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Contact our London head office or <a href="#" data-v-59df77e1>media team here</a></p> <a href="/page/careers-at-intechopen" class="drop-item" data-v-59df77e1>Careers</a> <p data-v-59df77e1>Our team is growing all the time, so we’re always on the lookout for smart people who want to help us reshape the world of scientific publishing.</p></div></div></div></div></header> <section data-v-c0007152 data-v-40dc7f01><div class="breadcrumbs" data-v-80d35b96 data-v-c0007152><div class="wrap" data-v-80d35b96><p data-v-80d35b96><a href="/" class="router-link-active" data-v-c0007152>Home</a> > <a href="/page/editorial-policies" data-v-c0007152>Editorial policies</a></p></div></div> <div class="intro" data-v-4da463df data-v-c0007152><h1 class="heading-1" data-v-4da463df>Attribution Policy</h1> <div class="content" data-v-4da463df><h2><strong>Definition of Terms:</strong></h2> <p><strong>Book</strong> - collection of Works distributed in a book format, whose selection, coordination, preparation, and arrangement has been performed and published by IntechOpen, and in which the Work is included in its entirety in an unmodified form along with one or more other contributions, each constituting separate and independent sections, but together assembled into a collective whole.</p></div></div> <div class="body" data-v-5ea9fa9c data-v-c0007152><div class="htmlText" data-v-51399daa data-v-5ea9fa9c><p><strong>Work</strong> - a Chapter,  including Conference Papers, a Journal Article, and any and all texts, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper/Journal Article.</p> <p><strong>Monograph/Compacts</strong> - a full manuscript usually written by a single or a group of Authors, including any and all texts, graphics, images and/or other materials.</p> <p><strong>Journal Article</strong> – Publication based on empirical evidence. It can support a hypothesis with original research, describe existing research or comment on current trends in a specific field.</p> <p><strong>Attribution</strong> – appropriate credit for the used Work or a book.</p> <p><strong>Creative Commons licenses</strong> – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.</p> <p><strong>IntechOpen Platform</strong> - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals, and Videos.</p> <h2><strong>Rules of Attribution for Works Published by IntechOpen</strong></h2> <p>With the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.</p> <ul> <li>All Chapters published in IntechOpen books prior to October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0);</li> <li>All Chapters published in IntechOpen books from October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license;</li> <li>All Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0);</li> <li>All Journal Articles are licensed under Creative Commons 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0).</li> </ul> <p>In case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:</p> <h3><strong>1. Rules for reusing of books in their entirety or significant parts of books</strong></h3> <p>All rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen Platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.</p> <p><strong>A Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at <a href="mailto:permissions@intechopen.com">permissions@intechopen.com</a>.</strong></p> <p>In instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:</p> <ul> <li>Information about the first publisher must be provided – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) publication must be acknowledged;</li> <li>All original Academic Editor(s) must be credited;</li> <li>Since you are reusing content that someone else created and allowed you to use freely, you must credit all Authors involved;</li> <li>The type of license that is available for the Works must be indicated, as well as a link to the license provided, so that others can investigate the terms of the license. You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;</li> <li>Any original Copyright Notices associated, with the Works which constitute the Book must be kept intact;</li> <li>Provision of the original title of the Book, as well as the original titles of any individual Works;</li> <li>Provision of the URL where the Book is hosted, with a notice to the effect that the Book is an OA (Open Access) publication;</li> <li>Provision of the URL to every individual Work which constitutes the Book with a notice that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free.</li> </ul> <p>Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to <a href="mailto:permissions@intechopen.com">permissions@intechopen.com</a>.</p> <h3><strong>2. Rules of attribution for works published by IntechOpen</strong></h3> <p>Individual Works originally published on IntechOpen platform are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:</p> <ul> <li>Credit all Authors – since you are reusing contents that someone created and allowed you to use freely, you have to acknowledge authorship;</li> <li>Indicate the type of license under which the Work is available and provide the URL to the license so others can find out the license terms. Preferably keep intact any original Copyright Notice associated with the Work (if any). You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;</li> <li>Provide the URL where the Work is hosted, preferably providing the original title of the Work, as well as the original title of the publication with a  notification that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free;</li> <li>Provide information about the first publisher – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) Work must be acknowledged.</li> </ul> <p>Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at <a href="mailto:permissions@intechopen.com">permissions@intechopen.com</a>.</p> <p>In the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.</p> <p>IntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.</p> <p><strong>All these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.</strong></p> <p>Parts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.</p> <p>All the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.</p> <p><em>Policy last updated: 02 April 2024</em></p> </div>      </div> </section> <footer data-v-8693b6c8 data-v-40dc7f01> <div class="footer" data-v-8693b6c8><div class="inner" data-v-8693b6c8><div class="footer-nav cf" data-v-8693b6c8><div class="nav-box" data-v-8693b6c8><a href="/" class="title router-link-active" data-v-8693b6c8>Home</a> <a href="/news" class="title" data-v-8693b6c8>News</a> <a href="/contact-us" class="title" data-v-8693b6c8>Contact</a> <a href="/page/careers-at-intechopen" class="title" data-v-8693b6c8>Careers</a> <a href="/sdg-hub" class="title" data-v-8693b6c8>SDG Hub</a></div> <div class="nav-box" data-v-8693b6c8> <a href="/about-intechopen" class="title" 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This inaugural volume serves as a valuable resource for professionals and researchers in biochemistry, pharmacology, and medicine, offering both foundational knowledge and innovative insights into the critical roles of metabolism in health and disease.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EHighlighting the integration of computational techniques, including AI, the \u003Cem\u003EBioinformatics and Medical Informatics Annual Volume 2024\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, edited by the Topic Editor Slawomir Wilczynski, explores advancements in biological data analysis, disease diagnosis, and personalised treatments, presenting innovative solutions to global health challenges.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe\u003Cem\u003E Human Physiology Annual Volume 2024\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, edited by Topic Editor Kunihiro Sakuma and Associate Topic Editor Kotomi Sakai, explores the intricate mechanisms of human physiology, focusing on topics such as stroke-induced muscle atrophy, pulmonary disease, myocardial glycosides, and the role of intestinal bacteria in health and disease. It also examines systemic and localised amyloidosis, cellular redox balance, and volume-regulated anion channels (VRAC), offering valuable insights for clinical professionals, medical students, and researchers in the field.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe \u003Cem\u003EViral Infectious Diseases Annual Volume 2024\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, edited by Topic Editor Shailendra K. Saxena, provides a comprehensive overview of emerging viral infectious diseases and the latest research trends in the field. It explores critical aspects such as epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune responses, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment, offering valuable insights into the management of viral diseases and future directions for developing effective therapeutic strategies.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe \u003Cem\u003EPollution Annual Volume 2024,\u003C\u002Fem\u003E edited by Topic Editors Ismail M. M. Rahman and Zinnat A. Begum, explores the persistent and multifaceted issue of pollution, examining its various forms, sources, consequences, and potential solutions. This volume highlights the multidisciplinary nature of pollution research, bringing together specialists from different sectors to exchange expertise and perspectives on this critical environmental challenge.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe\u003Cem\u003E Business, Management, and Economics Annual Volume 2024\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, edited by Topic Editors Vito Bobek, Tatjana Horvat, Jaime Ortiz, and Hanna Górska-Warsewicz, offers a comprehensive exploration of pivotal topics in business, management, economics, and marketing.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe \u003Cem\u003ENanotechnology and Nanomaterials Annual Volume 2024\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, edited by Sadia Ameen and M. 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As such, there is always the need to develop more sophisticated and effective methods of construction. There are many long and large tunnels with various purposes in the world, especially for highways, railways, water conveyance, and energy production. Tunnels can be designed effectively by means of two and three-dimensional numerical models. Ground–structure interaction is one of the significant factors acting on economic and safe design. This book presents recent data on tunnel engineering to improve the theory and practice of the construction of underground structures. It provides an overview of tunneling technology and includes chapters that address analytical and numerical methods for rock load estimation and design support systems and advances in measurement systems for underground structures. The book discusses the empirical, analytical, and numerical methods of tunneling practice worldwide.","isbn":"978-1-83969-374-8","printIsbn":"978-1-83969-373-1","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83969-375-5","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.93583","price":100,"priceEur":109,"priceUsd":129,"priceCbs":null,"slug":"theory-and-practice-of-tunnel-engineering","numberOfPages":88,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"isInWos":null,"isInBkci":false,"hash":"7ba17749f9d0b6a62d584a3c320a1f49","bookSignature":"Hasan Tosun","publishedDate":"May 25th 2022","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F10632.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F10632\u002F1718280314-1463579843\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F10632\u002F1718280314-1463579843\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","numberOfDownloads":2087,"numberOfViews":null,"numberOfWosCitations":0,"numberOfCrossrefCitations":3,"numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook":0,"numberOfDimensionsCitations":3,"numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"totalAltmetricsMentions":0,"numberOfTotalCitations":6,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"dateEndFirstStepPublish":"November 20th 2020","dateEndSecondStepPublish":"December 18th 2020","dateEndThirdStepPublish":"February 16th 2021","dateEndFourthStepPublish":"May 7th 2021","dateEndFifthStepPublish":"July 6th 2021","currentStepOfPublishingProcess":5,"indexedIn":"1,2,3,4,5,6,7","editedByType":"Edited by","kuFlag":false,"sdgRelated":null,"featuredMarkup":null,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":false,"cbsWebsiteURL":null,"noAds":0,"editors":[{"id":"79083","title":"Prof.","name":"Hasan","middleName":null,"surname":"Tosun","slug":"hasan-tosun","fullName":"Hasan Tosun","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F79083\u002F1705048665\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Hasan Tosun is a Professor of Geotechnical Engineering. Currently, he is working at the Mudanya University, Türkiye. Dr. Tosun specializes in geotechnics for dam engineering, especially for embankment and rockfill dams, and teaches soil mechanics, geotechnics for dam engineering, and engineering geology. Up to 1997, he worked at the General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works and supervised the geotechnical studies of large dams constructed in Turkey. He has published more than 320 technical papers in national and international journals and conference proceedings and is the author of four books on soil mechanics and geotechnics for dams. He is the president of the Turkish Society on Dam Safety and a member of the National Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering in Turkey, the United States Society on Dams (USSD), and the Canadian Dam Association (CDA).","institutionString":"Mudanya University","position":null,"outsideEditionCount":0,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"5","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"4","institution":null,"countryString":"Turkey"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":null,"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"712","title":"Structural Engineering","slug":"engineering-civil-engineering-structural-engineering"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"series":null,"subseries":null,"tags":null,"_preview":0,"chapters":[{"id":"81481","title":"Introductory Chapter: Tunnel Engineering – Rock Load Estimation and Support Design Methods","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.104515","slug":"introductory-chapter-tunnel-engineering-rock-load-estimation-and-support-design-methods","totalDownloads":365,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":1,"abstract":null,"signatures":"Hasan Tosun","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F81481","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F81481","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"79083","title":"Prof.","name":"Hasan","surname":"Tosun","slug":"hasan-tosun","fullName":"Hasan Tosun"},{"id":"420614","title":"Prof.","name":"Hasan","surname":"Tosun","slug":"hasan-tosun","fullName":"Hasan Tosun"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"76518","title":"Stability Analysis of Circular Tunnels in Cohesive-Frictional Soil Using the Node-Based Smoothed Finite Element Method (NS-FEM)","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.97202","slug":"stability-analysis-of-circular-tunnels-in-cohesive-frictional-soil-using-the-node-based-smoothed-fin","totalDownloads":197,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":2,"abstract":"In this chapter, the stability of a circular tunnel and dual circular tunnels in cohesive-frictional soils subjected to surcharge loading is investigated by using the node-based smoothed finite element method (NS-FEM). In the NS-FEM, the smoothing strain is calculated over smoothing domains associated with the elements’ nodes. The soil is assumed as a uniform Mohr-Coulomb material, and it obeys an associated flow rule. By using the second-order cone programming (SOCP) for solving the optimization problems, the ultimate load and failure mechanisms of the circular tunnel are considered. This chapter discusses the influence of the soil weight γD\u002Fc, the tunnel diameter ratio to its depth H\u002FD, the vertical and horizontal spacing ratio (L\u002FD, S\u002FD) of two tunnels and soil internal friction angle ϕ on the stability numbers σs\u002Fc are calculated. The stability numbers obtained from the present approach are compared with the available literature for tunnels.","signatures":"Thien Vo-Minh","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F76518","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F76518","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"343372","title":"Ph.D.","name":"Thien","surname":"Vo-Minh","slug":"thien-vo-minh","fullName":"Thien Vo-Minh"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"76549","title":"Analytical Method for Preliminary Seismic Design of Tunnels","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.97634","slug":"analytical-method-for-preliminary-seismic-design-of-tunnels","totalDownloads":604,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":3,"abstract":"Buried structures are categorized based on their shape, size and location. These main categories are near surface structures (e.g., pipes and other facilities), large section structures (e.g., tunnels, subways, etc.), and vertical underground structures (e.g., shafts and ducts). Seismic assessments of these structures are important in areas close to severe seismic sources. Seismic design of tunnels requires calculation of the deformation in surrounding geological formations. The seismic hazard on a site is usually expressed as a function of amplitude parameters of free-field motion. Therefore, simplified relations between depth and parameters of ground motion are necessary for preliminary designs. The objective of this chapter is to study and review the main analytical seismic methods which are used to develop a simple relationship between maximum shear strain, maximum shear stress and other seismic parameters.","signatures":"Kaveh Dehghanian","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F76549","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F76549","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"268189","title":"Dr.","name":"Kaveh","surname":"Dehghanian","slug":"kaveh-dehghanian","fullName":"Kaveh Dehghanian"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"76633","title":"Capabilities and Challenges Using Machine Learning in Tunnelling","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.97695","slug":"capabilities-and-challenges-using-machine-learning-in-tunnelling","totalDownloads":569,"totalCrossrefCites":3,"totalDimensionsCites":3,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":4,"abstract":"Digitalization changes the design and operational processes in tunnelling. The way of gathering geological data in the field of tunnelling, the methods of rock mass classification as well as the application of tunnel design analyses, tunnel construction processes and tunnel maintenance will be influenced by this digital transformation. The ongoing digitalization in tunnelling through applications like building information modelling and artificial intelligence, addressing a variety of difficult tasks, is moving forward. Increasing overall amounts of data (big data), combined with the ease to access strong computing powers, are leading to a sharp increase in the successful application of data analytics and techniques of artificial intelligence. Artificial Intelligence now arrives also in the fields of geotechnical engineering, tunnelling and engineering geology. The chapter focuses on the potential for machine learning methods – a branch of Artificial Intelligence - in tunnelling. Examples will show that training artificial neural networks in a supervised manner works and yields valuable information. Unsupervised machine learning approaches will be also discussed, where the final classification is not imposed upon the data, but learned from it. Finally, reinforcement learning seems to be trendsetting but not being in use for specific tunnel applications yet.","signatures":"Thomas Marcher, Georg Erharter and Paul Unterlass","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F76633","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F76633","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"345936","title":"Dr.","name":"Thomas","surname":"Marcher","slug":"thomas-marcher","fullName":"Thomas Marcher"},{"id":"348430","title":"MSc.","name":"Georg","surname":"Erharter","slug":"georg-erharter","fullName":"Georg Erharter"},{"id":"348431","title":"MSc.","name":"Paul","surname":"Unterlass","slug":"paul-unterlass","fullName":"Paul Unterlass"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"76814","title":"Support System Design for Deep Coal Mining by Numerical Modeling and a Case Study","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.97840","slug":"support-system-design-for-deep-coal-mining-by-numerical-modeling-and-a-case-study","totalDownloads":352,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":5,"abstract":"Importance of numerical modeling in mine design gained pace after modern way of approach took birth through many variants. Methods such as Continuum and Discontinuum emerge as most effective in resolving certain issues. Cases such as heterogeneity, prevailing boundary conditions in continuum case and presence of discontinuities in other have provided solutions for many causes. A suitable support system is designed for deep virgin coal mining blocks of Godavari Valley Coalfield in India. This analysis is carried out using numerical modeling technique. The results show that the stresses at an angle to the level galleries are adverse. 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Nominee in Functional Food Industry","slug":"garlic-as-a-potential-nominee-in-functional-food-industry","totalDownloads":504,"totalCrossrefCites":2,"authors":[{"id":"356372","title":"Ph.D. Student","name":"Mavra","surname":"Javed","slug":"mavra-javed","fullName":"Mavra Javed"},{"id":"357356","title":"Dr.","name":"Waqas","surname":"Ahmed","slug":"waqas-ahmed","fullName":"Waqas Ahmed"},{"id":"357359","title":"Dr.","name":"Abdul","surname":"Momin Rizwan Ahmad","slug":"abdul-momin-rizwan-ahmad","fullName":"Abdul Momin Rizwan Ahmad"},{"id":"426977","title":"Mr.","name":"M.Rehan","surname":"Mian","slug":"m.rehan-mian","fullName":"M.Rehan Mian"}]},{"id":"77388","title":"Phyto-Potential of \u003Cem\u003EAllium cepa\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003EAllium sativum\u003C\u002Fem\u003E","slug":"phyto-potential-of-em-allium-cepa-em-and-em-allium-sativum-em-","totalDownloads":670,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"authors":[{"id":"311935","title":"Dr.","name":"Prashant","surname":"Kaushik","slug":"prashant-kaushik","fullName":"Prashant Kaushik"},{"id":"420021","title":"Dr.","name":"Rubi","surname":"Gupta","slug":"rubi-gupta","fullName":"Rubi Gupta"}]},{"id":"78065","title":"Meticulous Endorsement of Black Seed and Jambolana: A Scientific Review","slug":"meticulous-endorsement-of-black-seed-and-jambolana-a-scientific-review","totalDownloads":410,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"authors":[{"id":"352421","title":"Dr.","name":"Nikhat","surname":"Farhana","slug":"nikhat-farhana","fullName":"Nikhat Farhana"}]},{"id":"76996","title":"Garlic in Traditional Indian Medicine (Ayurveda) for Health and 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Valerón"},{"id":"424414","title":"Mr.","name":"Rasmus","surname":"Munk","slug":"rasmus-munk","fullName":"Rasmus Munk"}]},{"id":"78252","title":"Genetic Resources of The Universal Flavor, Vanilla","slug":"genetic-resources-of-the-universal-flavor-vanilla","totalDownloads":500,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"authors":[{"id":"356055","title":"Dr.","name":"Minoo","surname":"Divakaran","slug":"minoo-divakaran","fullName":"Minoo Divakaran"},{"id":"423667","title":"Ms.","name":"N.T.","surname":"Fathima Rafieah","slug":"n.t.-fathima-rafieah","fullName":"N.T. Fathima Rafieah"}]},{"id":"77625","title":"Herbs and Spices Fortified Functional Dairy Products","slug":"herbs-and-spices-fortified-functional-dairy-products","totalDownloads":959,"totalCrossrefCites":2,"authors":[{"id":"213720","title":"Dr.","name":"Chandra Shekhar","surname":"Singh","slug":"chandra-shekhar-singh","fullName":"Chandra Shekhar Singh"},{"id":"220872","title":"Dr.","name":"Vinod Kumar","surname":"Paswan","slug":"vinod-kumar-paswan","fullName":"Vinod Kumar Paswan"},{"id":"420811","title":"Ms.","name":"Hency","surname":"Rose","slug":"hency-rose","fullName":"Hency Rose"},{"id":"420812","title":"Ms.","name":"Yamini","surname":"S","slug":"yamini-s","fullName":"Yamini S"},{"id":"420814","title":"Mr.","name":"Aman","surname":"Rathaur","slug":"aman-rathaur","fullName":"Aman Rathaur"}]}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"series":null,"subseries":null,"personalPublishingAssistant":{"id":"301331","firstName":"Mia","lastName":"Vulovic","middleName":null,"title":"Mrs.","imageUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fstorage\u002Fusers\u002F301331\u002Fimages\u002F8498_n.jpg","email":"mia.v@intechopen.com","biography":"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."},"_preview":0},"regionStatistics":[{"id":"1","name":"Southern Europe","contributorCount":21370},{"id":"2","name":"Northern Europe","contributorCount":6960},{"id":"3","name":"Western Europe","contributorCount":10652},{"id":"4","name":"Northern America","contributorCount":17996},{"id":"5","name":"Eastern Asia","contributorCount":20252},{"id":"6","name":"Australia and New Zealand","contributorCount":2718}],"intechStatistics":{"openAccessBooks":"7,400","internationalAuthorsAndEditors":"193,000","downloads":"210M","deliversInCountries":"154","authorsAmongMostCitedScientists":"TOP 1%","authorsAndEditorsFromTopUniversities":"14%","dimensionsCitations":450752,"crossrefCitations":209452}},"ofsBook_old1":{"item":{},"relatedBooks":[]},"chapter":{"item":{"type":"chapter","id":"86399","title":"Life Cycle Assessment of Buildings: An End-of-Life Perspective","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.110402","slug":"life-cycle-assessment-of-buildings-an-end-of-life-perspective","body":"\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_1\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E1. Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p2\"\u003EThe construction sector is a mainstay of many economies around the world. It has inherent value through the creation of distinctive economic and social products. However, the sector also generates a huge impact on the environment, which raises sustainability concerns. One of the environmental concerns is the generation of large volumes of construction and demolition (C&D) waste, along with the carbon embodied in them. For example, the industry is responsible for nearly 50% of the solid waste sent to landfills [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In the European Union (EU), C&D waste is around 20–30% (Ding, 2018). Waste Statistics compiled by Defra [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] indicate that in 2016, 63% of the total waste stream in England (189 million tonnes) was attributed to construction, demolition and excavation waste. Of this figure, an estimated 50% was attributed to C&D waste. C&D waste is described as a mixture of different waste streams, including inert waste, non-hazardous waste and hazardous waste, generated from construction, renovation, and demolition activities of buildings, roads, bridges and other structures [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. As a result of its impact on the environment, the EU has classified C&D waste as a priority for its members to reduce [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p3\"\u003EIn contrast with construction projects, however, demolition projects generate a greater volume of waste [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Consequently, the environmental concern of demolition waste does not only relate to the amount generated, but also its treatment. The commonly used treatment methods in dealing with demolition waste include reuse, recycling and landfill [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. These treatment methods require waste collection, sorting, transportation, recycling and final disposal. These treatment processes are referred to as the demolition waste life cycle [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Throughout the steps of treating demolished waste, a significant amount of carbon emissions is emitted as a result of energy utilisation associated with transportation and machine operations [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Nevertheless, recycling as an end-of-life treatment strategy bears positive and negative environmental impacts [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], since recycling demolished waste can reduce the extraction of virgin building materials [\u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Since the increase in end-of-life waste considerably impacts the overall construction industry’s carbon emissions performance, the industry and practitioners need a low-carbon emission treatment strategy for demolished waste. Therefore, the evaluation of environmental effects associated with end-of-life waste management along with the selection of a low-carbon emission management approach is the response of the building and construction sector to environmental challenges. This evaluation and selection should start with an appropriate quantification method for the life cycle carbon emission of the building demolition waste [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p4\"\u003ELife cycle assessment (LCA) is a widely recognised tool used in the evaluation of the environmental performance of a product or procedure over its entire life cycle [\u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Many previous studies relating to a building’s life cycle considered one or some specific phases of the life cycle of a building such as material manufacture, construction or use [\u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Other researchers focussed on the assessment of the entire life cycle of a building [\u003Ca href=\"#B18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Few studies, however, place emphasis on end-of-life carbon emission assessment of the life cycle of a building [\u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The quantification of carbon emissions resulting from building demolition waste treatment is mostly ignored [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. For a clear understanding of the life cycle carbon emission associated with building demolition waste, an in-depth consideration of the processes and activities involved in demolition and treatment of waste is needed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p5\"\u003EOne of the challenges of conducting an LCA is accurate data acquisition. However, the use of building information modelling (BIM) directly provides data including geometric information, physical attributes and material quantities [\u003Ca href=\"#B24\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B25\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The integration of LCA and BIM not only overcomes the need to enter information manually but also combines the strengths of both tools [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Thus, BIM provides efficient means of acquiring essential data for carrying out life cycle assessment of buildings, while streamlining the process of data collection [\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Yet, few studies adopt a BIM-LCA integrated approach in the evaluation of end-of-life carbon emissions [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Meanwhile, various past studies have suggested that the building and construction sector can play a vital role in the mitigation of climate change by properly controlling and minimising carbon emissions from construction and demolition activities [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p6\"\u003EThe chapter aims to propose an integrated analytical framework based on the LCA model for assessing the impact of the life cycle stages of demolished waste materials, waste material type and waste treatment options on carbon emission reduction. In contrast with other studies, this chapter contributes to mitigating the environmental impact of a demolished supermarket building and exemplifies this with a case study. In addition, it contributes to the theoretical frameworks for quantifying the environmental impact of demolished waste materials by clearly addressing the following questions: (i) “which stage of the life cycle demolished waste critically influence carbon emissions reduction?” (ii) “What type of demolished waste material greatly impacts end-of-life carbon emission reduction?” (iii) “which waste treatment strategy significantly affect end-of-life carbon emissions reduction?” Comprehensive and detailed analyses were performed to better understand the research trends and knowledge gaps in this discipline.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Materials and methods\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.1 Case study\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p7\"\u003EThis research employed a case to conduct detailed calculations of carbon emission during the end-of-life. A case study is recognised to be appropriate in investigating complex research particularly, where there is a lack of data available to understand the effect of demolished building waste and the treatment strategies on carbon emissions [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The selected case study was a current UK supermarket building. The case building was a single-storey with an average area of 2500 m\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Autodesk® Revit® BIM software was used to provide the data on demolition waste generation. Design drawings were obtained and validated with a site survey. The case building simulation is shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The height of the front elevation was 7.02 m while the back was 5.10 m.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F86399\u002F1698215861\u002Fmedia\u002FF1.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p8\"\u003EThe simulated model of the case building.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p9\"\u003EThe structural form determines the main materials. The main materials in the case building are displayed in \u003Ca href=\"#tab1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E along with the quantities. The waste materials were derived from two categories. The waste materials in category \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E are considered waste with a high recyclable value. Category \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EB\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E, on the other hand, is considered waste with a very low recyclable value and is therefore landfilled. This is because large-scale demolition is usually carried out using mechanised techniques. Consequently, the generated demolished waste is in small volumes, difficult to sort and is generally generated in a mixed form [\u003Ca href=\"#B32\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth\u003EWaste material type\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"center\"\u003EBuilding component\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"center\"\u003EWeight (kg)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd colspan=\"3\" align=\"center\"\u003ECategory A\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAluminium\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EWindows; Doors; Roof; Curtain walls\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E9618.60\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EConcrete\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1,881,559.12\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ESteel\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EIron pieces; Steel in concrete\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E240,875.19\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EPlastic\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EPipes and other plastic materials\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E135.91\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EGlass\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EWindows; Doors; Curtain walls\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E7190.75\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETimber\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EStructural columns; Roof frames\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E66,921.64\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd colspan=\"3\" align=\"center\"\u003ECategory B\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EGypsum\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EWalls; Ceilings\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E46,746.45\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EMortar\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EWall plaster\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E2765.08\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETiles\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EFloor; Ceiling\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E61,639.23\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EMixed materials\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E44,622.31\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETotal\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E2,362,074.29\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 1.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p10\"\u003EInventory of main waste materials in the case building.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.2 Carbon emission factors of the main waste materials and end-of-life stages\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p11\"\u003EThe life cycle of demolished waste materials involved various stages and a series of processes (see Section 2.3.3 for a full explanation). Carbon emission factors (CEFs) are vitally important as they affect the accuracy of the life cycle calculation results. CEFs can be derived from numerous sources. More localised CEFs enhance the accuracy of the assessment results [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Consequently, the choice CEFs was based on the principle of regional priority. CEFs of the main waste materials are listed in \u003Ca href=\"#tab2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth\u003EStages\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"center\"\u003ECarbon emission factor (kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq.)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003EDemolition & deconstruction stage\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EDemolishing by machine\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E3.400\u003Ca href=\"#tfn2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Csup\u003E,\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#tfn3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003ETransportation stage\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003ETransporting waste to processing plant & disposal site:\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAluminium\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1.31E-02\u003Ca href=\"#tfn1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EConcrete, steel, plastics, glass, timber, mortar & mixed materials\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E0.1065\u003Ca href=\"#tfn2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Csup\u003E,\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#tfn3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETiles\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1.01E-1\u003Ca href=\"#tfn1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003EProcessing of waste – recycling\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAluminium\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1.07E-02\u003Ca href=\"#tfn1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ESteel, plastics, glass & concrete\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E0.013\u003Ca href=\"#tfn2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Csup\u003E,\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#tfn3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETimber\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1.67\u003Ca href=\"#tfn2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Csup\u003E,\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#tfn3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ERoof\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E9.54E+01\u003Ca href=\"#tfn1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003EDisposal – Landfill\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAluminium\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E0.00E+01\u003Ca href=\"#tfn1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EConcrete, steel, plastics, glass, mortar & mixed materials\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E0.013\u003Ca href=\"#tfn2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Csup\u003E,\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#tfn3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETimber\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E2.15\u003Ca href=\"#tfn2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Csup\u003E,\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#tfn3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETiles\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E4.63E+01\u003Ca href=\"#tfn1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003EMaterial recovery\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAluminium\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E−3.98\u003Ca href=\"#tfn1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EConcrete\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E−0.000989\u003Ca href=\"#tfn4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ESteel\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E−1.6\u003Ca href=\"#tfn2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Csup\u003E,\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#tfn3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETimber\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E−0.524\u003Ca href=\"#tfn2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Csup\u003E,\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#tfn3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ERoof\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E−17.43\u003Ca href=\"#tfn1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 2.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p99958\"\u003EWaste materials and carbon emission factors.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"note\"\u003E\u003Clabel\u003E\u003Csup\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Flabel\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p12\"\u003EEnvironmental Product Declaration (EPD).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cbr\u003E\u003Clabel\u003E\u003Csup\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Flabel\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p13\"\u003ERoyal Institute of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cbr\u003E\u003Clabel\u003E\u003Csup\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Flabel\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p14\"\u003EThe Institute of Structural Engineers (IStructE) [\u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cbr\u003E\u003Clabel\u003E\u003Csup\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Flabel\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p15\"\u003EThe Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS) [\u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cbr\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.3 Life cycle assessment\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p16\"\u003EThe life cycle of waste materials involves various processes and activities. In this study, the assessment used is consistent with the four ISO standards for LCA: definition of scope and goal; life cycle inventory (LCI) which quantifies the inputs; inventory analysis (LCIA) which converts the inputs to emissions; and interpretation of results.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p17\"\u003EBased on the above breakdowns, the LCA estimation model was developed to evaluate the life cycle carbon emission of demolished waste materials. To generate data for the estimation, BIM was used, while data from other sources were used to complement the estimation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.3.1 Scope, goal and system boundaries definitions\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p18\"\u003EThis LCA examines the carbon emissions of demolished building waste materials under two end-of-life treatment strategies (see Section 2.3.4). Data was taken from a UK supermarket building. As noted above, an assessment framework that incorporates BIM with an LCA was used to provide data on demolition waste generation. The assessment framework comprises various elements as illustrated in \u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The scope and goal phase covers all activities and resources involved in the process of demolished waste from generation to final disposal.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F86399\u002F1698215861\u002Fmedia\u002FF2.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 2.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p19\"\u003EFramework of carbon emission assessment of demolished waste [\u003Cxref rid=\"B7\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p20\"\u003EIn LCA, functional units are used to ensure like-to-like comparisons. In this study, the functional unit of demolished waste considers two variables – materials weight (kg) and carbon emission (kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq). In order to scale up the results to any weight of demolished waste material, the functional unit will consider 1 kg of waste materials. The functional unit is therefore kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq of per 1 kg demolished waste.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.3.2 Life cycle inventory\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p21\"\u003EThe main type of life cycle inventory (LCI) and data used was the process LCI (primary and secondary environmental data). The process LCI was used to systematically quantify the physical inputs and outputs of the waste materials within the process LCA system boundary. The process LCI of each component and activity was derived using the breakdown approach, which gives carbon emissions per kg of waste material generated. The LCA quantification formulas were developed to estimate the life cycle carbon emission during the end-of-life (see \u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). As stated earlier, the LCA was integrated with BIM to provide data imported into the calculation of end-of-life carbon emissions. During these end-of-life activities and processes, records of energy consumption by machines were sought through multiple data sources including EPDs from manufacturers\u002Fsuppliers and site surveys. To complement the robustness of these data, additional carbon emission factors for each phase and activity were gathered from other literature. Where data was not available from EPD and recognised eco-data source the mean value of the other literature searches was used.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.3.3 Life cycle impact assessment of demolished building material\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p22\"\u003EAs noted in Section 2.1.2, the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) approach employed in this study was the process-based LCA inventories (where the physical flow of all aspects of building materials can be identified and traced) to establish the carbon emission embodied in building demolished waste. As an LCA technique, the process-based has the strength to reveal carbon emissions from the specific demolition process and activity, along with its accuracy and detailed processes [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B37\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The rationale of this method is straightforward and clear, carbon emissions from individual activities can be estimated and analysed separately [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This method is frequently adopted in the quantification of carbon emissions of construction processes [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B39\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Finally, the results of the LCIA were then analysed and the conclusions were drawn.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p23\"\u003EMeanwhile, there are four stages of the life cycle the waste materials and a series of activities are involved. The analysis of these activities is fundamental to identifying carbon emission factors (CEFs). The first stage covers all the processes in the demolition of the building at the end of its useful life. During the demolition, several machines can be used and energy\u002Ffuel consumed through the use of these machines or equipment as well as related emissions serve as a source of CEF. Carbon emissions at this phase also include the projected operating time for machines or equipment used in carrying out the demolition of the building multiplied by the average electric power used and\u002For fuel per unit of time and the related carbon intensity per litre of fuel used. The second stage covers the transportation of the demolished waste materials to treatment plants, recycling plants or landfill sites. CEFs are also derived from the environmental impacts associated with these activities. The third stage covers all the processes in the waste treatment plant, while the fourth and final stage covers the processes associated with the final disposal of demolished building materials.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p24\"\u003EThe conceptual LCA framework focuses on the demolished building materials for which waste treatment is expected, and therefore, the environmental impacts were calculated. However, two aspects of carbon emission are associated with recycling waste materials - the adverse environmental effects and the environmental benefits [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The net environmental impact is equal to the difference between the impacts due to the recycling process that replaces the production of virgin materials and the impacts due to the production of the avoided virgin material. The net benefits associated with material replacement and energy consumption, or carbon emission is the difference between the input and output of the secondary material.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p25\"\u003EUsing life cycle inventories, the process LCA for the use of machine\u002Fequipment can be defined by \u003Ca href=\"#E1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"disp-formula\"\u003EEq. (1)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E as:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E1\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m1\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Eequip\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∑\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEQ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E&lowast;\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEQF\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E&lowast;\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEQEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mspace width=\"0.25em\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mspace\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE1\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p26\"\u003EWhere:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p27\"\u003EEC\u003Csub\u003Eequip\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E refers to carbon emission associated with plant or equipment used in dismantling or demolishing a building at the end-of-life (kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq); EQ\u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E refers to the number of hours plant\u002Fequipment \u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is used for the dismantling or demolition process (hour); EQF\u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E refers to the type of fuel used by the demolition plant\u002Fequipment \u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E (kWh or litre per hour); and EQEC\u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E refers to carbon intensity per unit consumption of fuel \u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E (kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq per litre).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p28\"\u003ECarbon emission is also calculated for waste generation during the demolition of the building. It is assumed that waste from the demolished building during the end-of-life of the case building is equal to the mass of material in the constructed building excluding the waste factor and has the same building component category breakdown. Consequently, the process LCA of building demolition can be represented by \u003Ca href=\"#E2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"disp-formula\"\u003EEq. (2)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E as:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E2\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m2\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Estruct\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∑\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003ES\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E&lowast;\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003ESCEF\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE2\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p29\"\u003EWhere:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p30\"\u003EEC\u003Csub\u003Estruct\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E refers to carbon emission associated with the demolished building; S\u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E refers to the quantity of material \u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E resulting from the demolished structure or building (m\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, m\u003Csup\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E or kg); and SCEF\u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E denotes the carbon emission coefficient per unit of material \u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E (kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq per kg, m\u003Csup\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E or m\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p31\"\u003EUsing life cycle inventories, the process LCA for transporting demolished materials can be defined by \u003Ca href=\"#E3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"disp-formula\"\u003EEq. (3)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E as:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E3\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m3\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Etransp\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∑\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003ETD\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E&lowast;\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003ETL\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E&lowast;\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003ETF\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E&lowast;\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003ETCEF\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE3\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p32\"\u003EWhere:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p33\"\u003ETD\u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E denotes the total distance covered for material \u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E (km); TL\u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E refers to the number of loads of trucks for the transportation of material \u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E (No.); TFi represents the fuel used per load of truck (litre per km); and TECF\u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E refers to the carbon emission coefficient per fuel unit used \u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E (kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq per litre).