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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mean_density_of_the_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mean_density_of_the_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Mean density of the Earth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mean_density_of_the_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reference_geoid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reference_geoid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Reference geoid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reference_geoid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Planetary_inequalities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planetary_inequalities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Planetary inequalities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planetary_inequalities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Airy_disk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Airy_disk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span> <span>Airy disk</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Airy_disk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astronomer_Royal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomer_Royal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.5</span> <span>Astronomer Royal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomer_Royal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Search_for_Neptune" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Search_for_Neptune"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.6</span> <span>Search for Neptune</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Search_for_Neptune-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ether_drag_test" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ether_drag_test"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.7</span> <span>Ether drag test</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ether_drag_test-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lunar_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lunar_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.8</span> <span>Lunar theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lunar_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engineering_mechanics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engineering_mechanics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.9</span> <span>Engineering mechanics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Engineering_mechanics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stress_function_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress_function_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.9.1</span> <span>Stress function method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress_function_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tay_Bridge_disaster" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tay_Bridge_disaster"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.9.2</span> <span>Tay Bridge disaster</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tay_Bridge_disaster-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.10</span> <span>Controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Private_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Private_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Private life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Private_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy_and_honours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy_and_honours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Legacy and honours</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy_and_honours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-By_Airy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_Airy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>By Airy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_Airy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-About_Airy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#About_Airy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>About Airy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-About_Airy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Obituaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Obituaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Obituaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Obituaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">George Biddell Airy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%84_%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="جورج بيدل أيري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جورج بيدل أيري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%AF%D9%84_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="جورج بیدل ایری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جورج بیدل ایری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B6_%D0%91%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%AD%D0%B9%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Джордж Бідэль Эйры – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Джордж Бідэль Эйры" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B6_%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%8A%D0%BB_%D0%95%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Джордж Бидъл Еъри – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Джордж Бидъл Еъри" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CF%89%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B6_%CE%91%CE%AF%CF%81%CF%85" title="Τζωρτζ Αίρυ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τζωρτζ Αίρυ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%AF%D9%84_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="جورج بیدل ایری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جورج بیدل ایری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EC%A7%80_%EB%B9%84%EB%8D%B8_%EC%97%90%EC%96%B4%EB%A6%AC" title="조지 비델 에어리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="조지 비델 에어리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92%27_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%93%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%99" title="ג'ורג' בידל איירי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'ורג' בידל איירי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AF_%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A_%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ჯორჯ ბიდელ ეირი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჯორჯ ბიდელ ეირი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%89" title="جورج بيدل ايرى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جورج بيدل ايرى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A7%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B8%E3%83%BB%E3%83%93%E3%83%89%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A8%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC" title="ジョージ・ビドル・エアリー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジョージ・ビドル・エアリー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%B8,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B6_%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Эйри, Джордж Биддель – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эйри, Джордж Биддель" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%86%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%AF%D9%84_%D8%A6%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="جۆرج بیدل ئایری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جۆرج بیدل