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class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="//donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_af.wikipedia.org&uselang=af" class=""><span>Skenkings</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:SkepRekening&returnto=Antieke+Egipte" title="U word aangemoedig om 'n gebruiker te skep en aan te meld, hoewel dit nie verpligtend is nie." class=""><span>Skep gebruiker</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:Teken_in&returnto=Antieke+Egipte" title="U word aangemoedig om aan te meld. Dit is egter nie verpligtend nie. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Meld aan</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Meer opsies" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Persoonlike gereedskap" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Persoonlike gereedskap</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="//donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_af.wikipedia.org&uselang=af"><span>Skenkings</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:SkepRekening&returnto=Antieke+Egipte" title="U word aangemoedig om 'n gebruiker te skep en aan te meld, hoewel dit nie verpligtend is nie."><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Skep gebruiker</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:Teken_in&returnto=Antieke+Egipte" title="U word aangemoedig om aan te meld. Dit is egter nie verpligtend nie. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Meld aan</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Bladsye vir uitgemelde redakteurs <a href="/wiki/Hulp:Inleiding" aria-label="Leer meer oor redigering"><span>leer meer</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Mybydrae" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Bydraes</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Mybespreking" title="Bespreking oor bydraes van hierdie IP-adres [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Bespreking</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Werf"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Inhoud" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Inhoud</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">skuif na kantbalk</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">versteek</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Inleiding</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Geskiedenis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geskiedenis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Geskiedenis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geskiedenis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Wissel Geskiedenis subafdeling</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geskiedenis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Predinastiese_Tydperk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predinastiese_Tydperk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Predinastiese Tydperk</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predinastiese_Tydperk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vroegdinastiese_tydperk_(c._3050–2686_v.C.)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vroegdinastiese_tydperk_(c._3050–2686_v.C.)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Vroegdinastiese tydperk (c. 3050–2686 v.C.)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vroegdinastiese_tydperk_(c._3050–2686_v.C.)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ou_Ryk_(2686–2181_v.C.)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ou_Ryk_(2686–2181_v.C.)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Ou Ryk (2686–2181 v.C.)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ou_Ryk_(2686–2181_v.C.)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eerste_Oorgangstydperk_(2181–1991_v.C.)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eerste_Oorgangstydperk_(2181–1991_v.C.)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Eerste Oorgangstydperk (2181–1991 v.C.)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eerste_Oorgangstydperk_(2181–1991_v.C.)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middelryk_(2134–1690_v.C.)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middelryk_(2134–1690_v.C.)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Middelryk (2134–1690 v.C.)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middelryk_(2134–1690_v.C.)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tweede_Oorgangstydperk_(1674–1549_v.C.)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tweede_Oorgangstydperk_(1674–1549_v.C.)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Tweede Oorgangstydperk (1674–1549 v.C.)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tweede_Oorgangstydperk_(1674–1549_v.C.)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuwe_Ryk_(1549–1069_v.C.)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuwe_Ryk_(1549–1069_v.C.)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Nuwe Ryk (1549–1069 v.C.)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuwe_Ryk_(1549–1069_v.C.)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Derde_Oorgangstydperk_(1069–653_v.C.)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derde_Oorgangstydperk_(1069–653_v.C.)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Derde Oorgangstydperk (1069–653 v.C.)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Derde_Oorgangstydperk_(1069–653_v.C.)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laat_Tydperk_(672–332_v.C.)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laat_Tydperk_(672–332_v.C.)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Laat Tydperk (672–332 v.C.)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laat_Tydperk_(672–332_v.C.)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ptolemeïese_Dinastie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ptolemeïese_Dinastie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>Ptolemeïese Dinastie</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ptolemeïese_Dinastie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romeinse_Tydperk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romeinse_Tydperk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11</span> <span>Romeinse Tydperk</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romeinse_Tydperk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arabiese_Moslemtydperk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arabiese_Moslemtydperk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.12</span> <span>Arabiese Moslemtydperk</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arabiese_Moslemtydperk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regering_en_ekonomie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regering_en_ekonomie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Regering en ekonomie</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Regering_en_ekonomie-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Wissel Regering en ekonomie subafdeling</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Regering_en_ekonomie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Administrasie_en_handel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrasie_en_handel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Administrasie en handel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrasie_en_handel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sosiale_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sosiale_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Sosiale status</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sosiale_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regstelsel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regstelsel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Regstelsel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regstelsel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Landbou" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Landbou"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Landbou</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landbou-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gewasse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gewasse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Gewasse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gewasse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Diere</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natuurlike_hulpbronne" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natuurlike_hulpbronne"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Natuurlike hulpbronne</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natuurlike_hulpbronne-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Handel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Handel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Handel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Handel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Taal</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Taal-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Wissel Taal subafdeling</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Taal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historiese_ontwikkeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiese_ontwikkeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Historiese ontwikkeling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiese_ontwikkeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammatika_en_skrif" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammatika_en_skrif"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Grammatika en skrif</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammatika_en_skrif-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Letterkunde" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letterkunde"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Letterkunde</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Letterkunde-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kultuur" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kultuur"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Kultuur</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Kultuur-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Wissel Kultuur subafdeling</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Kultuur-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Daaglikse_lewe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Daaglikse_lewe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Daaglikse lewe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Daaglikse_lewe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voedsel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voedsel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Voedsel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voedsel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Argitektuur" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argitektuur"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Argitektuur</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argitektuur-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kuns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kuns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Kuns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kuns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Godsdiens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Godsdiens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Godsdiens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Godsdiens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Begrafnisse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Begrafnisse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Begrafnisse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Begrafnisse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Militêre_mag" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Militêre_mag"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Militêre mag</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Militêre_mag-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tegnologie,_medisyne_en_wiskunde" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tegnologie,_medisyne_en_wiskunde"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Tegnologie, medisyne en wiskunde</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tegnologie,_medisyne_en_wiskunde-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Wissel Tegnologie, medisyne en wiskunde subafdeling</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Tegnologie,_medisyne_en_wiskunde-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Faience_en_glas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Faience_en_glas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Faience en glas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Faience_en_glas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medisyne" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medisyne"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Medisyne</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medisyne-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wiskunde" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wiskunde"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Wiskunde</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wiskunde-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nalatenskap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nalatenskap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Nalatenskap</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nalatenskap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sien_ook" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sien_ook"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sien ook</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sien_ook-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verwysings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verwysings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Verwysings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verwysings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bronne" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronne"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bronne</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bronne-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eksterne_skakels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eksterne_skakels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Eksterne skakels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eksterne_skakels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Inhoud" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Wissel die inhoudsopgawe" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Wissel die inhoudsopgawe</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Antieke Egipte</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Gaan na 'n artikel in 'n ander taal. Beskikbaar in 167 tale" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-167" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">167 tale</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altes_%C3%84gypten" title="Altes Ägypten – Switserse Duits" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Altes Ägypten" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Switserse Duits" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8C%A5%E1%8A%95%E1%89%B3%E1%8B%8A_%E1%8C%8D%E1%89%A5%E1%8D%85" title="ጥንታዊ ግብፅ – Amharies" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ጥንታዊ ግብፅ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigo_Echipto" title="Antigo Echipto – Aragonees" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Antigo Echipto" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijipiti_Ukot_Ikaan%CC%84" title="Ijipiti Ukot Ikaan̄ – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Ijipiti Ukot Ikaan̄" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Obolo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="प्राचीन मिस्र – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="प्राचीन मिस्र" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="مصر القديمة – Arabies" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مصر القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="مصر لقديمة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="مصر لقديمة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%87" title="مصر القديمه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مصر القديمه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F" title="প্ৰাচীন ইজিপ্ট – Assamees" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="প্ৰাচীন ইজিপ্ট" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exiptu_Antiguu" title="Exiptu Antiguu – Asturies" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Exiptu Antiguu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BA%D3%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B1_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="НекӀсияб Египет – Avaries" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="НекӀсияб Египет" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaries" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99dim_Misir" title="Qədim Misir – Azerbeidjans" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qədim Misir" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbeidjans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="قدیم میصر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قدیم میصر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D2%93%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80" title="Боронғо Мысыр – Baskir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Боронғо Мысыр" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Baskir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oids_Egyptn" title="Oids Egyptn – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Oids Egyptn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senuob%C4%97s_Eg%C4%97pts" title="Senuobės Egėpts – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Senuobės Egėpts" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%95%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Старажытны Егіпет – Belarussies" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Старажытны Егіпет" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarussies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%AD%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Старажытны Эгіпет – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Старажытны Эгіпет" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Древен Египет – Bulgaars" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Древен Египет" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgaars" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AE%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B2%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%82%8F%E1%80%85%E1%80%81%E1%80%AB" title="အီဂျစ်ပွိုင်းလဲင်ႏစခါ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="အီဂျစ်ပွိုင်းလဲင်ႏစခါ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="মিশরীয় সভ্যতা – Bengaals" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মিশরীয় সভ্যতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bengaals" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henegipt" title="Henegipt – Bretons" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Henegipt" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Bretons" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stari_Egipat" title="Stari Egipat – Bosnies" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Stari Egipat" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Эртын Египет – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Эртын Египет" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="voorbladartikel"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antic_Egipte" title="Antic Egipte – Katalaans" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Antic Egipte" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Katalaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C5%AB_%C4%82i-g%C4%ADk" title="Gū Ăi-gĭk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Gū Ăi-gĭk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Шира Мисар – Tsjetsjeens" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Шира Мисар" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Tsjetsjeens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karaang_Ehipto" title="Karaang Ehipto – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Karaang Ehipto" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%86" title="میسری کۆن – Sorani" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="میسری کۆن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Sorani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starov%C4%9Bk%C3%BD_Egypt" title="Starověký Egypt – Tsjeggies" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Starověký Egypt" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Tsjeggies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Авалхи Египет – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Авалхи Египет" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Hen_Aifft" title="Yr Hen Aifft – Wallies" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Hen Aifft" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Wallies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_gamle_Egypten" title="Det gamle Egypten – Deens" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Det gamle Egypten" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Deens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altes_%C3%84gypten" title="Altes Ägypten – Duits" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altes Ägypten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="Duits" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%B1s%C4%B1ro_Antik" title="Mısıro Antik – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Mısıro Antik" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%91%CE%AF%CE%B3%CF%85%CF%80%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Αρχαία Αίγυπτος – Grieks" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αρχαία Αίγυπτος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Grieks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eg%C3%A9tt_ant%C3%AEg" title="Egétt antîg – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Egétt antîg" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="voorbladartikel"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt – Engels" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Ancient Egypt" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="Engels" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikva_Egiptio" title="Antikva Egiptio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Antikva Egiptio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiguo_Egipto" title="Antiguo Egipto – Spaans" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Antiguo Egipto" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vana-Egiptus" title="Vana-Egiptus – Estnies" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vana-Egiptus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estnies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzinako_Egipto" title="Antzinako Egipto – Baskies" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzinako Egipto" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Baskies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiguu_Egitu" title="Antiguu Egitu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Antiguu Egitu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مصر باستان – Persies" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مصر باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muinainen_Egypti" title="Muinainen Egypti – Fins" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Muinainen Egypti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Fins" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vana-Eg%C3%BCpt%C3%BCs" title="Vana-Egüptüs – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Vana-Egüptüs" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89gypte_antique" title="Égypte antique – Frans" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Égypte antique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="Frans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ual_Egypten" title="Ual Egypten – Noord-Fries" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ual Egypten" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Noord-Fries" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%AEc_Egjit" title="Antîc Egjit – Friuliaans" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Antîc Egjit" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friuliaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alde_Egypte" title="Alde Egypte – Fries" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Alde Egypte" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Fries" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_tSean-%C3%89igipt" title="An tSean-Éigipt – Iers" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An tSean-Éigipt" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Iers" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="古埃及 – Gan-Sjinees" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="古埃及" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan-Sjinees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89jip_antik" title="Éjip antik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Éjip antik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_t-Seann_%C3%88ipheit" title="An t-Seann Èipheit – Skotse Gallies" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="An t-Seann Èipheit" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Skotse Gallies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigo_Exipto" title="Antigo Exipto – Galisies" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Antigo Exipto" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galisies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eh%C3%ADto_Ymaguare" title="Ehíto Ymaguare – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ehíto Ymaguare" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%9A%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%A8_%E0%AA%87%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A4" title="પ્રાચીન ઇજિપ્ત – Goedjarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="પ્રાચીન ઇજિપ્ત" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Goedjarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yn_%C3%87henn_Egypt" title="Yn Çhenn Egypt – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Yn Çhenn Egypt" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="מצרים העתיקה – Hebreeus" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מצרים העתיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebreeus" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="प्राचीन मिस्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्राचीन मिस्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purana_Egypt" title="Purana Egypt – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Purana Egypt" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drevni_Egipat" title="Drevni Egipat – Kroaties" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Drevni Egipat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Kroaties" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93kori_Egyiptom" title="Ókori Egyiptom – Hongaars" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ókori Egyiptom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hongaars" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D4%B5%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%BD" title="Հին Եգիպտոս – Armeens" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հին Եգիպտոս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armeens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypto_antique" title="Egypto antique – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Egypto antique" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesir_Kuno" title="Mesir Kuno – Indonesies" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mesir Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijip%C3%B9t%C3%B9_%E1%BB%8Ckp%E1%BB%A5" title="Ijipùtù Ọkpụ – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ijipùtù Ọkpụ" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taga-ugma_nga_Ehipto" title="Taga-ugma nga Ehipto – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Taga-ugma nga Ehipto" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Шира Мисаре – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Шира Мисаре" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptaland_hi%C3%B0_forna" title="Egyptaland hið forna – Yslands" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Egyptaland hið forna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Yslands" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antico_Egitto" title="Antico Egitto – Italiaans" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Antico Egitto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italiaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E3%82%A8%E3%82%B8%E3%83%97%E3%83%88" title="古代エジプト – Japannees" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古代エジプト" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japannees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ienshent_Iijip" title="Ienshent Iijip – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ienshent Iijip" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesir_Kuna" title="Mesir Kuna – Javaans" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Mesir Kuna" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="voorbladartikel"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94" title="ძველი ეგვიპტე – Georgies" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ძველი ეგვიპტე" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C9%A9b%C9%A9njaaz%C9%A9_Egipiti" title="Kɩbɩnjaazɩ Egipiti – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kɩbɩnjaazɩ Egipiti" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%CC%B1sa%CC%B1t_gbangbang" title="Ma̱sa̱t gbangbang – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Ma̱sa̱t gbangbang" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B3%D1%96_%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80" title="Ежелгі Мысыр – Kazaks" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ежелгі Мысыр" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazaks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8E" title="ប្រទេសអេសុីបបុរាណ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ប្រទេសអេសុីបបុរាណ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9A%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%A8_%E0%B2%88%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C" title="ಪ್ರಾಚೀನ ಈಜಿಪ್ಟ್‌ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪ್ರಾಚೀನ ಈಜಿಪ್ಟ್‌" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%EC%9D%B4%EC%A7%91%ED%8A%B8" title="고대 이집트 – Koreaans" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 이집트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Koreaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-koi mw-list-item"><a href="https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Важ Египет – Komi-Permyaks" lang="koi" hreflang="koi" data-title="Важ Египет" data-language-autonym="Перем коми" data-language-local-name="Komi-Permyaks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Перем коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misira_kevnare" title="Misira kevnare – Koerdies" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Misira kevnare" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Koerdies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Важ Египет – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Важ Египет" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Ejyp" title="Hen Ejyp – Kornies" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Hen Ejyp" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Kornies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus_antiqua" title="Aegyptus antiqua – Latyn" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aegyptus antiqua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%8C_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Дегь