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p34\"\u003EIn this study, two waste treatment approaches - recycling and landfilling were assumed. As noted above, recycling demolished waste materials has both adverse environmental impacts and environmental benefits. Therefore, the environmental benefits of substituting virgin materials with recycled (secondary) materials are subtracted. Subsequently, the process LCA for recycling demolition waste can be defined by \u003Ca href=\"#E4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"disp-formula\"\u003EEq. (4)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E as:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E4\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m4\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Erec\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∑\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Erec\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Eqe\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Erec\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Eben\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE4\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p35\"\u003EWhere:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p36\"\u003EEC\u003Csub\u003Erec\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the carbon emission from the recycling plant (kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq.); EC\u003Csub\u003Erec-qe\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the emission resulting from machine operation during recycling (kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq); and EC\u003Csub\u003Erec-(−ben)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the carbon emission reduction through the replacement of raw materials (kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p37\"\u003EAccordingly, using life cycle inventories, the process LCA for the total carbon emissions of the demolished waste over the life cycle for recycling and landfill treatment options can be represented by \u003Ca href=\"#E5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"disp-formula\"\u003EEq. (5)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and \u003Ca href=\"#E6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"disp-formula\"\u003E(6)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E respectively.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E5\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m5\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003ETOTALREC\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∑\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Ede\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Etp\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Epr\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE5\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E6\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m6\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003ETOTALLAN\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∑\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Ede\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Etp\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EEC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Edp\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE6\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p38\"\u003EWhere:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p39\"\u003EEC\u003Csub\u003ETOTALREC\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E and EC\u003Csub\u003ETOTALLAN\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E refer to the total carbon emission of the life cycle of building demolition waste for recycling and landfilling respectively (kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq); EC\u003Csub\u003Ede\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the carbon emission at the demolition phase (kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq); EC\u003Csub\u003Etp\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the carbon emission during transportation phase (kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq); and EC\u003Csub\u003Epr\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E refers to the carbon emission during recycling (kg CO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq.), while EC\u003Csub\u003Edp\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the carbon emission during disposal.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p40\"\u003EResults analysis is a key aspect of a life cycle assessment study. Therefore, through the scenario analysis, the stage of the end-of-life with greater carbon emission can be identified. Also, the type of waste material and treatment strategy with the largest carbon emission potential can be identified. Hence, low-carbon waste materials can be proposed to manage the end-of-life carbon emission and associated substantial amounts of building waste. Accordingly, the process LCA for the comparison waste can be defined by \u003Ca href=\"#E7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"disp-formula\"\u003EEq. (7)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E as:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E7\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m7\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Eeol\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EB\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Eeol\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E\u002F\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∑\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EB\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Eeol\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE7\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p41\"\u003EWhere:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p42\"\u003EP\u003Csub\u003Eeol\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the proportion of carbon emission from a stage of demolition waste life cycle, treatment strategy and type of waste material the case building (%).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p43\"\u003EB\u003Csub\u003Eeol\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the total carbon emission from the case building (kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_7_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.3.4 End-of-life scenarios and assumptions\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p44\"\u003EIn this study, two waste treatment options were considered. Based on the recovery rates of the UK from localised literature and other sources, the percentage of each material was determined. \u003Ca href=\"#tab3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the assumed end-of-life treatment options for the waste materials along with the percentages A heavy-duty diesel truck (17 tonnes load) was assumed as a transportation mode for the demolished waste materials [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In addition, a maximum distance of 50 km by road for both treatment options was assumed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"center\"\u003EWaste Material\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"center\"\u003EDemolition\u002FDismantling\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"center\"\u003ETreatment Option\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"center\"\u003EWeight\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth\u003ERecycle (%)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"center\"\u003ELandfill (%)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"center\"\u003ERecycle (kg)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"center\"\u003ELandfill (kg)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAluminium\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EDemolition\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E92\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E8849.11\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E769.59\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EConcrete\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EDemolition\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E90\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1,693,403.21\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E188,155.91\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ESteel\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EDemolition\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E92\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E221,605.17\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E19,270.02\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EPlastic\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EDemolition\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E67.95\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E67.95\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EGlass\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EDemolition\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E3595.38\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E3595.38\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EInsulation\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EDemolition\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E—\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E100\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E66,921.64\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETimber\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EDemolition\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E45\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E25,710.55\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E21,035.90\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EGypsum\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EDemolition\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E—\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E100\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E2765.08\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETiles\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EDemolition\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E—\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E100\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E61,639.23\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EMortar\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EDemolition\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E—\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E100\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E2765.08\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EMixed materials\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EDemolition\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E—\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E100\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E44,622.31\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETotal\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1,953,231.37\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E411,608.00\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 3.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p45\"\u003EEnd-of-life options for common building elements.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_10\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Results\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_10_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.1 Carbon emission impact of life cycle stages of demolished waste material\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p46\"\u003EAccording to the analytical assessment model, the total carbon emission of different stages in the lifecycle of the waste materials was calculated (see \u003Ca href=\"#tab4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The value of the treatment stage was the largest representing about 81% of the total end-of-life carbon emission. This includes the environmental impact of input\u002Foutput of treating and recycling demolished waste, carbon emission reduction of waste replacement as well as landfilling unrecyclable waste. The carbon emission values of demolition and transportation stages accounted for 18% and 1% respectively. The carbon emission of the treatment stage is influenced by different carbon emission values compared to the demolition stage (see \u003Ca href=\"#tab2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Despite being the major carbon emission contributor, if recycling is selected, where possible, for waste treatment, the reuse of recycled materials could result in environmental benefits. This suggests that the choice of waste material treatment option should be given priority in order to reduce carbon embodied in them.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab4\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth\u003EStage\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"center\"\u003ECarbon emission (kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EDemolition\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E114,388.47\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETransportation\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E9323.49\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETreatment\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E530,322.71\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETotal\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E654,034.67\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 4.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p47\"\u003ECarbon emission of life cycle stages of demolished waste materials.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p48\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#tab4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E indicates that transportation is by far the least carbon emission end-of-life stage. This is because the distance of transporting waste materials to the processing plant or disposal site is located locally. This result emphasises the need for selecting local processing facilities as long distance defeats the goal of carbon emission reduction.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_11_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.2 Carbon emission reduction potential of waste materials replacement\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p49\"\u003EThe total carbon emission reduction that can be achieved through replacement was −797,147.34 kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq. Steel accounted for the majority of the environmental benefits and was much higher than other materials in the case building even though it represents only 10% of the total waste materials (see \u003Ca href=\"#F3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Aluminium was the second largest contributor, followed by timber and concrete. As illustrated in \u003Ca href=\"#F3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, the environmental benefit of concrete contributes to as low as 0.16%, although it accounts for nearly 80% of the weight of all generated waste. This is because the value of the environmental benefit of concrete in terms of carbon emission reduction potential is much smaller than that of steel and aluminium. For example, the environmental benefit of recovering one kg of aluminium (in the roof) for reuse can contribute to 17.43 kg CO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq of carbon emission reduction, while this value is only 0.000989 for recovering one kg of concrete. This result indicates that the recovery and the subsequent processing of metal should be given priority in terms of material potential to reduce carbon emissions during end-of-life.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F86399\u002F1698215861\u002Fmedia\u002FF3.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 3.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p50\"\u003EProportion of carbon emission reduction potential by waste materials.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_12_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.3 Carbon emission of treatment options\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p51\"\u003EAs noted in Section 2.3.4, two waste treatment options (recycling and landfill) were considered to explore the best waste treatment strategy. The net environmental impacts or benefits due to recycling were also accounted for. \u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the contribution of each waste material to the two treatment options’ carbon emissions. In all, 2,364,839.37 kg of waste was generated from the demolition of the case building. Out of this total, 83% were recycled accounting for 595,330.41 kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq of the overall carbon emissions, whereas landfilling waste contributed 150,945.83 kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq. Recycling the waste materials, however, has huge environmental gains as indicated in \u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The result reveals that recycling contributes a net environmental benefit of up to −201,816.93 kgCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003Eeq when the environmental gain is combined with the carbon emission. This suggests that the most significant end-of-life management option is recycling compared with landfilling demolished waste. Additionally, by comparing the two end-of-life management options, recycling contributed to a potential reduction of approximately 7% in overall carbon emissions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F4\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F86399\u002F1698215861\u002Fmedia\u002FF4.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 4.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p52\"\u003EAnalysis of treatment options.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_14\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Discussion of results\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p53\"\u003EThe management of the end-of-life of a building involves a series of processes and activities as well as diverse carbon-intensive waste materials. However, only limited studies have focused on combining the various stages of demolished waste materials, carbon emission reduction along with treatment strategies. This study aimed to develop an integrated analytical framework based on the LCA model to assess the impact of the life cycle stages of demolished waste materials on carbon emission in order to provide guidance for carbon emission reduction and raw materials conservation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p54\"\u003EThe results from the breakdown of the life cycle stages (demolition, transportation, processing and disposal) indicated that the processing or treatment stage generated the largest amount of carbon emission (81%) during end-of-life. On the other hand, the transportation of demolished waste material contributed the least (1%) to the total life cycle of carbon emission. The insignificant impact of the transportation stage on end-of-life carbon emissions has also been highlighted by previous studies. Coelho and de Brito [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B42\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] assessed the carbon emission embodied in construction and demolition waste materials and suggested that the overall transportation distance should be always reduced because of the related energy consumption and carbon emissions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p55\"\u003EAs presented in the results section, carbon emission reduction can be achieved through the substitution effects of reusing recycled waste materials. While some past studies have indicated that the recycling of construction and demolition waste has environmental benefits due to the potential to replace virgin materials, the environmental performance of some demolished waste materials has been ignored. For example, a study to evaluate embodied carbon, [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] only considered the recycling of steel and aluminium. Similarly, a study to develop a model to evaluate the cradle-to-grave environmental impacts of a building in Italy, [\u003Ca href=\"#B43\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] only considered the recycling of steel and aggregate. The current study, however, considered at least four major waste materials. The analysis of the results revealed that steel has a significant impact on demolished waste life cycle carbon emission reduction. Despite representing only 10% of the total mass of generated waste materials, the result analysis indicates that steel has a carbon emission reduction potential of more than 90% of the case building. This result indicates that the recovery and the subsequent processing of metal should be given priority in terms of material potential to reduce carbon emissions during end-of-life.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p56\"\u003EFurthermore, by investigating the two waste treatment strategies (recycling and landfill) currently viable to the supermarket, this study revealed that landfilling generated the largest amount of carbon and the largest contributor to life cycle carbon emission during the end-of-life phase. In contrast, the analysis of the results emphasises that overall recycling building waste can lead to significant environmental benefits rather than adverse environmental impacts, particularly for materials with a high-value recyclable potential such as steel, aluminium and timber. This is due to the carbon emission reduction potential associated with material recovery. For instance, the results indicate that recycling instead of landfilling could achieve an overall 7% environmental benefit. The significant impact of recycling demolished waste materials has also been highlighted by previous studies. In a study to develop a model to evaluate the cradle-to-grave environmental impacts of a building in Italy, [\u003Ca href=\"#B43\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] stated that recycling steel and aggregate can lead to environmental gain. Similar findings were reported by [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B42\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], who found that recycling demolished waste materials could provide environmental benefits because of the potential to substitute raw materials. Conversely, [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] pointed out that the carbon emission associated with demolished waste materials can be considered lost if landfilled, since virgin materials would be required to replace them. Therefore, careful consideration should be given to the treatment strategies of demolished waste materials.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_15\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E5. Conclusion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p57\"\u003EBuilding demolition waste represents a huge environmental challenge worldwide. The environmental implications are not only associated with volume, but also with carbon embodied in the waste. These adverse environmental impacts associated with the generated waste can be minimised through appropriate waste treatment strategies. This chapter evaluates the various stages of the life cycle of demolished waste materials, the potential carbon emission reduction associated with different demolished wastes and waste treatment strategy options. This was exemplified by a case study of a supermarket building. The analytical framework and the detailed method of quantifying the environmental impact have the potential to be adopted in other building demolition projects.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p58\"\u003EThe results of this study show that the processing or treatment stage might generate the largest amount of carbon emission (81%) in the life cycle of demolished waste materials. In contrast, the transportation of stage contributed the least (1%) to the total life cycle of carbon emission.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p59\"\u003ELikewise, this study revealed that carbon emission reduction can be achieved through the substitution effects of reusing recycled waste materials. The analysis indicates there are environmental benefits to substituting virgin resources with recycled building-demolished waste, which compensates for the environmental impacts associated with the processing of waste materials. The environmental gain differs considerably from one waste material to another. For example, despite representing only 10% of the total mass of generated waste materials, steel has a carbon emission reduction potential of more than 90% of the case building. The recycling of metal (steel and aluminium) and timber-based materials should be given priority in terms of material potential to reduce carbon emissions during end-of-life.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p60\"\u003EAdditionally, this study revealed that landfilling generated the largest amount of carbon and the largest contributor to life cycle carbon emission during the end-of-life phase. On the other hand, recycling demolished waste materials can lead to significant environmental, particularly for materials with a high-value recyclable potential such as steel, aluminium and timber. For instance, the results indicate that recycling over 80% of the total mass of generated waste materials could achieve an overall 7% environmental benefit.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p61\"\u003EThis study offers some useful implications and guidance for designers, engineers and other stakeholders regarding the treatment of construction and demolition waste. For instance, where reuse is less viable, recycling waste should be considered an integral part of the demolished waste treatment strategy for each building’s end-of-life project. The development of the waste treatment strategy should give major priority to metal waste such as steel and aluminium as well as wood-based materials because of their positive environmental performance during end-of-life treatment. Also, the findings reported in this study can contribute to mitigating the environmental impact of building demolition projects. Furthermore, the detailed assessment approach provides theoretical and methodological guidance which can be adopted to guide the quantitative analysis of other types of demolition projects globally. Finally, the findings complement the existing literature, which mainly addresses the environmental performances of demolished waste by means of the life cycle assessment methodology.