ئایری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%9F_%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%95%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Џорџ Бидел Ери – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Џорџ Бидел Ери" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="George Biddell Airy" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9C%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9C%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%8F%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF" title="ஜார்ஜ் பிடெல் ஏரி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஜார்ஜ் பிடெல் ஏரி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%88_%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5_%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5" title="จอร์จ บิดเดิล แอรี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จอร์จ บิดเดิล แอรี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B6_%D0%91%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB_%D0%95%D1%80%D1%96" title="Джордж Бідделл Ері – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Джордж Бідделл Ері" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%94%E6%B2%BB%C2%B7%E6%AF%94%E5%BE%B7%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E8%89%BE%E9%87%8C" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">English mathematician and astronomer (1801–1892)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="honorific-prefix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sir" title="Sir">Sir</a></div><div class="fn">George Biddell Airy</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Knight_Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath" class="mw-redirect" title="Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath">KCB</a></span> <span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Biddell_Airy_1891.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/George_Biddell_Airy_1891.jpg/250px-George_Biddell_Airy_1891.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/George_Biddell_Airy_1891.jpg/330px-George_Biddell_Airy_1891.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/George_Biddell_Airy_1891.jpg/500px-George_Biddell_Airy_1891.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1821" data-file-height="2524" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">George Biddell Airy in 1891</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1801-07-27</span>)</span>27 July 1801<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Alnwick" title="Alnwick">Alnwick</a>, Northumberland, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">2 January 1892<span style="display:none">(1892-01-02)</span> (aged 90)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Greenwich" title="Greenwich">Greenwich</a>, London, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">British</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Colchester_Royal_Grammar_School" title="Colchester Royal Grammar School">Colchester Royal Grammar School</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data">Seventh <a href="/wiki/Astronomer_Royal" title="Astronomer Royal">Astronomer Royal</a><br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_George_Airy" title="List of things named after George Airy">See full list</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Smith%27s_Prize" title="Smith's Prize">Smith's Prize</a> <small>(1823)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1831)</span><br /><a href="/wiki/Gold_Medal_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society">RAS Gold Medal</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1833, 1846)</span><br /><a href="/wiki/Lalande_Prize" title="Lalande Prize">Lalande Prize</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1834)</span><br /><a href="/wiki/Royal_Medal" title="Royal Medal">Royal Medal</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1845)</span><br /><a href="/wiki/Albert_Medal_(Royal_Society_of_Arts)" title="Albert Medal (Royal Society of Arts)">Albert Medal</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1876)</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/George_Peacock_(mathematician)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Peacock (mathematician)">George Peacock</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Sir George Biddell Airy</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɛər/: 'are' in 'bare'">ɛər</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span>; 27 July 1801 – 2 January 1892) was an English <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomer</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematics" title="Lucasian Professor of Mathematics">Lucasian Professor of Mathematics</a> from 1826 to 1828 and the seventh <a href="/wiki/Astronomer_Royal" title="Astronomer Royal">Astronomer Royal</a> from 1835 to 1881. His many achievements include work on <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planetary</a> <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbits</a>, measuring the mean density of the Earth, a method of solution of two-dimensional problems in <a href="/wiki/Solid_mechanics" title="Solid mechanics">solid mechanics</a> and, in his role as Astronomer Royal, establishing <a href="/wiki/Greenwich" title="Greenwich">Greenwich</a> as the location of the <a href="/wiki/Prime_meridian" title="Prime meridian">prime meridian</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Airy was born at <a href="/wiki/Alnwick" title="Alnwick">Alnwick</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northumberland" title="Northumberland">Northumberland</a>, one of a long line of Airys who traced their descent back to a family of the same name residing at <a href="/wiki/Kentmere" title="Kentmere">Kentmere</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Westmorland" title="Westmorland">Westmorland</a>, in the 14th century. The branch to which he belonged, having suffered in the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>, moved to <a href="/wiki/Lincolnshire" title="Lincolnshire">Lincolnshire</a> and became farmers. Airy was educated first at elementary schools in <a href="/wiki/Hereford" title="Hereford">Hereford</a>, and afterwards at <a href="/wiki/Colchester_Royal_Grammar_School" title="Colchester Royal Grammar School">Colchester Royal Grammar School</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911445_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambaut1911445-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An introverted child, Airy gained popularity with his schoolmates through his great skill in the construction of peashooters.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the age of 13, Airy stayed frequently with his uncle, Arthur Biddell at <a href="/wiki/Playford,_Suffolk" title="Playford, Suffolk">Playford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suffolk" title="Suffolk">Suffolk</a>. Biddell introduced Airy to his friend <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Clarkson" title="Thomas Clarkson">Thomas Clarkson</a>, the slave trade abolitionist who lived at <a href="/wiki/Playford_Hall" title="Playford Hall">Playford Hall</a>. Clarkson had an MA in mathematics from Cambridge, and examined Airy in classics and then subsequently arranged for him to be examined by a Fellow from <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a> on his knowledge of mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, he entered Trinity in 1819, as a <a href="/wiki/Sizar" title="Sizar">sizar</a>, meaning that he paid a reduced fee but essentially worked as a servant to make good the fee reduction.