Мисри – Lezghies" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Дегь Мисри" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipte_antica" title="Egipte antica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Egipte antica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aad_Egypte" title="Aad Egypte – Limburgs" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Aad Egypte" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgs" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egit_Antich" title="Egit Antich – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Egit Antich" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senov%C4%97s_Egiptas" title="Senovės Egiptas – Litaus" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senovės Egiptas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Litaus" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sen%C4%81_%C4%92%C4%A3ipte" title="Senā Ēģipte – Letties" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Senā Ēģipte" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Letties" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejipta_tamin%27_ny_Andro_Taloha" title="Ejipta tamin' ny Andro Taloha – Malgassies" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Ejipta tamin' ny Andro Taloha" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malgassies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Акрет Египет – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Акрет Египет" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masia_Kuno" title="Masia Kuno – Minangkabaus" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Masia Kuno" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabaus" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Стар Египет – Masedonies" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Стар Египет" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Masedonies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%88%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഈജിപ്ഷ്യൻ സംസ്കാരം – Malabaars" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഈജിപ്ഷ്യൻ സംസ്കാരം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malabaars" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Эртний Египет – Mongools" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эртний Египет" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongools" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%84_%EA%AF%8F%EA%AF%96%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%9E" title="ꯑꯂꯤꯄ ꯏꯖꯤꯞ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯑꯂꯤꯄ ꯏꯖꯤꯞ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="प्राचीन इजिप्त संस्कृती – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्राचीन इजिप्त संस्कृती" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesir_Purba" title="Mesir Purba – Maleis" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mesir Purba" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Maleis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C4%A1ittu_tal-qedem" title="Eġittu tal-qedem – Maltees" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Eġittu tal-qedem" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigo_Eigito" title="Antigo Eigito – Mirandees" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Antigo Eigito" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9F%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AE%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="ရှေးဟောင်းအီဂျစ် – Birmaans" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရှေးဟောင်းအီဂျစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Birmaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antico_Naggitto" title="Antico Naggitto – Neapolitaans" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Antico Naggitto" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oolt_%C3%84gypten" title="Oolt Ägypten – Nederduits" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Oolt Ägypten" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Nederduits" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olle_Egypte" title="Olle Egypte – Nedersaksies" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Olle Egypte" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Nedersaksies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="प्राचीन मिस्र – Nepalees" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्राचीन मिस्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepalees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="प्राचीन मिस्र – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="प्राचीन मिस्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oude_Egypte" title="Oude Egypte – Nederlands" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oude Egypte" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Nederlands" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt_i_oldtida" title="Egypt i oldtida – Nuwe Noors" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Egypt i oldtida" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Nuwe Noors" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldtidens_Egypt" title="Oldtidens Egypt – Boeknoors" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Oldtidens Egypt" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Boeknoors" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipte_antica" title="Egipte antica – Oksitaans" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Egipte antica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Oksitaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muinaine_Jegiptu" title="Muinaine Jegiptu – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Muinaine Jegiptu" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AA%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%9A%E0%AD%80%E0%AC%A8_%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B6%E0%AC%B0" title="ପ୍ରାଚୀନ ମିଶର – Oriya" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ପ୍ରାଚୀନ ମିଶର" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Oriya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80" title="Рагон Мысыр – Osseties" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Рагон Мысыр" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Osseties" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B0" title="ਪ੍ਰਾਚੀਨ ਮਿਸਰ – Pandjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪ੍ਰਾਚੀਨ ਮਿਸਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Pandjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staro%C5%BCytny_Egipt" title="Starożytny Egipt – Pools" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Starożytny Egipt" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Pools" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%DD%A8%D8%A7_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="پراݨا مصر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پراݨا مصر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="لرغونی مصر – Pasjtoe" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لرغونی مصر" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pasjtoe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="voorbladartikel"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigo_Egito" title="Antigo Egito – Portugees" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Antigo Egito" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portugees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawk%27a_Ihiptu" title="Mawk'a Ihiptu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Mawk'a Ihiptu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egiptul_Antic" title="Egiptul Antic – Roemeens" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Egiptul Antic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Roemeens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Древний Египет – Russies" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древний Египет" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%95%D2%91%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Старовікый Еґіпет – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Старовікый Еґіпет" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D0%AD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%8D%D1%82" title="Былыргы Эгиипэт – Sakhaans" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Былыргы Эгиипэт" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Sakhaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%B1_%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A8" title="ᱢᱟᱨᱮᱱ ᱢᱤᱥᱚᱨ – Santalies" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱢᱟᱨᱮᱱ ᱢᱤᱥᱚᱨ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santalies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egitu_Antigu" title="Egitu Antigu – Sardinies" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Egitu Antigu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggittu_anticu" title="Eggittu anticu – Sisiliaans" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Eggittu anticu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sisiliaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="قديم مصر – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="قديم مصر" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stari_Egipat" title="Stari Egipat – Serwo-Kroaties" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Stari Egipat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serwo-Kroaties" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AD%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BA" title="පුරාතන මිසරය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පුරාතන මිසරය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ancient Egypt" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starovek%C3%BD_Egypt" title="Staroveký Egypt – Slowaaks" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Staroveký Egypt" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slowaaks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="voorbladartikel"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stari_Egipt" title="Stari Egipt – Sloweens" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Stari Egipt" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Sloweens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Malo_o_Aikupito" title="Le Malo o Aikupito – Samoaans" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Le Malo o Aikupito" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egjipti_i_lasht%C3%AB" title="Egjipti i lashtë – Albanees" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Egjipti i lashtë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Стари Египат – Serwies" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стари Египат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serwies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forntida_Egypten" title="Forntida Egypten – Sweeds" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Forntida Egypten" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Sweeds" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misri_ya_Kale" title="Misri ya Kale – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Misri ya Kale" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81" title="பண்டைய எகிப்து – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பண்டைய எகிப்து" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%A8_%E0%B0%88%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%81" title="పురాతన ఈజిప్టు – Teloegoe" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పురాతన ఈజిప్టు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Teloegoe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B8_%D2%9A%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Мисри Қадим – Tadjiks" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Мисри Қадим" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tadjiks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93" title="อียิปต์โบราณ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อียิปต์โบราณ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadymy_M%C3%BCs%C3%BCr" title="Gadymy Müsür – Turkmeens" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Gadymy Müsür" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmeens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinaunang_Ehipto" title="Sinaunang Ehipto – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sinaunang Ehipto" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C7%A6%C9%99dim%C9%99_Misir" title="Ǧədimə Misir – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Ǧədimə Misir" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antik_M%C4%B1s%C4%B1r" title="Antik Mısır – Turks" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Antik Mısır" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80" title="Борынгы Мисыр – Tataars" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Борынгы Мисыр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tataars" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%DB%95%D8%AF%D9%89%D9%85%D9%82%D9%89_%D9%85%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89%D8%B1" title="قەدىمقى مىسىر – Uighur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="قەدىمقى مىسىر" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uighur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%84%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Стародавній Єгипет – Oekraïens" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Стародавній Єгипет" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Oekraïens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="قدیم مصر – Oerdoe" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قدیم مصر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Oerdoe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadimgi_Misr" title="Qadimgi Misr – Oezbeeks" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qadimgi Misr" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Oezbeeks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigo_Ezito" title="Antigo Ezito – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Antigo Ezito" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amuine_Egipt" title="Amuine Egipt – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Amuine Egipt" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="voorbladartikel"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ai_C%E1%BA%ADp_c%E1%BB%95_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="Ai Cập cổ đại – Viëtnamees" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ai Cập cổ đại" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Viëtnamees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadton_Ehipto" title="Hadton Ehipto – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Hadton Ehipto" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="古埃及 – Wu-Sjinees" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="古埃及" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu-Sjinees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94" title="ჯვეში ეგვიპტე – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯვეში ეგვიპტე" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%98_%D7%A2%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%98%D7%9F" title="אוראלט עגיפטן – Jiddisj" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אוראלט עגיפטן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Jiddisj" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BA%B8%CC%81g%C3%ADpt%C3%AC_Ay%C3%A9ij%E1%BB%8D%CC%81un" title="Ẹ́gíptì Ayéijọ́un – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ẹ́gíptì Ayéijọ́un" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guj_Aigib" title="Guj Aigib – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Guj Aigib" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%8E%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%9A%E2%B5%95%E2%B4%B0_%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%87%E2%B4%B1%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%94%E2%B5%9C" title="ⵎⵉⵚⵕⴰ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ – Standaard Marokkaanse Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵎⵉⵚⵕⴰ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standaard Marokkaanse Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="古埃及 – Chinees" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古埃及" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="古埃及 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="古埃及" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3%CD%98-t%C4%81i_Ai-ki%CC%8Dp" title="Kó͘-tāi Ai-ki̍p – Min Nan-Sjinees" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kó͘-tāi Ai-ki̍p" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Min Nan-Sjinees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="古埃及 – Kantonees" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="古埃及" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Kantonees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11768#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Wysig skakels tussen tale" class="wbc-editpage">Wysig skakels</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Naamruimtes"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Antieke_Egipte" title="Bekyk die inhoudbladsy [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Bladsy</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bespreking:Antieke_Egipte" rel="discussion" title="Bespreking oor die inhoudbladsy [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Bespreking</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Verander taalvariant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Afrikaans</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Weergawes"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Antieke_Egipte"><span>Lees</span></a></li><li id="ca-ve-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit" title="Redigeer hierdie bladsy [v]" accesskey="v"><span>Wysig</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="collapsible vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit" title="Wysig die bladsy se bonkode [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Wysig bron</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=history" title="Ouer weergawes van hierdie bladsy [h]" accesskey="h"><span>Wys geskiedenis</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" 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class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit" title="Redigeer hierdie bladsy [v]" accesskey="v"><span>Wysig</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="collapsible vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit" title="Wysig die bladsy se bonkode [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Wysig bron</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=history"><span>Wys geskiedenis</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Algemeen </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Skakels_hierheen/Antieke_Egipte" title="'n Lys bladsye wat hierheen skakel [j]" accesskey="j"><span>Skakels hierheen</span></a></li><li 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href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:DownloadAsPdf&page=Antieke_Egipte&action=show-download-screen"><span>Laai af as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&printable=yes" title="Drukbare weergawe van hierdie bladsy [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Drukbare weergawe</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Ander projekte </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egypt" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11768" title="Skakel na gekonnekteerde databank item [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata-item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Voorkoms"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Voorkoms</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">skuif na kantbalk</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">versteek</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">in Wikipedia, die vrye ensiklopedie</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="af" dir="ltr"><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg/294px-Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg" decoding="async" width="294" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg/441px-Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg/588px-Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Die <a href="/wiki/Groot_Sfinks" class="mw-redirect" title="Groot Sfinks">Groot Sfinks</a> en die piramides van <a href="/wiki/Giza" title="Giza">Giza</a> is van die maklikste herkenbare simbole van Antieke Egipte.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Ancient_Egypt_map-af.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ancient_Egypt_map-af.svg/294px-Ancient_Egypt_map-af.svg.png" decoding="async" width="294" height="600" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ancient_Egypt_map-af.svg/441px-Ancient_Egypt_map-af.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ancient_Egypt_map-af.svg/588px-Ancient_Egypt_map-af.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1577" data-file-height="3219" /></a><figcaption>'n Kaart van Antieke Egipte.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Antieke Egipte</b> was die beskawing aan die <a href="/wiki/Nyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyl">Nylrivier</a>, waar die hedendaagse <a href="/wiki/Egipte" title="Egipte">Egipte</a> lê, tussen omstreeks <a href="/wiki/3100_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="3100 v.C.">3100 v.C.</a> en die verowering van <a href="/wiki/Egipte" title="Egipte">Egipte</a> deur <a href="/wiki/Alexander_die_Grote" title="Alexander die Grote">Alexander die Grote</a> in <a href="/wiki/332_v.C." title="332 v.C.">332 v.C.</a> Dit was een van die wêreld se ses beskawings wat in die <a href="/wiki/31ste_eeu_v.C." title="31ste eeu v.C.">31ste eeu v.C.</a> onafhanklik ontstaan het,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> en wel ná die vereniging van <a href="/wiki/Bo-Egipte" title="Bo-Egipte">Bo</a>- en <a href="/wiki/Benede-Egipte" title="Benede-Egipte">Benede-Egipte</a> onder die eerste <a href="/wiki/Farao" title="Farao">farao</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die geskiedenis van Antieke Egipte strek oor 'n paar stabiele koninkryke: die <a href="/wiki/Ou_Ryk" class="mw-redirect" title="Ou Ryk">Ou Ryk</a> van die Vroeë <a href="/wiki/Bronstydperk" title="Bronstydperk">Bronstydperk</a>, die <a href="/wiki/Middelryk" class="mw-redirect" title="Middelryk">Middelryk</a> van die Middel-Bronstydperk en die <a href="/wiki/Nuwe_Ryk" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuwe Ryk">Nuwe Ryk</a> van die Laat Bronstydperk. Hulle is afgewissel met tydperke van relatiewe onstabiliteit wat die "Oorgangstydperke" genoem word. </p><p>Egipte het die hoogtepunt van sy mag tydens die Nuwe Ryk bereik, in die tyd van die Ramses-farao's, toe dit net so sterk soos die <a href="/wiki/Hetiete" title="Hetiete">Hetitiese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assiri%C3%AB" title="Assirië">Assiriese</a> en <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a>-ryk was. Daarna het dit geleidelik verswak. Egipte is in die <a href="/wiki/Derde_Oorgangstydperk_van_Egipte" title="Derde Oorgangstydperk van Egipte">Derde Oorgangstydperk</a> en die <a href="/wiki/Laat_Tydperk_van_Antieke_Egipte" title="Laat Tydperk van Antieke Egipte">Laat Tydperk</a> deur verskeie ander volke binnegeval of verower, soos die <a href="/wiki/Kana%C3%A4niete" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanaäniete">Kanaäniete</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libi%C3%AB" title="Libië">Libië</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nubi%C3%AB" title="Nubië">Nubië</a>, Assirië, <a href="/wiki/Babiloni%C3%AB" title="Babilonië">Babilonië</a> en <a href="/wiki/Antieke_Griekeland" title="Antieke Griekeland">Antieke Griekeland</a>. Ná die dood van <a href="/wiki/Alexander_die_Grote" title="Alexander die Grote">Alexander die Grote</a> het een van sy generaals, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemeus_I_Soter" title="Ptolemeus I Soter">Ptolemeus Soter</a>, hom as heerser van Egipte gevestig. Dié <a href="/wiki/Griekeland" title="Griekeland">Griekse</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptoleme%C3%AFese_Ryk" title="Ptolemeïese Ryk">Ptolemeïese Dinastie</a> het tot <a href="/wiki/30_v.C." title="30 v.C.">30 v.C.</a> oor Egipte regeer, toe dit onder <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a> deur die <a href="/wiki/Romeinse_Ryk" title="Romeinse Ryk">Romeinse Ryk</a> verower is en 'n Romeinse provinsie geword het.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Die sukses van die Antieke Egiptiese beskawing is deels te danke aan die land se vermoë om by die toestande van die Nylriviervallei aan te pas. Die voorspelbare oorstromings en beheerde <a href="/wiki/Besproeiing" title="Besproeiing">besproeiing</a> van die vrugbare vallei het groot oeste tot gevolg gehad, en dit het weer gelei tot 'n digter bevolking, sosiale ontwikkeling en uitgebreide kultuur. Met ekstra bronne tot sy beskikking kon die regering hom wend tot <a href="/wiki/Mineraal" title="Mineraal">mineraalontginning</a> in die vallei en omringende <a href="/wiki/Woestyn" title="Woestyn">woestynstreke</a>, en dit het ook die ontwikkeling van 'n <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_hi%C3%ABrogliewe" title="Egiptiese hiërogliewe">vroeë skryfstelsel</a>, die organisering van kollektiewe bouwerk en landbouprojekte, handel met ander streke en die opbou van 'n militêre mag moontlik gemaak. Dit alles was onder beheer van farao's met behulp van 'n uitgebreide <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_mitologie" title="Egiptiese mitologie">godsdiensstelsel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Onder die baie prestasies van Antieke Egipte was 'n stelsel wat die bou van enorme <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_piramide" title="Egiptiese piramide">piramides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_tempel" title="Egiptiese tempel">tempel</a> en <a href="/wiki/Obelisk" title="Obelisk">obeliske</a> moontlik gemaak het, asook 'n <a href="/wiki/Wiskunde" title="Wiskunde">wiskundestelsel</a>, 'n praktiese en doeltreffende <a href="/wiki/Medisyne" class="mw-redirect" title="Medisyne">medisynestelsel</a>, besproeiing- en landboustelsels, die eerste bekende skepe,<sup id="cite_ref-AIA_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AIA-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> glastegnologie, nuwe vorme van <a href="/wiki/Letterkunde" title="Letterkunde">letterkunde</a> en die eerste bekende vredesverdrag (met die Hetiete).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Antieke Egipte het 'n blywende nalatenskap gehad. Sy <a href="/wiki/Kuns" title="Kuns">kuns</a> en <a href="/wiki/Argitektuur" title="Argitektuur">argitektuur</a> is wyd nageboots en sy oudhede is tot in al die uithoeke van die aarde versprei. Sy monumentale ruïnes inspireer reisigers en skrywers al eeue lank. 'n Nuutgevonde respek vir oudhede en uitgrawings in die vroeë moderne tyd het gelei tot <a href="/wiki/Egiptologie" title="Egiptologie">Egiptologie</a> (die wetenskaplike ondersoek van die Antieke Egiptiese beskawing) en 'n groter waardering vir sy kulturele nalatenskap.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geskiedenis">Geskiedenis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Wysig afdeling: Geskiedenis" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Geskiedenis"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" cellspacing="5" style="float: right; clear: right; color: black; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid #aaa; width: 22em; margin: 0 0 1.0em 1.0em; padding: 0.2em; border-spacing: 0.4em 0; text-align: center; line-height: 1.4em; font-size: 88%;" cellpadding="0"><tbody><tr> <td class="" style="padding: 0.4em 0;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/250px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/375px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/500px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4372" data-file-height="2906" /></a></span></td> </tr><tr> <th class="" style="padding: 0.2em 0.4em 0.2em; font-size: 145%; line-height: 1.15em; font-weight: bold;"><a href="/wiki/Periodisering_van_antieke_Egipte" title="Periodisering van antieke Egipte">Tydperke</a> en <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dinastie%C3%AB_van_antieke_Egipte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dinastieë van antieke Egipte (bladsy bestaan nie)">dinastieë</a> van <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Antieke Egipte</a></th> </tr><tr> <td class="" style="padding: 0.3em 0.4em 0.3em; font-weight: bold; border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; border:none;padding-top:0;font-weight:normal;"><div style="line-height:normal;">Alle jare is <a href="/wiki/Anno_Domini" title="Anno Domini">v.