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_16\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003EAdditional information\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p99999999\"\u003EAli B-Jahromi: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Forcid.org\u002F0000-0003-0405-7146\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Forcid.org\u002F0000-0003-0405-7146\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":"embodied carbon emissions, end-of-life, building waste materials, life cycle assessment, recycling, landfilling","chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fpdfs\u002F86399.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fsource\u002Fxml\u002F86399.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F86399\u002F1689682742\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F86399","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F86399","cdnMediaBaseUrl":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-cdn\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F86399\u002F1698215861\u002F","totalDownloads":265,"totalViews":929,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"totalAltmetricsMentions":1,"introChapter":false,"impactScore":0,"impactScorePercentile":32,"impactScoreQuartile":2,"hasAltmetrics":1,"dateSubmitted":"January 26th 2023","dateReviewed":"February 6th 2023","datePrePublished":"April 12th 2023","datePublished":"October 25th 2023","dateFinished":"March 5th 2023","readingETA":"0","abstract":"Building demolition waste represents a huge environmental challenge worldwide. The environmental implications are not only associated with volume, but also with carbon embodied in the waste. These adverse environmental impacts associated with the generated waste can be minimised through appropriate waste treatment strategies. This chapter evaluates the various stages of the life cycle of demolished waste materials, the potential carbon emission reduction associated with different demolished wastes and waste treatment strategy options. An assessment framework was developed and exemplified by a case study of a supermarket building. The results showed that the processing or treatment stage generate the largest amount of carbon emission (81%) in the life cycle of demolished waste materials, whilst the transportation stage contributed the least (1%). It was further found that steel waste recycling has the greatest environmental benefits (more than 90%) compared to concrete (less than 1%). Additionally, the study revealed that landfilling waste generated the largest amount of carbon emissions compared to recycling. The findings can contribute to mitigating the environmental building demolition projects. Furthermore, the detailed assessment approach provides theoretical and methodological guidance which can be adopted to guide the quantitative analysis of other types of demolition projects globally.","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F86399","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F86399","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"12507","type":"book","title":"Life Cycle Assessment","subtitle":"Recent Advances and New Perspectives","fullTitle":"Life Cycle Assessment - Recent Advances and New Perspectives","slug":"life-cycle-assessment-recent-advances-and-new-perspectives","publishedDate":"October 25th 2023","bookSignature":"Tamás Bányai and Péter Veres","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F12507.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F12507\u002F1713447210-2062575649\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F12507\u002F1713447210-2062575649\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F12507\u002F1718282958-565914118\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F12507\u002F1718282958-565914118\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F12507\u002F1718121020-19449833\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F12507\u002F1718121020-19449833\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":"Edited by","isbn":"978-1-80356-879-9","price":119,"printIsbn":"978-1-80356-878-2","pdfIsbn":"978-1-80356-880-5","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","numberOfWosCitations":0,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"201248","title":"Dr.","name":"Tamás","middleName":null,"surname":"Bányai","slug":"tamas-banyai","fullName":"Tamás Bányai"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":{"id":"507600","title":"Dr.","name":"Péter","middleName":null,"surname":"Veres","slug":"peter-veres","fullName":"Péter Veres"},"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"862"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"chapters":[{"id":"87494","type":"chapter","title":"Life Cycle Assessment in Architecture as Decisional Tool in the Design Stage","slug":"life-cycle-assessment-in-architecture-as-decisional-tool-in-the-design-stage","totalDownloads":112,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"signatures":"Carol Monticelli","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"513119","title":"Associate Prof.","name":"Carol","middleName":null,"surname":"Monticelli","fullName":"Carol Monticelli","slug":"carol-monticelli"}]},{"id":"86288","type":"chapter","title":"Including Nature-Based Success Measurement Criteria in the Life Cycle Assessment","slug":"including-nature-based-success-measurement-criteria-in-the-life-cycle-assessment","totalDownloads":127,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"signatures":"Miguel Chen Austin and Kimberly Beermann","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"512903","title":"Dr.","name":"Miguel","middleName":null,"surname":"Chen Austin","fullName":"Miguel Chen Austin","slug":"miguel-chen-austin"},{"id":"512904","title":"BSc.","name":"Kimberly","middleName":null,"surname":"Beermann","fullName":"Kimberly Beermann","slug":"kimberly-beermann"}]},{"id":"86735","type":"chapter","title":"Life-Cycle Assessment as a Next Level of Transparency in Denim Manufacturing","slug":"life-cycle-assessment-as-a-next-level-of-transparency-in-denim-manufacturing","totalDownloads":291,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"signatures":"Sedef Uncu Akı, Cevza Candan, Banu Nergis and Neslihan Sebla Önder","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"172112","title":"Prof.","name":"Cevza","middleName":null,"surname":"Candan","fullName":"Cevza Candan","slug":"cevza-candan"},{"id":"304795","title":"Prof.","name":"Banu","middleName":null,"surname":"Nergis","fullName":"Banu Nergis","slug":"banu-nergis"},{"id":"318752","title":"Dr.","name":"Sedef","middleName":null,"surname":"Uncu Akı","fullName":"Sedef Uncu Akı","slug":"sedef-uncu-aki"},{"id":"320710","title":"Ms.","name":"Neslihan","middleName":null,"surname":"Sebla Önder","fullName":"Neslihan Sebla Önder","slug":"neslihan-sebla-onder"}]},{"id":"86674","type":"chapter","title":"Pathway toward Sustainable Winter Road Maintenance (Case Study)","slug":"pathway-toward-sustainable-winter-road-maintenance-case-study-","totalDownloads":148,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"signatures":"Katja Malovrh Rebec and Janez Turk","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"514400","title":"Assistant Prof.","name":"Katja","middleName":null,"surname":"Malovrh Rebec","fullName":"Katja Malovrh Rebec","slug":"katja-malovrh-rebec"},{"id":"514402","title":"Dr.","name":"Janez","middleName":null,"surname":"Turk","fullName":"Janez Turk","slug":"janez-turk"}]},{"id":"86951","type":"chapter","title":"The Life Cycle in Startup 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Bahadori-Jahromi","slug":"ali-bahadori-jahromi"},{"id":"512793","title":"Mr.","name":"Augustine","middleName":null,"surname":"Blay-Armah","fullName":"Augustine Blay-Armah","slug":"augustine-blay-armah"},{"id":"512803","title":"Dr.","name":"Anastasia","middleName":null,"surname":"Mylona","fullName":"Anastasia Mylona","slug":"anastasia-mylona"},{"id":"512804","title":"Ms.","name":"Golnaz","middleName":null,"surname":"Mohebbi","fullName":"Golnaz Mohebbi","slug":"golnaz-mohebbi"}]}]},"signatures":"Augustine Blay-Armah, Ali Bahadori-Jahromi, Golnaz Mohebbi and Anastasia Mylona","authors":[{"id":"466778","title":"Prof.","name":"Ali","middleName":null,"surname":"Bahadori-Jahromi","fullName":"Ali Bahadori-Jahromi","slug":"ali-bahadori-jahromi","email":"ali.jahromi@uwl.ac.uk","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F466778\u002F1738055242\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","institution":{"name":"University of West 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Kingdom"}}},{"id":"512804","title":"Ms.","name":"Golnaz","middleName":null,"surname":"Mohebbi","fullName":"Golnaz Mohebbi","slug":"golnaz-mohebbi","email":"golnaz.mohebbi@uwl.ac.uk","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.029\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":{"name":"University of West London","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"United Kingdom"}}}],"sections":[{"id":"sec_1","title":"1. Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. Materials and methods","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2_2","title":"2.1 Case study","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_3_2","title":"2.2 Carbon emission factors of the main waste materials and end-of-life stages","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_4_2","title":"2.3 Life cycle assessment","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_4_3","title":"2.3.1 Scope, goal and system boundaries definitions","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_5_3","title":"2.3.2 Life cycle inventory","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_6_3","title":"2.3.3 Life cycle impact assessment of demolished building material","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_7_3","title":"Table 3.","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_10","title":"3. Results","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_10_2","title":"3.1 Carbon emission impact of life cycle stages of demolished waste material","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_11_2","title":"3.2 Carbon emission reduction potential of waste materials replacement","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_12_2","title":"3.3 Carbon emission of treatment options","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_14","title":"4. Discussion of results","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_15","title":"5. Conclusion","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_16","title":"Additional information","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"book\"\u003ECrowther P. Re-valuing construction materials and components through Design for Disassembly. In: Crocker R, Saint R, Chen G, Tong Y, editors. Unmaking Waste in Production and Consumption: Towards the Circular Economy. Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing Limited; 2018. pp. 309-321. 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System","slug":"cyber-physical-system-architecture-for-minimizing-the-possibility-of-producing-bad-products-in-a-man","signatures":"Salvador Cobos Guzman, Maria Dolores Cima Cabal, Francisco Machio Regidor and Lucia Alonso Virgos","authors":[{"id":"301684","title":"Prof.","name":"Salvador","middleName":null,"surname":"Cobos Guzman","fullName":"Salvador Cobos Guzman","slug":"salvador-cobos-guzman"},{"id":"301685","title":"Dr.","name":"Lucia","middleName":null,"surname":"Alonso Virgos","fullName":"Lucia Alonso Virgos","slug":"lucia-alonso-virgos"},{"id":"319173","title":"Dr.","name":"Maria Dolores","middleName":null,"surname":"Cima Cabal","fullName":"Maria Dolores Cima Cabal","slug":"maria-dolores-cima-cabal"},{"id":"319175","title":"Dr.","name":"Francisco","middleName":null,"surname":"Machio Regidor","fullName":"Francisco Machio Regidor","slug":"francisco-machio-regidor"}]},{"id":"63309","title":"Leveraging Internet-of-Things to Support Circular Economy Paradigm in Manufacturing 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Computing","slug":"parallel-genetic-algorithms-with-gpu-computing","signatures":"John Runwei Cheng and Mitsuo Gen","authors":[{"id":"305784","title":"Dr.","name":"John Runwei","middleName":null,"surname":"Cheng","fullName":"John Runwei Cheng","slug":"john-runwei-cheng"},{"id":"305786","title":"Prof.","name":"Mitsuo","middleName":null,"surname":"Gen","fullName":"Mitsuo Gen","slug":"mitsuo-gen"}]},{"id":"63861","title":"Digital Twin Technology","slug":"digital-twin-technology","signatures":"Zongyan Wang","authors":[{"id":"255874","title":"Dr.","name":"Zongyan","middleName":null,"surname":"Wang","fullName":"Zongyan Wang","slug":"zongyan-wang"}]},{"id":"64012","title":"The Role of Spin-Off Companies in the Technology Transfer and IS Management Potential in Developing a Sharing Economy","slug":"the-role-of-spin-off-companies-in-the-technology-transfer-and-is-management-potential-in-developing-","signatures":"Mária Pomffyová, Mária Rostašová and Vladimír Krajčík","authors":[{"id":"7712","title":"Dr.","name":"Maria","middleName":null,"surname":"Pomffyova","fullName":"Maria Pomffyova","slug":"maria-pomffyova"},{"id":"210046","title":"Prof.","name":"Vladimír","middleName":null,"surname":"Krajčík","fullName":"Vladimír Krajčík","slug":"vladimir-krajcik"},{"id":"216184","title":"Prof.","name":"Mária","middleName":null,"surname":"Rostašová","fullName":"Mária Rostašová","slug":"maria-rostasova"}]}]}],"publishedBooks":[],"publishedBooksByAuthor":[]},"onlineFirst":{"chapter":{"type":"chapter","id":"1197451","title":"Polarization and Ferromagnetism in Microwave-Absorbing Materials","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1006874","slug":null,"body":"\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_1\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E1. Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p2\"\u003EThe rapid advancement of modern technology has led to an increased need for efficient microwave-absorbing materials (MAMs) [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. These materials are crucial in a wide range of applications, from reducing electromagnetic interference (EMI) in electronic devices to enhancing the stealth capabilities of military equipment [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. MAMs are designed to attenuate electromagnetic waves, thereby preventing reflection or transmission of these waves. This capability is essential in many sectors, including telecommunications, automotive, aerospace, and defense industries [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The study of MAMs is not new; it has evolved significantly over the past few decades. Initially, research focused on simple materials and their basic properties. However, with the advent of new technologies and the increasing complexity of modern systems, there has been a shift toward more advanced materials that can offer superior performance. This shift has brought about the need to understand and manipulate the underlying mechanisms that contribute to microwave absorption [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. MAMs work on the principle of converting electromagnetic energy into heat, which is then dissipated [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This process relies on two main mechanisms: dielectric losses and magnetic losses. Dielectric losses occur from the polarization of electric dipoles, while magnetic losses arise from the alignment and movement of magnetic domains. Efficient MAMs balance these losses, with high dielectric loss materials absorbing electric fields and high magnetic loss materials absorbing magnetic fields. The challenge is developing materials that exhibit both high dielectric and magnetic losses to maximize microwave absorption. Composite materials combining ferroelectric and ferromagnetic properties offer a solution by leveraging both types of losses. Fine-tuning these composites can optimize microwave absorption across a wide frequency range. Electric polarization and ferromagnetic properties significantly influence MAM performance. Electric polarization, the alignment of electric dipoles in response to an external electric field, creates polarization currents that contribute to dielectric losses. Ferromagnetic properties, involving the alignment of magnetic domains, result in magnetic losses essential for absorbing magnetic components of electromagnetic waves. Understanding and manipulating these properties enables the design of materials with tailored absorption characteristics, improving microwave absorption efficiency. This knowledge also aids in developing new materials and technologies, with broader implications for fields like energy storage, sensors, and actuators. Advances in these areas can lead to innovations across various technological domains.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p3\"\u003EThis chapter aims to provide a comprehensive exploration of the relationship between electric polarization and ferromagnetic properties in MAMs. It begins by detailing the principles of microwave absorption, focusing on dielectric and magnetic losses, and examines the benefits of combining ferroelectric and ferromagnetic materials in composites. Synthesis and characterization methods are discussed, along with the challenges in optimizing microwave absorption. The core focus is on how electric polarization and magnetic domains interact to enhance absorption efficiency. Practical applications in stealth technology, EMI shielding, and wireless communication are highlighted. The chapter concludes with future trends, emerging materials, challenges, and research opportunities, providing a thorough understanding of microwave absorption mechanisms and advancements.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Fundamentals of electric polarization and ferromagnetism\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.1 Electric polarization\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p4\"\u003EElectric polarization occurs when electric dipoles within a material align in response to an external electric field, resulting in a net dipole moment per unit volume [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This phenomenon can be classified into various types based on the alignment mechanism and cause of polarization. Spontaneous polarization arises in materials with an inherent permanent dipole moment, even without an external electric field, as seen in ferroelectric materials like barium titanate (BaTiO₃), which have a non-centrosymmetric arrangement of ions. Induced polarization, on the other hand, occurs when an external electric field generates a dipole moment in the material. This can be further divided into electronic polarization, ionic polarization, orientation polarization, and space-charge polarization, each describing different mechanisms of dipole alignment in response to the applied field [\u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.1 Mechanisms of electric polarization\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p5\"\u003EThe mechanisms by which electric polarization occurs in materials are diverse and depend on the material’s structure and the nature of the external electric field. The total polarization of a dielectric (P) comes from the sum of four sources of polarization: electronic polarization P\u003Csub\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E, ionic polarization P\u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E, orientation of permanent dipoles P\u003Csub\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E, and space-charge polarization P\u003Csub\u003Esc\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E1\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m1\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Esc\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003E \u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE1\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p6\"\u003EThese four polarization mechanisms are described as follows:\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p7\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EElectronic polarization\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: Electronic polarization occurs when an external electric field displaces the negatively charged electron cloud relative to the positively charged nucleus, generating a dipole moment. This high-frequency polarization involves the distortion of the electron cloud around atoms or molecules and is the fastest and most reversible mechanism, typically occurring on the timescale of electronic transitions [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The mechanism of electronic polarization is shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1(a)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1197451\u002F1740736139-9619998\u002Fmedia\u002FF1.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p8\"\u003ESchematic Diagrams of (a) electronic polarization, (b) ionic polarization, (c) orientation polarization, and (d) interfacial polarization.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p9\"\u003EThe induced dipole moment due to an applied electric field (E) on the atom is p = αE, where the constant of proportionality α is called atomic polarizability.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p10\"\u003EThe polarization (P), defined as the total dipole moment per unit volume, is:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E2\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m2\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003ENp\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EN\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eα\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EE\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eχ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EE\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE2\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p11\"\u003Ewhere N is the number of molecules per unit volume, χ\u003Csub\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is electric susceptibility, ε\u003Csub\u003E0\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the permittivity of free space, and E is the applied electric field. Using the equations.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p12\"\u003Eχ\u003Csub\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = ε\u003Csub\u003Er\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m3\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1 and E\u003Csub\u003Eloc\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = E + \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m4\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E3\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, the above equation leads to the Clausius-Mossotti equation [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E3\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m5\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Er\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E1\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Er\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E2\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EN\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eα\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E3\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE3\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p13\"\u003Ewhere ε\u003Csub\u003Er\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is relative permittivity, and E\u003Csub\u003Eloc\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the local electric field.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p14\"\u003EThis is the Clausius-Mossotti equation, which relates the macroscopic dielectric constant (relative permittivity) of a material to the microscopic polarizability of its constituent molecules or atoms.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p15\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EFrequency range:\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Typically, from optical frequencies (infrared region) to ultraviolet (UV) region, typically up to 10\u003Csup\u003E15\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E − 10\u003Csup\u003E17\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E Hz.\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p16\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIonic polarization\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: Ionic polarization occurs in ionic crystals like NaCl, KCl, and LiBr. Without an external electric field, the dipole moments of negative and positive ions cancel each other out, resulting in no net polarization. When an external field is applied, positive and negative ions shift from their equilibrium positions, creating a dipole moment. This displacement is opposed by the lattice’s restoring force, resulting in net polarization. This process is slower than electronic polarization and significant at lower frequencies. The equation to describe this effect is given by,\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E4\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m6\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Eav\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eα\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EE\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Eloc\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE4\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p17\"\u003Ewhere p\u003Csub\u003Eav\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the induced average dipole moment per ion pair, α\u003Csub\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the ionic polarizability. Usually, the ionic polarizability is greater than the electronic polarizability by a factor of 10 which leads to ionic substances having high dielectric constants. Similar to electronic polarization, ionic polarization also has a total polarization associated with it. The equation is given by\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E5\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m7\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003ENp\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Eav\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EN\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eα\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EE\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Eloc\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE5\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p18\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EFrequency range:\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Typically, up to the infrared region, around 10\u003Csup\u003E12\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E–10\u003Csup\u003E14\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E Hz.