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here he had a brilliant career, and seems to have been almost immediately recognised as the leading man of his year. In 1822 he was elected scholar of Trinity, and in the following year he graduated as <a href="/wiki/Senior_wrangler" class="mw-redirect" title="Senior wrangler">senior wrangler</a> and obtained first <a href="/wiki/Smith%27s_Prize" title="Smith's Prize">Smith's Prize</a>. On 1 October 1824 he was elected fellow of Trinity, and in December 1826 was appointed <a href="/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematics" title="Lucasian Professor of Mathematics">Lucasian professor of mathematics</a> in succession to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Turton" title="Thomas Turton">Thomas Turton</a>. This chair he held for little more than a year, being elected in February 1828 <a href="/wiki/Plumian_Professor_of_Astronomy_and_Experimental_Philosophy" title="Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy">Plumian professor</a> of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and director of the new <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Observatory" title="Cambridge Observatory">Cambridge Observatory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911445_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambaut1911445-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1836 he was elected a <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">Fellow of the Royal Society</a> and in 1840, a foreign member of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences">Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences</a>. In 1859 he became foreign member of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences">Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research">Research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Biddell_Airy2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/George_Biddell_Airy2.jpg/250px-George_Biddell_Airy2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/George_Biddell_Airy2.jpg/330px-George_Biddell_Airy2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/George_Biddell_Airy2.jpg/500px-George_Biddell_Airy2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1821" data-file-height="2299" /></a><figcaption>George Biddell Airy</figcaption></figure> <p>Some idea of his activity as a writer on mathematical and physical subjects during these early years may be gathered from the fact that previous to this appointment he had contributed three important memoirs to the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>, and eight to the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Philosophical_Society" title="Cambridge Philosophical Society">Cambridge Philosophical Society</a>. At the Cambridge Observatory Airy soon showed his power of organisation. The only <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a> in the establishment when he took charge was the <a href="/wiki/Transit_telescope" class="mw-redirect" title="Transit telescope">transit instrument</a>, and to this he vigorously devoted himself. By the adoption of a regular system of work, and a careful plan of reduction, he was able to keep his observations up to date, and published them annually with a punctuality which astonished his contemporaries. Before long a <a href="/wiki/Mural_circle" class="mw-redirect" title="Mural circle">mural circle</a> was installed, and regular observations were instituted with it in 1833. In the same year the <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Percy,_3rd_Duke_of_Northumberland" title="Hugh Percy, 3rd Duke of Northumberland">Duke of Northumberland</a> presented the Cambridge observatory with a fine <a href="/wiki/Objective_(optics)" title="Objective (optics)">object-glass</a> of 12-inch aperture, which was mounted according to Airy's designs and under his superintendence, although construction was not completed until after he moved to <a href="/wiki/Greenwich" title="Greenwich">Greenwich</a> in 1835.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911445_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambaut1911445-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Airy's writings during this time are divided between mathematical physics and astronomy. The former are for the most part concerned with questions relating to the theory of light arising out of his professorial lectures, among which may be specially mentioned his paper <i>On the Diffraction of an Object-Glass with Circular Aperture,</i> and his enunciation of the complete theory of the <a href="/wiki/Rainbow" title="Rainbow">rainbow</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 1831 the <a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> of the Royal Society was awarded to him for these researches. Of his astronomical writings during this period the most important are his investigation of the mass of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>, his report to the <a href="/wiki/British_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="British Association">British Association</a> on the progress of astronomy during the 19th century, and his work <i>On an Inequality of Long Period in the Motions of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911445–446_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambaut1911445–446-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the sections of his able and instructive report was devoted to "A Comparison of the Progress of Astronomy in England with that in other Countries", very much to the disadvantage of England. This reproach was subsequently to a great extent removed by his own labours.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mean_density_of_the_Earth">Mean density of the Earth</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mean density of the Earth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most remarkable of Airy's researches was his determination of the <a href="/wiki/Mean_density_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Mean density of the Earth">mean density of the Earth</a>. In 1826, the idea occurred to him of attacking this problem by means of <a href="/wiki/Pendulum" title="Pendulum">pendulum</a> experiments at the top and bottom of a deep <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mine</a>. His first attempt, made in the same year, at the <a href="/wiki/Dolcoath_mine" title="Dolcoath mine">Dolcoath mine</a> in Cornwall, failed in consequence of an accident to one of the <a href="/wiki/Pendulum" title="Pendulum">pendulums</a>. A second attempt in 1828 was defeated by a flooding of the mine, and many years elapsed before another opportunity presented itself. The experiments eventually took place at the <a href="/wiki/Harton,_South_Shields" title="Harton, South Shields">Harton</a> pit near <a href="/wiki/South_Shields" title="South Shields">South Shields</a> in northern England in 1854. Their immediate result was to show that gravity at the bottom of the mine exceeded that at the top by 1/19286 of its amount, the depth being 383 m (1,257 ft). From this he was led to the final value of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Specific_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific density">specific density</a> of 6.566.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This value, although considerably in excess of that previously found by different methods, was held by Airy, from the care and completeness with which the observations were carried out and discussed, to be "entitled to compete with the others on, at least, equal terms."