormozdgan">Fall of the Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_Wars" title="Byzantine–Sasanian Wars">Against Byzantine Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sasanian%E2%80%93Kushan_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sasanian–Kushan War (page does not exist)">Kushan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapur_II%27s_Arab_campaign" title="Shapur II's Arab campaign">Against Arab tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalite%E2%80%93Sasanian_Wars" title="Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars">Hephthalite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Avarayr" title="Battle of Avarayr">Armenian revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aksumite%E2%80%93Persian_wars" title="Aksumite–Persian wars">Aksumite Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_reconquest_of_Yemen" title="Sasanian reconquest of Yemen">Annexation of Yemen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_589%E2%80%93591" title="Sasanian civil war of 589–591">Civil war of 589–591</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk%E2%80%93Persian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Göktürk–Persian wars">Göktürk Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Perso-Turkic War">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Perso-Turkic War">2nd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Perso-Turkic War">3rd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dhi_Qar" title="Battle of Dhi Qar">Battle of Dhi Qar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_628%E2%80%93632" title="Sasanian civil war of 628–632">Civil war of 628–632</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fall of the Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mesopotamia" title="Geography of Mesopotamia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armani_(kingdom)" title="Armani (kingdom)">Armani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamazi" title="Hamazi">Hamazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turukkaeans" title="Turukkaeans">Tukri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="List of cities of the ancient Near East">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtar_Gate.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon"><img alt="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/110px-Ishtar_Gate.gif" decoding="async" width="110" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/165px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/220px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 2x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(Pre)history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Mesopotamia" title="Prehistory of Mesopotamia">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trialetian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trialetian">Trialetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrik_9" title="Nemrik 9">Nemrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiamian">Khiamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna</a>/<a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Babylonian_period" title="Middle Babylonian period">Middle Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Muslim conquest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartian_language" title="Urartian language">Urartian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture/society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia" title="Art of Mesopotamia">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sumer" title="Economy of Sumer">Economy of Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warfare_in_Sumer" title="Warfare in Sumer">Warfare in Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerian_cuisine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumerian cuisine (page does not exist)">Sumerian cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_royal_titulary" title="Akkadian royal titulary">Royal titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_dynasties" title="List of Mesopotamian dynasties">List of rulers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting_in_Iraq" title="Archaeological looting in Iraq">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL">Destruction by ISIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)" title="Tell (archaeology)">Tell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_deities" title="List of Mesopotamian deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian myths">Mesopotamian myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_divination" title="Mesopotamian divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_prayer" title="Mesopotamian prayer">Prayers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurat (Temple)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Assyriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyriologists" title="List of Assyriologists">Assyriologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittitology" title="Hittitology">Hittitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Sumerian_Dictionary" title="Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary">Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Assyrian_Dictionary" title="Chicago Assyrian Dictionary">Chicago Assyrian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Hittite_Dictionary" title="Chicago Hittite Dictionary">Chicago Hittite Dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Iran_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iran_topics" title="Template:Iran topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iran_topics" title="Template talk:Iran topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iran_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iran topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Iran_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="Prehistory"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Iran" title="Prehistory of Iran">Prehistory</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">3400–539 BC</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kura%E2%80%93Araxes_culture" title="Kura–Araxes culture">Kura-Araxes <span class="nowrap">culture (3400–2000 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite <span class="nowrap">civilization (3100–2700 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamite <span class="nowrap">dynasties (2700–540 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian <span class="nowrap">Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lullubi" title="Lullubi">Lullubi <span class="nowrap">(c.2300–675 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites <span class="nowrap">(c.1595–c.1155 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mannaeans">Kingdom of <span class="nowrap">Mannai (10th–7th century BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian <span class="nowrap">Empire (911–609 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu <span class="nowrap">(860 BC–590 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median <span class="nowrap">Empire (678–549 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian <span class="nowrap">Kingdom (652–625 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian <span class="nowrap">Empire (626–539 BC)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">550 BC–AD 224</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid <span class="nowrap">Empire (550–330 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atropatene" title="Atropatene">Atropatene <span class="nowrap">(c.323 BC–AD 226)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of <span class="nowrap">Armenia (321 BC–AD 428)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Kingdom of <span class="nowrap">Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid <span class="nowrap">Empire (312–63 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frataraka" title="Frataraka">Frataraka <span class="nowrap">(c.295–220 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of <span class="nowrap">Pontus (281 BC–AD 62)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian <span class="nowrap">Empire (247 BC–AD 224)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Persis" title="Kings of Persis">Kings of <span class="nowrap">Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">AD 224–651</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian <span class="nowrap">Empire (AD 224–651)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval and<br />early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">632–1090</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun <span class="nowrap">Caliphate (632–661)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad <span class="nowrap">Caliphate (661–750)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid <span class="nowrap">Caliphate (750–1258)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (819–999)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (821–873)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran" title="Alid dynasties of northern Iran">Alavid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (864–928)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (861–1003)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziyarid_dynasty" title="Ziyarid dynasty">Ziyarid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (931–1090)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (934–1062)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">977–1432</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid <span class="nowrap">Empire (977–1186)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1011–1215)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk <span class="nowrap">Empire (1037–1194)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anushtegin_dynasty" title="Anushtegin dynasty">Anushtegin <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1077–1231)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldiguzids" title="Eldiguzids">Eldiguzids <span class="nowrap">(1135/36-1225)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kart <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1244–1381)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate"><span class="nowrap">Ilkhanate (1256–1335)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzaffarids_(Iran)" title="Muzaffarids (Iran)">Muzaffarid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1314–1393)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalayirid_Sultanate" title="Jalayirid Sultanate">Jalayirid Sultanate <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1335–1432)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chobanids" title="Chobanids">Chobanid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1338–1357)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">1370–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid <span class="nowrap">Empire (1370–1507)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu <span class="nowrap">Turcomans (1374–1468)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu <span class="nowrap">Turcomans (1378–1508)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid <span class="nowrap">Empire (1501–1736)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid <span class="nowrap">Empire (1736–1796)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand <span class="nowrap">Dynasty (1751–1794)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar <span class="nowrap">Empire (1789–1925)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanates_of_the_Caucasus" title="Khanates of the Caucasus">Khanates of the <span class="nowrap">Caucasus (18th–20th centuries)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_bombardment_of_the_Majlis" title="1908 bombardment of the Majlis">1908 bombardment of the Majlis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_separatism_in_Iran" title="Kurdish separatism in Iran">Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1921_Persian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1921 Persian coup d'état">1921 Persian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_separatism_in_Khuzestan" title="Arab separatism in Khuzestan">Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">1925–1979</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1925–1979)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab_dispute" title="Shatt al-Arab dispute">Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Balochistan" title="Insurgency in Balochistan">Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1949_Iranian_Constituent_Assembly_election" title="1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election">1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian <span class="nowrap">revolution (1979)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Islamic Republic</a></span><br />1979–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" title="History of the Islamic Republic of Iran"><span class="nowrap">History (1979–)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran" title="Interim Government of Iran">Interim Government (1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1979_Iranian_Islamic_Republic_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum">March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Khuzestan_insurgency" title="1979 Khuzestan insurgency">1979 Khuzestan insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/December_1979_Iranian_constitutional_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum">December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Embassy_siege" title="Iranian Embassy siege">Iranian Embassy <span class="nowrap">siege (1980)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nojeh_coup_plot" title="Nojeh coup plot">Nojeh coup plot (1980)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq <span class="nowrap">War (1980–88)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran_(1981)" title="Interim Government of Iran (1981)">Interim Government of Iran (1981)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Mecca_incident" title="1987 Mecca incident">1987 Mecca incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Air_Flight_655" title="Iran Air Flight 655">Iran Air Flight 655 <span class="nowrap">shootdown (1988)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KDPI_insurgency_(1989%E2%80%931996)" title="KDPI insurgency (1989–1996)">KDPI insurgency (1989–1996)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93PJAK_conflict" title="Iran–PJAK conflict">PJAK conflict (2004–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Iranian_presidential_election_protests" title="2009 Iranian presidential election protests">2009 Iranian presidential election protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war (2011–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_military_intervention_against_the_Islamic_State" class="mw-redirect" title="International military intervention against the Islamic State">International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_withdrawal_from_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="United States withdrawal from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">United States withdrawal (2018)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017%E2%80%932018_Iranian_protests" title="2017–2018 Iranian protests">2017–2018 Iranian protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018%E2%80%932019_Iranian_general_strikes_and_protests" title="2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests">2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iran" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Iran">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Sistan_and_Baluchestan_protests" title="2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests">2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_Iranian_protests" title="2019–2020 Iranian protests">2019–2020 Iranian protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Sistan_and_Baluchestan_protests" title="2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests">2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iranian_protests" title="2021–2022 Iranian protests">2021–2022 Iranian protests</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Persians" title="List of ancient Persians">Ancient Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persianization" title="Persianization">Persianization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persianate_society" title="Persianate society">Persianate society</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranic peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">languages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis" title="Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoples of the Caucasus">Peoples of the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Monarchs of Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Iran" title="List of heads of state of Iran">Heads of state of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_democracy_in_classical_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of democracy in classical Iran">History of democracy in classical Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Iran" title="Military history of Iran">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electricity_in_Iran" title="History of electricity in Iran">Electric