\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p19\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EOrientation polarization\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: In materials containing polar molecules, an external electric field aligns the dipoles in the direction of the field. The degree of alignment depends on the thermal energy of the system and the strength of the electric field. This process is slower than electronic and ionic polarization and can exhibit relaxation effects when the field is removed. It is most active in the radio to microwave frequency ranges. This type is frequency-dependent and can relax when the field is removed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p20\"\u003EThe Polarization is given by\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E6\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m8\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EN\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003ENp\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE6\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p21\"\u003Ein this case, the average dipole moment is given by\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E7\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m9\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ev\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msubsup\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E2\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msubsup\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EE\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EK\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003ET\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eα\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EE\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE7\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p22\"\u003Ewhere p\u003Csub\u003E0\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the dipole moment of a dipole that gets oriented in the direction of field, K is the Boltzmann constant, T is temperature α\u003Csub\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the dipolar polarizability.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p23\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EFrequency range:\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Typically, from microwave frequencies down to a few kilohertz, around 10\u003Csup\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E–10\u003Csup\u003E10\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E Hz.\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p24\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EInterfacial (space charge) polarization\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: This occurs in heterogeneous materials or those with defects, where the migration of charges leads to the accumulation at interfaces or defects, creating a polarization effect, as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1(d)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. This type is particularly important in materials with grain boundaries, dislocations, or other imperfections [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p25\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EFrequency Range:\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E It occurs from the frequency range from low frequencies (a few hertz) to around 103–105 Hz.\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p26\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDielectric constant v\u002Fs frequency\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: At lower frequencies, the dielectric constant is notably high, likely due to the accumulation of interfacial charge carriers and the contributions of all polarizations (such as dipolar, ionic and electronic), as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. As the frequency increases, the dielectric constant decreases. This can be attributed to the electric dipole’s inability to respond to the applied field and the fact that charge carriers cannot quickly accumulate at the interface, leaving only electronic polarization to contribute [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1197451\u002F1740736139-9619998\u002Fmedia\u002FF2.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 2.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p27\"\u003EFrequency-dependent polarization mechanisms.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.2 Polarization in dielectric and ferroelectric materials\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p28\"\u003EDielectric materials are insulators that can be polarized under an electric field, resulting in stored electric energy. The dielectric constant, a measure of a material’s ability to be polarized, is a key property of these materials. Dielectrics can be linear or non-linear, depending on the relationship between the polarization and the applied electric field. Ferroelectric materials are a subset of dielectrics that exhibit spontaneous polarization that can be reversed by an external electric field. These materials have a characteristic hysteresis loop, representing the relationship between polarization and electric field [\u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The presence of a permanent dipole moment even in the absence of an external field known as spontaneous polarization, is shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The dependence of polarization on the history of the applied electric field results in a loop when plotted, which is called hysteresis. Ferroelectric materials are widely used in applications such as non-volatile memory, capacitors, and piezoelectric devices due to their unique polarization properties.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1197451\u002F1740736139-9619998\u002Fmedia\u002FF3.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 3.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p29\"\u003ETypical polarization vs. electric field (P-E) hysteresis loop of ferroelectrics.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.3 Ferromagnetism\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p30\"\u003EFerromagnetism is a phenomenon where materials retain permanent magnetic moments even in the absence of an external magnetic field due to the alignment of magnetic moments within specific regions known as magnetic domains. In these materials, magnetic moments—vector quantities representing the strength and orientation of the magnetism—align parallel to each other within domains, separated by boundaries called domain walls. The Curie temperature is the point at which a ferromagnetic material loses its permanent magnetism and transitions to a paramagnetic state, as thermal energy disrupts the alignment of these moments. The process of magnetization involves aligning the domains with an external magnetic field, and the extent of this alignment reflects the material’s responsiveness to the field.\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p31\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EOrigin of ferromagnetism in materials\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: The origin of ferromagnetism lies in the quantum mechanical exchange interactions between neighboring atoms or ions. These interactions are a result of the Pauli exclusion principle and the Coulomb repulsion between electrons [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The key mechanisms that contribute to ferromagnetism include:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p32\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EExchange interaction\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: The exchange interaction, shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4(a)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, is a quantum mechanical effect that arises from the wavefunction overlap of neighboring electrons. It arises due to the Pauli exclusion principle and the Coulomb interaction between electrons, leading to a preference for certain spin alignments that minimize the system’s energy. This interaction is fundamental to understanding various types of magnetism in materials, including ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism, and ferrimagnetism.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F4\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1197451\u002F1740736139-9619998\u002Fmedia\u002FF4.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 4.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p33\"\u003ESchematic illustration of (a) Exchange Interaction, and (b) Spin-orbit coupling, and Crystal field Effects.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p34\"\u003EThere are several categories of exchange interactions, each with distinct mechanisms and implications for magnetic behavior.\u003Col style=\"list-style-type: alpha-lower;\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p35\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirect exchange\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: This interaction occurs when the wavefunctions of electrons on adjacent atoms overlap, allowing the electrons to “sense” each other’s spin and create a magnetic interaction. The strength and alignment (parallel or antiparallel) of this interaction depend on the distance between atoms and the symmetry of their wavefunctions. If the interaction energy is minimized with parallel spins, the material exhibits ferromagnetism. Parallel spins lower the system’s energy due to favorable electron overlap and reduced Coulomb repulsion. If the interaction energy is minimized with antiparallel spins, the material exhibits antiferromagnetism. Antiparallel spin alignment lowers the system’s energy, often due to specific spatial arrangements of atoms that favor this configuration.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p36\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ESuperexchange\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: It is an indirect exchange interaction occurring in insulating materials where magnetic ions are separated by a non-magnetic anion, such as oxygen. In this mechanism, the interaction between the magnetic moments of the ions is mediated by the non-magnetic anion through a process known as virtual electron hopping. This process effectively creates a magnetic interaction between the ions, even though they are not directly adjacent. Superexchange often results in antiferromagnetic interactions, particularly when the bond angle between the magnetic ions is close to 180°. This bond angle facilitates effective electron hopping via the anion, leading to an antiparallel alignment of magnetic moments and minimizing the system’s energy.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p37\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDouble exchange\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: This mechanism that occurs in mixed-valence compounds where two magnetic ions of the same element exist in different oxidation states (e.g., Mn\u003Csup\u003E3+\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E and Mn\u003Csup\u003E4+\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E) The interaction is mediated by the transfer of an electron between the ions, and this transfer is facilitated when the spins are aligned, leading to ferromagnetic ordering. In double exchange, the alignment of spins allows for more efficient electron transfer between ions in different oxidation states. This efficient transfer lowers the system’s energy and results in a ferromagnetic alignment of the magnetic moments. Double exchange is particularly significant in materials like manganites, where it plays a crucial role in their magnetic properties.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Fol\u003E\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p38\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ESpin-orbit coupling\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: Spin-orbit coupling (SOC) is an interaction between an electron’s spin and its motion around the nucleus and is shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4(b)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. This interaction is inherently relativistic, arising due to the relativistic corrections to the motion of electrons in an electric field, such as that produced by the nucleus of an atom. SOC plays a crucial role in many physical phenomena and significantly influences the electronic structure, magnetic properties, and behavior of materials. In some materials, the interaction between an electron’s spin and its orbital motion around the nucleus contributes to the overall magnetic behavior. This coupling can enhance the magnetic anisotropy of the material, favoring certain directions for the magnetic moments.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p39\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EMechanism of spin-orbit coupling\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: The interaction can be understood by considering an electron moving through the electric field generated by the positively charged nucleus. According to the theory of relativity, an electron moving through an electric field will experience this field as a magnetic field in its rest frame. This perceived magnetic field interacts with the intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron, which is associated with its spin. Mathematically, the spin-orbit coupling interaction is expressed as:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E8\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m10\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EH\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003ESO\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eλ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003EL\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E·\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003ES\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE8\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p40\"\u003Ewhere H\u003Csub\u003ESO\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the Hamiltonian representing the spin-orbit interaction, λ is the spin-orbit coupling constant, which depends on the atomic number and the specific electronic environment. L is the orbital angular momentum of the electron. S is the spin angular momentum of the electron. This Hamiltonian describes the energy associated with the interaction between the electron’s orbital motion and its spin. The term L·S indicates that the energy depends on the relative orientation of these two vectors.\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p41\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECrystal field effects\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: Crystal field theory (CFT) describes how the electric fields of surrounding ligands influence the energy levels of d or f orbitals in a transition metal ion, significantly affecting their magnetic properties. When transition metal ions are placed in a crystal field, the degeneracy of their d or f orbitals is lifted, causing them to split into different energy levels based on the ligand field geometry, such as octahedral, tetrahedral, or square planar arrangements. Crystal field splitting (shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4(b)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) directly impacts the magnetic properties of transition metal complexes by determining the number of unpaired electrons. More unpaired electrons result in stronger paramagnetism, which can be quantified using the magnetic moment (μ). Additionally, the specific splitting patterns in different geometries influence magnetic anisotropy, affecting the material’s stability and the directionality of its magnetic properties.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.4 Magnetic domains and domain wall motion\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p42\"\u003EMagnetic domains are regions within a ferromagnetic material where the magnetic moments are uniformly aligned. The existence of domains minimizes the material’s overall energy by reducing the magnetostatic energy associated with stray magnetic fields [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Domain wall motion is the process by which the boundaries between domains move in response to an external magnetic field, leading to changes in the material’s magnetization. Domains form to reduce the magnetostatic energy of a ferromagnetic material. In the absence of an external field, domains are oriented in such a way that the net magnetic moment of the material is minimized. The boundaries between domains are known as domain walls. These walls are regions where the direction of magnetization changes gradually over a finite distance. There are different types of domain walls, including Bloch walls and Néel walls, depending on the nature of the magnetization transition. When an external magnetic field is applied, domain walls move to align the magnetic moments in the direction of the field. This motion is responsible for the magnetization process in ferromagnetic materials. Domain wall motion can be influenced by various factors, including defects, impurities, and temperature.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Microwave-absorbing materials\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p43\"\u003EMAMs are engineered to attenuate microwave radiation by converting electromagnetic energy into heat, which is then dissipated. The schematic of the interaction between EM waves and absorber is shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. These materials are critical in a variety of applications, including stealth technology, electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, and improving the performance of wireless communication systems. The increasing prevalence of electronic devices and the growing demand for electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) have underscored the importance of developing effective microwave absorbers. Microwave absorbers operate by exploiting dielectric and magnetic losses. Dielectric loss occurs due to the polarization of electric dipoles within the material, while magnetic loss results from the alignment and movement of magnetic domains. The primary goal in designing MAMs is to maximize these losses, thereby enhancing the material’s ability to absorb and dissipate microwave energy.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F5\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1197451\u002F1740736139-9619998\u002Fmedia\u002FF5.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 5.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p44\"\u003ESchematic diagram of the interaction between EM waves and absorber.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.1 Types of microwave-absorbing materials\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p45\"\u003EMAMs can be broadly categorized into dielectric absorbers, magnetic absorbers, and composite absorbers. Each type of absorber has distinct characteristics and mechanisms that contribute to microwave absorption.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E3.1.1 Dielectric absorbers\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p46\"\u003EDielectric absorbers primarily rely on dielectric losses to attenuate microwave radiation. These materials are typically non-conductive and exhibit high dielectric constants [\u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Key mechanisms include electronic polarization, where the electron cloud is displaced relative to the nucleus under an external electric field, generating an oscillating dipole moment; ionic polarization, involving the displacement of positive and negative ions in an ionic solid, leading to energy loss; and dipole relaxation, where polar molecules align with the field and dissipate energy as they return to random orientation. Common dielectric absorbers, such as barium titanate (BaTiO₃) and titanium dioxide (TiO₂), are often combined with conductive fillers or other dielectric materials to enhance absorption properties.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E3.1.2 Magnetic absorbers\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p47\"\u003EMagnetic absorbers utilize magnetic losses to absorb microwave energy, leveraging materials that exhibit ferromagnetism, ferrimagnetism, or antiferromagnetism [\u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Key mechanisms include hysteresis loss, arising from the lag between applied magnetic fields and material magnetization; eddy current loss, where induced currents generate opposing magnetic fields and dissipate energy, significant in high-conductivity materials; and natural resonance, involving magnetic dipole resonance with microwave frequencies for maximum absorption. Common magnetic absorbers like iron oxide (Fe₃O₄), cobalt ferrite (CoFe₂O₄), and nickel-zinc ferrite (NiZnFe₂O₄) can be tailored to specific frequency ranges by adjusting their composition and structure.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_10_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E3.1.3 Composite absorbers\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p48\"\u003EComposite absorbers combine dielectric and magnetic materials to enhance microwave absorption through synergistic effects [\u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Ferroelectric-ferromagnetic composites balance high dielectric losses from ferroelectric materials with high magnetic losses from ferromagnetic materials, maximizing absorption. Conductive polymer composites, incorporating polymers like polyaniline (PANI) or polypyrrole (PPy) with dielectric or magnetic fillers, offer tunable electrical conductivity and dielectric properties. Carbon-based composites, using fillers such as graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and carbon black, provide high electrical conductivity and mechanical strength, further enhancing microwave absorption. These designs aim to achieve broadband absorption and superior performance [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p49\"\u003EThe development of composite absorbers involves optimizing the composition, morphology, and interfacial interactions of the constituent materials to achieve superior performance across a wide frequency range.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_12_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.2 Challenges in developing effective microwave absorbers\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p50\"\u003EThe development of effective microwave-absorbing materials (MAMs) presents several challenges, as discussed below:\u003Col style=\"list-style-type: roman-lower;\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p51\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EBroadband absorption\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: Achieving broadband absorption across a wide frequency range, typically from 1 GHz to 18 GHz, is challenging. Materials must exhibit strong dielectric and magnetic losses at multiple frequencies, necessitating precise control over their composition and structure. One approach involves creating composites that combine different types of absorbers to exploit their individual strengths over a wide frequency range. For instance, materials with high dielectric losses at lower frequencies can be integrated with those exhibiting strong magnetic losses at higher frequencies to enhance broadband absorption. Advanced techniques like nano-structuring and doping are often employed to achieve the desired performance [\u003Ca href=\"#B18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p52\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThickness and weight\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: For applications such as stealth technology and EMI shielding, MAMs must be lightweight and thin, generally ranging from 1 to 3 mm in thickness, with densities around 1–2 g\u002Fcm\u003Csup\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Thinner materials are easier to integrate without adding significant bulk or weight. However, achieving high absorption efficiency in thin materials requires precise control over the material’s composition and structure. Techniques like layering different materials, using porous structures, and incorporating lightweight fillers such as carbon nanotubes or graphene can help achieve the desired balance [\u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p53\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThermal stability\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: MAMs are often exposed to high temperatures and harsh conditions, making thermal stability crucial. Materials should maintain their properties up to temperatures of 200°C to ensure reliability. This is particularly important in aerospace and automotive applications where extreme conditions are common. Researchers are developing composites that combine thermally stable polymers with ceramic or metallic fillers to enhance thermal stability while retaining microwave absorption properties [\u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p54\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EMechanical properties\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: The mechanical strength and flexibility of MAMs are vital for their integration into various applications. Materials must withstand mechanical stresses without compromising their absorption properties. High tensile strength and flexibility are required, with specific values depending on the application. Advanced composite materials incorporating carbon fibers, aramid fibers, or other high-strength fillers are often used to enhance mechanical properties. Flexible polymers combined with these fillers create materials that are both strong and flexible, suitable for a wide range of applications [\u003Ca href=\"#B24\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B25\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p55\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECost and scalability\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: The cost-effective production and scalability of MAMs are critical for commercial viability. High-performance materials must be synthesized using economically feasible methods to ensure widespread adoption. Researchers are exploring various synthesis methods to produce high-performance MAMs at lower costs, including using abundant and inexpensive raw materials. Developing bio-waste and e-waste-based microwave absorbers is a promising avenue [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Scalable manufacturing techniques that can be easily adapted to large-scale production are essential for the commercial success of these materials.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Fol\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_14\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Mechanisms of microwave absorption\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p56\"\u003EThe effectiveness of MAMs hinges on their ability to convert electromagnetic energy into other forms of energy, typically heat, through various loss mechanisms. These mechanisms can be broadly categorized into dielectric losses, magnetic losses, and combined losses in composite materials. Understanding the mechanisms of microwave absorption is critical for designing materials that effectively mitigate electromagnetic radiation. The overall microwave absorption mechanism is shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F6\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1197451\u002F1740736139-9619998\u002Fmedia\u002FF6.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 6.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p57\"\u003ESchematic of microwave absorption mechanism.