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The currently accepted value for Earth's density is 5.5153 g/cm<sup>3</sup>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reference_geoid">Reference geoid</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Reference geoid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1830, Airy calculated the lengths of the polar radius and equatorial radius of the earth using measurements taken in the UK. Although his measurements were superseded by more accurate radius figures (such as those used for <a href="/wiki/GRS_80" class="mw-redirect" title="GRS 80">GRS 80</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">WGS84</a>) his <i>Airy geoid</i> (strictly a reference ellipsoid, OSGB36) is still used by Great Britain's <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_Survey" title="Ordnance Survey">Ordnance Survey</a> for mapping of England, Scotland and Wales because it better fits the local sea level (about 80 cm below world average).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Planetary_inequalities">Planetary inequalities</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Planetary inequalities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Airy's discovery of a new inequality in the motions of Venus and the Earth is in some respects his most remarkable achievement. In correcting the elements of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Joseph_Delambre" title="Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre">Delambre</a>'s solar tables he had been led to suspect an inequality overlooked by their constructor. The cause of this he did not long seek in vain; thirteen times the mean motion of Venus is so nearly equal to eight times that of Earth that the difference amounts to only a small fraction of Earth's mean motion, and from the fact that the term depending on this difference, although very small in itself, receives in the integration of the <a href="/wiki/Differential_equation" title="Differential equation">differential equations</a> a multiplier of about 2,200,000, Airy was led to infer the existence of a sensible inequality extending over 240 years (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> cxxii. 67). The investigation was probably the most laborious that had been made up to Airy's time in <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planetary</a> theory, and represented the first specific improvement in the solar tables effected in England since the establishment of the theory of <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>. In recognition of this work the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Medal_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society">Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society</a> was awarded to him in 1833<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (he would win it again in 1846). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Airy_disk">Airy disk</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Airy disk"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Airy_disk_D65.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Airy_disk_D65.png/220px-Airy_disk_D65.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Airy_disk_D65.png/330px-Airy_disk_D65.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Airy_disk_D65.png 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>Computer-generated image simulating an <a href="/wiki/Airy_Disk" class="mw-redirect" title="Airy Disk">Airy Disk</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Optical_resolution" title="Optical resolution">resolution</a> of optical devices is limited by <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a>. So even the most perfect lens can't quite generate a point image at its <a href="/wiki/Focus_(optics)" title="Focus (optics)">focus</a>, but instead there is a bright central pattern now called the <a href="/wiki/Airy_disk" title="Airy disk">Airy disk</a>, surrounded by concentric rings comprising an Airy pattern. The size of the Airy disk depends on the light wavelength and the size of the aperture. <a href="/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">John Herschel</a> had previously described the phenomenon,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Airy was the first to explain it theoretically.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This was a key argument in refuting one of the last remaining arguments for absolute <a href="/wiki/Geocentrism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geocentrism">geocentrism</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Riccioli#The_star_size_argument" title="Giovanni Battista Riccioli">giant star argument</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Riccioli" title="Giovanni Battista Riccioli">Giovanni Battista Riccioli</a> pointed out that the lack of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_parallax" title="Stellar parallax">stellar parallax</a> detectable at the time entailed that stars were a huge distance away. But the naked eye and the early telescopes with small apertures seemed to show that stars were disks of a certain size. This would imply that the stars were many times larger than the Sun (they were not aware of <a href="/wiki/Supergiant_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Supergiant star">supergiant</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hypergiant_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypergiant star">hypergiant stars</a>, but some were calculated to be even larger than the size of the whole universe estimated at the time). However, the disk appearances of the stars were spurious: they were not actually seeing stellar images, but Airy disks. With modern telescopes, even with those having the largest magnification, the images of almost all stars correctly appear as mere points of light. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Astronomer_Royal">Astronomer Royal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Astronomer Royal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Airys_Transit_Circle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Airys_Transit_Circle.jpg/230px-Airys_Transit_Circle.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="385" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Airys_Transit_Circle.jpg/345px-Airys_Transit_Circle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Airys_Transit_Circle.jpg/460px-Airys_Transit_Circle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="976" data-file-height="1632" /></a><figcaption>Airy's Transit Circle in the Transit Circle Room of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Observatory,_Greenwich" title="Royal Observatory, Greenwich">Royal Greenwich Observatory</a>; for a hundred years from 1884 to 1984, it marked the <a href="/wiki/Prime_meridian" title="Prime meridian">Prime meridian</a> of the world, or more accurately, the Prime Meridian was marked by or derived from it.