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr> <td style="padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%; background:transparent; color:inherit" align="left"><a href="/wiki/Vroegdinastiese_Tydperk_van_Egipte" title="Vroegdinastiese Tydperk van Egipte">Vroeë Tydperk</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Voorhistoriese_Egipte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Voorhistoriese Egipte (bladsy bestaan nie)">Voordinastiese tydperk</a></td><td style="width:1.3em;text-align:center;"></td><td style="text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="1ste Dinastie van Egipte">Eerste Dinastie</a></td><td style="width:1.3em;text-align:center;"> I</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 3150–2890</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="2de Dinastie van Egipte">Tweede Dinastie</a></td><td style="width:1.3em;text-align:center;"> II</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2890–2686</td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td> </tr><tr> <td style="padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%; background:transparent; color:inherit" align="left"><a href="/wiki/Ou_Ryk_van_Egipte" title="Ou Ryk van Egipte">Ou Ryk</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/3de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="3de Dinastie van Egipte">Derde Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> III</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2686–2613</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/4de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="4de Dinastie van Egipte">Vierde Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> IV</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2613–2498</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/5de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="5de Dinastie van Egipte">Vyfde Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> V</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2498–2345</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/6de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="6de Dinastie van Egipte">Sesde Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> VI</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2345–2181</td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td> </tr><tr> <td style="padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%; background:transparent; color:inherit" align="left"><a href="/wiki/Eerste_Oorgangstydperk_van_Egipte" title="Eerste Oorgangstydperk van Egipte">Eerste Oorgang</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/7de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="7de Dinastie van Egipte">Sewende Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> VII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> twyfelagtig</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/8ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="8ste Dinastie van Egipte">Agtste Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> VIII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2181–2160</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/9de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="9de Dinastie van Egipte">Negende Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> IX</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2160–2130</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/10de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="10de Dinastie van Egipte">Tiende Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> X</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2130–2040</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> Vroeë <a href="/wiki/11de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="11de Dinastie van Egipte">Elfde Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XI</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2134–2061</td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td> </tr><tr> <td style="padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%; background:transparent; color:inherit" align="left"><a href="/wiki/Middelryk_van_Egipte" title="Middelryk van Egipte">Middelryk</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> Laat <a href="/wiki/11de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="11de Dinastie van Egipte">Elfde Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XI</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2061–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/12de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="12de Dinastie van Egipte">Twaalfde Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1991–1803</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/13de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="13de Dinastie van Egipte">Dertiende Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XIII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1803–1649</td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td> </tr><tr> <td style="padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%; background:transparent; color:inherit" align="left"><a href="/wiki/Tweede_Oorgangstydperk_van_Egipte" title="Tweede Oorgangstydperk van Egipte">Tweede Oorgang</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/14de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="14de Dinastie van Egipte">Veertiende Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XIV</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1705–1690</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/15de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="15de Dinastie van Egipte">Vyftiende Dinastie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>)</td><td style="text-align:center;"> XV</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1674–1535</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/16de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="16de Dinastie van Egipte">Sestiende Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XVI</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1660–1600</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abydos_Dinastie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abydos Dinastie (bladsy bestaan nie)">Abydos Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1650–1600</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/17de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="17de Dinastie van Egipte">Sewentiende Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XVII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1580–1549</td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td> </tr><tr> <td style="padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%; background:transparent; color:inherit" align="left"><a href="/wiki/Nuwe_Ryk_van_Egipte" title="Nuwe Ryk van Egipte">Nuwe Ryk</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/18de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="18de Dinastie van Egipte">Agtiende Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XVIII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1549–1292</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/19de_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="19de Dinastie van Egipte">Negentiende Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XIX</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1292–1189</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/20ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="20ste Dinastie van Egipte">Twintigste Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XX</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1189–1077</td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td> </tr><tr> <td style="padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%; background:transparent; color:inherit" align="left"><a href="/wiki/Derde_Oorgangstydperk_van_Egipte" title="Derde Oorgangstydperk van Egipte">Derde Oorgang</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/21ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="21ste Dinastie van Egipte">Een-en-twintigste Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXI</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1069–945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/22ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="22ste Dinastie van Egipte">Twee-en-twintigste Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 945–720</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/23ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="23ste Dinastie van Egipte">Drie-en-twintigste Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXIII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 837–728</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/24ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="24ste Dinastie van Egipte">Vier-en-twintigste Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXIV</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 732–720</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/25ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="25ste Dinastie van Egipte">Vyf-en-twintigste Dinastie</a> (<a href="/wiki/25ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="25ste Dinastie van Egipte">Nubiese</a>)</td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXV</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 732–653</td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td> </tr><tr> <td style="padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%; background:transparent; color:inherit" align="left"><a href="/wiki/Laat_Tydperk_van_Antieke_Egipte" title="Laat Tydperk van Antieke Egipte">Laat Tydperk</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/26ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="26ste Dinastie van Egipte">Ses-en-twintigste Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXVI</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 672–525</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <div style="line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/27ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="27ste Dinastie van Egipte">Sewe-en-twintigste Dinastie<br />(1ste Persiese Tydperk)</a></div></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXVII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 525–404</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/28ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="28ste Dinastie van Egipte">Agt-en-twintigste Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXVIII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 404–398</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/29ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="29ste Dinastie van Egipte">Nege-en-twintigste Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXIX</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 398–380</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/30ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="30ste Dinastie van Egipte">Dertigste Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXX</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 380–343</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <div style="line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/31ste_Dinastie_van_Egipte" title="31ste Dinastie van Egipte">Een-en-dertigste Dinastie<br />(2de Persiese Tydperk)</a></div></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXXI</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 343–332</td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td> </tr><tr> <td style="padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%; background:transparent; color:inherit" align="left"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistiese_tydperk" title="Hellenistiese tydperk">Hellenistiese Egipte</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Arge%C3%AFese_Dinastie" title="Argeïese Dinastie">Twee-en-dertigste Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXXII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 332–305</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ptoleme%C3%AFese_Ryk" title="Ptolemeïese Ryk">Drie-en-dertigste Dinastie</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXXIII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 305–30</td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td> </tr><tr> <td style="padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%; background:transparent; color:inherit" align="left"><a href="/wiki/Aegyptus_(Romeinse_provinsie)" title="Aegyptus (Romeinse provinsie)">Romeinse Egipte</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center; padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <div style="line-height:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romeinse_farao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Romeinse farao (bladsy bestaan nie)">Vier-en-dertigste Dinastie<br />(Romeinse faraos)</a></div></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXXIV</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 30–313 n.C.</td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td> </tr><tr> <td style="text-align: right; padding-top: 0.6em;"><div class="noprint plainlinks navbar" style="background:none; padding:0; font-weight:normal;; font-size:xx-small;"><a href="/wiki/Sjabloon:Antieke_Egipte" title="Sjabloon:Antieke Egipte"><span title="Sien hierdie sjabloon" style="">s</span></a> <span style="font-size:80%;">•</span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sjabloonbespreking:Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sjabloonbespreking:Antieke Egipte (bladsy bestaan nie)"><span title="Bespreek hierdie sjabloon" style="">b</span></a> <span style="font-size:80%;">•</span> <a class="external text" href="https://af.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sjabloon:Antieke_Egipte&action=edit"><span title="Wysig hierdie sjabloon" style=";">w</span></a></div></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p>Die <a href="/wiki/Nyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyl">Nyl</a> was vir die grootste deel van die menslike geskiedenis die lewenslyn van die streek.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die vrugbare oorstromingsgebied van die rivier het mense die geleentheid gegee om 'n landbou-ekonomie en 'n meer gesofistikeerde, gesentraliseerde gemeenskap te skep.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nomadiese jagters het aan die einde van die <a href="/wiki/Pleistoseen" title="Pleistoseen">Middel-Pleistoseen</a>, sowat 120 000 jaar gelede, in die Nylriviervallei gaan woon. Teen die laat <a href="/wiki/Paleolitikum" title="Paleolitikum">Paleolitikum</a> het die <a href="/wiki/Klimaat" title="Klimaat">klimaat</a> van <a href="/wiki/Noord-Afrika" title="Noord-Afrika">Noord-Afrika</a> al hoe warmer en droër geword, en die mense het om die Nyl begin saamtrek. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predinastiese_Tydperk">Predinastiese Tydperk</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Wysig afdeling: Predinastiese Tydperk" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Predinastiese Tydperk"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg/200px-Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg/300px-Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg/400px-Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="716" /></a><figcaption>'n Tipiese Naqada II-pot wat met bokke versier is (Predinastiese Tydperk).</figcaption></figure> <p>In Predinastiese en <a href="/wiki/Vroegdinastiese_Tydperk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vroegdinastiese Tydperk">Vroegdinastiese</a> tye was die Egiptiese klimaat baie minder droog as vandag. Groot dele van die land was bedek met savanne en het troppe hoefdiere gehuisves. <a href="/wiki/Plante" class="mw-redirect" title="Plante">Plante</a> en <a href="/wiki/Diere" class="mw-redirect" title="Diere">diere</a> was baie meer volop in al die streke. Jag sou belangrik gewees het vir die vroeë <a href="/wiki/Egiptenare" title="Egiptenare">Egiptenare</a>, en dit is ook die tyd waarin diere vir die eerste keer mak gemaak is.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Teen die helfte van die 6de millennium v.C. het klein stamme wat in die Nylvallei gewoon het, ontwikkel in 'n reeks kulture wat landbou en veeteelt beoefen het. Hulle het ook potte en persoonlike artikels gemaak soos kamme, armbande en krale. Die grootste van hierdie vroeë kulture in <a href="/wiki/Bo-Egipte" title="Bo-Egipte">Bo-Egipte</a> (die suide) was die Badari, wie se oorsprong waarskynlik in die Westelike Woestyn lê; hulle is bekend vanweë hul keramiekwerk, steengereedskap en koperartikels van hoë gehalte.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Die Badari is opgevolg deur die Amratiese (Naqada I) en die Gerzeh-kultuur (Naqada II),<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wat verantwoordelik was vir 'n aantal tegnologiese vorderings. Reeds in die Naqada I-tydperk het predinastiese Egiptenare <a href="/w/index.php?title=Obsidiaan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Obsidiaan (bladsy bestaan nie)">obsidiaan</a> van <a href="/wiki/Ethiopi%C3%AB" title="Ethiopië">Ethiopië</a> af ingevoer om lemme en ander voorwerpe te maak.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Uit die Naqada II-tydperk is bewyse gevind van kontak met die <a href="/wiki/Midde-Ooste" title="Midde-Ooste">Midde-Ooste</a>, veral <a href="/wiki/Kana%C3%A4n" title="Kanaän">Kanaän</a> en die <a href="/wiki/Bublos" title="Bublos">Bublos</a>-kus.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oor 'n tydperk van sowat duisend jaar het die Naqada-kultuur uit 'n paar klein boerderygemeenskappe ontwikkel tot 'n magtige beskawing wie se leiers in algehele beheer van die mense en bronne van die Nylvallei was.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die Naqada III-leiers het 'n mag gevestig wat by <a href="/wiki/Hierakonpolis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierakonpolis">Hierakonpolis</a>, en later by Abydos, gesentreer was en hul beheer oor Egipte noordwaarts met die Nyl langs uitgebrei.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw61_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw61-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hulle het ook handel gedryf met <a href="/wiki/Nubi%C3%AB" title="Nubië">Nubië</a> in die suide, die oasisse van die Westelike Woestyn in die weste en die kulture van die Oos-<a href="/wiki/Mediterreense" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterreense">Mediterreense</a> gebied en die <a href="/wiki/Nabye_Ooste" title="Nabye Ooste">Nabye Ooste</a> in die ooste.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw61_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw61-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Nubiese koninklike grafte is die oudste bekende voorbeelde van Egiptiese dinastiese simbole gevind, soos die <a href="/wiki/Pschent" title="Pschent">wit kroon</a> van <a href="/wiki/Bo-Egipte" title="Bo-Egipte">Bo-Egipte</a> en die valk.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Die Naqada-kultuur het 'n uiteenlopende hoeveelheid goedere vervaardig wat die toenemende mag en rykdom van die elite weerspieël het, sowel as persoonlike artikels soos kamme, beeldjies, geverfde potte, klipvase en juwele van onder meer <a href="/wiki/Goud" title="Goud">goud</a> en <a href="/wiki/Ivoor" title="Ivoor">ivoor</a>. Hulle het ook 'n keramiekglasuur, bekend as "faience", ontdek wat tot in die Romeinse Tydperk gebruik is om bekers, gelukbringers en beeldjies te versier.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In die laaste deel van die Predinastiese Tydperk het die Naqada-kultuur skrifsimbole ontwikkel wat eindelik gelei het tot 'n volledige stelsel <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_hi%C3%ABrogliewe" title="Egiptiese hiërogliewe">hiërogliewe</a> vir die skryf van <a href="/wiki/Egipties" title="Egipties">Egipties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vroegdinastiese_tydperk_(c._3050–2686_v.C.)"><span id="Vroegdinastiese_tydperk_.28c._3050.E2.80.932686_v.C..29"></span>Vroegdinastiese tydperk (c. 3050–2686 v.C.)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Wysig afdeling: Vroegdinastiese tydperk (c. 3050–2686 v.C.)" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Vroegdinastiese tydperk (c. 3050–2686 v.C.)"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Die <a href="/wiki/Vroegdinastiese_Tydperk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vroegdinastiese Tydperk">Vroegdinastiese Tydperk</a> het omtrent saam met die vroeë <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumereries&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumereries (bladsy bestaan nie)">Sumereries</a>-<a href="/w/index.php?title=Akkadiese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Akkadiese (bladsy bestaan nie)">Akkadiese</a> beskawing van <a href="/wiki/Mesopotami%C3%AB" title="Mesopotamië">Mesopotamië</a> en antieke <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> bestaan. Die Egiptiese priester <a href="/wiki/Manetho" title="Manetho">Manetho</a> van die <a href="/wiki/3de_eeu_v.C." title="3de eeu v.C.">3de eeu v.C.</a> het die lang lyn <a href="/wiki/Farao" title="Farao">farao</a>'s van die eerste een tot met sy tyd ingedeel in 31 dinastieë, 'n stelsel wat vandag nog gebruik word.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hy het sy amptelike geskiedenis begin met <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a>, wat vermoedelik die twee ryke <a href="/wiki/Bo-Egipte" title="Bo-Egipte">Bo</a>- en <a href="/wiki/Benede-Egipte" title="Benede-Egipte">Benede-Egipte</a> omstreeks <a href="/wiki/3100_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="3100 v.C.">3100 v.C.</a> verenig het.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:NarmerPalette_ROM-gamma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/NarmerPalette_ROM-gamma.jpg/220px-NarmerPalette_ROM-gamma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/NarmerPalette_ROM-gamma.jpg/330px-NarmerPalette_ROM-gamma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/NarmerPalette_ROM-gamma.jpg/440px-NarmerPalette_ROM-gamma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2761" data-file-height="1953" /></a><figcaption>Die Narmer-palet beeld die vereniging van die Twee Lande uit.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Die oorgang van die twee ryke in een staat het waarskynlik geleideliker plaasgevind as wat Egiptiese skrywers dit beskryf, en daar is geen rekord van Menes uit sy tyd nie. Baie geleerdes glo Menes was dalk farao <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a>, wat uitgebeeld word met koninklike drag op die seremoniële <a href="/wiki/Narmer-palet" title="Narmer-palet">Narmer-palet</a>, waarop die vereniging van die Twee Lande uitgebeeld word.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In die Vroegdinastiese Tydperk, omstreeks <a href="/wiki/3150_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="3150 v.C.">3150 v.C.</a>, was die mag van die eerste farao's by <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egipte" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis, Egipte">Memphis</a> gesentreer, van waar hulle die werkmag en landbou in die vrugbare <a href="/wiki/Nyldelta" title="Nyldelta">Nyldelta</a> kon beheer, sowel as die belangrike handelsroete na die <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. Die toenemende mag en rykdom van die eerste farao's is duidelik uit hul versierde <a href="/wiki/Mastaba" title="Mastaba">mastabagrafkelders</a> en kultusgeboue by Abydos, wat gebruik is om die vergoddelikte farao ná sy dood te vereer.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die koningskap wat deur die farao's ontwikkel is, het staatsbeheer oor die land, arbeid en bronne gewettig – wat belangrik was vir die oorlewing en groei van Antieke Egiptiese beskawings.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ou_Ryk_(2686–2181_v.C.)"><span id="Ou_Ryk_.282686.E2.80.932181_v.C..29"></span>Ou Ryk (2686–2181 v.C.)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Wysig afdeling: Ou Ryk (2686–2181 v.C.)" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Ou Ryk (2686–2181 v.C.)"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/220px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/330px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/440px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4372" data-file-height="2906" /></a><figcaption>Die Giza-piramides.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Khafre_statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Khafre_statue.jpg/200px-Khafre_statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Khafre_statue.jpg/300px-Khafre_statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Khafre_statue.jpg/400px-Khafre_statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>'n Standbeeld van <a href="/wiki/Chafra" title="Chafra">Chafra</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Groot vordering is tydens die <a href="/wiki/Ou_Ryk" class="mw-redirect" title="Ou Ryk">Ou Ryk</a> gemaak wat betref argitektuur, kuns en tegnologie. Dit was die resultaat van verhoogde landbouproduktiwiteit, 'n groter bevolking en waarskynlik 'n goed ontwikkelde sentrale administrasie.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Van die grootste prestasie van Antieke Egipte kom uit die Ou Ryk: die <a href="/wiki/Giza" title="Giza">Giza</a>-piramides en die <a href="/wiki/Groot_Sfinks" class="mw-redirect" title="Groot Sfinks">Groot Sfinks</a>. Belasting is ook ingevorder, besproeiingsprojekte gekoördineer om oeste te vergroot, boere is opgeroep vir bouprojekte en 'n regstelsel is gevestig om vrede en orde te handhaaf.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Saam met die opkoms van 'n belangrike en sentrale administrasie het 'n nuwe klas opgevoede skribas en amptenare ontstaan wat landgoedere van die farao gekry het as betaling vir hul dienste. Farao's het ook geld gegee vir hul dodekultusse en plaaslike <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_tempel" title="Egiptiese tempel">tempels</a> om te verseker dié instellings het genoeg geld om die farao ná sy dood te aanbid. Geleerdes glo vyf eeue van dié praktyke het die ekonomiese mag van die farao's geleidelik gekelder en daartoe gelei dat die ekonomie nie meer 'n groot gesentraliseerde administrasie kon hanteer nie.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Namate die farao's se mag afgeneem het, het streeksgoewerneurs (<a href="/wiki/Nomos" title="Nomos">nomargs</a>) die oppergesag van die farao's begin bevraagteken. Dit, tesame met kwaai droogtes tussen <a href="/wiki/2200_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="2200 v.C.">2200</a> en <a href="/wiki/2150_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="2150 v.C.">2150 v.C.</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> het waarskynlik gelei tot 'n 140 jaar lange tydperk van <a href="/wiki/Hongersnood" title="Hongersnood">hongersnood</a> en onmin bekend as die <a href="/wiki/Eerste_Oorgangstydperk_van_Egipte" title="Eerste Oorgangstydperk van Egipte">Eerste Oorgangstydperk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eerste_Oorgangstydperk_(2181–1991_v.C.)"><span id="Eerste_Oorgangstydperk_.282181.E2.80.931991_v.C..29"></span>Eerste Oorgangstydperk (2181–1991 v.C.)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Wysig afdeling: Eerste Oorgangstydperk (2181–1991 v.C.)" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Eerste Oorgangstydperk (2181–1991 v.C.)"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nadat Egipte se sentrale regering aan die einde van die Ou Ryk ineengestort het, kon die administrasie nie meer die land se ekonomie onderhou of stabiliseer nie. Streeksgoewerneurs kon nie meer op die farao's staatmaak in tye van krisis nie, en voedseltekorte en politieke twiste het gelei tot hongersnood en kleinskaalse burgeroorloë. </p><p>Plaaslike leiers, wat niks aan die farao's verskuldig was nie, het hul nuwe onafhanklikheid gebruik om 'n vooruitstrewende kultuur in die provinsies te vestig. Namate die provinsies beheer oor hul eie bronne geneem het, het hulle ryker geword; dit word weerspieël deur groter en beter begrafnisse onder alle sosiale klasse.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Provinsiale ambagsmanne het kulturele motiewe wat voorheen tot die koninklikes beperk was, gebruik en aangepas. Skribas het letterkundige style ontwikkel wat die optimisme en oorspronklikheid van die tydperk weerspieël.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw146_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw146-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plaaslike leiers het met mekaar begin meeding om grondgebied en politieke mag. Teen <a href="/wiki/2160_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="2160 v.C.">2160 v.C.</a> het heersers in <a href="/wiki/Herakleopolis" title="Herakleopolis">Herakleopolis</a> Benede-Egipte in die noorde beheer, terwyl 'n mededingende klan van <a href="/wiki/Thebe,_Egipte" title="Thebe, Egipte">Thebe</a>, die <a href="/wiki/Intefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Intefs">Intefs</a>, beheer in Bo-Egipte in die suide oorgeneem het. Namate die Intefs magtiger geword het en hul beheer noordwaarts uitgebrei het, het 'n botsing tussen die twee dinastieë onafwendbaar geword. Omstreeks <a href="/wiki/2055_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="2055 v.C.">2055 v.C.</a> het die noordelike Thebaanse magte onder <a href="/wiki/Mentoehotep_II" title="Mentoehotep II">Mentoehotep II</a> eindelik die Herakleopolis-heersers verslaan en die Twee Lande herenig. Dit het 'n tydperk ingelui van ekonomiese en kulturele vernuwing bekend as die <a href="/wiki/Middelryk" class="mw-redirect" title="Middelryk">Middelryk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middelryk_(2134–1690_v.C.)"><span id="Middelryk_.282134.E2.80.931690_v.C..29"></span>Middelryk (2134–1690 v.C.)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Wysig afdeling: Middelryk (2134–1690 v.C.)" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Middelryk (2134–1690 v.C.)"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Egypte_louvre_231_visage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Egypte_louvre_231_visage.jpg/200px-Egypte_louvre_231_visage.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Egypte_louvre_231_visage.jpg/300px-Egypte_louvre_231_visage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Egypte_louvre_231_visage.jpg/400px-Egypte_louvre_231_visage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1249" data-file-height="1299" /></a><figcaption>Amenemhat III, die laaste groot heerser van die Middelryk.</figcaption></figure> <p>Die farao's van die Middelryk het die land se vooruitgang en stabiliteit hervestig en so 'n oplewing in kuns, letterkunde, en bouprojekte gestimuleer.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mentoehotep_II" title="Mentoehotep II">Mentoehotep II</a> en sy opvolgers van die <a href="/wiki/11de_Dinastie" class="mw-redirect" title="11de Dinastie">11de Dinastie</a> het van Thebe af regeer, maar die visier <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhat I</a> het die regeringsetel omstreeks <a href="/wiki/1985_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="1985 v.C.">1985 v.C.</a> na die stad <a href="/wiki/Itjtawy" title="Itjtawy">Itjtawy</a> geskuif nadat hy aan die bewind gekom en die <a href="/wiki/12de_Dinastie" class="mw-redirect" title="12de Dinastie">12de Dinastie</a> gestig het.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die farao's van dié dinastie het die landboustelsel verbeter en grondgebied in <a href="/wiki/Nubi%C3%AB" title="Nubië">Nubië</a> verower wat ryk was aan steengroewe en goudmyne. Mure in die Oostelike Delta is ook gebou om die land teen invalle van buite te beskerm.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Die militêre en politieke sekuriteit en die groter rykdom het 'n oplewing teweeggebring in kuns, en godsdiens het floreer. In teenstelling met die elitistiese houding van die Ou Ryk teenoor die gode, het die farao's van die Middelryk die hiernamaals "gedemokratiseer"; alle mense het nou 'n siel gehad en kon ná hul dood in die midde van die gode verwelkom word.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Letterkundige temas en karakters was gesofistikeerd.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw146_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw146-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die reliëf- en portretwerk van dié tyd het subtiele, individuele detail uitgebeeld wat nuwe hoogtes van tegniese perfeksie bereik het.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Die laaste groot heerser van die Middelryk, <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_III" title="Amenemhat III">Amenemhat III</a>, het <a href="/wiki/Semitiese_taalfamilie" title="Semitiese taalfamilie">Semities</a>-sprekende <a href="/wiki/Kana%C3%A4n" title="Kanaän">Kanaäniete</a> uit die Midde-Ooste in die delta verwelkom en so die werkmag uitgebrei vir sy omvattende myn- en bouveldtogte. Dié veldtogte en kwaai oorstromings van die Nyl later in sy bewind, het egter 'n stremming op die ekonomie geplaas en gelei tot die geleidelike verval tot die <a href="/wiki/Tweede_Oorgangstydperk_van_Egipte" title="Tweede Oorgangstydperk van Egipte">Tweede Oorgangstydperk</a>. Tydens dié agteruitgang het die Kanaänitiese setlaars beheer oor die deltastreek begin oorneem en endelik in Egipte aan die bewind gekom as die <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tweede_Oorgangstydperk_(1674–1549_v.C.)"><span id="Tweede_Oorgangstydperk_.281674.E2.80.931549_v.C..29"></span>Tweede Oorgangstydperk (1674–1549 v.C.)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Wysig afdeling: Tweede Oorgangstydperk (1674–1549 v.C.)" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Tweede Oorgangstydperk (1674–1549 v.C.)"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Omstreeks <a href="/wiki/1785_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="1785 v.C.">1785 v.C.</a> het die Hyksos die bewind in Egipte oorgeneem en die sentrale regering na Thebe laat terugval. Die farao is soos 'n leenheer behandel en hy moes belasting betaal.<sup id="cite_ref-Ryholt310_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ryholt310-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die Hyksos ("buitelandse heersers") het die Egiptiese regeringsmodel aanvaar en Egiptiese kultuurelemente aangeneem. Hulle en ander Semitiese invallers het Egipte bekend gestel aan nuwe oorlogstuig, veral die moderne boog en 'n strydwa wat deur perde getrek is.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nadat die Thebaanse konings teruggeval het, het hulle hulself tussen die Hyksos in die noorde en hul Nubiese bondgenote, die <a href="/wiki/Koesj" title="Koesj">Koesjiete</a>, in die suide bevind. Nadat hulle jare lank leenhere in hul eie land was, het Thebe die Hyksos eindelik uitgedaag in 'n magstryd wat langer as 30 jaar geduur het, tot <a href="/wiki/1555_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="1555 v.C.">1555 v.C.</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ryholt310_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ryholt310-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Farao's <a href="/wiki/Seqenenre_Tao_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Seqenenre Tao II">Seqenenre Tao II</a> en <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kamose&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kamose (bladsy bestaan nie)">Kamose</a> kon die <a href="/wiki/Nubi%C3%ABrs" title="Nubiërs">Nubiërs</a> in die suide verslaan, maar het geen sukses teen die Hyksos behaal nie. Eers Kamose se opvolger, <a href="/wiki/Ahmoses_I" title="Ahmoses I">Ahmoses I</a>, het die Hyksos met 'n reeks veldtogte uitgedelg. Hy het 'n nuwe dinastie gestig. In die <a href="/wiki/Nuwe_Ryk" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuwe Ryk">Nuwe Ryk</a> wat daarop gevolg het, het militêre uitbreiding 'n sentrale prioriteit geword vir die farao's, wat Egipte se grense wou uitbrei en beheer oor die Nabye Ooste wou hê.