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_14_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.1 Dielectric loss mechanisms\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p58\"\u003EElectric polarization plays a crucial role in the dielectric loss mechanisms of MAMs. Dielectric loss occurs in materials that are poor conductors of electricity but can support an electrostatic field. It involves the alignment of electric dipoles within the material in response to an external electric field [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The primary mechanisms of dielectric loss include:\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p59\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDipolar relaxation\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: In materials with polar molecules, an external electric field aligns the dipoles. When the field changes or is removed, the dipoles reorient themselves back to their original states, dissipating energy as heat. This mechanism is frequency-dependent and is significant in the microwave range [\u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E9\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m11\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msup\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E″\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msup\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003E∞\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E1\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msup\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E(\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eω\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eτ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E)\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E2\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msup\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE9\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p60\"\u003Ewhere \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m12\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msup\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E″\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msup\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the imaginary part of the complex permittivity, representing dielectric loss, \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m13\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the static permittivity, \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m14\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003E∞\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the permittivity at infinite frequency, ω is the angular frequency, and τ is the relaxation time.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p61\"\u003EDifferent types of polar molecules affect dipolar relaxation in various ways. For example, water molecules exhibit strong dipolar relaxation due to their high dipole moment, making them highly responsive to external electric fields in the microwave frequency range. Polymers with polar side groups, such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), also show significant dipolar relaxation. The specific frequency range for these effects depends on the material; water molecules typically respond in the GHz range, while polymer dipoles might respond in the MHz to GHz range depending on their structure and molecular dynamics.\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p62\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIonic conduction\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: In ionic solids, the movement of ions under an electric field causes energy dissipation due to collisions and lattice vibrations. This mechanism is significant at intermediate frequencies and contributes to dielectric loss through the oscillation of ions [\u003Ca href=\"#B32\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E10\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m15\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eσ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eσ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eexp\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E(\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EE\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ek\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003ET\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E)\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE10\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p63\"\u003Ewhere \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m16\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eσ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the electrical conductivity, \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m17\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eσ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the pre-exponential factor, \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m18\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EE\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the activation energy, k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the temperature.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p64\"\u003EIonic conduction is prominent in materials such as ionic crystals. The mobility of ions and the lattice structure play crucial roles in this mechanism. High ion mobility and a well-ordered lattice structure facilitate ionic conduction, leading to significant dielectric losses. For instance, in ZrO₂ ceramics, the presence of oxygen vacancies enhances ionic mobility, thereby increasing ionic conduction losses.\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p65\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EInterfacial polarization (Maxwell-Wagner-Sillars effect)\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: In heterogeneous materials, charge accumulation occurs at interfaces between different phases, leading to space-charge polarization. This effect is particularly significant in composite materials and contributes to dielectric loss [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E11\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m19\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msup\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E″\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msup\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E≈\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eσ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eω\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE11\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p66\"\u003Ewhere \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m20\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eσ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the electrical conductivity, \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m21\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the permittivity of free space, and \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m22\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eω\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the angular frequency.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p67\"\u003EComposite materials enhance interfacial polarization by creating numerous interfaces where charge accumulation can occur. For example, in polymer-ceramic composites, the interfaces between the polymer matrix and ceramic fillers act as sites for space-charge accumulation, significantly contributing to dielectric losses. The heterogeneity of the material, with different phases having varying permittivities and conductivities, is key to maximizing this effect.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_15_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.2 Magnetic loss mechanisms\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p68\"\u003EMagnetic loss occurs in materials with unpaired electrons and is primarily due to the behavior of magnetic domains and their response to an external magnetic field. Magnetic domains are regions within a ferromagnetic material where the magnetic moments are uniformly aligned. The behavior of these domains under an external magnetic field contributes to magnetic loss mechanisms [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The key mechanisms include:\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p69\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EHysteresis loss\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: Hysteresis loss results from the lag between the applied magnetic field and the magnetization of the material. This lag creates a loop (hysteresis loop) when plotting magnetization versus the magnetic field, indicating energy dissipation. The movement of domain walls in response to an external magnetic field leads to energy dissipation. Domain walls can be pinned by defects, grain boundaries, and impurities, enhancing hysteresis loss [\u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E12\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m23\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Ehysteresis\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eμ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∫\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EH\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EM\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE12\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p70\"\u003Ewhere \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m24\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003Ehysteresis\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the hysteresis loss, \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m25\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eμ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the permeability of free space, H is the magnetic field strength, and M is the magnetization.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p71\"\u003EDomain wall pinning by defects, grain boundaries, and impurities significantly affects hysteresis loss. In ferromagnetic materials like iron and nickel, impurities and grain boundaries can impede the movement of domain walls, increasing energy dissipation. For instance, the addition of non-magnetic impurities such as sulfur in iron creates pinning sites that enhance hysteresis loss, making these materials more effective for microwave absorption.\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p72\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EEddy current loss:\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Induced currents within the material generate opposing magnetic fields, leading to energy dissipation. Eddy current loss is significant in materials with high electrical conductivity. Eddy currents are induced within conductive materials when subjected to a changing magnetic field. These currents generate opposing magnetic fields, leading to energy dissipation [\u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E13\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m26\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ey\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msubsup\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EB\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Emax\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E2\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msubsup\u003E\u003Cmml:msup\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E2\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msup\u003E\u003Cmml:msup\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ef\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E2\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msup\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E6\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eρ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE13\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p73\"\u003Ewhere \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m27\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ey\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the eddy current loss, \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m28\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EB\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Emax\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the maximum flux density, d is the thickness of the material, f is the frequency of the applied field, and \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m29\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eρ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the electrical resistivity.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p74\"\u003EMaterial conductivity and thickness play crucial roles in eddy current losses. High-conductivity materials such as copper generate significant eddy currents, leading to higher losses. To mitigate these losses, materials with lower conductivity or laminated structures are used. For instance, ferrites (low-conductivity ceramics) are employed in microwave absorbers to reduce eddy current losses. Additionally, thinner materials help minimize eddy currents by reducing the path length for current flow.\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p75\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ENatural resonance\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: Natural resonance occurs when the frequency of the applied magnetic field matches the natural frequency of precession of the magnetic dipoles. The resonance of magnetic dipoles with the applied microwave frequency results in maximum energy absorption. This mechanism is frequency-dependent and contributes significantly to magnetic loss [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E14\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m30\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ef\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Er\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eγ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EH\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E2\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eπ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE14\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p76\"\u003Ewhere \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m31\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ef\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Er\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the resonance frequency, \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m32\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eγ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the gyromagnetic ratio, and H is the magnetic field strength.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p77\"\u003EThe gyromagnetic ratio (γ) and applied magnetic field strength (H) directly influence the resonance frequency (\u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m33\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ef\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Er\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E). Higher γ values (as seen in materials like yttrium iron garnet, YIG) and stronger magnetic fields result in higher resonance frequencies, enhancing energy absorption at specific microwave frequencies. Fine-tuning these parameters allows for designing materials with optimal resonance frequencies for targeted applications.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_16_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.3 Combined loss mechanisms in composite materials\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p78\"\u003EComposite materials that integrate dielectric and magnetic components exhibit enhanced microwave absorption through the interplay of various loss mechanisms. This synergy arises from the interaction between different materials and the optimization of their properties. By combining materials with distinct loss mechanisms, researchers can achieve improved broadband absorption [\u003Ca href=\"#B37\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The performance of composite absorbers can be significantly influenced by the relative proportions of different phases, which must be optimized to balance dielectric and magnetic losses for maximum absorption efficiency. Additionally, the interfaces between these phases play a crucial role, enhancing losses through mechanisms such as space-charge polarization and domain wall pinning, which contribute to the overall absorption performance. Incorporating nanomaterials into composites further enhances their properties. Nanomaterials provide a high surface area, tunable electronic properties, and strong interfacial interactions, all of which improve microwave absorption. For example, combining carbon-based materials like graphene or carbon nanotubes with ferrites creates composites that benefit from both the high electrical conductivity and large surface area of carbon-based materials and the magnetic properties of ferrites. This combination leads to enhanced microwave absorption across a wide frequency range due to the synergistic effects of combined dielectric and magnetic losses.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_17_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.4 Losses due to multiple internal reflections and scattering\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p79\"\u003ELosses arising from multiple internal reflections and scattering significantly impact the behavior of electromagnetic waves within various materials. When microwaves encounter interfaces or boundaries between different media, they undergo multiple internal reflections, causing energy to be repeatedly redirected and attenuated within the material. This process leads to losses as the electromagnetic energy is converted into other forms, such as thermal energy. Additionally, scattering occurs when microwaves interact with irregularities or structures within the material, further contributing to energy dissipation. The scattered waves deviate from their original paths, dispersing energy and reducing the overall intensity of the microwave signal. These losses due to multiple internal reflections and scattering are crucial considerations in the design and optimization of microwave-absorbing materials.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_18_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.5 Coupling effects between ferroelectric and ferromagnetic properties\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p80\"\u003EIn composite materials with ferroelectric and ferromagnetic phases, magnetoelectric coupling enhances microwave absorption by linking electric and magnetic dipoles. This effect, quantified by the magnetoelectric coupling coefficient \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m34\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eα\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∂\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∂\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EH\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m35\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eα\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the magnetoelectric coupling coefficient, \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m36\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the polarization, and \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m37\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EH\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the magnetic field), describes how an electric field affects magnetic properties and vice versa. The interaction between these phases can amplify dielectric and magnetic losses. Specifically, the alignment of electric dipoles can affect magnetic domain movement, leading to increased energy dissipation. Additionally, the interfaces between these phases can create localized states and defects, further boosting both dielectric and magnetic losses.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_19_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.6 Factors influencing microwave absorption\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_19_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E4.6.1 Domain wall motion\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p81\"\u003EDomain walls, the boundaries between regions of uniform polarization or magnetization, move under external fields, causing energy dissipation. In ferroelectrics, domain walls separate regions with different electric polarization orientations, and their motion under an electric field leads to dielectric loss. In ferromagnetics, domain walls separate regions with different magnetization orientations, and their motion under a magnetic field leads to magnetic loss. These interactions with microwave radiation, including resonance, pinning and depinning, and damping mechanisms, significantly contribute to overall microwave absorption in ferroelectric and ferromagnetic materials. Defects such as vacancies, interstitial atoms, and dislocations can pin domain walls, increasing energy dissipation. High defect density in doped ferroelectric materials enhances dielectric loss by increasing pinning sites. In ferromagnetic materials, smaller grain sizes lead to more grain boundaries, which impedes domain wall mobility and increases magnetic loss.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_20_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E4.6.2 Phase transitions\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p82\"\u003EPhase transitions in ferroic materials, such as ferroelectric and ferromagnetic materials, significantly influence their electric and magnetic properties, thereby affecting microwave absorption. Ferroelectric, ferromagnetic, and multiferroic phase transitions involve changes in crystal structure, magnetic alignment, and simultaneous transitions in electric and magnetic ordering, respectively. For instance, the ferroelectric to paraelectric transition in materials like BaTiO₃ causes an abrupt change in the dielectric constant, impacting the material’s ability to absorb microwave energy. Similarly, the ferromagnetic to paramagnetic transition in materials like NiFe₂O₄ alters magnetic properties, influencing magnetic loss mechanisms. These phase transitions can thus alter dielectric and magnetic properties, affecting microwave absorption capabilities. Additionally, temperature, pressure, and external fields can influence phase transitions, providing a means to tune material properties for optimal microwave absorption. Kumar \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B39\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] studied the effect of heat treatment on morphology and microwave absorption of SiC particles. Through ball milling and heat treatment, the researchers transformed these particles into spherically shaped nano-size SiC and a one-dimensional SiC\u002FSi\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EN\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E micro-whiskers composite system. The results indicated a significant enhancement in dielectric properties for both the spherically shaped nano-size SiC and 1D SiC\u002FSi\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EN\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E micro-whiskers when compared to the original particles. Microwave absorption performance showed notable improvement in 8–12 GHz frequency range for the shape-modified SiC particles. A similar study was carried out by Wei \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] where they explored the impact of heat treatment on absorption properties of flaky CI powder produced through high-energy ball milling. The study aimed to optimize microstructure and enhance absorption by analyzing the influence of pre-heating at various times and temperatures. Microstructural analysis revealed finer grain size and increased flattening ratio in ball-milled material. Pre-heating increased the length-to-diameter ratio, improving magnetic permeability and absorption performance. Optimal pre-heating parameters were identified as 200°C for 2 hours, achieving a real part of permeability up to 3.20 at 2 GHz and an imaginary part of 1.61 at 6.2 GHz.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_21_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E4.6.3 Structure: Property relationship\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p83\"\u003EThe arrangement of atoms within a crystal lattice affects the electronic and magnetic properties, influencing microwave absorption. The shape and size of particles or grains impact surface area and interaction with electromagnetic waves, with nanostructured materials often exhibiting enhanced absorption [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Defects and impurities introduce localized states that contribute to dielectric loss and alter magnetic properties, affecting microwave absorption [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Oyharçabal \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] explored the impact of polyaniline (PANI) morphology on absorption properties within epoxy polyaniline composites. The study synthesized various PANI structures—globular, fibrillar, and flake-like—incorporated into epoxy resin. Increasing the aspect ratio of PANI resulted in a lowered electrical percolation threshold (from 3.9 to 1.3 vol.%) and increased electrical conductivity. Specifically, the inclusion of high aspect ratio flake-like PANI significantly enhanced microwave absorption properties (2.4–8.8 GHz). Composites with flake-like PANI exhibited a doubled ε′′ compared to globular and fibrillar PANI. Yang \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B42\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] studied the influence of Fe particle size and shape on composite absorbers’ absorbing properties. Through controlled mechanical milling of Fe powders in two batches, they produced polymer composites featuring flake-shaped Fe particles. These composites, with 40 wt.% of such particles, displayed increased magnetic permeability and dielectric permittivity. The research unveiled a substantial increase in both ε’ and μ’ as the milling time and particle size grew, attributed to enhanced space-charge polarization. Guo \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B43\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] studied the effect of shape anisotropy, where the spherical CI particles were transformed into planar, anisotropic particles through milling. During fabrication, an external magnetic field strategically aligned these PACIs within a paraffin composite, resulting in the orientation of shape anisotropy field. This alignment improved complex permeability while simultaneously reducing complex permittivity, leading to good impedance matching. The produced absorber displayed an absorption bandwidth of 1.4 GHz for a thickness of 3.25 mm. These studies highlight the potential of tailoring particle shape and orientation for designing microwave absorbers.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_22_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E4.6.4 Influence of microstructure\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p84\"\u003EThe influence of microstructure on microwave absorption is significant. Smaller grain sizes enhance dielectric loss through space-charge polarization and reduce eddy current losses by increasing electrical resistivity. Grain boundaries act as barriers to domain wall motion, contributing to magnetic hysteresis loss and affecting dielectric properties. Porosity scatters electromagnetic waves, enhancing absorption but potentially weakening mechanical strength. Huang \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B44\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E44\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] investigated the impact of pore morphology of porous carbons (PCs) on microwave absorption. Using a sol–gel process and freeze-drying, they created PCs with adjustable morphologies and pore sizes. Results showed that, under similar graphitization conditions, pore morphology had a dominant effect on dielectric loss. The sample with cage-like pores exhibited maximum values in real and imaginary parts of complex permittivity within the 8.2–12.4 GHz range, indicating enhanced dielectric loss capacity. The study proposed a mechanism to explain how pore morphologies influence microwave absorption performance. Liu \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B45\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E45\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] studied the influence of the size of Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E nanospheres on absorption properties. They utilized the solvothermal method to create Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E nanoparticles with adjustable sizes (20–250 nm). The results demonstrated a significant correlation between granular size, permeability, and absorption properties. Notably, Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E nanoparticles with a 20 nm size, aided by magnetic stirring, exhibited enhanced absorption compared to larger counterparts produced without magnetic stirring. They concluded that Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E nanoparticles with a size under 100 nm are potential candidates for microwave absorption.