</figcaption></figure> <p>In June 1835 Airy was appointed <a href="/wiki/Astronomer_Royal" title="Astronomer Royal">Astronomer Royal</a> in succession to <a href="/wiki/John_Pond" title="John Pond">John Pond</a>, and began his long career at the national observatory which constitutes his chief title to fame. The condition of the observatory at the time of his appointment was such that <a href="/wiki/George_Eden,_1st_Earl_of_Auckland" title="George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland">Lord Auckland</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Lord_of_the_Admiralty" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord of the Admiralty">Lord of the Admiralty</a>, considered that "it ought to be cleared out," while Airy admitted that "it was in a queer state." With his usual energy he set to work at once to reorganise the whole management. He remodelled the volumes of observations, put the library on a proper footing, mounted the new (<a href="/wiki/Richard_Sheepshanks" title="Richard Sheepshanks">Sheepshanks</a>) <a href="/wiki/Equatorial_mount" title="Equatorial mount">equatorial</a> and organised a new magnetic observatory. In 1847 an <a href="/wiki/Altazimuth_mount" title="Altazimuth mount">altazimuth</a> was erected, designed by Airy to enable observations of the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">moon</a> to be made not only on the <a href="/wiki/Meridian_(astronomy)" title="Meridian (astronomy)">meridian</a>, but whenever it might be visible.<sup id="cite_ref-satterthwaite2006_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-satterthwaite2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1848 Airy invented the reflex zenith tube to replace the <a href="/wiki/Zenith_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Zenith sector">zenith sector</a> previously employed. At the end of 1850 the great transit circle of 203 mm (8.0 in) aperture and 3.5 metres (11 feet 6 inches) <a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">focal length</a> was erected, and is still the principal instrument of its class at the observatory. The mounting in 1859 of an equatorial of 330 mm (13 in) aperture evoked the comment in his journal for that year, "There is not now a single person employed or instrument used in the observatory which was there in Mr Pond's time"; and the transformation was completed by the inauguration of <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectroscopic">spectroscopic</a> work in 1868 and of the photographic registration of <a href="/wiki/Sunspots" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunspots">sunspots</a> in 1873.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prime_meridian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Prime_meridian.jpg/260px-Prime_meridian.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="347" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Prime_meridian.jpg/390px-Prime_meridian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Prime_meridian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The Prime Meridian in Greenwich (1884–1984); the telescope shown above left is behind the glass</figcaption></figure> <p>The formidable undertaking of reducing the accumulated planetary observations made at Greenwich from 1750 to 1830 was already in progress under Airy's supervision when he became Astronomer Royal. Shortly afterwards he undertook the further laborious task of reducing the enormous mass of observations of the moon made at Greenwich during the same period under the direction, successively, of <a href="/wiki/James_Bradley" title="James Bradley">James Bradley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Bliss" title="Nathaniel Bliss">Nathaniel Bliss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nevil_Maskelyne" title="Nevil Maskelyne">Nevil Maskelyne</a> and John Pond, to defray the expense of which a large sum of money was allotted by the Treasury. As a result, no fewer than 8,000 lunar observations were rescued from oblivion, and were, in 1846, placed at the disposal of astronomers in such a form that they could be used directly for comparison with the theory and for the improvement of the tables of the moon's motion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For this work Airy received in 1848 a testimonial from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Royal Astronomical Society">Royal Astronomical Society</a>, and it at once led to the discovery by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Andreas_Hansen" title="Peter Andreas Hansen">Peter Andreas Hansen</a> of two new inequalities in the moon's motion. After completing these reductions, Airy made inquiries, before engaging in any theoretical investigation in connection with them, whether any other mathematician was pursuing the subject, and learning that Hansen had taken it in hand under the patronage of the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Denmark">king of Denmark</a>, but that, owing to the death of the king and the consequent lack of funds, there was danger of his being compelled to abandon it, he applied to the admiralty on Hansen's behalf for the necessary sum. His request was immediately granted, and thus it came about that Hansen's famous <i>Tables de la Lune</i> were dedicated to <i>La Haute Amirauté de sa Majesté la Reine de la Grande Bretagne et d'Irlande</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1851 Airy established a new <a href="/wiki/Prime_Meridian" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Meridian">Prime Meridian</a> at Greenwich. This line, the fourth "Greenwich Meridian", became the definitive internationally recognised line in 1884.<sup id="cite_ref-Howse_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howse-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ellis_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ellis-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was superseded by the <a href="/wiki/IERS_Reference_Meridian" title="IERS Reference Meridian">IERS Reference Meridian</a> in 1984, which runs approximately 102 metres to the east. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Search_for_Neptune">Search for Neptune</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Search for Neptune"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Biddell_Airy_by_Ape.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/George_Biddell_Airy_by_Ape.jpg/170px-George_Biddell_Airy_by_Ape.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/George_Biddell_Airy_by_Ape.jpg/255px-George_Biddell_Airy_by_Ape.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/George_Biddell_Airy_by_Ape.jpg/340px-George_Biddell_Airy_by_Ape.jpg 2x" data-file-width="349" data-file-height="555" /></a><figcaption>George Biddell Airy caricatured by <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Pellegrini_(caricaturist)" title="Carlo Pellegrini (caricaturist)">Ape</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(British_magazine)" title="Vanity Fair (British magazine)">Vanity Fair</a></i> Nov 1875</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_Neptune" title="Discovery of Neptune">Discovery of Neptune</a></div> <p>In June 1846, Airy started corresponding with French astronomer <a href="/wiki/Urbain_Le_Verrier" title="Urbain Le Verrier">Urbain Le Verrier</a> over the latter's prediction that irregularities in the motion of <a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a> were due to a so-far unobserved body. Aware that Cambridge Astronomer <a href="/wiki/John_Couch_Adams" title="John Couch Adams">John Couch Adams</a> had suggested that he had made similar predictions, on 9 July Airy urged <a href="/wiki/James_Challis" title="James Challis">James Challis</a> to undertake a systematic search in the hope of securing the triumph of discovery for Britain. Ultimately, a rival search in Berlin by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Galle" title="Johann Gottfried Galle">Johann Gottfried Galle</a>, instigated by Le Verrier, won the race for priority.