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuwe_Ryk_(1549–1069_v.C.)"><span id="Nuwe_Ryk_.281549.E2.80.931069_v.C..29"></span>Nuwe Ryk (1549–1069 v.C.)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Wysig afdeling: Nuwe Ryk (1549–1069 v.C.)" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Nuwe Ryk (1549–1069 v.C.)"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Il_tempio_di_Hatshepsut.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Il_tempio_di_Hatshepsut.JPG/260px-Il_tempio_di_Hatshepsut.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Il_tempio_di_Hatshepsut.JPG/390px-Il_tempio_di_Hatshepsut.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Il_tempio_di_Hatshepsut.JPG/520px-Il_tempio_di_Hatshepsut.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2505" data-file-height="1863" /></a><figcaption>Djeser-Djeseroe is die hoofgebou van Hatsjepsoet se dodetempelkompleks by <a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Bahri" class="mw-redirect" title="Deir el-Bahri">Deir el-Bahri</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Die farao's van die Nuwe Ryk het 'n tydperk van ongekende vooruitgang ingelui deur hul grense te beveilig en diplomatieke bande met hul bure soos die Mitanni-ryk, Assirië en Kanaän aan te knoop. Militêre veldtogte deur <a href="/wiki/Toetmoses_I" title="Toetmoses I">Toetmoses I</a> en sy kleinseun <a href="/wiki/Toetmoses_III" title="Toetmoses III">Toetmoses III</a> het die farao's se invloed uitgebrei oor die grootste gebied ooit. <a href="/wiki/Hatsjepsoet" title="Hatsjepsoet">Hatsjepsoet</a>, wat tussen hulle farao was, het vrede aangemoedig en handelsroetes herstel wat tydens die Hyksos-beleg verbreek is. Sy het ook roetes na nuwe gebiede oopgestel. Toe Toetmoses III in <a href="/wiki/1425_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="1425 v.C.">1425 v.C.</a> dood is, het die Egiptiese Ryk gestrek van <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nija&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nija (bladsy bestaan nie)">Nija</a> in Noordwes-<a href="/wiki/Siri%C3%AB" title="Sirië">Sirië</a> tot by die vierde waterval van die Nyl in Nubië. Egipte het ook bondgenote gehad wat die invoer van belangrike artikels soos hout en brons moontlik gemaak het.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Die farao's het in dié tyd 'n grootskaalse bouprojek begin vir die god <a href="/wiki/Amoen" title="Amoen">Amoen</a>, wie se groeiende kultus in <a href="/wiki/Karnak" title="Karnak">Karnak</a> was. Hulle het ook monumente opgerig om hul eie (werklike of verbeelde) prestasies te vier. Veral Hatsjepsoet het gehou van groot vertoon in die bouwerk tydens haar 22 jaar lange, suksesvolle bewind. </p><p>Omstreeks <a href="/wiki/1350_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="1350 v.C.">1350 v.C.</a> is die stabiliteit van die Nuwe Ryk bedreig toe Amenhotep IV farao word en 'n reeks radikale en chaotiese hervormings instel. Hy het sy naam na <a href="/wiki/Achenaten" title="Achenaten">Achenaten</a> verander, die obskure songod <a href="/wiki/Aten" title="Aten">Aten</a> tot die belangrikste god verklaar en die aanbidding van die meeste ander gode onderdruk. Hy het sy hoofsetel na die nuwe stad Achetaten (hedendaagse <a href="/wiki/Amarna" title="Amarna">Amarna</a>) geskuif en hom blind gehou vir gebeure in die Nabye Ooste, waar die Hetiete, Mitanni en <a href="/wiki/Assiri%C3%ABrs" title="Assiriërs">Assiriërs</a> om beheer meegeding het. Ná sy dood is sy nuwe kultus van Aten verwerp, die priesters van Amoen het hul mag teruggekry en die hoofstad is teruggeskuif na Thebe. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG/140px-SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG" decoding="async" width="140" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG/210px-SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG/280px-SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1664" data-file-height="2496" /></a><figcaption>Vier kolossale standbeelde van <a href="/wiki/Ramses_II" title="Ramses II">Ramses II</a> weerskante van sy tempel <a href="/wiki/Aboe_Simbel" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboe Simbel">Aboe Simbel</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Omstreeks <a href="/wiki/1279_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="1279 v.C.">1279 v.C.</a> het <a href="/wiki/Ramses_II" title="Ramses II">Ramses II</a>, ook bekend as Ramses die Grote, die troon bestyg en nog tempels laat bou, nog standbeelde laat oprig en meer kinders gehad as enige ander farao in die geskiedenis. (By sy twee hoofvroue en groot harem het hy meer as honderd kinders gehad.)<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hy was 'n goeie militêre leier en het teen die Hetiete opgeruk. Nadat nie een kant kon veld wen nie, het hulle omstreeks <a href="/wiki/1258_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="1258 v.C.">1258 v.C.</a> die eerste bekende vredesverdrag gesluit.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Intussen het Egipte se rykdom hom 'n gesogte teiken vir invalle gemaak, veral vir die <a href="/wiki/Libi%C3%AB" title="Libië">Libiese</a> <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a> in die weste en die <a href="/wiki/Seevolke" title="Seevolke">Seevolke</a>, 'n magtige konfederasie van grootliks <a href="/wiki/Griekeland" title="Griekeland">Griekse</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Loewies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Loewies (bladsy bestaan nie)">Loewiese</a> en Kanaänitiese seerowers van die <a href="/wiki/Ege%C3%AFese_See" title="Egeïese See">Egeïese See</a>. Die weermag kon aanvanklik hul aanvalle stuit, maar eindelik het Egipte beheer verloor oor sy oorblywende gebiede in Suid-Kanaän. Die bedreiging van buite is vererger deur interne probleme soos korrupsie, grafkelderrowery en burgerlike onrus. Nadat die priesters van Amoen hul mag teruggekry het, het hulle ook groot grondgebied en rykdom vergaar. Hul uitgebreide mag het die land verder verdeel tydens die <a href="/wiki/Derde_Oorgangstydperk_van_Egipte" title="Derde Oorgangstydperk van Egipte">Derde Oorgangstydperk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Derde_Oorgangstydperk_(1069–653_v.C.)"><span id="Derde_Oorgangstydperk_.281069.E2.80.93653_v.C..29"></span>Derde Oorgangstydperk (1069–653 v.C.)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Wysig afdeling: Derde Oorgangstydperk (1069–653 v.C.)" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Derde Oorgangstydperk (1069–653 v.C.)"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ná die dood van <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ramses_XI&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ramses XI (bladsy bestaan nie)">Ramses XI</a> in <a href="/wiki/1078_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="1078 v.C.">1078 v.C.</a> het <a href="/w/index.php?title=Smendes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Smendes (bladsy bestaan nie)">Smendes</a> beheer oor die noordelike deel van Egipte oorgeneem en <a href="/wiki/Tanis" title="Tanis">Tanis</a> sy hoofstad gemaak. Die suide is in effek regeer deur die hoëpriesters van Amoen by Thebes, wat Smendes net in naam erken het.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In dié tyd het <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berber</a>-stamme uit wat later Libië sou word, hulle in die westelike delta begin vestig. Hul stamhoofde het hul outonomiteit begin vergroot. Libiese prinse het in <a href="/wiki/945_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="945 v.C.">945 v.C.</a> onder <a href="/wiki/Sjosjenq_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Sjosjenq I">Sjosjenq I</a> beheer oor die delta oorgeneem en die Berber-dinastie gestig wat sowat 200 jaar lank regeer het. Sjosjenq het ook sy beheer oor die suide vergroot deur sy familielede in belangrike priestersposisies aan te stel. </p><p>In die middel van die <a href="/wiki/9de_eeu_v.C." title="9de eeu v.C.">9de eeu v.C.</a> het Egipte 'n mislukte poging aangewend om weer 'n voet in <a href="/wiki/Wes-Asi%C3%AB" title="Wes-Asië">Wes-Asië</a> te kry. <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_II" title="Osorkon II">Osorkon II</a> van Egipte het saam met 'n aantal groot bondgenote soos <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hama (bladsy bestaan nie)">Hama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fenisi%C3%AB" title="Fenisië">Fenisië</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kana%C3%A4n" title="Kanaän">Kanaän</a>, die <a href="/wiki/Arabiere" title="Arabiere">Arabiere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arame%C3%ABrs" title="Arameërs">Arameërs</a> en neo-Hetiete in <a href="/wiki/853_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="853 v.C.">853 v.C.</a> in die <a href="/w/index.php?title=Slag_van_Karkar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slag van Karkar (bladsy bestaan nie)">Slag van Karkar</a> slaags geraak met die magtige Assiriese koning <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shalmaneser_III&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shalmaneser III (bladsy bestaan nie)">Shalmaneser III</a>. Die koalisie is egter deur Assirië verslaan, wat voortgegaan het om Wes-Asië te oorheers. </p><p>Die Berber-beheer het begin afneem toe 'n mededingende plaaslike dinastie onder <a href="/wiki/Leontopolis" title="Leontopolis">Leontopolis</a> in die delta begin sterker word. Intussen het die <a href="/wiki/Koninkryk_van_Koesj" class="mw-redirect" title="Koninkryk van Koesj">Koninkryk van Koesj</a> Egipte uit die suide bedreig.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Omstreeks <a href="/wiki/727_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="727 v.C.">727 v.C.</a> het die Koesjitiese koning <a href="/wiki/Pije" title="Pije">Pije</a> Egipte binnegeval en maklik beheer van Thebe en eindelik die Nyldelta oorgeneem.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hy het die weg gebaan vir die daaropvolgende <a href="/wiki/25ste_Dinastie" class="mw-redirect" title="25ste Dinastie">25ste-dinastiese</a> farao's<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> soos <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a>, wat die Twee Lande weer herenig het. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:NubianPharoahs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/NubianPharoahs.jpg/260px-NubianPharoahs.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/NubianPharoahs.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="307" data-file-height="205" /></a><figcaption>Die 25ste Dinastie.</figcaption></figure> <p>'n Tydperk van hernuwing het hierna gevolg.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die godsdiens, kuns en argitektuur is weer verhef tot die vlakke van die <a href="/wiki/Ou_Ryk" class="mw-redirect" title="Ou Ryk">Ou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middelryk" class="mw-redirect" title="Middelryk">Middel</a>- en <a href="/wiki/Nuwe_Ryk" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuwe Ryk">Nuwe Ryk</a>. Farao's soos Taharqa het tempels en monumente regdeur die <a href="/wiki/Nyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyl">Nylvallei</a> gerestoureer, onder meer dié by <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egipte" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis, Egipte">Memphis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karnak" title="Karnak">Karnak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kawa" title="Kawa">Kawa</a> en <a href="/wiki/Djebel_Barkal" title="Djebel Barkal">Djebel Barkal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_piramide" title="Egiptiese piramide">Piramides</a> is vir die eerste keer sedert die Middelryk weer gebou (baie van hulle in <a href="/wiki/Soedan" title="Soedan">Soedan</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Mokhtar1990_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mokhtar1990-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Emberling2011_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emberling2011-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Silverman1997_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silverman1997-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pije het verskeie mislukte pogings aangewend om sy invloed tot in die Nabye Ooste uit te brei wat toe deur Assirië beheer is. In <a href="/wiki/720_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="720 v.C.">720 v.C.</a> het 'n Egiptiese leër teen Assirië opgeruk, maar hulle is verslaan. In <a href="/wiki/711_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="711 v.C.">711 v.C.</a> het Pije nog 'n opstand teen die Assiriërs gelei en is weer verslaan. Hy is daarna uit die Nabye Ooste gedwing.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Van die <a href="/wiki/10de_eeu_v.C." title="10de eeu v.C.">10de eeu v.C.</a> af het Assirië geveg om beheer van die Suid-<a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. Stede en ryke van die Suid-Levant het Egipte dikwels gevra om hulle te help teen Assiriese aanvalle. Taharqa (in die <a href="/wiki/Bybel" title="Bybel">Bybel</a> Tirhaka genoem) het koning <a href="/wiki/Hiskia" title="Hiskia">Hiskia</a> van <a href="/wiki/Juda" class="mw-redirect" title="Juda">Juda</a> gehelp toe <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> deur die Assiriese koning Sennacherib (Sanherib) aangeval is (<a href="/wiki/1-2_Konings" title="1-2 Konings">2 Kon</a> 19:9; <a href="/wiki/Jesaja" title="Jesaja">Jes</a> 37:9). Geleerdes stem nie saam oor die hoofrede dat die Assiriërs afgesien het van hul aanval op Jerusalem nie. Redes wissel van konflik met die Egiptiese/Koesjitiese leër tot <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Goddelike</a> ingryping in die vorm van siekte.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Henry Aubin meen die Egiptiese/Koesjitiese leër het Jerusalem gered en die Assiriërs gekeer om dit aan te val vir die res van Sennacherib se lewe (20 jaar).<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ander geleerdes reken siekte was die hoofrede vir die mislukking van die aanval en volgens Senacherib se annale is Juda desondanks gedwing om belasting aan die Assiriërs te betaal.<sup id="cite_ref-GeorgeRoux_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GeorgeRoux-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Die Assiriërs het hul inval in Egipte begin onder Sennacherib se opvolger, <a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a>. In <a href="/wiki/674_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="674 v.C.">674 v.C.</a> het Taharqa die Assiriese leër verslaan.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/671_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="671 v.C.">671 v.C.</a> het Esarhaddon die Koesjiete uit Noord-Egipte teruggedryf na Nubië. Twee jaar later het Taharqa uit Nubië teruggekeer en 'n deel van Suid-Egipte tot by Memphis herwin. Voor Esarhaddon na Egipte kon vertrek om Taharqa aan te val, is hy in Assirië dood ná 'n siekte. Dit was sy opvolger, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Asjoerbanipal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asjoerbanipal (bladsy bestaan nie)">Asjoerbanipal</a>, wat Taharqa eindelik weer verslaan en uit Egipte gedryf het. Taharqa is twee jaar later in Nubië dood. </p><p>Sy opvolger, <a href="/wiki/Tanoetamoen" title="Tanoetamoen">Tanoetamoen</a>, het sy pogings voortgesit om Egipte weer te verower deur Thebe oor te neem, maar hy is deur die Assiriërs uitgedryf. Hulle het Thebe so verwoes dat dit nooit weer ten volle sou herstel nie. 'n Plaaslike heerser, <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a>, is op die troon geplaas as 'n leenheer van Asjoerbanipal, en die Nubiërs was daarna nooit weer 'n bedreiging nie.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laat_Tydperk_(672–332_v.C.)"><span id="Laat_Tydperk_.28672.E2.80.93332_v.C..29"></span>Laat Tydperk (672–332 v.C.)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Wysig afdeling: Laat Tydperk (672–332 v.C.)" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Laat Tydperk (672–332 v.C.)"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Met geen planne om Egipte permanent oor te neem nie, het die Assiriërs die regering van die land gelaat in die hande van 'n reeks leenhere wat bekend sou word as die <a href="/wiki/Sa%C3%AFs" title="Saïs">Saïs</a>-konings van die <a href="/wiki/26ste_Dinastie" class="mw-redirect" title="26ste Dinastie">26ste Dinastie</a>. Teen <a href="/wiki/653_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="653 v.C.">653 v.C.</a> het die Saïs-koning Psamtik I die feit benut dat Assirië betrokke was in 'n ernstige oorlog met <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a>. Hy het Egipte redelik vreedsaam bevry met die hulp van <a href="/wiki/Lidi%C3%AB" title="Lidië">Lidiese</a> en <a href="/wiki/Griekeland" title="Griekeland">Griekse</a> huursoldate, waarvan laasgenoemde in diens geneem is om Egipte se eerste vloot op die been te bring. Die Griekse invloed het in 'n groot mate uitgebrei toe die stad <a href="/w/index.php?title=Naukratis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naukratis (bladsy bestaan nie)">Naukratis</a> die tuiste van die Grieke in die delta geword het. </p><p>Die konings van Saïs het 'n kort herlewing in die ekonomie en kultuur beleef, maar in <a href="/w/index.php?title=525_v.C.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="525 v.C. (bladsy bestaan nie)">525 v.C.</a> het die magtige <a href="/wiki/Perse" title="Perse">Perse</a> onder <a href="/wiki/Kambuses" title="Kambuses">Cambyses II</a> hul verowering van Egipte begin. Hulle het <a href="/w/index.php?title=Psamtik_III&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Psamtik III (bladsy bestaan nie)">Psamtik III</a> eindelik verslaan. Cambyses II het die titel farao aangeneem, maar uit sy tuisstad <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> in Persië (in die hedendaagse <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>) regeer.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ná die Persiese verwowering het Egipte saam met <a href="/wiki/Siprus" title="Siprus">Siprus</a> en <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fenesi%C3%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fenesië (bladsy bestaan nie)">Fenesië</a> (die hedendaagse <a href="/wiki/Libanon" title="Libanon">Libanon</a>) deel geword van die Persiese <a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenideryk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Achaemenideryk (bladsy bestaan nie)">Achaemenideryk</a>. Hierdie eerste tydperk van Persiese bewind, ook bekend as die <a href="/wiki/27ste_Dinastie" class="mw-redirect" title="27ste Dinastie">27ste Dinastie</a>, is in <a href="/wiki/402_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="402 v.C.">402 v.C.</a> beëindig, en van <a href="/w/index.php?title=380_v.C.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="380 v.C. (bladsy bestaan nie)">380</a> tot <a href="/wiki/343_v.C." title="343 v.C.">343 v.C.</a> het die <a href="/wiki/30ste_Dinastie" class="mw-redirect" title="30ste Dinastie">30ste Dinastie</a> regeer as die laaste plaaslike koningshuis. Dit het geëindig met <a href="/wiki/Nectanebo_II" title="Nectanebo II">Nectanebo II</a>. 'n Kort herstel van die Persiese bewind, bekend as die <a href="/wiki/31ste_Dinastie" class="mw-redirect" title="31ste Dinastie">31ste Dinastie</a>, het in <a href="/wiki/343_v.C." title="343 v.C.">343 v.C.</a> begin, maar in <a href="/wiki/332_v.C." title="332 v.C.">332 v.C.</a> het die Periese heerser <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mazaces&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mazaces (bladsy bestaan nie)">Mazaces</a> Egipte sonder teenstand oorgegee aan <a href="/wiki/Alexander_die_Grote" title="Alexander die Grote">Alexander die Grote</a> van die <a href="/wiki/Koninkryk_van_Macedoni%C3%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Koninkryk van Macedonië">Koninkryk van Macedonië</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ptolemeïese_Dinastie"><span id="Ptoleme.C3.AFese_Dinastie"></span>Ptolemeïese Dinastie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Wysig afdeling: Ptolemeïese Dinastie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Ptolemeïese Dinastie"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Alexander_the_Great,_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.,_54.162.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Alexander_the_Great%2C_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.%2C_54.162.jpg/220px-Alexander_the_Great%2C_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.%2C_54.162.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Alexander_the_Great%2C_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.%2C_54.162.jpg/330px-Alexander_the_Great%2C_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.%2C_54.162.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Alexander_the_Great%2C_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.%2C_54.162.jpg/440px-Alexander_the_Great%2C_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.%2C_54.162.jpg 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="1146" /></a><figcaption>Alexander die Grote (Brooklyn-museum).</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/332_v.C." title="332 v.C.">332 v.C.</a> het Alexander die Grote Egipte verower met feitlik geen teenstand van die Perse nie. Hy is in Egipte verwelkom as 'n redder. Die administrasie van Alexander en sy opvolgers, die <a href="/wiki/Ptoleme%C3%AFese_Ryk" title="Ptolemeïese Ryk">Ptolemeïese Dinastie</a>, was op die Egiptiese model geskoei en in die nuwe hoofstad <a href="/wiki/Alexandri%C3%AB" title="Alexandrië">Alexandrië</a> gesentreer. Die stad was 'n toonbeeld van die mag en prestige van die Hellenistiese bewind en het 'n setel van kennis en kultuur geword.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die Ptolemeërs het ook handel bevorder en winsgewende projekte soos die vervaardiging van papirus aangepak.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Die Hellenistiese kultuur het nie die plaaslike kultuur vervang nie, want die Ptolemeërs het eeue oue tradisies gerespekteer om die steun van die inheemse bevolking te verseker. Hulle het nuwe tempels in Egiptiese styl laat bou, tradisionele kultusse ondersteun en hulself as farao's beskou. Sekere tradisies het vermeng geraak, soos die <a href="/wiki/Griekse_mitologie" title="Griekse mitologie">Griekse</a> en <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_mitologie" title="Egiptiese mitologie">Egiptiese gode</a>. Antieke Griekse vorme van beeldhouwerk het ook tradisionele Egiptiese motiewe beïnvloed. </p><p>Desondanks was daar rebellies teen die nuwe heersers; daar was ook bitter familiegevegte.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Boonop het die <a href="/wiki/Antieke_Rome" title="Antieke Rome">Antieke Romeine</a> in die politieke situasie in die land begin belangstel omdat hulle al hoe meer op Egipte staatgemaak het vir graaninvoer. Voortdurende Egiptiese opstande, ambisieuse politici en magtige <a href="/wiki/Siries" title="Siries">Siriese</a> teenstanders in die Nabye Ooste het dié situasie onstabiel gemaak, en Rome het besluit om Egipte te annekseer as 'n Romeinse provinsie.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romeinse_Tydperk">Romeinse Tydperk</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Wysig afdeling: Romeinse Tydperk" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: Romeinse Tydperk"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Fayum-22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Fayum-22.jpg/120px-Fayum-22.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Fayum-22.jpg/180px-Fayum-22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Fayum-22.jpg/240px-Fayum-22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="1367" /></a><figcaption>Die Faijoem-mummieportrette weerspieël die vermenging van Griekse en Egiptiese kulture.</figcaption></figure> <p>Egipte het in <a href="/wiki/30_v.C." title="30 v.C.">30 v.C.</a> 'n provinsie van die <a href="/wiki/Romeinse_Ryk" title="Romeinse Ryk">Romeinse Ryk</a> geword nadat <a href="/wiki/Keiser_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Keiser Augustus">Octavius</a> (later keiser Augustus) vir <a href="/wiki/Markus_Antonius" class="mw-redirect" title="Markus Antonius">Markus Antonius</a> en die Ptolemeïese koningin <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a> in die <a href="/wiki/Slag_van_Actium" title="Slag van Actium">Slag van Actium</a> verslaan het. Die Romeine het rebellies onderdruk, groot belasting afgedwing en aanvalle deur struikrowers, wat in dié tyd 'n groot probleem was, stopgesit.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alexandrië het 'n al hoe groter sentrum op die handelsroete met die <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ooste&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ooste (bladsy bestaan nie)">Ooste</a> geword omdat eksotiese weelde-items in groot aanvraag was in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hoewel die Romeine die Egiptenare meer vyandiggesind was as die Grieke, het sekere tradisies bly voortbestaan, soos mummifisering en die aanbidding van die tradisionele gode.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw422_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw422-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die kuns van mummieportrette het floreer en sommige Romeinse keisers het hulle as farao's laat uitbeeld. Hulle het egter 'n groter invloed op die kultuur gehad as die Grieke. Plaaslike administrasies het meer Romeins geword en inheemse Egiptenare is daarvan uitgesluit.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw422_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw422-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In die middel van die <a href="/wiki/1ste_eeu" title="1ste eeu">1ste eeu</a> n.C. het die <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> in Egipte posgevat omdat die Egiptenare dit beskou het as nog 'n kultus wat aanvaar kon word. Dit was egter 'n onversetlike godsdiens wat bekeerlinge wou wen uit die Egiptiese en Griekse gelowe en het die plaaslike godsdienstradisies bedreig. Dit het vanaf <a href="/wiki/303" title="303">303</a> n.C. gelei tot grootskaalse vervolging van bekeerde Christene, maar eindelik het die Christendom gewen.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/391" title="391">391</a> het die Christelike keiser <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> wetgewing ingestel wat die heidense gelowe verbied en tempels is gesluit.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Terwyl <a href="/wiki/Egipties" title="Egipties">Egipties</a> steeds gepraat is, het die vermoë om <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_hi%C3%ABrogliewe" title="Egiptiese hiërogliewe">hiërogliewe</a> te lees, stadigaan verdwyn namate die rol van tempelpriesters en –priesterinne afgeneem het. Die tempels self is soms in kerke omskep en ander is oorgelaat aan wind en weer.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In die <a href="/wiki/4de_eeu" title="4de eeu">4de eeu</a> n.C. het die Romeinse Ryk in twee geskeur en Egipte het deel geword van die Oostelike Ryk, bekend as die <a href="/wiki/Bisantynse_Ryk" title="Bisantynse Ryk">Bisantynse Ryk</a>. Algaande het die ryk meer "Oosters" geword en het Grieks-Romeinse invloede afgeneem. </p><p>Die Perse, wat betrokke was in 'n lang, uitputtende oorlog met Bisantium vir beheer oor die Nabye Ooste, <a href="/wiki/Klein-Asi%C3%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Klein-Asië">Klein-Asië</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noord-Afrika" title="Noord-Afrika">Noord-Afrika</a> en die oostelike <a href="/wiki/Mediterreense" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterreense">Mediterreense</a> gebied, het Egipte in <a href="/wiki/618" title="618">618</a> vir 'n kort rukkie herower, maar is in <a href="/wiki/628" title="628">628</a> deur die Bisantynse <a href="/wiki/Herakleios_van_Bisantium" title="Herakleios van Bisantium">keiser Herakleios</a> verdryf. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arabiese_Moslemtydperk">Arabiese Moslemtydperk</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Wysig afdeling: Arabiese Moslemtydperk" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: Arabiese Moslemtydperk"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>'n Leër van 4 000 <a href="/wiki/Arabiere" title="Arabiere">Arabiere</a> is deur <a href="/wiki/Omar" title="Omar">kalief Omar</a>, opvolger van <a href="/wiki/Mohammed" title="Mohammed">Mohammed</a>, gestuur om <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>-beheer in die Weste uit te brei. In Desember <a href="/wiki/639" title="639">639</a> het die Arabiere Egipte vanaf <a href="/wiki/Palestina" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestina">Palestina</a> binnegeval en vinnig deur die <a href="/wiki/Nyldelta" title="Nyldelta">Nyldelta</a> versprei. Romeinse soldate, moeg van voortdurende oorloë met Persië, het na ommuurde dorpe teruggeval en nog sowat 'n jaar lank uitgehou. Die Arabiere het egter versterkings gestuur en in April <a href="/wiki/641" title="641">641</a> het hulle Alexandrië verower. Die Bisantiërs het Alexandrië wel in <a href="/wiki/645" title="645">645</a> teruggewen, maar die Moslems het die stad weer in <a href="/wiki/646" title="646">646</a> oorgeneem. Daarmee is die Moslemse verowering van Egipte voltooi en 'n einde gebring aan 975 jaar van Grieks-Romeinse heerskappy. </p><p>Weerstand deur die Egiptenare het egter kort daarna begin en voortgeduur tot minstens die <a href="/wiki/9de_eeu" title="9de eeu">9de eeu</a>. Die Arabiere het 'n spesiale belasting ingestel vir die Egiptenare en hulle is uitgesluit van die weermag. Die Arabiere het in die 7de eeu die term <i>quft</i> begin gebruik om die inheemse volk te beskryf. So het die Egiptenare bekend geword as die "<a href="/wiki/Kopte" title="Kopte">Kopte</a>", en die nie-<a href="/wiki/Konsilie_van_Chalcedon" title="Konsilie van Chalcedon">Chalcedoniese</a> Egiptiese kerk as die <a href="/wiki/Ori%C3%ABntale_Ortodoksie#Geskiedenis" title="Oriëntale Ortodoksie">Koptiese Kerk</a>. </p><p>Die inheemse bevolking is oor die volgende eeue grootliks "verarabiseer" en "geïslamitiseer". Die plaaslike identiteit en taal het egter onder die Kopte bly voortbestaan; hulle het <a href="/wiki/Kopties" title="Kopties">Kopties</a> gepraat, 'n direkte opvolger van <a href="/wiki/Demoties" title="Demoties">demoties</a>, wat weer voortgevloei het uit die <a href="/wiki/Egipties" title="Egipties">Egipties</a> van die Romeinse Tydperk. Sedert die <a href="/wiki/18de_eeu" title="18de eeu">18de eeu</a> is Kopties feitlik beperk tot gebruik as liturgiese taal van die Koptiese Kerk. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regering_en_ekonomie">Regering en ekonomie</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Wysig afdeling: Regering en ekonomie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: Regering en ekonomie"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrasie_en_handel">Administrasie en handel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=15" title="Wysig afdeling: Administrasie en handel" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section's source code: Administrasie en handel"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Pharaoh.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pharaoh.svg/150px-Pharaoh.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pharaoh.svg/225px-Pharaoh.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pharaoh.svg/300px-Pharaoh.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="680" /></a><figcaption>Die farao's is dikwels uitgebeeld met simbole van adellikheid en mag.</figcaption></figure> <p>Die <a href="/wiki/Farao" title="Farao">farao</a> was die absolute monarg van die land en is as 'n "god op aarde" en die "seun van die songod <a href="/wiki/Ra" title="Ra">Ra</a>" vereer. Hy het algehele beheer oor die land en sy hulpbronne gehad en was die militêre aanvoerder en hoof van die regering. Hy het op 'n burokrasie van amptenare staatgemaak om sy sake te behartig. Hulle was dikwels uit die farao se onmiddellike omgewing of familie. Sy onderbevelvoerder, die visier, het die koning verteenwoordig en het landopnames, die staatskas, bouprojekte, die regstelsel en die argiewe gekoördineer.