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_23_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E4.6.5 Optimization through compositional control\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p85\"\u003EOptimization through compositional control is crucial for enhancing microwave absorption properties. Introducing dopants can modify electronic and magnetic properties, increasing the dielectric constant or enhancing permeability. Adjusting the relative proportions of different phases can balance dielectric and magnetic losses, optimizing overall properties. Combining different materials creates hybrid materials with superior absorption properties through synergy between components. Incorporating nanomaterials into nanocomposites significantly improves properties by offering high surface area, tunable electronic properties, and strong interfacial interactions. Zhao \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B46\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] examined the impact of varying Ni contents on the absorbing properties of FeNi nanopowders. The magnetic loss of Fe\u003Csub\u003E100-x\u003C\u002Fsub\u003ENi\u003Csub\u003Ex\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E nanopowders dominated within the 2–14 GHz frequency range. As the Ni content increased, the peak magnetic loss shifted to higher frequencies. Singh \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] investigated the effect of Zn metal particle dispersion in SiC on absorption characteristics. Their findings revealed an enhancement in EM wave absorption within the 8–18 GHz frequency range due to the dispersion of Zn particles in the SiC matrix.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p86\"\u003EJamwal \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E have made significant strides in the field of MAMs by exploring various factors affecting their performance. Their research reveals that adjusting particle sizes and incorporating multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) into cobalt (Co) absorbers enhances microwave absorption through improved interfacial polarization and multiple reflections, achieving an effective bandwidth of up to 10 GHz [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In their study of carbonyl iron\u002Fbarium hexaferrite (CI\u002FBFO) nanocomposites prepared via high-energy ball milling, they found that the modified morphology and complex electromagnetic interactions within the composites lead to an impressive absorption range with an effective bandwidth of 15.12 GHz when optimized with a triple-layer design [\u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Their investigation into gamma radiation’s effect on lithium-substituted nickel ferrite (LNFO) shows that gamma exposure induces structural changes and increases free electron density, which enhances dielectric and magnetic losses, resulting in a bandwidth of 3.8 GHz [\u003Ca href=\"#B48\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Additionally, Jamwal \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E explored the impact of ball milling with heterogeneous ball sizes, demonstrating that this method produces finer particles and improves absorption characteristics in cobalt (Co) through increased surface area and enhanced electromagnetic interaction, achieving a bandwidth of 9.65 GHz [\u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Collectively, these studies offer valuable insights into the mechanisms of microwave absorption and innovative approaches for optimizing materials for high-performance applications.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p87\"\u003EBy understanding and optimizing these mechanisms, researchers can design advanced MAMs that effectively mitigate electromagnetic radiation, meeting the demands of modern technology. The following sections will explore practical applications and future research directions in this field.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_26\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E5. Applications and practical implications\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p88\"\u003EMAMs have a wide range of applications due to their ability to mitigate electromagnetic interference (EMI) and enhance the performance of electronic devices. EMI refers to unwanted disturbances caused by external electromagnetic fields that can degrade signal quality, cause data loss, and lead to malfunctions in electronic devices. Such interference can stem from natural phenomena, human-made equipment, or the devices themselves, particularly in environments with multiple electronic devices operating in close proximity. As electronic circuits become more complex and miniaturized, and wireless communication technologies proliferate, susceptibility to EMI has grown. To ensure reliable operation and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), effective EMI shielding is crucial. MAMs play a key role in this by absorbing incident electromagnetic waves and converting them into heat, thereby reducing wave intensity, reflection, and interference. They are designed to operate across a broad frequency range to address diverse EMI sources, with composite materials that combine dielectric and magnetic losses providing enhanced broadband absorption. MAMs can be applied as coatings, films, or structural components in enclosures, cables, and connectors to offer comprehensive EMI protection. Beyond shielding, MAMs significantly improve the efficiency and performance of various electronic devices. For sensors, MAMs enhance performance by reducing EMI and improving signal integrity. In radar and imaging systems, they minimize unwanted reflections and increase detection accuracy, while in automotive radar, they bolster the reliability of collision avoidance and adaptive cruise control systems. In antennas, MAMs improve performance by reducing backscattering and surface currents, leading to better radiation patterns and increased gain. They also reduce mutual coupling between elements in phased array antennas, enhancing beamforming capabilities and signal-to-noise ratio, and are used in anechoic chambers for interference-free antenna testing. In communication devices, MAMs play a crucial role in reducing interference and multipath effects, thereby enhancing signal quality. In mobile phones, they lower specific absorption rate (SAR) and minimize signal loss, which improves call quality and battery life. For Wi-Fi routers, MAMs reduce interference from nearby devices, resulting in more stable and faster internet connections. Overall, MAMs are integral to optimizing electronic device performance and ensuring effective EMI management.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_26_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.1 Prospects for further research and development\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p89\"\u003EThe ongoing research and development in the field of MAMs is focused on addressing current challenges and exploring new possibilities. Some of the promising directions include:\u003Col style=\"list-style-type: roman-lower;\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p90\"\u003EDeveloping materials with enhanced broadband absorption capabilities remains a key goal. Researchers are exploring new compositions, structures, and fabrication techniques to achieve high absorption efficiency across a wide frequency range.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p91\"\u003EEnsuring the scalability and cost-effectiveness of advanced MAMs is crucial for their widespread adoption. Research efforts are aimed at developing economically feasible synthesis methods and reducing material costs.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p92\"\u003EThe integration of MAMs with emerging technologies, such as 5G, the Internet of Things (IoT), and autonomous vehicles, presents new opportunities and challenges. Tailoring absorbers to meet the specific requirements of these technologies is an active area of research.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p93\"\u003EAddressing environmental and health concerns associated with MAMs is important for their sustainable development. Researchers are investigating eco-friendly materials and assessing the potential health impacts of long-term exposure to microwave absorbers.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Fol\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_28\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E6. Conclusion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p94\"\u003EThis chapter explores the mechanisms behind microwave absorption, focusing on the interplay between electric polarization and ferromagnetic properties. Electric polarization involves aligning electric dipoles under an external field, while ferromagnetism results from the parallel alignment of magnetic moments. Key dielectric losses include electronic, ionic, dipolar, and space-charge polarization. Magnetic losses arise from domain wall motion, hysteresis, eddy currents, and natural resonance. Composite absorbers combine dielectric and magnetic materials, leveraging both to enhance microwave absorption. This synergy allows for broadband absorption across a wide frequency range, which is crucial for applications in stealth technology, electromagnetic interference shielding, and wireless communication systems. Understanding these mechanisms and the synergy between dielectric and magnetic properties guides the development of next-generation MAMs. Hybrid materials with nanostructures like graphene or carbon nanotubes promise superior performance. Emerging technologies such as 5G and advanced stealth systems will benefit from these advancements. Future research should explore new material systems with unique dielectric and magnetic properties, novel ferroelectric and ferromagnetic materials, and hybrids with nanomaterials. Studies on microstructure and interfaces in microwave absorption are also needed. Advanced characterization techniques, like in situ methods, can reveal microstructural features influencing losses. Theoretical modeling and simulation can enhance understanding. Investigating phase transitions and environmental effects on material properties is crucial. Developing scalable, cost-effective synthesis methods is essential for commercial viability. Additionally, multifunctional materials combining microwave absorption with mechanical strength and thermal conductivity have broad applications in aerospace and consumer electronics.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_29\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003EAcknowledgments\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p95\"\u003EUdeshwari Jamwal acknowledges Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee and Shivam Kumar Mittal and Deepanshu Kaneria acknowledge Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) for research funding.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_32\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003EConflict of interest\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p96\"\u003EThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":"electric polarization,ferromagnetic properties,microwave absorption,magnetic domain,electric polarization mechanisms,ferroelectric-magnetic coupling,composite materials","chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000004ioDYIAY\u002Fa09Tc0000012HPBIA2\u002FFinal-Electric%20Polarization%20and%20Ferromagnetic%20Properties%20%282024-09-25%2019%3A26%3A41%29.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000004ioDYIAY\u002Fa09Tc0000012HPBIA2\u002FFinal%20%28xml%29-Electric%20Polarization%20and%20Ferromagnetic%20Properties%20%282024-09-26%2011%3A51%3A59%29.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F1197451\u002F1730303171-1138224782\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F1197451","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F1197451","cdnMediaBaseUrl":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-cdn\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1197451\u002F1740736139-9619998\u002F","totalDownloads":2,"totalViews":0,"totalCrossrefCites":null,"totalDimensionsCites":null,"dateSubmitted":"July 23rd 2024","dateReviewed":"August 26th 2024","datePrePublished":"February 28th 2025","datePublished":null,"dateFinished":null,"readingETA":"0","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EThis chapter explores the intricate relationship between electric polarization and ferromagnetic properties in microwave-absorbing materials. It highlights the fundamental principles of dielectric and magnetic losses that contribute to microwave absorption. Emphasizing composite materials that exhibit both ferroelectric and ferromagnetic characteristics, it delves into the mechanisms of electric polarization and how they interact with magnetic domains to enhance microwave absorption. By examining the coupling between ferroelectric and magnetic properties, the chapter aims to uncover the synergistic effects that optimize the performance of microwave absorbers. Key topics include the synthesis and characterization of these materials and the role of different loss mechanisms in absorbing materials. The applications of these materials in stealth technology, electromagnetic interference shielding, and wireless communication are discussed, showcasing their significance in modern technological advancements.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F1197451","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F1197451","signatures":"Udeshwari Jamwal, Shivam Kumar Mittal and Deepanshu Keneria","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"1004224","type":"book","title":"Ferroic Materials - Understanding, Development, and Utilization","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"Ferroic Materials - Understanding, Development, and Utilization","slug":null,"isPublished":false,"publishedDate":null,"bookSignature":"Ali Hussain and Maaz Khan","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000004ioDYIAY\u002F0016128_TrikoderCover%20%282024-03-13%2010%3A22%3A15%29.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004224\u002F1714736700-1863219476\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004224\u002F1714736700-1863219476\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":null,"cdnWebCoverURL300":null,"cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004224\u002F1740563255-417869412\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004224\u002F1740563255-417869412\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 4.0","editedByType":null,"isbn":"978-0-85014-971-5","printIsbn":"978-0-85014-972-2","pdfIsbn":"978-0-85014-973-9","isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isDeactivated":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"181788","title":"Dr.","name":"Ali","middleName":null,"surname":"Hussain","slug":"ali-hussain","fullName":"Ali Hussain"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},"authors":[{"id":"599535","title":"Ph.D. Student","name":"Udeshwari","middleName":null,"surname":"Jamwal","fullName":"Udeshwari Jamwal","slug":"udeshwari-jamwal","email":"udeshwarimpy020@gmail.com","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F599535\u002F1727272650\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","institution":null},{"id":"599548","title":"Ph.D. Student","name":"Deepanshu","middleName":null,"surname":"Kaneria","fullName":"Deepanshu Kaneria","slug":"deepanshu-kaneria","email":"deepanshu@ph.iitr.ac.in","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.029\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":null},{"id":"599549","title":"Ph.D. Student","name":"Shivam Kumar","middleName":null,"surname":"Mittal","fullName":"Shivam Kumar Mittal","slug":"shivam-kumar-mittal","email":"shivam_km@ph.iitr.ac.in","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F599549\u002F1734534718\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","institution":null}],"sections":[{"id":"sec_1","title":"1. Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. Fundamentals of electric polarization and ferromagnetism","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2_2","title":"2.1 Electric polarization","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_2_3","title":"2.1.1 Mechanisms of electric polarization","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_4_2","title":"2.2 Polarization in dielectric and ferroelectric materials","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_5_2","title":"2.3 Ferromagnetism","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_6_2","title":"2.4 Magnetic domains and domain wall motion","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_8","title":"3. Microwave-absorbing materials","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_8_2","title":"3.1 Types of microwave-absorbing materials","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_8_3","title":"3.1.1 Dielectric absorbers","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_9_3","title":"3.1.2 Magnetic absorbers","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_10_3","title":"3.1.3 Composite absorbers","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_12_2","title":"3.2 Challenges in developing effective microwave absorbers","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_14","title":"4. Mechanisms of microwave absorption","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_14_2","title":"4.1 Dielectric loss mechanisms","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_15_2","title":"4.2 Magnetic loss mechanisms","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_16_2","title":"4.3 Combined loss mechanisms in composite materials","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_17_2","title":"4.4 Losses due to multiple internal reflections and scattering","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_18_2","title":"4.5 Coupling effects between ferroelectric and ferromagnetic properties","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_19_2","title":"4.6 Factors influencing microwave absorption","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_19_3","title":"4.6.1 Domain wall motion","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_20_3","title":"4.6.2 Phase transitions","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_21_3","title":"4.6.3 Structure: Property relationship","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_22_3","title":"4.6.4 Influence of microstructure","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_23_3","title":"4.6.5 Optimization through compositional control","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_26","title":"5. Applications and practical implications","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_26_2","title":"5.1 Prospects for further research and development","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_28","title":"6. Conclusion","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_29","title":"Acknowledgments","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_32","title":"Conflict of interest","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003EAhlbom A, Feychting M. Electromagnetic radiation: Environmental pollution and health. British Medical Bulletin. December 2003;\u003Cbold\u003E68\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(1):157-165. DOI: 10.1093\u002FBMB\u002FLDG030\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B2","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B2\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003EAhmad H et al. Stealth technology: Methods and composite materials—A review. Polymer Composites. 2019;\u003Cbold\u003E40\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(12):4457-4472. 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Farassati","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F57313\u002F1604448294\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"FARIS FARASSATI, PHD, PHARMD:\r\nAssociate Professor of Medicine\r\nDepartment of Medicine-Molecular Medicine Laboratory\r\nThe University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA\r\nTel: (913)945-6823, \r\nFax: (913)945-6923, \r\nE-mail: ffarassati@kumc.edu \r\n\r\nRESEARCH FOCUS:\r\nDr. Farassati was trained as a Molecular Oncologist and Cancer Gene Therapist at the University of Calgary, Harvard Medical School and Mayo Clinic. His Research is mainly focused on understanding the features of pro-oncogenic cell signaling events in cancer cells and utilizing this knowledge to design gene and drug therapy strategies to target them. He currently directs the Molecular Medicine Laboratory at the University of Kansas Medical Center (Kansas City, KS, USA) where a group of clinicians and scientists study a range of human malignancies including brain tumors in adults and children under his leadership. Concepts pursued by this team to target brain tumors include gene therapy strategies using oncolytic viruses, identification and intervention with novel cell signaling pathways involved in generation of brain malignancies and designing gene therapy strategies to target cancer stem cells.\r\n\r\nEDUCATION: \r\n1987-1994: PharmD: Tabriz Medical Sciences University, Tabriz, Iran-School of Pharmacy.\r\n1997-2002: PhD: The University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada- Department of Microbiology, Cancer Biology Research Group.\r\n2002-2003: Post-doctoral Fellowship: Harvard Medical School-Massachusetts General Hospital East-Department of Neurosurgery-Molecular Neurosurgery Laboratory \r\n2003-2004: Post-doctoral Fellowship: Mayo Clinic Rochester-Department of Neurosurgery","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Kansas Medical Center","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"58587","title":"Dr.","name":"Silvya","surname":"Stuchi Maria-Engler","slug":"silvya-stuchi-maria-engler","fullName":"Silvya Stuchi Maria-Engler","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.029\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Sao Paulo","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Brazil"}}},{"id":"61023","title":"Dr.","name":"Iris","surname":"Lavon","slug":"iris-lavon","fullName":"Iris Lavon","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.029\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":null},{"id":"62714","title":"MSc","name":"Jiri","surname":"Sana","slug":"jiri-sana","fullName":"Jiri Sana","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.029\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":null},{"id":"67649","title":"Dr.","name":"Marian","surname":"Hajduch","slug":"marian-hajduch","fullName":"Marian Hajduch","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.029\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Institute of Molecular and Translational Medicine","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Czech Republic"}}}]},"generic":{"page":{"slug":"attribution-policy","title":"Attribution Policy","intro":"\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EDefinition of Terms:\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EBook\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E - collection of Works distributed in a book format, whose selection, coordination, preparation, and arrangement has been performed and published by IntechOpen, and in which the Work is included in its entirety in an unmodified form along with one or more other contributions, each constituting separate and independent sections, but together assembled into a collective whole.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","metaTitle":"Attribution Policy","metaDescription":"DEFINITION OF TERMS","metaKeywords":null,"canonicalURL":"\u002Fpage\u002Fattribution-policy","contentRaw":"[{\"type\":\"htmlEditorComponent\",\"content\":\"\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EWork\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E - a Chapter,  including Conference Papers, a Journal Article, and any and all texts, graphics, images and\u002For other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter\u002FConference Paper\u002FJournal Article.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EMonograph\u002FCompacts\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E - a full manuscript usually written by a single or a group of Authors, including any and all texts, graphics, images and\u002For other materials.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EJournal Article\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E – Publication based on empirical evidence. It can support a hypothesis with original research, describe existing research or comment on current trends in a specific field.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EAttribution\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E – appropriate credit for the used Work or a book.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ECreative Commons licenses\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EIntechOpen Platform\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals, and Videos.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ERules of Attribution for Works Published by IntechOpen\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EWith the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cul\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EAll Chapters published in IntechOpen books prior to October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0);\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EAll Chapters published in IntechOpen books from October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EAll Monographs\u002FCompacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0);\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EAll Journal Articles are licensed under Creative Commons 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0).