<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though Airy was "abused most savagely both by English and French"<sup id="cite_ref-airy_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-airy-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for his failure to act on Adams's suggestions more promptly, there have also been claims that Adams's communications had been vague and dilatory<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and further that the search for a new planet was not the responsibility of the Astronomer Royal.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ether_drag_test">Ether drag test</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ether drag test"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">Luminiferous aether</a></div> <p>Using a water-filled <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>, in 1871 Airy looked for a change in <a href="/wiki/Stellar_aberration" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar aberration">stellar aberration</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Refract" class="mw-redirect" title="Refract">refracting</a> water due to the <a href="/wiki/Aether_drag_hypothesis" title="Aether drag hypothesis">aether drag hypothesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like all other attempts to detect aether drift or drag, Airy obtained a negative result. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lunar_theory">Lunar theory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Lunar theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1872 Airy conceived the idea of treating the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_theory" title="Lunar theory">lunar theory</a> in a new way, and at the age of seventy-one he embarked on the prodigious toil which this scheme entailed. A general description of his method will be found in the <i><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a></i>, vol. xxxiv, No. 3. It consisted essentially in the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Charles-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delaunay" title="Charles-Eugène Delaunay">Charles-Eugène Delaunay</a>'s final numerical expressions for <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Parallax" title="Parallax">parallax</a>, with a symbolic term attached to each number, the value of which was to be determined by substitution in the equations of motion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this mode of treating the question the order of the terms is numerical, and though the amount of labour is such as might well have deterred a younger man, yet the details were easy, and a great part of it might be entrusted to "a mere <a href="/wiki/Computer_(human)" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer (human)">computer</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The work was published in 1886, when its author was eighty-five years of age. For some little time previously he had been harassed by a suspicion that certain errors had crept into the computations, and accordingly he addressed himself to the task of revision. But his powers were no longer what they had been, and he was never able to examine sufficiently into the matter. In 1890 he tells us how a grievous error had been committed in one of the first steps, and pathetically adds, "My spirit in the work was broken, and I have never heartily proceeded with it since."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446_8-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambaut1911446-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Engineering_mechanics">Engineering mechanics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Engineering mechanics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Stress_function_method">Stress function method</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Stress function method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1862, Airy presented a new technique to determine the <a href="/wiki/Strain_(materials_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Strain (materials science)">strain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stress_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (physics)">stress</a> field within a <a href="/wiki/Beam_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Beam theory">beam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This technique, sometimes called the <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Airy_stress_function" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Airy stress function">Airy stress function method</a>, can be used to find solutions to many two-dimensional problems in <a href="/wiki/Solid_mechanics" title="Solid mechanics">solid mechanics</a> (see <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Elasticity" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Introduction to Elasticity">Wikiversity</a>). For example, it was used by H. M. Westergaard<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to determine the stress and strain field around a crack tip and thereby this method contributed to the development of <a href="/wiki/Fracture_mechanics" title="Fracture mechanics">fracture mechanics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Tay_Bridge_disaster">Tay Bridge disaster</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Tay Bridge disaster"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Original_Tay_Bridge_before_the_1879_collapse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Original_Tay_Bridge_before_the_1879_collapse.jpg/250px-Original_Tay_Bridge_before_the_1879_collapse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Original_Tay_Bridge_before_the_1879_collapse.jpg/330px-Original_Tay_Bridge_before_the_1879_collapse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Original_Tay_Bridge_before_the_1879_collapse.jpg/500px-Original_Tay_Bridge_before_the_1879_collapse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1546" data-file-height="733" /></a><figcaption>Original Tay Bridge from the north</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tay_bridge_down.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Tay_bridge_down.JPG/250px-Tay_bridge_down.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Tay_bridge_down.JPG/330px-Tay_bridge_down.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Tay_bridge_down.JPG/500px-Tay_bridge_down.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2777" data-file-height="1900" /></a><figcaption>The original Tay Bridge after collapsing</figcaption></figure> <p>Airy was consulted about wind speeds and pressures likely to be encountered on the proposed Forth suspension bridge being designed by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bouch" title="Thomas Bouch">Thomas Bouch</a> for the <a href="/wiki/North_British_Railway" title="North British Railway">North British Railway</a> in the late 1870s. He thought that pressures no greater than about 10 pounds per square foot (500 pascals) could be expected, a comment Bouch took to mean also applied to the first Tay Railway Bridge then being built. Much greater pressures, however, can be expected in severe storms. Airy was called to give evidence before the official inquiry into the <a href="/wiki/Tay_Bridge_disaster" title="Tay Bridge disaster">Tay Bridge disaster</a>, and was criticised for his advice. However, little was known about the problems of wind resistance of large structures, and a Royal Commission on Wind Pressure was asked to conduct research into the problem.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Controversy">Controversy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Airy was described in his obituary published by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> as being "a tough adversary" and stories of various disagreements and conflicts with other scientists survive. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Ronalds" title="Francis Ronalds">Francis Ronalds</a> discovered Airy to be his foe while he was inaugural Honorary Director of the <a href="/wiki/Kew_Observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Kew Observatory">Kew Observatory</a>, which Airy considered to be a competitor to Greenwich.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other well documented conflicts were with <a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> and Sir <a href="/wiki/James_South" title="James South">James South</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hoskin1989_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hoskin1989-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Private_life">Private life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Private life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In July 1824, Airy met Richarda Smith (1804–1875), "a great beauty", on a walking tour of <a href="/wiki/Derbyshire" title="Derbyshire">Derbyshire</a>. He later wrote, "Our eyes met ... and my fate was sealed ... I felt irresistibly that we must be united," and Airy proposed two days later. Richarda's father, the Revd Richard Smith, felt that Airy lacked the financial resources to marry his daughter. Only in 1830, with Airy established in his Cambridge position, was permission for the marriage granted.<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chapman1998_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapman1998-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chapman2003_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapman2003-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Biddell_Airy_(1801-1892),_by_John_Collier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/George_Biddell_Airy_%281801-1892%29%2C_by_John_Collier.jpg/170px-George_Biddell_Airy_%281801-1892%29%2C_by_John_Collier.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/George_Biddell_Airy_%281801-1892%29%2C_by_John_Collier.jpg/255px-George_Biddell_Airy_%281801-1892%29%2C_by_John_Collier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/George_Biddell_Airy_%281801-1892%29%2C_by_John_Collier.jpg/340px-George_Biddell_Airy_%281801-1892%29%2C_by_John_Collier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="999" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>George Biddell Airy (by <a href="/wiki/John_Collier_(painter)" title="John Collier (painter)">John Collier</a>, 1883)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Airys had nine children, the first three of whom died young. </p> <ul><li>Elizabeth Airy (born 1833) died of consumption (<a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>) in 1852.</li> <li>The eldest child to survive to adulthood was Wilfrid (1836–1925), who designed and engineered <a href="/wiki/%22Colonel%22_George_Tomline" class="mw-redirect" title=""Colonel" George Tomline">"Colonel" George Tomline</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Orwell_Park" title="Orwell Park">Orwell Park</a> Observatory.<sup id="cite_ref-goward2005_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goward2005-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-goward2006_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goward2006-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wilfrid's daughter was the artist <a href="/wiki/Anna_Airy" title="Anna Airy">Anna Airy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-goward2006_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goward2006-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anna's mother died shortly after she was born, and she was raised by her maiden aunts Christabel and Annot (see below).</li> <li>George Airy's son <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Airy" title="Hubert Airy">Hubert Airy</a> (1838–1903) was a doctor, and a pioneer in the study of <a href="/wiki/Migraine" title="Migraine">migraine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Airy himself suffered from this condition.</li> <li>The Airys' eldest daughter, Hilda (1840–1916), married the mathematician <a href="/wiki/Edward_Routh" title="Edward Routh">Edward Routh</a> in 1864.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Christabel (1842–1917) died unmarried, as did the next sister Annot (1843–1924).</li> <li>The Airys youngest child was Osmund (1845–1929).</li></ul> <p>Airy was <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Bath" title="Order of the Bath">knighted</a> on 17 June 1872.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Airy retired in 1881, living with his two unmarried daughters at <a href="/wiki/Croom%27s_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Croom's Hill">Croom's Hill</a> near Greenwich. In 1891, he suffered a fall and an internal injury. He survived the consequential surgery only a few days. His wealth at death was £27,713, equivalent to £3,746,548.49 in 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Airy and his wife and three pre-deceased children are buried at St. Mary's Church in <a href="/wiki/Playford,_Suffolk" title="Playford, Suffolk">Playford</a>, Suffolk.<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A cottage owned by Airy still stands, adjacent to the church and now in private hands.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sir <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Moore" title="Patrick Moore">Patrick Moore</a> asserted in his autobiography that the ghost of Airy has been seen haunting the Royal Greenwich Observatory after nightfall.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy_and_honours">Legacy and honours</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Legacy and honours"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Elected president of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Royal Astronomical Society">Royal Astronomical Society</a> four times, for a total of seven years (1835–37, 1849–51, 1853–55, 1863–64). No other person has been president more than four times (a record he shares with <a href="/wiki/Francis_Baily" title="Francis Baily">Francis Baily</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Foreign Honorary Member of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> (1832)<sup id="cite_ref-AAAS_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAAS-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Mars" title="List of craters on Mars">Martian crater</a> <a href="/wiki/Airy_(Mars_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Airy (Mars crater)">Airy</a> is named for him.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within that crater lies another smaller crater called <a href="/wiki/Airy-0" title="Airy-0">Airy-0</a> whose location defines the <a href="/wiki/Prime_meridian" title="Prime meridian">prime meridian</a> of that planet, as does the location of Airy's 1850 telescope for Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>winner of the <a href="/wiki/Lalande_Prize" title="Lalande Prize">Lalande Prize</a> for astronomy from the <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">French Academy of Sciences</a>, 1834</li> <li>Elected as a member of the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> in 1879.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>There is also a <a href="/wiki/Lunar_crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar crater">lunar crater</a> <a href="/wiki/Airy_(lunar_crater)" title="Airy (lunar crater)">Airy</a> named in his honour.