<sup id="cite_ref-Manuelian358_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manuelian358-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Die land was verdeel in 42 administratiewe streke, bekend as <a href="/wiki/Nomos" title="Nomos">nomosse</a>, met 'n "nomarg" aan die hoof. Die tempels was nie net plekke van aanbidding nie, maar was ook die ruggraat van die land se ekonomie; hulle was verantwoordelik vir die versameling en berging van die land se rykdom. Graan en goedere is deur opsigters herversprei.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sosiale_status">Sosiale status</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=16" title="Wysig afdeling: Sosiale status" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section's source code: Sosiale status"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372_Cropped_and_bg_reduced.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372_Cropped_and_bg_reduced.png/180px-Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372_Cropped_and_bg_reduced.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372_Cropped_and_bg_reduced.png/270px-Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372_Cropped_and_bg_reduced.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372_Cropped_and_bg_reduced.png/360px-Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372_Cropped_and_bg_reduced.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Die skribas was 'n elite in die samelewing.</figcaption></figure> <p>Priesters het net soos amptenare grotendeels uit die farao se omgewing of familie gekom. Hulle het dikwels ook poste in die staatsadministrasie beklee. Skribas, of skrifgeleerdes, wat vanweë hul uitgebreide opleiding groot aansien geniet het, het as basis van die staatsadministrasie gedien. Slegs geletterde persone is toegelaat om poste as beamptes of priesters te beklee. </p><p>Alhoewel daar ook reeds 'n groot aantal verskillende ambagte was waarin mense opgelei is, het ambagslui nie oor besondere regte beskik nie, ofskoon hulle in die sosiale hiërargie 'n hoër status as die boere geniet het. </p><p>Die oorgrote meerderheid van die antieke Egiptenare was gewone boere. Hulle het geen regte gehad nie en het oorwegend "staatsgrond" bewerk. Hulle was verplig om 'n bepaalde gedeelte van hul oes as belasting aan die staat af te staan en om tydens oorstromings werkverpligtinge ten opsigte van openbare bouprojekte na te kom. </p><p>Die Antieke Egiptiese samelewing het 'n groot aantal slawe sonder regte ingesluit wat uit verowerde gebiede of as oorlogsbuit na Egipte gebring is. Slawe is as die persoonlike eiendom van hul eienaars beskou; tog het sommige van hulle danksy hul werkprestasies en opleiding geleidelik 'n hoër sosiale status bereik. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regstelsel">Regstelsel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=17" title="Wysig afdeling: Regstelsel" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section's source code: Regstelsel"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Egyptian_Doctor_healing_laborers_on_papyrus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Egyptian_Doctor_healing_laborers_on_papyrus.jpg/220px-Egyptian_Doctor_healing_laborers_on_papyrus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Egyptian_Doctor_healing_laborers_on_papyrus.jpg/330px-Egyptian_Doctor_healing_laborers_on_papyrus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Egyptian_Doctor_healing_laborers_on_papyrus.jpg/440px-Egyptian_Doctor_healing_laborers_on_papyrus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1877" data-file-height="1204" /></a><figcaption>Jong Egiptiese werkers word deur dokters behandel ná hul <a href="/wiki/Besnydenis" title="Besnydenis">besnydenis</a>, wat 'n vereiste was vir burgerskap.</figcaption></figure> <p>Die farao was amptelik die hoof van die regstelsel; hy het wette afgedwing, regsuitsprake gelewer en was verantwoordelik vir die handhawing van orde, wat die Egiptenare <a href="/wiki/Ma%C3%A4t" title="Maät">maät</a> genoem het.<sup id="cite_ref-Manuelian358_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manuelian358-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hoewel geen regskodes behoue gebly het nie, wys hofdokumente die regstelsel was gebaseer op 'n algemene begrip van reg en verkeerd. Dit was daarop gemik om konflik op te los en ooreenkomste te bereik, eerder as op die navolging van streng wette.<sup id="cite_ref-UCJohnson_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCJohnson-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Klaers en beskuldigdes moes hulself verteenwoordig en 'n eed aflê dat hulle die waarheid praat. In sommige gevalle het die staat die rol van aanklaer en regter vertolk, en hulle kon die beskuldigde martel om 'n erkenning uit hulle te kry of om die name van samesweerders te noem.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Die straf vir kleiner misdade het ingesluit boetes, 'n drag slae, gesigsverminkings of verbanning, na gelang van die erns van die aanklag. Ernstiger misdade soos moord en grafrowery is gestraf met onthoofding, verdrinking of om die beskuldigde met 'n paal te deurboor. Soms is hul familie ook gestraf.<sup id="cite_ref-Manuelian358_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manuelian358-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Landbou">Landbou</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=18" title="Wysig afdeling: Landbou" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section's source code: Landbou"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gewasse">Gewasse</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=19" title="Wysig afdeling: Gewasse" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section's source code: Gewasse"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>'n Kombinasie van gunstige geografiese faktore het bygedra tot die sukses van die Egiptiese kultuur. Die belangrikste hiervan was die jaarlikse oorstromings van die <a href="/wiki/Nyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyl">Nylrivier</a>, wat vrugbare grond na die vallei gebring het. Voedsel was dus volop, en dit het die Egiptenare in staat gestel om meer tyd af te staan aan kulturele, tegnologiese en artistieke bedrywighede.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Tomb_of_Nakht_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Tomb_of_Nakht_%282%29.jpg/180px-Tomb_of_Nakht_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Tomb_of_Nakht_%282%29.jpg/270px-Tomb_of_Nakht_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Tomb_of_Nakht_%282%29.jpg/360px-Tomb_of_Nakht_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="828" /></a><figcaption>'n Grafreliëfwerk beeld werkers op 'n land uit besig met verskillende take.</figcaption></figure> <p>Landbou was afhanklik van die siklus van die Nyl. Die Egiptenare het drie seisoene erken: <i>achet</i> (oorstroming), <i>peret</i> (plant) en <i>sjemoe</i> (oes). Die oorstromings het geduur van Junie tot September. Nadat die water teruggetrek het, is die nuwe vrugbare grond beplant, van Oktober tot Februarie. Die gewasse is besproei uit slote en kanale. Egipte het min reën gekry en hulle was van die Nyl se water afhanklik om hul gewasse nat te lei.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Van Maart tot Mei is sekels gebruik om die gewasse te oes, wat dan met 'n dorsvleël gedors is om die kaf van die graan te skei. Met uitwanning is die kaf daarna verwyder en die koring is gemaal vir meel, gebrou vir bier of geberg vir latere gebruik.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Verskeie soorte <a href="/wiki/Graan" title="Graan">graan</a> is geproduseer. <a href="/wiki/Vlas" title="Vlas">Vlasplante</a> is uit die grond gehaal voordat hulle blom; die vesels van die stamme is in die lengte geskeur en nadat dit gespin is, gebruik om <a href="/wiki/Materiaal" title="Materiaal">materiaal</a> van te maak. <a href="/wiki/Papirus" title="Papirus">Papirus</a> wat op die Nyl se oewers gegroei het, is gebruik om <a href="/wiki/Papier" title="Papier">papier</a> te maak. <a href="/wiki/Vrugte" class="mw-redirect" title="Vrugte">Vrugte</a> en <a href="/wiki/Groente" title="Groente">groente</a> is in tuine gekweek en is met die hand natgelei. Dit het ingesluit <a href="/wiki/Prei" title="Prei">preie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knoffel" title="Knoffel">knoffel</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Meloen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meloen (bladsy bestaan nie)">meloene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pampoen" title="Pampoen">pampoen</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kopslaai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kopslaai (bladsy bestaan nie)">kopslaai</a> en <a href="/wiki/Druiwe" title="Druiwe">druiwe</a>, waarvan <a href="/wiki/Wyn" title="Wyn">wyn</a> gemaak is.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diere">Diere</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=20" title="Wysig afdeling: Diere" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section's source code: Diere"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Die Egiptenare het geglo 'n gebalanseerde verhouding tussen <a href="/wiki/Mens" title="Mens">mens</a> en <a href="/wiki/Dier" title="Dier">dier</a> is 'n noodsaaklike element van die kosmiese orde; mense en diere is dus beskou as lede van 'n enkele geheel.<sup id="cite_ref-Strouhal117_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strouhal117-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bees" title="Bees">Beeste</a> was die belangrikste vir veeteelt; die grootte van 'n trop het die aansien en belangrikheid van die landgoed of tempel waaraan dit behoort het, aangedui. Die Egiptenare het ook <a href="/wiki/Skape" class="mw-redirect" title="Skape">skape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bok" title="Bok">bokke</a> en <a href="/wiki/Vark" title="Vark">varke</a> aangehou. <a href="/wiki/Pluimvee" title="Pluimvee">Pluimvee</a> soos <a href="/wiki/Eend" title="Eend">eende</a> en <a href="/wiki/Gans" title="Gans">ganse</a>, asook <a href="/wiki/Duif" title="Duif">duiwe</a> is in nette gevang en op plase geteel en vetgevoer.<sup id="cite_ref-Manuelian381_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manuelian381-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In die Nyl was volop <a href="/wiki/Vis" title="Vis">vis</a>, en <a href="/wiki/Byeboerdery" title="Byeboerdery">byeboerdery</a> het sedert die Ou Ryk <a href="/wiki/Heuning" title="Heuning">heuning</a> en was verskaf.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Donkie" title="Donkie">Donkies</a> en <a href="/wiki/Os" title="Os">osse</a> is gebruik om op die landerye te werk en die slag van 'n os was deel van die ritueel tydens offerande.<sup id="cite_ref-Manuelian381_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manuelian381-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die Hyksos het <a href="/wiki/Perd" title="Perd">perde</a> tydens die Tweede Oorgangstydperk na Egipte gebring en <a href="/wiki/Kameel" title="Kameel">kamele</a> is eers in die Laat Periode gebruik, hoewel hulle al tydens die Nuwe Ryk bekend was. <a href="/wiki/Hond" title="Hond">Honde</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kat" title="Kat">katte</a> en <a href="/wiki/Aap" title="Aap">ape</a> is as troeteldiere aangehou terwyl meer eksotiese diere soos <a href="/wiki/Leeu" title="Leeu">leeus</a> vir die koninklikes uit die res van <a href="/wiki/Afrika" title="Afrika">Afrika</a> ingevoer is. Die aanbidding van gode in hul diervorm was ook gewild, soos die katgodin <a href="/wiki/Bastet" title="Bastet">Bastet</a> en die ibisgod <a href="/wiki/Thoth" title="Thoth">Thoth</a>, en hierdie diere is in groot hoeveelhede op plase geteel om as offerandes gebruik te word.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natuurlike_hulpbronne">Natuurlike hulpbronne</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=21" title="Wysig afdeling: Natuurlike hulpbronne" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section's source code: Natuurlike hulpbronne"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Egipte is ryk aan bou- en dekoratiewe stene, koper- en looderts, goud en halfedelstene. Dit het Antieke Egiptenare in staat gestel om monumente te bou en standbeelde en juwele te maak.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vir mummifisering is <a href="/wiki/Sout" class="mw-redirect" title="Sout">soute</a> van die <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wadi_Natrun-vallei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wadi Natrun-vallei (bladsy bestaan nie)">Wadi Natrun-vallei</a> gebruik; ook <a href="/wiki/Gips" title="Gips">gips</a> is van daar gekry om pleister mee te maak.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Daar was groot, staatsbeheerde ekspedisies om hulpbronne in die verafgeleë woestyngebiede en <a href="/wiki/Sinai" title="Sinai">Sinai</a> te ontgin, en in <a href="/wiki/Nubi%C3%AB" title="Nubië">Nubië</a> was talle goudmyne. <a href="/wiki/Graniet" title="Graniet">Graniet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vuursteen" title="Vuursteen">vuursteen</a> en <a href="/wiki/Minerale" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerale">minerale</a> soos <a href="/wiki/Swael" title="Swael">swael</a> is ook ontgin en gebruik.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kalksteen" title="Kalksteen">Kalksteen</a> het uit die hele Nylvallei gekom. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Handel">Handel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=22" title="Wysig afdeling: Handel" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section's source code: Handel"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Relief_of_Hatshepsut%27s_expedition_to_the_Land_of_Punt_by_%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Relief_of_Hatshepsut%27s_expedition_to_the_Land_of_Punt_by_%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82.jpg/260px-Relief_of_Hatshepsut%27s_expedition_to_the_Land_of_Punt_by_%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Relief_of_Hatshepsut%27s_expedition_to_the_Land_of_Punt_by_%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82.jpg/390px-Relief_of_Hatshepsut%27s_expedition_to_the_Land_of_Punt_by_%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Relief_of_Hatshepsut%27s_expedition_to_the_Land_of_Punt_by_%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82.jpg/520px-Relief_of_Hatshepsut%27s_expedition_to_the_Land_of_Punt_by_%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2211" /></a><figcaption>'n Handelsekspedisie van Hatsjepsoet.</figcaption></figure> <p>Die Egiptenare het met hul bure handel gedryf om seldsame, eksotiese artikels te kry wat nie in Egipte beskikbaar was nie. In die Predinastiese Tydperk het hulle handelsbande gesmee met <a href="/wiki/Nubi%C3%AB" title="Nubië">Nubië</a> om <a href="/wiki/Goud" title="Goud">goud</a> en <a href="/wiki/Wierook" title="Wierook">wierook</a> te kry. Hulle het ook met Palestina en Kanaän handel gedryf.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> het Egiptiese pottebakkerswerk in Kanaän laat maak en dan weer na Egipte ingevoer.<sup id="cite_ref-Naomi_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naomi-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Op die laatste teen die tyd van die <a href="/wiki/2de_Dinastie" class="mw-redirect" title="2de Dinastie">2de Dinastie</a> het Egipte hoëgehalte-hout van <a href="/wiki/Bublos" title="Bublos">Bublos</a> ingevoer. Teen die <a href="/wiki/5de_Dinastie" class="mw-redirect" title="5de Dinastie">5de Dinastie</a> het handelsekspedisies goud, <a href="/wiki/Ebbehout" title="Ebbehout">ebbehout</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivoor" title="Ivoor">ivoor</a> en wilde diere soos ape en <a href="/wiki/Bobbejaan" title="Bobbejaan">bobbejane</a> uit <a href="/wiki/Poent" title="Poent">Poent</a> teruggebring.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Anatoli%C3%AB" title="Anatolië">Anatolië</a> is koper en tin gekry. Ander handelsvennote sluit in <a href="/wiki/Griekeland" title="Griekeland">Griekeland</a> en <a href="/wiki/Kreta" title="Kreta">Kreta</a>, veral vir <a href="/wiki/Olyf" title="Olyf">olyfolie</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In ruil vir dié items het Egipte graan, linne en papirus uitgevoer, asook glas- en steenvoorwerpe.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taal">Taal</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=23" title="Wysig afdeling: Taal" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section's source code: Taal"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd><i>Hoofartikel: <a href="/wiki/Egipties" title="Egipties">Egipties</a></i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiese_ontwikkeling">Historiese ontwikkeling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=24" title="Wysig afdeling: Historiese ontwikkeling" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section's source code: Historiese ontwikkeling"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table style="font-size: 88%; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid lightgrey; margin: 0.5em 1em; text-align: center; clear: right; float: right; margin-right: 0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding: 1em; background-color: var(--background-color-base); color:var(--color-base)"><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D21.png?9bfb9" height="11" title="D21 [r]" alt="r" /><br /><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_Z1.png?4dc06" height="16" title="Z1" alt="Z1" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="5" title="N35 [n]" alt="n" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_I6.png?19fec" height="17" title="I6 [km]" alt="km" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G17.png?3741e" height="38" title="G17 [m]" alt="m" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_X1.png?f2a8c" height="11" title="X1 [t]" alt="t" /><br /><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_O49.png?dd778" height="18" title="O49" alt="O49" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background: lightgrey; border-bottom: 1px solid lightgrey; padding: 0.5em"><i>r n kmt</i><br /> Egipties <br />in <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_hi%C3%ABrogliewe" title="Egiptiese hiërogliewe">hiërogliewe</a> </th></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Egipties" title="Egipties">Egipties</a> is die oudste bekende <a href="/wiki/Taal" title="Taal">taal</a> naas <a href="/wiki/Sumeries" title="Sumeries">Sumeries</a> en 'n tak van die <a href="/wiki/Afro-Asiatiese_tale" title="Afro-Asiatiese tale">Afro-Asiatiese taalfamilie</a>. Dit is na verwant aan Berbers en <a href="/wiki/Semitiese_tale" class="mw-redirect" title="Semitiese tale">Semities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geskrewe rekords in Egipties bestaan vanaf omstreeks <a href="/w/index.php?title=3400_v.C.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="3400 v.C. (bladsy bestaan nie)">3400</a>-<a href="/wiki/3200_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="3200 v.C.">3200 v.C.</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Die verskillende fases van Egipties is: Argaïese Egipties (voor <a href="/wiki/2600_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="2600 v.C.">2600 v.C.</a>), Ou Egipties (<a href="/wiki/2686_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="2686 v.C.">2686</a>–<a href="/wiki/2181_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="2181 v.C.">2181 v.C.</a>), Middel-Egipties (<a href="/wiki/2055_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="2055 v.C.">2055</a>-<a href="/wiki/1650_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="1650 v.C.">1650 v.C.</a>), Laat-Egipties (<a href="/wiki/1069_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="1069 v.C.">1069</a>-<a href="/wiki/700_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="700 v.C.">700 v.C.</a>), Demoties (<a href="/wiki/7de_eeu_v.C." title="7de eeu v.C.">7de eeu v.C.</a> tot <a href="/wiki/5de_eeu" title="5de eeu">5de eeu</a> n.C.) en Kopties (<a href="/wiki/1ste_eeu" title="1ste eeu">1ste</a> tot <a href="/wiki/17de_eeu" title="17de eeu">17de eeu</a> n.C.).<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Uit Egiptiese geskrifte kan geen <a href="/wiki/Dialek" title="Dialek">dialekte</a> voor Kopties onderskei word nie, maar daar was waarskynlik streeksdialekte om Memphis en later Thebe.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Antieke Egipties was 'n sintetiese taal, maar het later meer analities geword. Laat Egipties het lidwoorde ontwikkel in die plek van voorvoegsels. Die woordorde het ook van werkwoord-onderwerp-voorwerp verander na onderwerp-werkwoord-voorwerp.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_hi%C3%ABrogliewe" title="Egiptiese hiërogliewe">Egiptiese hiërogliewe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hi%C3%ABraties" title="Hiëraties">hiëratiese</a> en <a href="/wiki/Demoties" title="Demoties">demotiese</a> skrifte is eindelik vervang deur die meer fonetiese <a href="/wiki/Koptiese_alfabet" title="Koptiese alfabet">Koptiese alfabet</a>. Kopties word steeds gebruik as die liturgiese taal van die <a href="/wiki/Ori%C3%ABntale_Ortodoksie#Geskiedenis" title="Oriëntale Ortodoksie">Kopties-Ortodokse Kerk</a> en spore daarvan kan in moderne <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_Arabies" title="Egiptiese Arabies">Egiptiese Arabies</a> gevind word.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammatika_en_skrif">Grammatika en skrif</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=25" title="Wysig afdeling: Grammatika en skrif" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section's source code: Grammatika en skrif"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg/200px-Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg" decoding="async" width="200" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg/300px-Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg/400px-Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1612" data-file-height="2066" /></a><figcaption>Die <a href="/wiki/Rosettasteen" title="Rosettasteen">Rosettasteen</a> (omstreeks 196 v.C.) het linguiste in staat gestel om hiërogliewe te ontsyfer.</figcaption></figure> <p>Antieke Egipties het 25 <a href="/wiki/Konsonant" title="Konsonant">konsonante</a> wat soortgelyk is aan dié van ander Afro-Asiatiese tale. Daar is drie lang en drie kort <a href="/wiki/Klinker" title="Klinker">klinkers</a>, wat later uitgebrei is tot nege.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die basiese woord bestaan, nes in Berbers en Semities, uit 'n <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_hi%C3%ABrogliewe#Eenlettertekens" title="Egiptiese hiërogliewe">twee- of drieletterstam</a> van konsonante en halfkonsonante. Agtervoegsels word bygevoeg om woorde te vorm. Die werkwoord vervoeg volgens die <a href="/w/index.php?title=Persoon_(taal)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Persoon (taal) (bladsy bestaan nie)">persoon</a>. So is die drieletterstam <i>S-Ḏ-M</i> die kern van die woord "hoor"; die basiese verbuiging is <i>sḏm</i>, "hy hoor". As die onderwerp 'n selfstandige naamwoord is, word 'n agtervoegsel nie by die werkwoord gevoeg nie:<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>sḏm ḥmt</i>, "die vrou hoor". </p><p>Die hiërogliewestelsel dateer uit voor <a href="/wiki/3000_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="3000 v.C.">3000 v.C.</a> en bestaan uit honderde simbole. 'n Hiëroglief kan 'n woord, klank of onuitgesproke bepaler voorstel, en dieselfde simbool kan in verskillende posisies verskillende kontekste hê. Hiërogliewe was 'n formele skrif vir grafkelders en steenmonumente; vir alledaagse gebruik het skrywers 'n kursiewe skrif gebruik bekend as <a href="/wiki/Hi%C3%ABraties" title="Hiëraties">hiëraties</a>, wat vinniger en makliker was. Terwyl hiërogliewe horisontaal of vertikaal en van enige kant af gelees kon word (hoewel tipies van regs na links), is hiëraties altyd van regs na links geskryf, gewoonlik in horisontale rye. 'n Nuwe skryfstyl, <a href="/wiki/Demoties" title="Demoties">demoties</a>, het later ontstaan en dit is die vorm wat saam met formele hiërogliewe en <a href="/wiki/Grieks" title="Grieks">Grieks</a> op die <a href="/wiki/Rosettasteen" title="Rosettasteen">Rosettasteen</a> voorkom<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wat linguiste in staat gestel het om eindelik die hiërogliewe te ontsyfer. </p><p>Omstreeks die <a href="/wiki/1ste_eeu" title="1ste eeu">1ste eeu</a> n.C. het die Koptiese alfabet naas demoties ontstaan. Dit is 'n aangepaste <a href="/wiki/Griekse_alfabet" title="Griekse alfabet">Griekse alfabet</a> met bykomende demotiese tekens.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Letterkunde">Letterkunde</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=26" title="Wysig afdeling: Letterkunde" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section's source code: Letterkunde"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg/200px-Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg/300px-Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg/400px-Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2550" data-file-height="1954" /></a><figcaption>Die Edwin Smith-papirus (<a href="/wiki/16de_eeu_v.C." title="16de eeu v.C.">16de eeu v.C.</a>) beskryf die menslike anatomie en mediese behandelings in hiëraties.</figcaption></figure> <p>Skrif is aanvanklik gebruik vir etikette op artikels wat in koninklike grafkelders gevind is. Dit was hoofsaaklik die taak van skribas (skrywers of skrifgeleerdes). Van die bekendste Antieke Egiptiese literatuur, soos die <a href="/w/index.php?title=Piramidetekste&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Piramidetekste (bladsy bestaan nie)">Piramidetekste</a> en <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kistekste&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kistekste (bladsy bestaan nie)">Kistekste</a>, is in klassieke Egipties geskryf. Latere Egipties is van die <a href="/wiki/Nuwe_Ryk" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuwe Ryk">Nuwe Ryk</a> af gepraat en word aangetref in administratiewe dokumente, liefdesgedigte en verhale uit die tyd van die Ramses-farao's, sowel as in demotiese en Koptiese tekste. In dié tyd het geskrifte ontwikkel in die grafkelder-outobiografieë, soos dié van <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harkhoef&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harkhoef (bladsy bestaan nie)">Harkhoef</a> en <a href="/w/index.php?title=Weni_die_Ouere&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weni die Ouere (bladsy bestaan nie)">Weni</a>. Die genre bekend as <i>sebayt</i> ("instruksies") is ontwikkel vir leeringe en handleidings van bekende adellikes; die <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ipoewer-papirus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ipoewer-papirus (bladsy bestaan nie)">Ipoewer-papirus</a>, 'n gedig van weeklagte wat natuurrampe en sosiale onrus beskryf, is 'n bekende voorbeeld. </p><p><i>Die Verhaal van Sinoehe</i>, wat tydens die <a href="/wiki/Middelryk" class="mw-redirect" title="Middelryk">Middelryk</a> geskryf is, is dalk die klassieke Egiptiese letterkundige werk.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ook die <i>Westcar-papirus</i> kom uit dié tyd; dit is 'n stel verhale wat <a href="/wiki/Choefoe" title="Choefoe">Choefoe</a> se seuns vir hom vertel het oor die wondere wat deur priesters verrig is.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Die Instruksie van Amenemope</i> word beskou as 'n meesterstuk van Nabye Oosterse letterkunde.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Teen die einde van die <a href="/wiki/Nuwe_Ryk" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuwe Ryk">Nuwe Ryk</a> is gewilde werke soos <i>Die Verhaal van Wenamoen</i> en <i>Die Instruksie van Any</i> geskryf. Eersgenoemde vertel die verhaal van 'n edelman wat beroof word op pad om hout in Libanon te gaan koop en sy stryd om na Egipte terug te keer. </p><p>Van omstreeks <a href="/wiki/700_v.C." class="mw-redirect" title="700 v.C.">700 v.C.</a> af is verhale en instruksies, soos <i>Die Instruksies van Onchsjesjonqy</i>, asook persoonlike en besigheidsdokumente in demoties geskryf. Baie verhale wat tydens die Grieks-Romeinse era in demoties geskryf is, het afgespeel in vorige historiese tydperke toe Egipte 'n onafhanklike land was wat deur groot farao's soos <a href="/wiki/Ramses_II" title="Ramses II">Ramses II</a> regeer is.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kultuur">Kultuur</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=27" title="Wysig afdeling: Kultuur" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section's source code: Kultuur"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Daaglikse_lewe">Daaglikse lewe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=28" title="Wysig afdeling: Daaglikse lewe" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section's source code: Daaglikse lewe"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Ostracon04-RamessidePeriod_MetropolitanMuseum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Ostracon04-RamessidePeriod_MetropolitanMuseum.png/200px-Ostracon04-RamessidePeriod_MetropolitanMuseum.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Ostracon04-RamessidePeriod_MetropolitanMuseum.png/300px-Ostracon04-RamessidePeriod_MetropolitanMuseum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Ostracon04-RamessidePeriod_MetropolitanMuseum.png/400px-Ostracon04-RamessidePeriod_MetropolitanMuseum.png 2x" data-file-width="1465" data-file-height="1308" /></a><figcaption>'n Beeld van 'n leeu wat met die hulp van 'n hond gejag word.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Nefertari_003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Nefertari_003.jpg/200px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Nefertari_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Nefertari_003.jpg/300px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Nefertari_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Nefertari_003.jpg/400px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Nefertari_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1829" /></a><figcaption>'n Prent van <a href="/w/index.php?title=Senet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Senet (bladsy bestaan nie)">Senet</a> uit die grafkelder van koningin <a href="/wiki/Nefertari" title="Nefertari">Nefertari</a> by Thebes; dit is een van die wêreld se oudste bordspeletjies.</figcaption></figure> <p>Die meeste Egiptenare was boere. Hul huise was beperk tot naby familielede en was gebou uit modderstene. Elke huis het 'n kombuis sonder dak gehad, 'n maalsteen om die graan fyn te maal en 'n klein oond om brood te bak.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mure was wit geverf en kon bedek gewees het met gekleurde linnebehangsels. Op die vloere was rietmatte en meubels het bestaan uit houtstoele, tafels en beddens.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Die Antieke Egiptenare het higiëne en voorkoms hoog aangeslaan. Die meeste het in die <a href="/wiki/Nyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyl">Nyl</a> gebad en 'n pasta-agtige seep gebruik wat van diervet en kryt gemaak is. Mans het hul hele liggaam skoon geskeer ter wille van higiëne, en parfuums en aromatiese olies is gebruik.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Klere is van eenvoudige linne gemaak wat gebleik is. Mans en vroue van die hoër klasse het pruike, juwele en kosmetiekware gedra. Kinders het sonder klere geloop totdat hulle tieners was, en op sowat 12 jaar is seuns besny en hul hare afgeskeer. Ma's het die kinders versorg en pa's het vir 'n inkomste gesorg.