\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIn case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch3\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E1. Rules for reusing of books in their entirety or significant parts of books\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAll rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen Platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EA Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at \u003Ca href=\\\"mailto:permissions@intechopen.com\\\"\u003Epermissions@intechopen.com\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIn instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cul\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EInformation about the first publisher must be provided – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) publication must be acknowledged;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EAll original Academic Editor(s) must be credited;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003ESince you are reusing content that someone else created and allowed you to use freely, you must credit all Authors involved;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EThe type of license that is available for the Works must be indicated, as well as a link to the license provided, so that others can investigate the terms of the license. You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EAny original Copyright Notices associated, with the Works which constitute the Book must be kept intact;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EProvision of the original title of the Book, as well as the original titles of any individual Works;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EProvision of the URL where the Book is hosted, with a notice to the effect that the Book is an OA (Open Access) publication;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EProvision of the URL to every individual Work which constitutes the Book with a notice that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free.\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to \u003Ca href=\\\"mailto:permissions@intechopen.com\\\"\u003Epermissions@intechopen.com\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch3\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E2. Rules of attribution for works published by IntechOpen\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIndividual Works originally published on IntechOpen platform are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cul\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003ECredit all Authors – since you are reusing contents that someone created and allowed you to use freely, you have to acknowledge authorship;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EIndicate the type of license under which the Work is available and provide the URL to the license so others can find out the license terms. Preferably keep intact any original Copyright Notice associated with the Work (if any). You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EProvide the URL where the Work is hosted, preferably providing the original title of the Work, as well as the original title of the publication with a  notification that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EProvide information about the first publisher – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) Work must be acknowledged.\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at \u003Ca href=\\\"mailto:permissions@intechopen.com\\\"\u003Epermissions@intechopen.com\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIn the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EAll these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EParts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAll the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cem\u003EPolicy last updated: 02 April 2024\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\"}]"},"components":[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EWork\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E - a Chapter,  including Conference Papers, a Journal Article, and any and all texts, graphics, images and\u002For other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter\u002FConference Paper\u002FJournal Article.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EMonograph\u002FCompacts\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E - a full manuscript usually written by a single or a group of Authors, including any and all texts, graphics, images and\u002For other materials.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EJournal Article\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E – Publication based on empirical evidence. 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Further information can be obtained at \u003Ca href=\"mailto:permissions@intechopen.com\"\u003Epermissions@intechopen.com\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIn instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cul\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EInformation about the first publisher must be provided – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) publication must be acknowledged;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EAll original Academic Editor(s) must be credited;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003ESince you are reusing content that someone else created and allowed you to use freely, you must credit all Authors involved;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EThe type of license that is available for the Works must be indicated, as well as a link to the license provided, so that others can investigate the terms of the license. You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EAny original Copyright Notices associated, with the Works which constitute the Book must be kept intact;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EProvision of the original title of the Book, as well as the original titles of any individual Works;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EProvision of the URL where the Book is hosted, with a notice to the effect that the Book is an OA (Open Access) publication;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EProvision of the URL to every individual Work which constitutes the Book with a notice that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free.\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to \u003Ca href=\"mailto:permissions@intechopen.com\"\u003Epermissions@intechopen.com\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Ch3\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E2. Rules of attribution for works published by IntechOpen\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIndividual Works originally published on IntechOpen platform are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cul\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003ECredit all Authors – since you are reusing contents that someone created and allowed you to use freely, you have to acknowledge authorship;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EIndicate the type of license under which the Work is available and provide the URL to the license so others can find out the license terms. Preferably keep intact any original Copyright Notice associated with the Work (if any). You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EProvide the URL where the Work is hosted, preferably providing the original title of the Work, as well as the original title of the publication with a  notification that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EProvide information about the first publisher – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) Work must be acknowledged.\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at \u003Ca href=\"mailto:permissions@intechopen.com\"\u003Epermissions@intechopen.com\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIn the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EAll these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EParts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership 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Different management strategies of all the common stored grain pests viz. grain weevils, grain borers, grain moths, flour moths, mealworms, grain and flour beetles, booklice, mites, and parasites are enlisted here.","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"book":{"id":"10899","slug":"postharvest-technology-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications","title":"Postharvest Technology","fullTitle":"Postharvest Technology - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true},"signatures":"Rayees Ahmad, Shafiya Hassan, Showkat Ahmad, Syed Nighat, Yendrambamb K. 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Devi"},{"id":"444980","title":"Dr.","name":"Kounser","middleName":null,"surname":"Javeed","slug":"kounser-javeed","fullName":"Kounser Javeed"},{"id":"444981","title":"Dr.","name":"Salma","middleName":null,"surname":"Usmani","slug":"salma-usmani","fullName":"Salma Usmani"},{"id":"444982","title":"Dr.","name":"Mohd Javid","middleName":null,"surname":"Ansari","slug":"mohd-javid-ansari","fullName":"Mohd Javid Ansari"},{"id":"444983","title":"Dr.","name":"Sait","middleName":null,"surname":"Erturk","slug":"sait-erturk","fullName":"Sait Erturk"},{"id":"444984","title":"Dr.","name":"Mustafa","middleName":null,"surname":"Alkan","slug":"mustafa-alkan","fullName":"Mustafa Alkan"}]},{"id":"80454","title":"Processing of Tree Nuts","slug":"processing-of-tree-nuts","totalDownloads":1325,"totalCrossrefCites":5,"totalDimensionsCites":10,"abstract":"Tree nuts are consumed as healthy snacks worldwide and are important economic crops. In this chapter, post-harvest processing technologies of tree nuts are discussed, with focus on the drying, disinfection, disinfestation, and downstream processing technologies (blanching, kernel peeling and roasting) for the control and preservation of product quality and safety. Almonds, walnuts, and pistachios are selected as the representative crops for the discussion. Current status, recent advances, and challenges in the scientific research, as well as in the industrial productions are summarized. Some new perspectives and applications of tree nut processing waste and byproducts (such as shells and hulls) are also introduced. The contents presented in this chapter will help both scientists and stakeholders to better understand the tree nut processing and provide technological recommendations to improve the throughput, efficiency, and sustainability of the processes, and preserve the quality and safety of the products.","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"book":{"id":"10899","slug":"postharvest-technology-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications","title":"Postharvest Technology","fullTitle":"Postharvest Technology - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true},"signatures":"Chang Chen and Zhongli Pan","authors":[{"id":"422690","title":"Dr.","name":"Chang","middleName":null,"surname":"Chen","slug":"chang-chen","fullName":"Chang Chen"},{"id":"422904","title":"Prof.","name":"Zhongli","middleName":null,"surname":"Pan","slug":"zhongli-pan","fullName":"Zhongli Pan"}]},{"id":"83834","title":"Irrigation Scheduling Methods: Overview and Recent Advances","slug":"irrigation-scheduling-methods-overview-and-recent-advances","totalDownloads":735,"totalCrossrefCites":8,"totalDimensionsCites":11,"abstract":"Applying irrigation at the right time and the correct amount is a challenge. Irrigation scheduling is a method of determining the appropriate amount of water to be applied to a crop at the correct time to achieve full crop production potential. Scheduling irrigation based on the weather, soil moisture, and plant data are reviewed. The advantages and challenges of each irrigation scheduling method are also discussed. In addition, innovative irrigation scheduling methods such as internet of things (IoT)-based on using wireless communication and smartphone app-based are described. In conclusion, the irrigation scheduling method has been continuously developed to be more accurate and precise. Integration of innovative technologies and techniques, such as IoT and machine learning, could be used to take the scheduling method to the next level.","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"book":{"id":"11623","slug":"irrigation-and-drainage-recent-advances","title":"Irrigation and Drainage","fullTitle":"Irrigation and Drainage - Recent Advances","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true},"signatures":"Younsuk Dong","authors":[{"id":"454947","title":"Dr.","name":"Younsuk","middleName":null,"surname":"Dong","slug":"younsuk-dong","fullName":"Younsuk Dong"}]},{"id":"77058","title":"Solar Technology in Agriculture","slug":"solar-technology-in-agriculture","totalDownloads":2326,"totalCrossrefCites":7,"totalDimensionsCites":11,"abstract":"Promotion of sustainable agriculture is one of the most priority development goal set by United Nations for achieving the food security to meet the ever-increasing global population food demand. Because of extreme importance of agriculture sector, significant technological developments have been made that played pivotal role for sustainable agriculture by value addition in agricultural products and meeting energy demands for machinery and irrigation. These developments include improved cultivation practices, processing units for agricultural products and operation of machinery and irrigation systems based on solar energy. Moreover, the emergence of new technologies and climate smart solutions with reduced carbon footprints have significantly addressed the ever-increasing fuel costs and changing climate needs. PV based solar irrigation pumps and agricultural machinery is typical example of this. Because, awareness of these technological development is essential to overcome energy issues, availability of energy to perform agricultural activities for sustainable agriculture at farm level and socioeconomic uplift of farming community to meet food requirements needs in the future. Therefore, this chapter attempts at providing the introduction of technologies for direct and indirect use of solar energy in the agriculture sector. The typical examples of direct use of solar energy like greenhouses or tunnel farming for cultivation of crops and vegetables and use of solar dryers for drying agricultural products have been comprehensively discussed. Similarly, the solar powered tubewells, tractors, and lights, etc. are few important examples of indirect use of solar energy and have also been discussed in this chapter. The indirect use is made possible by converting solar energy into electrical energy with the help of photovoltaic devices, called “solar cells”. Also radio frequency (RF)-controlled seed sowing and spreading machines are discussed, which provide an eco-friendly method. Moreover, comprehensive discussion is made on solar based technologies in general as well regional context in view of their potential to scale-up and to address anticipated issues. The use of photovoltaics in agriculture is expected to be significant contribution in the near future that require urgent planning for the potential benefits and efficient use at the farm level. Therefore, the co-existence of “agrovoltaics” will be essential for the developments of agriculture and agroindustry.","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"book":{"id":"10454","slug":"technology-in-agriculture","title":"Technology in Agriculture","fullTitle":"Technology in Agriculture","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true},"signatures":"Ghulam Hasnain Tariq, Muhammad Ashraf and Umar Sohaib Hasnain","authors":[{"id":"324017","title":"Dr.","name":"Muhammad","middleName":null,"surname":"Ashraf","slug":"muhammad-ashraf","fullName":"Muhammad Ashraf"},{"id":"343829","title":"Dr.","name":"Ghulam Hasnain","middleName":null,"surname":"Tariq","slug":"ghulam-hasnain-tariq","fullName":"Ghulam Hasnain Tariq"},{"id":"415545","title":"Mr.","name":"Umar Sohaib","middleName":null,"surname":"Hasnain","slug":"umar-sohaib-hasnain","fullName":"Umar Sohaib Hasnain"}]}],"onlineFirstChaptersFilter":{"topicId":"26","limit":6,"offset":0},"onlineFirstChaptersCollection":[{"id":"1206886","title":"Greenhouse Systems: A Sustainable Solution to Develop Shrimp Aquaculture Industry","slug":null,"totalDownloads":13,"totalDimensionsCites":null,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1008924","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EWithin the global aquaculture industry, the sustainable shrimp aquaculture industry is becoming more important as the demand for seafood rises and expands. However, it faces several issues including environmental impact, disease, low productivity, and water quality control. Recent developments in greenhouse (GS) have yielded promising solutions to address these challenges with the development of the shrimp industry. This chapter explores the potential application of GS as an environmentally friendly and sustainable approach for the shrimp aquaculture industry. Firstly, discussing the limitations facing traditional open-pond shrimp farming and their environmental concerns. Then, it highlights the concept of GS and its unique advantages, such as enhanced environmental conditions, disease prevention, and improved water quality protocols. The components of GS required for shrimp aquaculture will be reviewed. The chapter highlights the essential components of GS that are crucial for efficient shrimp aquaculture. Furthermore, it also highlights the integration of other aquatic organisms such as fish, clams, and seaweed, enhancing both sustainability and profitability in the industry. In conclusion, the shrimp GS sector stands poised to surmount existing challenges, mitigate its environmental footprint, and cater to the escalating demand for sustainably produced shrimp. In summary, the shrimp GS sector can address obstacles, reduce its environmental impact, and satisfy the rising demand for shrimp sustainable production.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1004165","title":"Greenhouses - Cultivation Strategies for the Future","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000003OliRIAS\u002F0016069_TrikoderCover%20%282024-02-13%2008%3A12%3A33%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Einar Ringø, Sherine R. Ahmed, Zaki Z. Sharawy, Amr M. Helal, Ehab El-Haroun and Mohamed Ashour"},{"id":"1173727","title":"Legumes Crops Cultivation for Food, Feed and Soil Health","slug":null,"totalDownloads":5,"totalDimensionsCites":null,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1008674","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003ELegume crops taxonomically belong to the family Leguminosae (Fabaceae) which comprises four subfamilies: Papilionoidae, Caeslpinoidae, Mimosoideae and swartzinoidaea. These subfamilies have more than 800 genera and over 20,000 species of trees, shrubs, vines and herbs. Among them, herbs and vines include legume crops, which are grown worldwide in a range of agro-climatic zones under semi-arid, arid and dry temperate ecology. These crops are primarily annuals and cultivated as a solo crop or an intercrop. Legume crops have multiple uses in food, feed and soil amendment. Legume crops like soybean and groundnut are important sources of edible oil, while alfalfa is used as animal feed and grazing. Meanwhile, legumes like chickpeas, lentils and peas are known as pulse crops and are important sources of protein, dietary fibres, minerals and vitamins. The legumes are well known to fix atmospheric nitrogen, and many of them are used as green manuring to improve soil fertility and the physical properties of soil. Some important areas like seed storage studies are lacking for the storage of legume seed for the short and long term including mitigation of alfalfa toxin in groundnut seed, which needs to be initiated to avoid losses.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1003574","title":"Legumes Crops - Cultivation, Uses and Benefits","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000010JzAxQAK\u002F0015478_TrikoderCover%20%282023-04-28%2008%3A13%3A03%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Jeet Singh Sandhu and Sushil Kumar Chaturvedi"},{"id":"1186664","title":"Increase of Corn Grain Yield by Improving Nitrogen Supply from Green Manure Hairy Vetch","slug":null,"totalDownloads":4,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1009118","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EA three-year field experiment (2007–2009) at Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology examined the effects of nitrogen (N) released from hairy vetch (HV) on corn growth and yield. The study evaluated N release synchrony with corn uptake and aimed to establish HV usage guidelines. Four treatments were tested: control (A), chemical fertilizer (D), HV residue incorporated into the soil (B), and HV residue used as mulch (C), with three replications each. In 2007, no significant differences were observed among treatments in above-ground biomass (AGB), N uptake, total soil N, or grain yield, likely due to residual soil fertility. In 2008, AGB, grain yield, and N uptake significantly increased in the B and C plots. Correlations between soil properties, AGB, grain yield, and inorganic N levels were significant. In 2009, residue-recycling effects were inconsistent, but total and inorganic soil N levels remained higher in B and C plots. The study concluded that HV effectively supplies N to corn, reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers and promoting sustainable farming. Incorporating HV residue into the soil enhances soil fertility and reduces environmental impacts associated with synthetic fertilizers.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1003574","title":"Legumes Crops - Cultivation, Uses and Benefits","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000010JzAxQAK\u002F0015478_TrikoderCover%20%282023-04-28%2008%3A13%3A03%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Mohammad Zarif Sharifi"},{"id":"1177635","title":"Peruvian Popping Beans: Breeding and Performance Data of Beans Cultivated in the U.S.","slug":null,"totalDownloads":5,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1009117","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003ENuña beans (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EPhaseolus vulgaris\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E L.) are a class of common beans found in South America. They are grown in the mountainous areas of Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia. Nuña beans are unique because of their ability to “pop” after being exposed to heat. This produces a toasted edible snack that is soft-textured. Nuña bean preparation has reduced requirements for cook time and for fuel making them more energy-efficient compared to other types of dry beans. Scientists have been working to remove the photoperiod-sensitive gene that is found in traditional nuña beans, while at the same time retaining the popping trait for cultivation in the U.S. to be possible. Evaluation of popping bean field performance data, greenhouse performance data, and popping protocols and characteristics of beans cultivated in the U.S. will (1) increase awareness of popping beans as a nutritious source of both protein and dietary fiber as well as an alternative dry bean market class and (2) contribute to knowledge about factors that impact consumption of dry edible beans.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1003574","title":"Legumes Crops - Cultivation, Uses and Benefits","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000010JzAxQAK\u002F0015478_TrikoderCover%20%282023-04-28%2008%3A13%3A03%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Jill F. Keith, Jim Heitholt and Donna Harris"},{"id":"1174562","title":"Actual Aspects of Growing Leguminous Crops in the South of Ukraine under Different Moisture Conditions","slug":null,"totalDownloads":6,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1008675","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EAs a member of the UN, Ukraine has joined the global process of ensuring sustainable development and fulfilling 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 tasks. One of the main aspects of fulfilling these tasks is the increase in the production of food protein of animal and plant origin. Unfortunately, it is not possible to rapidly increase the amount of animal protein, but it is possible to create a model of constant growth due to the cultivation of legumes, which are similar to animal protein. In this sense, the most suitable crops are chickpeas, grasspea, lentils, and beans. In the south of Ukraine, the main limiting factor in increasing the productivity of agricultural plants is the amount of moisture, its uneven distribution during the growing season, and critically high air temperatures. The specified conditions make the constant search for technological solutions to level the unfavorable conditions of the external environment difficult. Also, a method of overcoming stressful situations is the use of plant growth and development stimulants on leguminous crops. The specified environmental factors and technological ways of solving them in the conditions of the Southern Steppe of Ukraine are extremely relevant and timely, and they will be presented in the scientific work.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1003574","title":"Legumes Crops - Cultivation, Uses and Benefits","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000010JzAxQAK\u002F0015478_TrikoderCover%20%282023-04-28%2008%3A13%3A03%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Sergiy Lavrenko and Nataliia Lavrenko"},{"id":"1203965","title":"Perspective Chapter: Vertical Farming Innovations – A Brief Overview","slug":null,"totalDownloads":14,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1006590","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EVertical farming, a widely implemented innovation in modern agriculture, offers a promising path toward sustainability. It allows for the production of agricultural products in limited non-soil and water-scarce conditions, thereby reducing negative ecological impact. For example, InFarm (Germany), founded in 2013, has saved 205,000 sqm of land and uses 95% less water than traditional farming. These farms can also reach higher productivity by yielding 20 times more per acre in comparison with traditional farms due to the effective use of farm space; for instance, a 1000 sqm farm using iFarm Leafy Greens technology can produce 3400 kg of food monthly, generating 57,800 $ in revenue. In this brief overview, I explore the potential of vertical farming to not just describe its revolutionizing impact on agriculture but also its significant role in hunger reduction, boosting the economy, and strengthening food security programs. However, challenges like high energy costs and initial investment needs remain. While there is a need for further technological advancements, including the application of new biotechnologies, robotics, and AI, vertical farming is poised to become a key solution for food production in the face of global climate change and human population increase.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1004165","title":"Greenhouses - Cultivation Strategies for the Future","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000003OliRIAS\u002F0016069_TrikoderCover%20%282024-02-13%2008%3A12%3A33%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Bekhruz I. Abdurakhmonov"}],"onlineFirstChaptersTotal":13},"preDownload":{"success":null,"errors":{}},"subscriptionForm":{"success":null,"errors":{}},"aboutIntechopen":{},"privacyPolicy":{},"cookiePolicy":{},"recruitmentPrivacyNotice":{},"peerReviewing":{},"howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks":{},"sponsorshipBooks":{"sponsorshipBooks":[],"offset":0,"limit":8,"total":null},"allSeries":{"pteSeriesList":[{"id":"7","title":"Biomedical Engineering","numberOfPublishedBooks":27,"numberOfPublishedChapters":212,"numberOfOpenTopics":3,"numberOfUpcomingTopics":0,"issn":"2631-5343","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.71985","isOpenForSubmission":true},{"id":"14","title":"Artificial Intelligence","numberOfPublishedBooks":31,"numberOfPublishedChapters":256,"numberOfOpenTopics":6,"numberOfUpcomingTopics":0,"issn":"2633-1403","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.79920","isOpenForSubmission":true},{"id":"26","title":"Nanotechnology and 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support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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