history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Iran" title="List of years in Iran">Years in Iran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iran" title="Geography of Iran">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_Iran" title="Borders of Iran">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Iran_by_province" title="List of cities in Iran by province">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_of_Iran" title="List of largest cities of Iran">largest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_Iran" title="List of twin towns and sister cities in Iran">twin towns and sister cities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Iran" title="List of earthquakes in Iran">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Iran" title="Environmental issues in Iran">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Iran" title="Climate change in Iran">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Iranian Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistan_and_Baluchestan_province" title="Sistan and Baluchestan province">Iranian Balochistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Hyrcanian_mixed_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests">Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Kurdistan" title="Iranian Kurdistan">Iranian Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Urmia" title="Lake Urmia">Lake Urmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iran" title="List of islands of Iran">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Iran" title="List of mountains in Iran">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Iran" title="Provinces of Iran">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iran" title="Wildlife of Iran">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iran" title="Politics of Iran">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Iran" title="Censorship in Iran">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iran" title="Constitution of Iran">Constitution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">Persian Constitutional Revolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iran" title="Elections in Iran">Elections</a> (<a href="/wiki/2009_Iranian_presidential_election" title="2009 Iranian presidential election">2009 presidential</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iran" title="Foreign relations of Iran">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran">Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iran" title="Human rights in Iran">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childrens%27_Rights_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Childrens' Rights in Iran">Children's rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iran">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights_in_Iran" title="Women's rights in Iran">Women's rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_judicial_system_of_Iran" title="History of the judicial system of Iran">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Armed_Forces" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces">Military</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Army" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Air_Force" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Navy" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Navy">Navy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Intelligence_(Iran)" title="Ministry of Intelligence (Iran)">Ministry of Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_and_Iran" title="Cyberwarfare and Iran">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Nuclear program</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1747" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747">UN Security Council Resolution 1747</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iran" title="List of political parties in Iran">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principlists" class="mw-redirect" title="Principlists">Principlists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Iran" title="Propaganda in Iran">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Reformists" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Reformists">Reformists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_and_terrorism_in_Iran" title="Assassination and terrorism in Iran">Terrorism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iran_and_state-sponsored_terrorism" title="Iran and state-sponsored terrorism">state-sponsorship allegations</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Revolution" title="White Revolution">White Revolution (1963)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights_movement_in_Iran" title="Women's rights movement in Iran">Women's rights movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Councils</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_Experts" title="Assembly of Experts">Assembly (or Council) of Experts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expediency_Discernment_Council" title="Expediency Discernment Council">Expediency Discernment Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_Council" title="Guardian Council">Guardian Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Consultative_Assembly" title="Islamic Consultative Assembly">Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_councils_of_Iran" title="Local councils of Iran">Local councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_National_Security_Council" title="Supreme National Security Council">Supreme National Security Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_officials" title="List of Iranian officials">Officials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_ambassadors_from_Iran" title="List of current ambassadors from Iran">Ambassadors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iran" title="President of Iran">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Iran_governors-general" title="List of current Iran governors-general">Provincial governors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Leader_of_Iran" title="Supreme Leader of Iran">Supreme Leader</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iran" title="Economy of Iran">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonyad" title="Bonyad">Bonyad (charitable trust)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_capital_flight_from_Iran" title="Human capital flight from Iran">Brain drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iran" title="List of companies of Iran">Companies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Iran" title="Automotive industry in Iran">Automotive industry</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour_in_Iran" title="Child labour in Iran">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization" title="Economic Cooperation Organization">Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Iran" title="Economic history of Iran">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Economic_Reform_Plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Economic Reform Plan">Economic Reform Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Iran" title="Energy in Iran">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Iran" title="Environmental issues in Iran">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment_in_Iran" title="Foreign direct investment in Iran">Foreign direct investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_in_Iran" title="Intellectual property in Iran">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_oil_bourse" title="Iranian oil bourse">International oil bourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Iran" title="International rankings of Iran">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_and_the_World_Trade_Organization" title="Iran and the World Trade Organization">Iran and the World Trade Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Iran" title="Taxation in Iran">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_laws_in_Iran" title="List of economic laws in Iran">Main economic laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Middle_East" title="Economy of the Middle East">Economy of the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milad_Tower" title="Milad Tower">Milad Tower and complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_equipment_manufactured_in_Iran" title="List of military equipment manufactured in Iran">Military equipment manufactured</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Nuclear program</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1747" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747">UN Security Council Resolution 