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Musicians_and_dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Musicians_and_dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg/220px-Musicians_and_dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Musicians_and_dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg/330px-Musicians_and_dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Musicians_and_dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg/440px-Musicians_and_dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7160" data-file-height="4899" /></a><figcaption>Die Antieke Egiptenare het 'n ryk kulturele erfenis gehad kompleet met feeste van dans en musiek.</figcaption></figure> <p>Dans en musiek was gewilde vermaak vir dié wat dit kon bekostig. Vroeë instrumente sluit in fluite en harpe, terwyl trompette en hobo's later ook gewild geword het. Tydens die Nuwe Ryk is klokke, simbale, tamboeryne, tromme en ingevoerde fluite en liere bespeel.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sistrum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sistrum (bladsy bestaan nie)">sistrum</a> was 'n soort ratel wat veral tydens godsdiensseremonies gebruik is. </p><p>Die Antieke Egiptenare het 'n verskeidenheid ontspanningsbedrywighede geniet, insluitende speletjies en musiek. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Senet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Senet (bladsy bestaan nie)">Senet</a> was 'n gewilde speletjie wat van die vroegste tye af met dobbelstene op 'n spesiale bord gespeel is. 'n Soortgelyke spel was <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mehen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mehen (bladsy bestaan nie)">mehen</a>, wat op 'n ronde bord gespeel is. Balspeletjies was gewild onder kinders en die rykes het gejag en op die Nyl gevaar. </p><p>Die opgrawing van die werkersdorpie by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Deir_el-Madinah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deir el-Madinah (bladsy bestaan nie)">Deir el-Madinah</a> het daartoe gelei dat 'n uiters getroue weergawe van die alledaagse lewe oor feitlik 400 jaar saamgestel kon word. Op geen ander terrein is die organisasie, sosiale interaksies, werk- en lewenswyse van 'n antieke gemeenskap in sulke besonderhede bestudeer nie.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voedsel">Voedsel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=29" title="Wysig afdeling: Voedsel" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section's source code: Voedsel"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Egiptiese voedsel het oor die eeue heen besonder konstant gebly; die moderne voedsel toon groot ooreenkomste met die voedsel van antieke tye. Die <a href="/wiki/Stapelvoedsel" title="Stapelvoedsel">stapelvoedsel</a> was brood, <a href="/wiki/Bier" title="Bier">bier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Groente" title="Groente">groente</a> soos uie en knoffel, en vrugte soos dadels en vye. Wyn en vleis is op feesdae deur almal genuttig, terwyl die rykes dit op 'n meer gereelde grondslag gebruik het. Vis, vleis en hoender kon gesout of gedroog word en is gerooster of in bredies geëet.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Argitektuur">Argitektuur</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=30" title="Wysig afdeling: Argitektuur" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section's source code: Argitektuur"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Hypostyle_hall,_Karnak_temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Hypostyle_hall%2C_Karnak_temple.jpg/200px-Hypostyle_hall%2C_Karnak_temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Hypostyle_hall%2C_Karnak_temple.jpg/300px-Hypostyle_hall%2C_Karnak_temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Hypostyle_hall%2C_Karnak_temple.jpg/400px-Hypostyle_hall%2C_Karnak_temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>Karnak se tempelsale is gebou met rye dik pilare wat die dakbalke gestut het.</figcaption></figure> <p>Die argitektuur van Antieke Egipte sluit van die beroemdste stukture in die wêreld in: die <a href="/wiki/Giza" title="Giza">Groot Piramides van Giza</a> en die <a href="/wiki/Karnak" title="Karnak">tempels van Thebe</a>. Bouprojekte is georganiseer en befonds deur die staat vir godsdiens- en herdenkingsdoeleindes, maar ook om die mag van die farao ten toon te stel. Die Egiptenare was ervare bouers wat eenvoudige maar doeltreffende gereedskap gebruik het.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Die huise van ryk en arm is met vergaanbare materiale soos modderstene en hout gebou en het nie behoue gebly nie. Boere het in eenvoudige huise gebly, terwyl die paleise van die elite uitspattiger was. 'n Paar paleise uit die Nuwe Ryk, soos dié in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Malkata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Malkata (bladsy bestaan nie)">Malkata</a> en <a href="/wiki/Amarna" title="Amarna">Amarna</a>, het wel bewaar gebly en hulle toon ryklik versierde mure en vloere met tonele van mense, voëls, waterpoele, gode en geometriese ontwerpe.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Belangrike strukture soos tempels en grafkelders wat vir altyd moes hou, is van klip gebou pleks van stene. </p><p>Die vroegste bewaarde tempels, soos dié by <a href="/wiki/Giza" title="Giza">Giza</a>, bestaan uit enkele, ommuurde sale met dakbalke wat deur dik pilare gestut word. In die Nuwe Ryk het poorte, oop binnehowe en toegeboude sale bygekom.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die vroegste en gewildste grafkelders in die Ou Ryk was die <a href="/wiki/Mastaba" title="Mastaba">mastaba</a>, 'n plat, reghoekige struktuur van modderstene of klip wat oor 'n ondergrondse grafkamer gebou is. Die trappiramides, soos die <a href="/wiki/Piramide_van_Djoser" title="Piramide van Djoser">Piramide van Djoser</a>, was 'n reeks klipmastabas wat bo-op mekaar gestapel is. Piramides is tydens die Ou en Middelryk gebou, maar latere heersers het minder opsigtelike grafkelders verkies wat uit rotse gekap is.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die <a href="/wiki/25ste_Dinastie" class="mw-redirect" title="25ste Dinastie">25ste Dinastie</a> was 'n uitsondering, want al die farao's uit dié dinastie het piramides laat bou.<sup id="cite_ref-Mokhtar1990_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mokhtar1990-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Emberling2011_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emberling2011-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Silverman1997_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silverman1997-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kuns">Kuns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=31" title="Wysig afdeling: Kuns" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section's source code: Kuns"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Nefertiti_30-01-2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Nefertiti_30-01-2006.jpg/200px-Nefertiti_30-01-2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Nefertiti_30-01-2006.jpg/300px-Nefertiti_30-01-2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Nefertiti_30-01-2006.jpg/400px-Nefertiti_30-01-2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption>Die borsbeeld van <a href="/wiki/Nefertiti" title="Nefertiti">Nefertiti</a> deur die beeldhouer Toetmoses, is een van die beroemdste kunswerke van Antieke Egipte.</figcaption></figure> <p>Die Antieke Egiptenare het kuns vir funksionele doeleindes geskep. Kunstenaars het langer as 3 500 jaar gehou by kunsvorme en ikonografie wat in die Ou Ryk ontwikkel is, en invloede van buite en van binne is verwerp.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hierdie standaarde – eenvoudige lyne en vorms en plat kleuroppervlakke sonder enige aanduiding van diepte – het 'n sin van orde en balans geskep. Beelde en teks is saam gebruik op grafkelder- en tempelmure, kiste, <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">steles</a> en selfs standbeelde. Die <a href="/wiki/Narmer-palet" title="Narmer-palet">Narmer-palet</a> bevat byvoorbeeld figure wat ook as hiërogliewe gelees kan word.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Klip is gebruik vir standbeelde en reliëfwerk, maar hout as 'n goedkoper medium. Verf is gemaak van <a href="/wiki/Mineraal" title="Mineraal">minerale</a> soos ystererts (rooi en geel), kopererts (blou en groen), roet en steenkool (swart) en kalksteen (wit). </p><p>Farao's het reliëfwerke gebruik om oorwinnings, koninklike verordenings en godsdienstonele uit te beeld. Tydens die Middelryk het hout- of kleimodelle wat tonele uit die alledaagse lewe uitbeeld, gewild geraak vir grafkelders. In 'n poging om die bedrywighede van die lewendes in die hiernamaals te dupliseer is beelde van werkers, huise, bote en selfs militêre formasies gemaak.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ondanks die eenvormigheid van Egiptiese kuns weerspieël die style van verskillende tye en plekke wel veranderings in kulturele of politieke houdings. Ná die inval van die Hyksos tydens die <a href="/wiki/Tweede_Oorgangstydperk_van_Egipte" title="Tweede Oorgangstydperk van Egipte">Tweede Oorgangstydperk</a> het fresko's in 'n Minoïese styl in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Avaris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Avaris (bladsy bestaan nie)">Avaris</a> voorgekom.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die beste voorbeeld van 'n verandering wat deur die politiek beïnvloed is, is die Amarna-periode, toe figure groot veranderings ondergaan het om in te pas by <a href="/wiki/Achenaten" title="Achenaten">Achenaten</a> se revolusionêre godsdiensidees.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hierdie styl, bekend as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amarna-kuns&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amarna-kuns (bladsy bestaan nie)">Amarna-kuns</a>, is gou laat vaar ná Achenaten se dood, en dit is toe weer deur tradisionele kunsvorme vervang.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Godsdiens">Godsdiens</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=32" title="Wysig afdeling: Godsdiens" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section's source code: Godsdiens"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd><i>Hoofartikel: <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_mitologie" title="Egiptiese mitologie">Egiptiese mitologie</a></i></dd></dl> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:BD_Hunefer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/BD_Hunefer.jpg/300px-BD_Hunefer.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/BD_Hunefer.jpg/450px-BD_Hunefer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/BD_Hunefer.jpg/600px-BD_Hunefer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="409" /></a><figcaption>Die <a href="/wiki/Boek_van_die_Dooies" class="mw-redirect" title="Boek van die Dooies">Boek van die Dooies</a> was 'n gids vir die afgestorwene se reis in die hiernamaals.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Tutmask.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Tutmask.jpg/200px-Tutmask.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Tutmask.jpg/300px-Tutmask.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Tutmask.jpg/400px-Tutmask.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>Talle weelde-items is in die farao's se grafkelders geplaas, soos hierdie goue masker van die mummie van <a href="/wiki/Toetankamen" title="Toetankamen">Toetankamen</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>'n Geloof in die goddelike en in die hiernamaals was van die begin af deel van die Antieke Egiptiese beskawing. Die farao's se heerskappy was gebaseer op die goddelike reg van konings. Die goderyk het bestaan uit <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_mitologie" title="Egiptiese mitologie">Egiptiese gode</a> met bonatuurlike magte wie se hulp en beskerming gevra is. Die gode was egter nie altyd goedhartig nie; die Egiptenare het geglo hulle moes tevrede gehou word met offerandes en gebede. Die struktuur van die goderyk het voortdurend verander terwyl nuwe gode opgang in die hiërargie gemaak het, maar priesters het geen poging aangewend om die uiteenlopende en soms weersprekende mites in 'n sinvolle stelsel te organiseer nie.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hierdie verskillende idees is nie beskou as weersprekend nie, maar as lae in die veelvuldige fasette van die werklikheid.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kultustempels is vir gode gebou en deur priesters beheer namens die koning. In die middel van die tempel was die kultusstandbeeld. Tempels was nie plekke van openbare aanbidding nie en die standbeelde is net op sekere feesdae en herdenkings uit die tempel gedra sodat die publiek dit kon aanbid. Die gode se domein was andersins afgesper van die buitewêreld en net die priesters het toegang gehad. Gewone burgers sou private beelde in hul huise aanbid en gelukbringers dra vir beskerming teen die magte van chaos.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ná die Nuwe Ryk het die farao se rol as spirituele tussenganger afgeneem en het die fokus geskuif na die direkte aanbidding van die gode. Prieters het 'n stelsel van <a href="/wiki/Orakel" title="Orakel">orakels</a> ontwikkel wat die wil van die gode direk aan die mense oorgedra het.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw313_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw313-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Die Egiptenare het geglo elke mens is saamgestel uit fisieke en geestelike dele of "aspekte". Benewens die liggaam was daar ook die <i>šwt</i> (skaduwee), <i>ba</i> (persoonlikheid of siel), <i>ka</i> (lewenskrag) en <i>name</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die hart, eerder as die siel, is beskou as die setel van denke en emosies. Ná iemand se dood is die spirituele aspekte uit die liggaam bevry en kon hulle vryelik rondbeweeg, maar hulle het die stoflike oorskot, of 'n plaasvervanger (soos 'n standbeeld), nodig gehad as 'n permanente tuiste. Die uiteindelike doel van die afgestorwene was om sy <i>ka</i> en <i>ba</i> te herenig en so een van die "geseënde dooies" te word wat as 'n <i>ach</i>, of "doeltreffende een", lewe. Om te besluit of hy dit waardig is, moes die afgestorwene se hart geweeg word teen die <a href="/wiki/Ma%C3%A4t" title="Maät">"veer van waarheid"</a>. As sy hart die regte gewig gehad het, kon hy sy lewe op aarde in 'n spirituele vorm voortsit.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Begrafnisse">Begrafnisse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=33" title="Wysig afdeling: Begrafnisse" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section's source code: Begrafnisse"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Die Antieke Egiptenare het 'n uitgebreide stelsel begrafnisgebruike gehad wat hulle geglo het nodig was vir lewe ná die dood. Dit het ingesluit die <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mummifisering&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mummifisering (bladsy bestaan nie)">mummifisering</a> van die liggaam, begrafnisrituele en die begrawe van artikels wat die persoon ná sy dood sou nodig hê. Mummifisering het behels die uithaal van die organe, die toedraai van die lyk in linne en die teraardebestelling in 'n reghoekige steensarkofaag of houtkis. Van die <a href="/wiki/4de_Dinastie" class="mw-redirect" title="4de Dinastie">4de Dinastie</a> af is sekere liggaamsdele in aparte potte gehou.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mummies van die <a href="/wiki/Laat_Tydperk_van_Antieke_Egipte" title="Laat Tydperk van Antieke Egipte">Laat Tydperk</a> is ook in spesiale geverfde kiste geplaas. Die werklike bewaringspraktyke het tydens die <a href="/wiki/Ptoleme%C3%AFese_Ryk" title="Ptolemeïese Ryk">Ptolemeïese</a> en die Romeinse Tydperk afgeneem en groter klem is op die uiterlike voorkoms en versiering van die mummie geplaas.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alle grafte het goedere bevat wat die persoon ná sy dood sou nodig kry. Van die Nuwe Ryk af is die Boek van die Dooies ook in die grafkamer gesit saam met standbeelde wat handearbeid vir die afgestorwenes moes verrig.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ná die begrafnis moes familielede nou en dan kos na die grafkelder bring en gebede opsê namens die afgestorwene.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Militêre_mag"><span id="Milit.C3.AAre_mag"></span>Militêre mag</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=34" title="Wysig afdeling: Militêre mag" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section's source code: Militêre mag"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Egyptian-Chariot.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Egyptian-Chariot.png/220px-Egyptian-Chariot.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Egyptian-Chariot.png/330px-Egyptian-Chariot.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Egyptian-Chariot.png/440px-Egyptian-Chariot.png 2x" data-file-width="1208" data-file-height="817" /></a><figcaption>'n Egiptiese strydwa.</figcaption></figure> <p>Die Antieke Egiptiese weermag was verantwoordelik vir die beskerming van die land teen invalle van buite en die handhawing vir Egipte se oorheersing van die Nabye Ooste. Dit het tydens die Ou Ryk mynekspedisies na Sinai beskerm en tydens die Eerste en die Tweede Oorgangstydperk burgeroorloë beveg. Die weermag het ook versterkings aan die belangrike handelsroetes gehandhaaf en forte gebou wat gedien het as basisse vir operasies in omliggende streke. In die Nuwe Ryk het 'n paar farao's die weermag gebruik om <a href="/wiki/Koesj" title="Koesj">Koesj</a> en dele van die <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> te verower.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tipiese militêre toerusting het ingesluit boë, spiese en skilde van diervel wat oor 'n houtraam gespan is. In die Nuwe Ryk is strydwaens in gebruik geneem wat vroeër deur die Hyksos-invallers in Egipte bekend gestel is. Wapens en beskermingstoerusting het verbeter nadat <a href="/wiki/Brons" title="Brons">brons</a> begin bewerk is: skilde is toe gemaak van soliede hout en koper, spiese het koperpunte gekry en die Khopesh, 'n soort sekel-swaard, is in gebruik geneem.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die farao is gewoonlik uitgebeeld waar hy aan die voorpunt van die weermag ry en 'n paar het dit wel gedoen,<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hoewel daar geglo word farao's het nie in dié tyd die weermag persoonlik in oorloë gelei en saam met hul troepe geveg nie.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Soldate is uit die algemene bevolking gewerf, maar tydens en veral ná die Nuwe Ryk is huursoldate van <a href="/wiki/Nubi%C3%AB" title="Nubië">Nubië</a> en <a href="/wiki/Libi%C3%AB" title="Libië">Libië</a> gehuur.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tegnologie,_medisyne_en_wiskunde"><span id="Tegnologie.2C_medisyne_en_wiskunde"></span>Tegnologie, medisyne en wiskunde</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=35" title="Wysig afdeling: Tegnologie, medisyne en wiskunde" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section's source code: Tegnologie, medisyne en wiskunde"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In tegnologie het Antieke Egipte 'n taamlike hoë vlak van produktiwiteit en sofistikasie bereik. Tradisionele <a href="/wiki/Empirisme" title="Empirisme">empirisme</a>, 'n filosofiese denkrigting dat <a href="/wiki/Kennis" title="Kennis">kennis</a> uit ervaring spruit, het waarskynlik in Egipte ontstaan (omstreeks 1600 v.C.). Hulle het ook hul eie alfabet en <a href="/w/index.php?title=Desimale_stelsel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Desimale stelsel (bladsy bestaan nie)">desimale stelsel</a> geskep. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Faience_en_glas">Faience en glas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=36" title="Wysig afdeling: Faience en glas" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section's source code: Faience en glas"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg/180px-Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg/270px-Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg/360px-Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>Die maak van glas was 'n hoogs ontwikkelde kuns.</figcaption></figure> <p>Selfs voor die Ou Ryk het die Egiptenare 'n glasagtige materiaal bekend as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Faience&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Faience (bladsy bestaan nie)">faience</a> ontwikkel wat hulle soos 'n soort kunsmatige <a href="/wiki/Halfedelsteen" title="Halfedelsteen">halfedelsteen</a> behandel het. Die materiaal is gebruik om krale, teëls, beeldjies en ander klein goedere te maak. </p><p>Die Egiptenare kon 'n groot verskeidenheid voorwerpe van glas maak, maar dit is nie seker of hulle die tegniek onafhanklik ontwikkel het nie.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hulle het glasartikels van verskeie kleure gemaak, en die glas was óf deursigtig óf ondeursigtig.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medisyne">Medisyne</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=37" title="Wysig afdeling: Medisyne" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section's source code: Medisyne"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Ancient_Egyptian_medical_instruments.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Ancient_Egyptian_medical_instruments.jpg/180px-Ancient_Egyptian_medical_instruments.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Ancient_Egyptian_medical_instruments.jpg/270px-Ancient_Egyptian_medical_instruments.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Ancient_Egyptian_medical_instruments.jpg/360px-Ancient_Egyptian_medical_instruments.jpg 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="705" /></a><figcaption>Mediese instrumente in 'n tempelinskripsie uit die Ptolemeïese Tydperk.</figcaption></figure> <p>Die Antieke Egiptenare se <a href="/wiki/Siekte" title="Siekte">mediese probleme</a> het hoofsaaklik uit hul omgewing gespruit. Om so naby aan die Nyl te lewe en te werk het hulle blootgestel aan die gevaar van <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> en sekere <a href="/wiki/Parasiet" title="Parasiet">parasiete</a> wat <a href="/wiki/Lewer" title="Lewer">lewer</a>- en dermskade kon aanrig. Gevaarlike diere soos <a href="/wiki/Krokodil" title="Krokodil">krokodille</a> en <a href="/wiki/Seekoei" title="Seekoei">seekoeie</a> was ook 'n algemene probleem. Die landbou- en bouwerk het spanning op die ruggraat en gewrigte geplaas en ernstige beserings is veroorsaak deur bouwerk en oorlogvoering. Die gruis en sand van klipgemaalde <a href="/wiki/Meel" title="Meel">meel</a> het die <a href="/wiki/Tand" title="Tand">tande</a> geskuur en hulle ontvanklik gemaak vir <a href="/wiki/Abses" title="Abses">absesse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ondanks die vleiende uitbeelding van mense op die mure van grafkelders, toon die oorgewig mummies van mense uit die hoër stande die gevolge van oordaad.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die <a href="/wiki/Volwasse" class="mw-redirect" title="Volwasse">volwasse</a> lewensverwagting vir <a href="/wiki/Man" title="Man">mans</a> was sowat 35 en vir <a href="/wiki/Vrou" title="Vrou">vroue</a> 30, maar 'n derde van die bevolking het reeds <a href="/wiki/Kind" title="Kind">kleintyd</a> gesterf. </p><p>Antieke Egiptiese <a href="/wiki/Dokter" title="Dokter">dokters</a> was welbekend in die Nabye Ooste en sommige, soos <a href="/wiki/Imhotep" title="Imhotep">Imhotep</a>, het lank ná hul dood beroemd gebly.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Volgens <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" class="mw-redirect" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> was daar 'n groot mate van spesialisering, met sommige dokters wat byvoorbeeld net siektes van die kop en maag behandel het terwyl ander oog- of tandartse was.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dokters is opgelei in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bubastis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bubastis (bladsy bestaan nie)">Per-Bastet</a>, Abydos en Saïs. Mediese papirusse toon 'n goeie kennis van die <a href="/wiki/Anatomie" title="Anatomie">anatomie</a>, beserings en praktiese behandelings.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wiskunde">Wiskunde</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=38" title="Wysig afdeling: Wiskunde" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section's source code: Wiskunde"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table style="font-size: 88%; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid lightgrey; margin: 0.5em 1em; text-align: center; clear: left; float: left; margin-left: 0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding: 1em; background-color: var(--background-color-base); color:var(--color-base)"><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D22.png?0b8f1" height="18" title="D22" alt="D22" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background: lightgrey; border-bottom: 1px solid lightgrey; padding: 0.5em"><span class="frac nowrap"><sup>2</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub></span> <br />in <a href="/wiki/Egiptiese_hi%C3%ABrogliewe" title="Egiptiese hiërogliewe">hiërogliewe</a> </th></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Senenmut-Grab.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/220px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/330px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/440px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2678" data-file-height="1589" /></a><figcaption>'n Astronomiese kaart uit die grafkelder van <a href="/w/index.php?title=Senemoet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Senemoet (bladsy bestaan nie)">Senemoet</a>, 18de Dinastie.</figcaption></figure> <p>Die vroegste voorbeelde van <a href="/wiki/Wiskunde" title="Wiskunde">wiskundige berekenings</a> kom uit die voordinastiese <a href="/w/index.php?title=Naqada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naqada (bladsy bestaan nie)">Naqada</a>-tydperk, en toon 'n volledig ontwikkelde <a href="/wiki/Syfer" title="Syfer">syferstelsel</a>. Tekste op verskeie papirusse wys die Antieke Egiptenare kon optel, aftrek, maal en deel; hulle het breuke gebruik, en kon die <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a> van bokse en piramides uitwerk en die <a href="/wiki/Oppervlakte" title="Oppervlakte">oppervlakte</a> van <a href="/wiki/Reghoek" title="Reghoek">reghoeke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Driehoek" title="Driehoek">driehoeke</a> en <a href="/wiki/Sirkel" title="Sirkel">sirkels</a> meet. Hulle het ook 'n basiese begrip van <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a> en <a href="/wiki/Meetkunde" title="Meetkunde">meetkunde</a> gehad.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hulle het 'n desimale stelsel gebruik wat geskoei was op hiëroglieftekens vir elke mag van 10, tot by 'n miljoen. Elk van die tekens is soveel keer geskryf as wat nodig was om die regte getal te kry; om byvoorbeeld 80 of 800 te skryf is die simbool vir 10 of 100 onderskeidelik agt keer geskryf.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hulle het 'n ingewikkelde stelsel gehad om breuke te skryf, maar sekere algemene breuke is met spesiale hiërogliewe geskryf – die ekwivalent van die moderne <span class="frac nowrap"><sup>2</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub></span> word links gewys.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nalatenskap">Nalatenskap</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=39" title="Wysig afdeling: Nalatenskap" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section's source code: Nalatenskap"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Die Antieke Egiptenare het 'n groot nalatenskap gehad met hul kultuur en monumente. Vroeëre historici soos <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" class="mw-redirect" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> en <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> het die land bestudeer en daaroor geskryf.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tydens die <a href="/wiki/Middeleeue" title="Middeleeue">Middeleeue</a> en die <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> het Egipte se heidense kultuur afgeneem met die opkoms van die <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> en later <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, maar Middeleeuse skrywers soos <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dhul-Nun_al-Misri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dhul-Nun al-Misri (bladsy bestaan nie)">Dhul-Nun al-Misri</a> en <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Maqrizi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Maqrizi (bladsy bestaan nie)">al-Maqrizi</a> het bly belangstel in die land en het ook daaroor geskryf.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In die 17de en 18de eeu het reisigers en toeriste oudhede teruggebring van Egipte en reisverhale geskryf, en so die <a href="/wiki/Europa" title="Europa">Europeërs</a> se belangstelling gewek. Dit het versamelaars na Egipte laat kom wat belangrike oudhede geneem, gekoop of present gekry het.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hoewel die Europese koloniale besetting van Egipte 'n groot deel van die land se historiese nalatenskap vernietig het, het ander buitelanders 'n positiewer invloed gehad. <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> het byvoorbeeld die eerste studies in <a href="/wiki/Egiptologie" title="Egiptologie">Egiptologie</a> gereël toe hy sowat 150 wetenskaplikes en kunstenaars gebring het om Egipte se natuurgeskiedenis te bestudeer, en dit is gepubliseer in die <i>Description de l'Égypte</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In die 20ste eeu het beide die Egiptiese regering en argeoloë die belangrikheid van kulturele respek en integriteit in opgrawings besef. Die <a href="/w/index.php?title=Opperraad_van_Oudhede&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Opperraad van Oudhede (bladsy bestaan nie)">Opperraad van Oudhede</a> keur nou alle opgrawings goed en beheer dit, en dit word gedoen om kennis op te doen eerder as om skatte te vind. Die raad beheer ook museums en monument-rekonstruksieprogramme wat daarop gemik is om die historiese nalatenskap van Egipte te bewaar. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sien_ook">Sien ook</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=40" title="Wysig afdeling: Sien ook" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section's source code: Sien ook"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antieke_Egiptiese_rassedebat" title="Antieke Egiptiese rassedebat">Antieke Egiptiese rassedebat</a></li> <li>Die <a href="/wiki/Portaal:Antieke_Egipte" title="Portaal:Antieke Egipte">Portaal oor Antieke Egipte</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verwysings">Verwysings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=41" title="Wysig afdeling: Verwysings" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section's source code: Verwysings"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-count references-column-count-3" style="-moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2205490">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:12px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/chronology/index.html">"Chronology"</a> (in Engels). Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141023214503/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/chronology/index.html">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 23 Oktober 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besoek op <span class="nowrap">25 Maart</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chronology&rft.pub=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities%2C+University+College+London&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Fchronology%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dodson (2004) bl. 46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clayton (1994) bl. 217</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">James (2005) bl. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Manuelian (1998) bl. 6–7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AIA-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-AIA_6-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ward, Cheryl. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archaeology.org/0105/abstracts/abydos3.html">World's Oldest Planked Boats</a>", in <i>Archaeology</i> (Vol. 54, No. 3, Mei/Junie 2001). Archaeological Institute of America</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clayton (1994) bl. 153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">James (2005) bl. 84</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 17, 67–69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFIkram1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Salima_Ikram&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Salima Ikram (bladsy bestaan nie)">Ikram, Salima</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=1Am88Yc8gRkC&printsec=frontcover#PPA5,M1"><i>Choice Cuts: Meat Production in Ancient Egypt</i></a>. University of Cambridge. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-90-6831-745-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-90-6831-745-9"><bdi>978-90-6831-745-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=LCCN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LCCN (identifier) (bladsy bestaan nie)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/1997140867">1997140867</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/60255819">60255819</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besoek op <span class="nowrap">22 Julie</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Choice+Cuts%3A+Meat+Production+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60255819&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F1997140867&rft.isbn=978-90-6831-745-9&rft.aulast=Ikram&rft.aufirst=Salima&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D1Am88Yc8gRkC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%23PPA5%2CM1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hayes (1964) bl. 220</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Childe, V. Gordon (1953), <i>New Light on the Most Ancient Near East</i>, (Praeger Publications)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Barbara G. Aston, James A. Harrell, Ian Shaw (2000). Red. Paul T. Nicholson en Ian Shaw. "Stone," in <i>Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology,</i> Cambridge, 5–77, bl. 46–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Patai, Raphael (1998), <i>Children of Noah: Jewish Seafaring in Ancient Times</i> (Princeton Uni Press)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/naqadan/chronology.html#naqadaI">"Chronology of the Naqada Period"</a> (in Engels). Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141024082241/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/naqadan/chronology.html#naqadaI">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 24 Oktober 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besoek op <span class="nowrap">9 Maart</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chronology+of+the+Naqada+Period&rft.pub=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities%2C+University+College+London&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Fnaqadan%2Fchronology.html%23naqadaI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaw61-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Shaw61_17-0">17,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Shaw61_17-1">17,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFEmberling2011" class="citation book cs1">Emberling, Geoff (2011). <i>Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa</i>. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-615-48102-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-615-48102-9"><bdi>978-0-615-48102-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nubia%3A+Ancient+Kingdoms+of+Africa&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Institute+for+the+Study+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-615-48102-9&rft.aulast=Emberling&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-19">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oi.uchicago.edu/museum/nubia/aqib.html">"The Qustul Incense Burner"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Qustul+Incense+Burner&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foi.uchicago.edu%2Fmuseum%2Fnubia%2Faqib.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-20">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/faience/periods.html">"Faience in different Periods"</a> (in Engels). Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130601075350/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/faience/periods.html">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 1 Junie 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besoek op <span class="nowrap">9 Maart</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Faience+in+different+Periods&rft.pub=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities%2C+University+College+London&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Ffaience%2Fperiods.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-21">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen (2000) bl. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-22">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clayton (1994) bl. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-23">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 78–80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-24">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Robins (1997) bl. 32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-25">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clayton (1994) bl. 12–13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-26">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 70</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/archaicegypt/info.html">"Early Dynastic Egypt"</a> (in Engels). Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080304143847/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/archaicegypt/info.html">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 4 Maart 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besoek op <span class="nowrap">9 Maart</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Early+Dynastic+Egypt&rft.pub=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities%2C+University+College+London&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Farchaicegypt%2Finfo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-28">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">James (2005) bl. 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-29">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 102</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-30">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 116–7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-31">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFFekri_Hassan" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fekri Hassan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_04.shtml">"The Fall of the Old Kingdom"</a> (in Engels). British Broadcasting Corporation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090511110605/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_04.shtml">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 11 Mei 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besoek op <span class="nowrap">10 Maart</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+the+Old+Kingdom&rft.pub=British+Broadcasting+Corporation&rft.au=Fekri+Hassan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fancient%2Fegyptians%2Fapocalypse_egypt_04.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-32">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clayton (1994) bl. 69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-33">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaw146-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Shaw146_34-0">34,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Shaw146_34-1">34,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-35">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clayton (1994) bl. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-36">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 148</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-37">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clayton (1994) bl. 79</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-38">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 158</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-39">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 179–82</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-40">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Robins (1997) bl. 90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-41">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 188</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ryholt310-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Ryholt310_42-0">42,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Ryholt310_42-1">42,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Ryholt (1997) bl. 310</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-43">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 189</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-44">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 224</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-45">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">James (2005) bl. 48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-46">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clayton (1994) bl. 146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-47">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tyldesley (2001) bl. 76–7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-48">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">James (2005) bl. 54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-49">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cerny (1975) bl. 645</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-50">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFEmberling2011" class="citation book cs1">Emberling, Geoff (2011). <i>Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa</i>. New York, NY: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, NYU. pp. 9–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-615-48102-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-615-48102-9"><bdi>978-0-615-48102-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nubia%3A+Ancient+Kingdoms+of+Africa&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=9-10&rft.pub=Institute+for+the+Study+of+the+Ancient+World%2C+NYU&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-615-48102-9&rft.aulast=Emberling&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-51">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 345</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-52">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFHerodotus2003" class="citation book cs1">Herodotus (2003). <i>The Histories</i>. Penguin Books. pp. 151–158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-14-044908-2" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-14-044908-2"><bdi>978-0-14-044908-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Histories&rft.pages=151-158&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-14-044908-2&rft.au=Herodotus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-53">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFDiop1974" class="citation book cs1">Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). <i>The African Origin of Civilization</i>. Chicago, Illinois: Lawrence Hill Books. pp. 219–221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-55652-072-7" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-55652-072-7"><bdi>1-55652-072-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+African+Origin+of+Civilization&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=219-221&rft.pub=Lawrence+Hill+Books&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=1-55652-072-7&rft.aulast=Diop&rft.aufirst=Cheikh+Anta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-54">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFBonnet2006" class="citation book cs1">Bonnet, Charles (2006). <i>The Nubian Pharaohs</i>. New York: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142–154. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-977-416-010-3" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-977-416-010-3"><bdi>978-977-416-010-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nubian+Pharaohs&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=142-154&rft.pub=The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-977-416-010-3&rft.aulast=Bonnet&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mokhtar1990-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Mokhtar1990_55-0">55,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Mokhtar1990_55-1">55,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFMokhtar1990" class="citation book cs1">Mokhtar, G. (1990). <i>General History of Africa</i>. California, USA: University of California Press. pp. 161–163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-520-06697-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-520-06697-9"><bdi>0-520-06697-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+History+of+Africa&rft.place=California%2C+USA&rft.pages=161-163&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-520-06697-9&rft.aulast=Mokhtar&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Emberling2011-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Emberling2011_56-0">56,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Emberling2011_56-1">56,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFEmberling2011" class="citation book cs1">Emberling, Geoff (2011). <i>Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa</i>. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. pp. 9–11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nubia%3A+Ancient+Kingdoms+of+Africa&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=9-11&rft.pub=Institute+for+the+Study+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Emberling&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Silverman1997-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Silverman1997_57-0">57,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Silverman1997_57-1">57,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFSilverman1997" class="citation book cs1">Silverman, David (1997). <i>Ancient Egypt</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-19-521270-3" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-19-521270-3"><bdi>0-19-521270-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=36-37&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-19-521270-3&rft.aulast=Silverman&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-58">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Leo Oppenheim (1964), <i>Ancient Mesopotamia</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-59">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFAubin2002" class="citation book cs1">Aubin, Henry T. (2002). <i>The Rescue of Jerusalem</i>. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. 6–13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-56947-275-0" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-56947-275-0"><bdi>1-56947-275-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rescue+of+Jerusalem&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=6-13&rft.pub=Soho+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-56947-275-0&rft.aulast=Aubin&rft.aufirst=Henry+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-60">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFAubin2002" class="citation book cs1">Aubin, Henry T. (2002). <i>The Rescue of Jerusalem</i>. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. 152–153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-56947-275-0" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-56947-275-0"><bdi>1-56947-275-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rescue+of+Jerusalem&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=152-153&rft.pub=Soho+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-56947-275-0&rft.aulast=Aubin&rft.aufirst=Henry+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GeorgeRoux-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-GeorgeRoux_61-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Georges Roux (1964), <i>Ancient Iraq</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-62">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFAubin2002" class="citation book cs1">Aubin, Henry T. (2002). <i>The Rescue of Jerusalem</i>. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. p. 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-56947-275-0" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-56947-275-0"><bdi>1-56947-275-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rescue+of+Jerusalem&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Soho+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-56947-275-0&rft.aulast=Aubin&rft.aufirst=Henry+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-63">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Georges Roux (1964), <i>Ancient Iraq</i>, pp 330–332</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-64">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 383</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-65">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 385</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-66">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 405</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-67">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 411</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-68">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 418</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-69">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">James (2005) bl. 62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-70">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">James (2005) bl. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-71">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 426</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaw422-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Shaw422_72-0">72,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Shaw422_72-1">72,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 422</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-73">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2003) bl. 431</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-74">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<i>The Church in Ancient Society</i>", Henry Chadwick, bl. 373, Oxford University Press US, 2001, <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0199246955" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-924695-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-75">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 445</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manuelian358-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Manuelian358_76-0">76,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Manuelian358_76-1">76,1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Manuelian358_76-2">76,2</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Manuelian (1998) bl. 358</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-77">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Manuelian (1998) bl. 363</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UCJohnson-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-UCJohnson_78-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFJanet_H._Johnson" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Janet H. Johnson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/777777190170/">"Women's Legal Rights in Ancient Egypt"</a> (in Engels). University of Chicago, 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200329123230/http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/777777190170/">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 29 Maart 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besoek op <span class="nowrap">31 Augustus</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Women%27s+Legal+Rights+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago%2C+2004&rft.au=Janet+H.+Johnson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffathom.lib.uchicago.edu%2F1%2F777777190170%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-79">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Oakes (2003) bl. 472</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-80">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Manuelian (1998) bl. 361</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-81">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson (2000) bl. 514</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-82">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson (2000) bl. 506</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-83">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson (2000) bl. 577 en 630</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Strouhal117-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Strouhal117_84-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Strouhal (1989) bl. 117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manuelian381-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Manuelian381_85-0">85,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Manuelian381_85-1">85,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Manuelian (1998) bl. 381</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-86">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson (2000) bl. 409</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-87">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Oakes (2003) bl. 229</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-88">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Greaves (1929) bl. 123</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-89">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucas (1962) bl. 413</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-90">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">C.Michael Hogan. 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eoearth.org/article/Sulfur?topic=49557"><i>Sulfur</i>. Encyclopedia of Earth, eds. A. Jorgensen and C.J. Cleveland, National Council for Science and the environment, Washington DC</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-91">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 72</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-92">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Naomi Porat and Edwin van den Brink (red.), "An Egyptian Colony in Southern Palestine During the Late Predynastic to Early Dynastic," in <i>The Nile Delta in Transition: 4th to 3rd Millennium BC</i> (1992), bl. 433–440.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Naomi-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Naomi_93-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Naomi Porat, "Local Industry of Egyptian Pottery in Southern Palestine During the Early Bronze I Period," in <i>Bulletin of the Egyptological, Seminar 8</i> (1986/1987), bl. 109–129. Sien ook <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/foreignrelations/1stdynegyppotsinpalestine.html">University College London web post, 2000</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-94">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 322</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-95">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Manuelian (1998) bl. 145</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-96">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harris (1990) bl. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-97">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Loprieno (1995b) bl. 2137</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-98">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E6D7153DF935A25751C1A96E958260&n=Top%2FReference%2FTimes%20Topics%2FSubjects%2FR%2FReading%20and%20Writing%20Skills">"Inscriptions Suggest Egyptians Could Have Been First to Write"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 16 Desember 1998<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besoek op <span class="nowrap">1 Mei</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Inscriptions+Suggest+Egyptians+Could+Have+Been+First+to+Write&rft.date=1998-12-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9800E6D7153DF935A25751C1A96E958260%26n%3DTop%252FReference%252FTimes%2520Topics%252FSubjects%252FR%252FReading%2520and%2520Writing%2520Skills&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-99">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Loprieno (2004) bl. 161</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-100">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Loprieno (2004) bl. 162</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-101">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Loprieno (1995b) bl. 2137–2138</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-102">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vittman (1991) bl. 197–227</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-103">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Loprieno (1995a) bl. 46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-104">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Loprieno (1995a) bl. 74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-105">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Loprieno (1995a) bl. 10–26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-106">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen (2000) bl. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-107">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lichtheim (1975) bl. 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-108">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lichtheim (1975) bl. 215</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-109">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<i>Wisdom in Ancient Israel"</i>, John Day,/John Adney Emerton,/Robert P. Gordon/ Hugh Godfrey/Maturin Williamson, p23, Cambridge University Press, 1997, <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0521624894" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-62489-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-110">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lichtheim (1980) bl. 159</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-111">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Manuelian (1998) bl. 401</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-112">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Manuelian (1998) bl. 403</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-113">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Manuelian (1998) bl. 405</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-114">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Manuelian (1998) bl. 406–7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-115">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/furniture/music.html">"Music in Ancient Egypt"</a> (in Engels). Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130531225458/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/furniture/music.html">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 31 Mei 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besoek op <span class="nowrap">9 Maart</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Music+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities%2C+University+College+London&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Ffurniture%2Fmusic.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-116">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<i>The Cambridge Ancient History: II Part I, The Middle East and the Aegean Region, c.1800-13380 B.C"</i>, Edited I.E.S Edwards–C.JGadd–N.G.L Hammond-E.Sollberger, Cambridge at the University Press, bl. 380, 1973, <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0521082307" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-08230-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-117">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Manuelian (1998) bl. 399–400</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-118">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clarke (1990) bl. 94–7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-119">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Badawy (1968) bl. 50</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-120">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/temple/typestime.html">"Types of temples in ancient Egypt"</a> (in Engels). Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130318111801/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/temple/typestime.html">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 18 Maart 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besoek op <span class="nowrap">9 Maart</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Types+of+temples+in+ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities%2C+University+College+London&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Ftemple%2Ftypestime.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-121">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dodson (1991) bl. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-122">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Robins (1997) bl. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-123">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Robins (1997) bl. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-124">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Robins (1998) bl. 74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-125">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 216</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-126">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Robins (1998) bl. 149</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-127">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Robins (1998) bl. 158</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-128">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">James (2005) bl. 102</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-129">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<i>The Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology</i>", red. Donald B. Redford, bl. 106, Berkley, 2003, <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/042519096X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-425-19096-X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-130">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">James (2005) bl. 117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaw313-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Shaw313_131-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 313</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-132">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen (2000) bl. 79, 94–5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-133">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wasserman, <i>et al.</i> (1994) bl. 150–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-134">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/mummy/ok.html">"Mummies and Mummification: Old Kingdom"</a> (in Engels). Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141107132531/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/mummy/ok.html">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 7 November 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besoek op <span class="nowrap">9 Maart</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mummies+and+Mummification%3A+Old+Kingdom&rft.pub=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities%2C+University+College+London&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Fmummy%2Fok.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-135">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/mummy/late.html">"Mummies and Mummification: Late Period, Ptolemaic, Roman and Christian Period"</a> (in Engels). Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130319120423/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/mummy/late.html">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 19 Maart 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besoek op <span class="nowrap">9 Maart</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mummies+and+Mummification%3A+Late+Period%2C+Ptolemaic%2C+Roman+and+Christian+Period&rft.pub=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities%2C+University+College+London&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Fmummy%2Flate.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-136">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/burialcustoms/shabtis.html">"Shabtis"</a> (in Engels). Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141106102709/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/burialcustoms/shabtis.html">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 6 November 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besoek op <span class="nowrap">9 Maart</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shabtis&rft.pub=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities%2C+University+College+London&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Fburialcustoms%2Fshabtis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-137">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">James (2005) bl. 124</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-138">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 245</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-139">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Manuelian (1998) bl. 366–67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-140">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clayton (1994) bl. 96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-141">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2009" class="citation journal cs1">Shaw, Garry J. (2009). "The Death of King Seqenenre Tao". <i>Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i>. <b>45</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Research+Center+in+Egypt&rft.atitle=The+Death+of+King+Seqenenre+Tao&rft.volume=45&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Garry+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-142">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) bl. 400</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-143">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson (2000) bl. 195</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-144">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson (2000) bl. 215</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-145">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Filer (1995) bl. 94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-146">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Filer (1995) bl. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-147">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Filer (1995) bl. 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-148">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Strouhal (1989) bl. 243</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-149">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stroual (1989) bl. 244–46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-150">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clarke (1990) bl. 222</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-151">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clarke (1990) bl. 217</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-152">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gardiner (1957) bl. 197</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-153">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Siliotti (1998) bl. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-154">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">El-Daly (2005) bl. 112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-155">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Siliotti (1998) bl. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-156">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Siliotti (1998) bl. 100</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bronne">Bronne</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=42" title="Wysig afdeling: Bronne" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section's source code: Bronne"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div style="font-size:90%; -moz-column-width:30em; -webkit-column-width:30em; column-width:30em;margin-left:1.5em;"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFAldred,_Cyril1988" class="citation book cs1">Aldred, Cyril (1988). <i>Akhenaten, King of Egypt</i>. London, England: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-500-05048-1" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-500-05048-1"><bdi>0-500-05048-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Akhenaten%2C+King+of+Egypt&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-500-05048-1&rft.au=Aldred%2C+Cyril&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFAllen,_James_P.2000" class="citation book cs1">Allen, James P. (2000). <i>Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-521-77483-7" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-521-77483-7"><bdi>0-521-77483-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Egyptian%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Language+and+Culture+of+Hieroglyphs&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-521-77483-7&rft.au=Allen%2C+James+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFBadawy1968" class="citation book cs1">Badawy, Alexander (1968). <i>A History of Egyptian Architecture. Vol III</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-520-00057-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-520-00057-9"><bdi>0-520-00057-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Egyptian+Architecture.+Vol+III&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-520-00057-9&rft.aulast=Badawy&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFBillard1978" class="citation book cs1">Billard, Jules B. (1978). <i>Ancient Egypt: Discovering its Splendors</i>. Washington D.C.: National Geographic Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egypt%3A+Discovering+its+Splendors&rft.place=Washington+D.C.&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Billard&rft.aufirst=Jules+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFCerny1975" class="citation book cs1">Cerny, J (1975). <i>Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty' in The Middle East and the Aegean Region c.1380–1000 BC</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-521-08691-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-521-08691-4"><bdi>0-521-08691-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+from+the+Death+of+Ramesses+III+to+the+End+of+the+Twenty-First+Dynasty%27+in+The+Middle+East+and+the+Aegean+Region+c.1380%E2%80%931000+BC&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-521-08691-4&rft.aulast=Cerny&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFClarkeR._Engelbach1990" class="citation book cs1">Clarke, Somers; R. Engelbach (1990). <i>Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture</i>. New York, New York: Dover Publications, Unabridged Dover reprint of Ancient Egyptian Masonry: The Building Craft originally published by Oxford University Press/Humphrey Milford, London, (1930). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-486-26485-8" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-486-26485-8"><bdi>0-486-26485-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Construction+and+Architecture&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Dover+Publications%2C+Unabridged+Dover+reprint+of+Ancient+Egyptian+Masonry%3A+The+Building+Craft+originally+published+by+Oxford+University+Press%2FHumphrey+Milford%2C+London%2C+%281930%29&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-486-26485-8&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Somers&rft.au=R.+Engelbach&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFClayton1994" class="citation book cs1">Clayton, Peter A. (1994). <i>Chronicle of the Pharaohs</i>. London, England: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-500-05074-0" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-500-05074-0"><bdi>0-500-05074-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronicle+of+the+Pharaohs&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-500-05074-0&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=Peter+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFCline,_Eric_H.;_O'Connor,_David_Kevin2001" class="citation book cs1">Cline, Eric H.; O'Connor, David Kevin (2001). <i>Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign</i>. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 273. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-472-08833-5" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-472-08833-5"><bdi>0-472-08833-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Amenhotep+III%3A+Perspectives+on+His+Reign&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+Michigan&rft.pages=273&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-472-08833-5&rft.au=Cline%2C+Eric+H.%3B+O%27Connor%2C+David+Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Sjabloon:Cite_book" title="Sjabloon:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: AS1-onderhoud: meer as een naam (<a href="/wiki/Kategorie:AS1-onderhoud:_meer_as_een_naam" title="Kategorie:AS1-onderhoud: meer as een naam">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFDodson1991" class="citation book cs1">Dodson, Aidan (1991). <i>Egyptian Rock Cut Tombs</i>. Buckinghamshire, UK: Shire Publications Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-7478-0128-2" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-7478-0128-2"><bdi>0-7478-0128-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptian+Rock+Cut+Tombs&rft.place=Buckinghamshire%2C+UK&rft.pub=Shire+Publications+Ltd&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-7478-0128-2&rft.aulast=Dodson&rft.aufirst=Aidan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFDodson,_AidanHilton,_Dyan2004" class="citation book cs1">Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). <i>The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt</i>. London, England: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-500-05128-3" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-500-05128-3"><bdi>0-500-05128-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Royal+Families+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-500-05128-3&rft.au=Dodson%2C+Aidan&rft.au=Hilton%2C+Dyan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFEl-Daly2005" class="citation book cs1">El-Daly, Okasha (2005). <i>Egyptology: The Missing Millennium</i>. London, England: UCL Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-84472-062-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-84472-062-4"><bdi>1-84472-062-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptology%3A+The+Missing+Millennium&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=UCL+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-84472-062-4&rft.aulast=El-Daly&rft.aufirst=Okasha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFFiler,_Joyce1996" class="citation book cs1">Filer, Joyce (1996). <i>Disease</i>. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-292-72498-5" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-292-72498-5"><bdi>0-292-72498-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disease&rft.place=Austin%2C+Texas&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-292-72498-5&rft.au=Filer%2C+Joyce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFGardiner1957" class="citation book cs1">Gardiner, Sir Alan (1957). <i>Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs</i>. Oxford, England: Griffith Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-900416-35-1" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-900416-35-1"><bdi>0-900416-35-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptian+Grammar%3A+Being+an+Introduction+to+the+Study+of+Hieroglyphs&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Griffith+Institute&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=0-900416-35-1&rft.aulast=Gardiner&rft.aufirst=Sir+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFHayes1964" class="citation journal cs1">Hayes, W. C. (Oktober 1964). "Most Ancient Egypt: Chapter III. The Neolithic and Chalcolithic Communities of Northern Egypt". <i>Journal of Near Eastern Studies</i> (No. 4 uitg.). <b>23</b>: 217–272. <a href="/wiki/Digitale_objek-identifiseerder" title="Digitale objek-identifiseerder">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F371778">10.1086/371778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Most+Ancient+Egypt%3A+Chapter+III.+The+Neolithic+and+Chalcolithic+Communities+of+Northern+Egypt&rft.volume=23&rft.pages=217-272&rft.date=1964-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F371778&rft.aulast=Hayes&rft.aufirst=W.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFImhausenRobsonDaubenPlofker2007" class="citation book cs1">Imhausen, Annette; Robson, Eleanor; Dauben, Joseph; Plofker, Kim; Berggren, J. Lennart; Katz, Victor J. (2007). <i>The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-691-11485-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-691-11485-4"><bdi>0-691-11485-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mathematics+of+Egypt%2C+Mesopotamia%2C+China%2C+India%2C+and+Islam%3A+A+Sourcebook&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=0-691-11485-4&rft.aulast=Imhausen&rft.aufirst=Annette&rft.au=Robson%2C+Eleanor&rft.au=Dauben%2C+Joseph&rft.au=Plofker%2C+Kim&rft.au=Berggren%2C+J.+Lennart&rft.au=Katz%2C+Victor+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFJames2005" class="citation book cs1">James, T.G.H. (2005). <i>The British Museum Concise Introduction to Ancient Egypt</i>. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-472-03137-6" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-472-03137-6"><bdi>0-472-03137-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Museum+Concise+Introduction+to+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-472-03137-6&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=T.G.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFBarry_Kemp1991" class="citation book cs1">Barry Kemp (1991). <i>Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization</i>. London, England: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-415-06346-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-415-06346-9"><bdi>0-415-06346-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egypt%3A+Anatomy+of+a+Civilization&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-415-06346-9&rft.au=Barry+Kemp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFLichtheim1975" class="citation book cs1">Lichtheim, Miriam (1975). <i>Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol 1</i>. London, England: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-520-02899-6" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-520-02899-6"><bdi>0-520-02899-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Literature%2C+vol+1&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-520-02899-6&rft.aulast=Lichtheim&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFLichtheim1980" class="citation book cs1">Lichtheim, Miriam (1980). <i>Ancient Egyptian Literature, A Book of Readings. Vol III: The Late Period</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Literature%2C+A+Book+of+Readings.+Vol+III%3A+The+Late+Period&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Lichtheim&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFLoprieno1995a" class="citation book cs1">Loprieno, Antonio (1995a). <i>Ancient Egyptian: A linguistic introduction</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-521-44849-2" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-521-44849-2"><bdi>0-521-44849-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian%3A+A+linguistic+introduction&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-521-44849-2&rft.aulast=Loprieno&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFLoprieno1995b" class="citation book cs1">Loprieno, Antonio (1995b). "Ancient Egyptian and other Afroasiatic Languages". In Sasson, J. M. (red.). <i>Civilizations of the Ancient Near East</i>. Vol. 4. New York, New York: Charles Scribner. pp. 2137–2150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-56563-607-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-56563-607-4"><bdi>1-56563-607-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egyptian+and+other+Afroasiatic+Languages&rft.btitle=Civilizations+of+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=2137-2150&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=1-56563-607-4&rft.aulast=Loprieno&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFLoprieno2004" class="citation book cs1">Loprieno, Antonio (2004). "Ancient Egyptian and Coptic". In Woodward, Roger D. 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Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 160–192. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-521-56256-2" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-521-56256-2"><bdi>0-521-56256-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egyptian+and+Coptic&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+the+World%27s+Ancient+Languages&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=160-192&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-521-56256-2&rft.aulast=Loprieno&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFLucas1962" class="citation book cs1">Lucas, Alfred (1962). <i>Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 4th Ed</i>. London, England: Edward Arnold Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-85417-046-5" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-85417-046-5"><bdi>1-85417-046-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Materials+and+Industries%2C+4th+Ed&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Edward+Arnold+Publishers&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=1-85417-046-5&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFMallory-Greenough2002" class="citation journal cs1">Mallory-Greenough, Leanne M. (2002). "The Geographical, Spatial, and Temporal Distribution of Predynastic and First Dynasty Basalt Vessels". <i>The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology</i>. London, England: Egypt Exploration Society. <b>88</b>: 67–93. <a href="/wiki/Digitale_objek-identifiseerder" title="Digitale objek-identifiseerder">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3822337">10.2307/3822337</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3822337">3822337</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Egyptian+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Geographical%2C+Spatial%2C+and+Temporal+Distribution+of+Predynastic+and+First+Dynasty+Basalt+Vessels&rft.volume=88&rft.pages=67-93&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3822337&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3822337%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mallory-Greenough&rft.aufirst=Leanne+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFManuelian,_Peter_Der1998" class="citation book cs1">Manuelian, Peter Der (1998). <i>Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs</i>. Bonner Straße, Cologne Germany: Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/3-89508-913-3" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/3-89508-913-3"><bdi>3-89508-913-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt%3A+The+World+of+the+Pharaohs&rft.place=Bonner+Stra%C3%9Fe%2C+Cologne+Germany&rft.pub=K%C3%B6nemann+Verlagsgesellschaft+mbH&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=3-89508-913-3&rft.au=Manuelian%2C+Peter+Der&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFMcDowell,_A._G.1999" class="citation book cs1">McDowell, A. G. (1999). <i>Village life in ancient Egypt: laundry lists and love songs</i>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-19-814998-0" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-19-814998-0"><bdi>0-19-814998-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Village+life+in+ancient+Egypt%3A+laundry+lists+and+love+songs&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-19-814998-0&rft.au=McDowell%2C+A.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFMeskell,_Lynn2004" class="citation book cs1">Meskell, Lynn (2004). <i>Object Worlds in Ancient Egypt: Material Biographies Past and Present (Materializing Culture)</i>. Oxford, England: Berg Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-85973-867-2" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/1-85973-867-2"><bdi>1-85973-867-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Object+Worlds+in+Ancient+Egypt%3A+Material+Biographies+Past+and+Present+%28Materializing+Culture%29&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Berg+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-85973-867-2&rft.au=Meskell%2C+Lynn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFMidant-Reynes2000" class="citation book cs1">Midant-Reynes, Béatrix (2000). <i>The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs</i>. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-631-21787-8" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-631-21787-8"><bdi>0-631-21787-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prehistory+of+Egypt%3A+From+the+First+Egyptians+to+the+First+Pharaohs&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-631-21787-8&rft.aulast=Midant-Reynes&rft.aufirst=B%C3%A9atrix&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFNicholson2000" class="citation book cs1">Nicholson, Paul T. (2000). <i>Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-521-45257-0" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-521-45257-0"><bdi>0-521-45257-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Materials+and+Technology&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-521-45257-0&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=Paul+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFOakes,_Lorna2003" class="citation book cs1">Oakes, Lorna (2003). <i>Ancient Egypt: An Illustrated Reference to the Myths, Religions, Pyramids and Temples of the Land of the Pharaohs</i>. New York, New York: Barnes & Noble. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-7607-4943-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-7607-4943-4"><bdi>0-7607-4943-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egypt%3A+An+Illustrated+Reference+to+the+Myths%2C+Religions%2C+Pyramids+and+Temples+of+the+Land+of+the+Pharaohs&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7607-4943-4&rft.au=Oakes%2C+Lorna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFRobins2000" class="citation book cs1">Robins, Gay (2000). <i>The Art of Ancient Egypt</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-674-00376-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-674-00376-4"><bdi>0-674-00376-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-674-00376-4&rft.aulast=Robins&rft.aufirst=Gay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFKim_Ryholt1997" class="citation book cs1">Kim Ryholt (Januarie 1997). <i>The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period</i>. Copenhagen, Denmark: Museum Tusculanum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/87-7289-421-0" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/87-7289-421-0"><bdi>87-7289-421-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Situation+in+Egypt+During+the+Second+Intermediate+Period&rft.place=Copenhagen%2C+Denmark&rft.pub=Museum+Tusculanum&rft.date=1997-01&rft.isbn=87-7289-421-0&rft.au=Kim+Ryholt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFScheel1989" class="citation book cs1">Scheel, Bernd (1989). <i>Egyptian Metalworking and Tools</i>. Haverfordwest, Great Britain: Shire Publications Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-7478-0001-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-7478-0001-4"><bdi>0-7478-0001-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptian+Metalworking+and+Tools&rft.place=Haverfordwest%2C+Great+Britain&rft.pub=Shire+Publications+Ltd&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-7478-0001-4&rft.aulast=Scheel&rft.aufirst=Bernd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2003" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Ian (2003). <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-19-280458-8" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-19-280458-8"><bdi>0-19-280458-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-19-280458-8&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFSiliotti,_Alberto1998" class="citation book cs1">Siliotti, Alberto (1998). <i>The Discovery of Ancient Egypt</i>. Edison, New Jersey: Book Sales, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-7858-1360-8" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-7858-1360-8"><bdi>0-7858-1360-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Discovery+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Edison%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Book+Sales%2C+Inc&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-7858-1360-8&rft.au=Siliotti%2C+Alberto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFStrouhal1989" class="citation book cs1">Strouhal, Eugen (1989). <i>Life in Ancient Egypt</i>. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-8061-2475-X" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-8061-2475-X"><bdi>0-8061-2475-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Norman%2C+Oklahoma&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-8061-2475-X&rft.aulast=Strouhal&rft.aufirst=Eugen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFTyldesley,_Joyce_A.2001" class="citation book cs1">Tyldesley, Joyce A. (2001). <i>Ramesses: Egypt's greatest pharaoh</i>. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin. pp. 76–77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-14-028097-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-14-028097-9"><bdi>0-14-028097-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ramesses%3A+Egypt%27s+greatest+pharaoh&rft.place=Harmondsworth%2C+England&rft.pages=76-77&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-14-028097-9&rft.au=Tyldesley%2C+Joyce+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFVittman1991" class="citation journal cs1">Vittman, G. (1991). "Zum koptischen Sprachgut im Ägyptisch-Arabisch". <i>Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes</i>. Vienna, Austria: Institut für Orientalistik, Vienna University. <b>81</b>: 197–227.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wiener+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+die+Kunde+des+Morgenlandes&rft.atitle=Zum+koptischen+Sprachgut+im+%C3%84gyptisch-Arabisch&rft.volume=81&rft.pages=197-227&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Vittman&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFWalbank,_Frank_William1984" class="citation book cs1">Walbank, Frank William (1984). <i>The Cambridge ancient history</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-521-23445-X" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-521-23445-X"><bdi>0-521-23445-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+ancient+history&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-521-23445-X&rft.au=Walbank%2C+Frank+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFWasserman,_James;_Faulkner,_Raymond_Oliver;_Goelet,_Ogden;_Von_Dassow,_Eva1994" class="citation book cs1">Wasserman, James; Faulkner, Raymond Oliver; Goelet, Ogden; Von Dassow, Eva (1994). <i>The Egyptian Book of the dead, the Book of going forth by day: being the Papyrus of Ani</i>. San Francisco, California: Chronicle Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-8118-0767-3" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-8118-0767-3"><bdi>0-8118-0767-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Egyptian+Book+of+the+dead%2C+the+Book+of+going+forth+by+day%3A+being+the+Papyrus+of+Ani&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Chronicle+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-8118-0767-3&rft.au=Wasserman%2C+James%3B+Faulkner%2C+Raymond+Oliver%3B+Goelet%2C+Ogden%3B+Von+Dassow%2C+Eva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Sjabloon:Cite_book" title="Sjabloon:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: AS1-onderhoud: meer as een naam (<a href="/wiki/Kategorie:AS1-onderhoud:_meer_as_een_naam" title="Kategorie:AS1-onderhoud: meer as een naam">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2000" class="citation book cs1">Wilkinson, R. H. (2000). <i>The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt</i>. London, England: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-500-05100-3" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0-500-05100-3"><bdi>0-500-05100-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Temples+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-500-05100-3&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=R.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AAntieke+Egipte" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eksterne_skakels">Eksterne skakels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&veaction=edit&section=43" title="Wysig afdeling: Eksterne skakels" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antieke_Egipte&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section's source code: Eksterne skakels"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Wiki-webtuistes</dt></dl> <hr /> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikimedia Commons logo"><img alt="Wikimedia Commons logo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" title="Wikimedia Commons">Wikimedia Commons</a> het meer media in die kategorie <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egypt" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ancient Egypt">Antieke Egipte</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Geskiedenis</dt></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/"><i>BBC History: Egyptians</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-egypt"><i>History.com: Ancient Egypt</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/egypt/"><i>Ancient History Encyclopedia: Ancient Egypt</i></a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Egiptologie</dt></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://escholarship.org/uc/nelc_uee?rmode=showAll"><i>UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/">Digital Egypt for Universities.</a> Goeie bron met groot dekking en kruisverwysings.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Kunsgeskiedenis</dt></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fryemuseum.org/exhibition/92/"><i>Frye Art Museum, Seattle, WA: Napoleon on the Nile: Soldiers, Artists, and the Rediscovery of Egypt</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/egyptian-statues-broken-noses-artsy/index.html"><i>CNN Style: Why do so many Egyptian statues have broken noses?</i></a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Bronvermelding</dt></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Crystal_txt.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Crystal_txt.png/15px-Crystal_txt.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Crystal_txt.png/23px-Crystal_txt.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Crystal_txt.png/30px-Crystal_txt.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></a></span> Hierdie artikel is vertaal uit die <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" class="extiw" title="en:Ancient Egypt">Engelse Wikipedia</a></li></ul> <div style="display:none; right:10px;" class="metadata topicon nopopups" id="featured-star"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Voorbladartikel" title="Hierdie artikel is gekies as 'n voorbladartikel. Klik gerus hier vir meer inligting."><img alt="Hierdie artikel is gekies as 'n voorbladartikel. 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