1747</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization_in_Iran" title="Privatization in Iran">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_rial" title="Iranian rial">Rial (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Space_Agency" title="Iranian Space Agency">Space Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Imam_Khomeini%27s_Order" title="Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order">Setad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Audit_Court_of_Iran" title="Supreme Audit Court of Iran">Supreme Audit Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Stock_Exchange" title="Tehran Stock Exchange">Tehran Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_capital_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Venture capital in Iran">Venture capital</a> (<a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Iran#Technology_start-ups" title="Communications in Iran">Technology start-ups</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_sector" title="Economic sector">Sectors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Iran" title="Agriculture in Iran">Agriculture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fruit_production_in_Iran" title="Fruit production in Iran">fruit</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_and_insurance_in_Iran" title="Banking and insurance in Iran">Banking and insurance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iran" title="Central Bank of Iran">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shetab_Banking_System" title="Shetab Banking System">Shetab Banking System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_Iran" title="Construction industry of Iran">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_industry_of_Iran" title="Defense industry of Iran">Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Iran" title="Healthcare in Iran">Health care</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pharmaceuticals_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceuticals in Iran">Pharmaceuticals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_Iran" title="Industry of Iran">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Iran" title="Mining in Iran">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iran" title="Petroleum industry in Iran">Petroleum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anglo-Persian_Oil_Company" title="Anglo-Persian Oil Company">Anglo-Persian Oil Company</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Iran" title="Communications in Iran">Telecommunications and IT</a> (<a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_Company_of_Iran" title="Telecommunication Company of Iran">TCI</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iran" title="Transport in Iran">Transport</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iran" title="List of airlines of Iran">airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Metro" title="Tehran Metro">metro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Railways" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Railways">railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IRISL_Group" title="IRISL Group">shipping</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iran" title="Tourism in Iran">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">State-owned<br />companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defense_Industries_Organization" title="Defense Industries Organization">Defense Industries Organization (DIO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDRO_Group" title="IDRO Group">Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Aviation_Industries_Organization" title="Iran Aviation Industries Organization">Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Electronics_Industries" title="Iran Electronics Industries">Iran Electronics Industries (IEI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_Oil_Company" title="National Iranian Oil Company">National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Development_Fund_of_Iran" title="National Development Fund of Iran">National Development Fund</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asaluyeh" title="Asaluyeh">Asaluyeh industrial corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chabahar_Free_Trade-Industrial_Zone" title="Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone">Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_Island" title="Kish Island">Kish Island Free Trade Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_research_centers" title="List of Iranian research centers">Research centers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iran" title="Category:Society of Iran">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iran" title="Demographics of Iran">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iran" title="Languages of Iran">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian (Farsi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Neo-Aramaic">Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Peoples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iran" title="Demographics of Iran">Iranian citizens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_diaspora" title="Iranian diaspora">abroad</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_Iran" title="Ethnic minorities in Iran">Ethnic minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Armenians" title="Iranian Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Iran" title="Assyrians in Iran">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijanis" title="Iranian Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iran" title="Circassians in Iran">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Georgians" title="Iranian Georgians">Georgians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iran" title="Kurds in Iran">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Turkmens" title="Iranian Turkmens">Turkmen</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iran" title="Islam in Iran">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Iran" title="Baháʼí Faith in Iran">Baháʼí Faith</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">persecution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iran" title="Christianity in Iran">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Iran" title="Zoroastrianism in Iran">Zoroastrians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">persecution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iran" title="Freedom of religion in Iran">Freedom of religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Iran" title="Crime in Iran">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iran" title="Education in Iran">Education</a> (<a href="/wiki/Higher_education_in_Iran" title="Higher education in Iran">higher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_movements_in_Iran" title="Intellectual movements in Iran">Intellectual movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-modern_Iranian_scientists_and_scholars" title="List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars">scientists and scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Iran" title="List of universities in Iran">universities</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Iran" title="International rankings of Iran">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_nationality_law" title="Iranian nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Iran" title="Water supply and sanitation in Iran">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iran" title="Women in Iran">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iran" title="Culture of Iran">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture" title="Iranian architecture">Architecture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architects_of_Iran" title="Architects of Iran">architects</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_art" title="Persian art">Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_modern_and_contemporary_art" title="Iranian modern and contemporary art">modern / contemporary</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blogging_in_Iran" title="Blogging in Iran">Blogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_calendars" title="Iranian calendars">Calendars</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nowruz" title="Nowruz">Persian New Year (<i>Nowruz</i>)</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_Iran" title="Fashion in Iran">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Persian_antiquities_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Chicago Persian antiquities dispute">Chicago Persian antiquities 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