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</a> is the linear theory for the propagation of <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean surface wave">gravity waves</a> on the surface of a <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Airy_function" title="Airy function">Airy functions</a> Ai(x) and Bi(x) and the differential equation they arise from are named in his honour, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Airy_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Airy disc">Airy disc</a> and <a href="/wiki/Airy_points" title="Airy points">Airy points</a>.</li> <li>Honorary Fellow of the <a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Engineering_and_Technology" title="Institution of Engineering and Technology">Institution of Engineering and Technology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Airy,_George_Biddell_%E2%80%93_On_sound_and_atmospheric_vibrations_with_the_mathematical_elements_of_music,_1871_%E2%80%93_BEIC_12186067.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Airy%2C_George_Biddell_%E2%80%93_On_sound_and_atmospheric_vibrations_with_the_mathematical_elements_of_music%2C_1871_%E2%80%93_BEIC_12186067.jpg/250px-Airy%2C_George_Biddell_%E2%80%93_On_sound_and_atmospheric_vibrations_with_the_mathematical_elements_of_music%2C_1871_%E2%80%93_BEIC_12186067.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Airy%2C_George_Biddell_%E2%80%93_On_sound_and_atmospheric_vibrations_with_the_mathematical_elements_of_music%2C_1871_%E2%80%93_BEIC_12186067.jpg/330px-Airy%2C_George_Biddell_%E2%80%93_On_sound_and_atmospheric_vibrations_with_the_mathematical_elements_of_music%2C_1871_%E2%80%93_BEIC_12186067.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Airy%2C_George_Biddell_%E2%80%93_On_sound_and_atmospheric_vibrations_with_the_mathematical_elements_of_music%2C_1871_%E2%80%93_BEIC_12186067.jpg/500px-Airy%2C_George_Biddell_%E2%80%93_On_sound_and_atmospheric_vibrations_with_the_mathematical_elements_of_music%2C_1871_%E2%80%93_BEIC_12186067.jpg 2x" data-file-width="883" data-file-height="1388" /></a><figcaption><i>On sound and atmospheric vibrations with the mathematical elements of music</i>, 1871</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_George_Biddell_Airy_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2846493.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Sir_George_Biddell_Airy_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2846493.jpg/220px-Sir_George_Biddell_Airy_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2846493.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Sir_George_Biddell_Airy_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2846493.jpg/330px-Sir_George_Biddell_Airy_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2846493.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Sir_George_Biddell_Airy_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2846493.jpg/440px-Sir_George_Biddell_Airy_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2846493.jpg 2x" data-file-width="769" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Memorial in St Mary's Playford</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_Airy">By Airy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: By Airy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:George_Biddell_Airy" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:George Biddell Airy">For a list of works by George Biddell Airy (with digital copies) see Wikisource</a>.</i> </p><p>A complete list of Airy's 518 printed papers is in Airy (1896). Among the most important are: </p> <ul><li>(1826) <i>Mathematical Tracts on Physical Astronomy</i></li> <li>(1828) <i>On the Lunar Theory, The Figure of the Earth, Precession and Nutation, and Calculus of Variations</i>, to which, in the second edition of 1828, were added tracts on the <i>Planetary Theory</i> and the <a href="/wiki/Undulatory_theory_of_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Undulatory theory of light"><i>Undulatory Theory of Light</i></a></li> <li>(1834) <i>Gravitation: an Elementary Explanation of the Principal Perturbations in the Solar System</i> (<a href="//archive.org/details/gravitationeleme00airyrich" class="extiw" title="iarchive:gravitationeleme00airyrich">Full text</a> at Internet Archive)</li> <li>(1839) <i>Experiments on Iron-built Ships, instituted for the purpose of discovering a correction for the deviation of the Compass produced-by the Iron of the Ships</i></li> <li>(1848 [1881, 10th edition]) <i>Popular Astronomy: A Series of Lectures Delivered at Ipswich</i> (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Astronomy:_A_Series_of_Lectures_Delivered_at_Ipswich" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Popular Astronomy: A Series of Lectures Delivered at Ipswich">Full text</a> at Wikisource)</li> <li>(1855) <i>A Treatise on Trigonometry</i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atreatiseontrig00airygoog">Full text</a> at Google Books)</li> <li>(1861) <i>On the Algebraic and Numerical Theory of Errors of Observations and the Combination of Observations</i>.</li> <li>(1866) <i>An Elementary Treatise on Partial Differential Equations</i> (<a href="//archive.org/details/anelementarytre02airygoog" class="extiw" title="iarchive:anelementarytre02airygoog">Full text</a> at Internet Archive)</li> <li>(1868) <i>On Sound and Atmospheric Vibrations with the Mathematical Elements of Music</i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView?url=/permanent/library/V6S8K1ZQ/pageimg&pn=7&mode=imagepath">Full text</a> at MPIWG)</li> <li>(1870) <i>A Treatise on Magnetism</i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atreatiseonmagn00airygoog">Full text</a> at Google Books)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="About_Airy">About Airy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: About Airy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAiryWilfrid1896" class="citation book cs1">Airy, George Biddell; Wilfrid, Airy (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/b21777986"><i>The Autobiography of Sir George Biddell Airy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/b21777986/page/342">342</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13130558">13130558</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2008</span>. <q>edward maunder astronomer.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Autobiography+of+Sir+George+Biddell+Airy&rft.pages=342&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1896&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F13130558&rft.aulast=Airy&rft.aufirst=George+Biddell&rft.au=Wilfrid%2C+Airy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fb21777986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCannon1964" class="citation journal cs1">Cannon, W.F. (November 1964). "Scientists and broad churchmen: an early Victorian intellectual network". <i>The Journal of British Studies</i>. <b>4</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">65–</span>88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F385492">10.1086/385492</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/175122">175122</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19588590">19588590</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42948903">42948903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+British+Studies&rft.atitle=Scientists+and+broad+churchmen%3A+an+early+Victorian+intellectual+network&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E65-%3C%2Fspan%3E88&rft.date=1964-11&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19588590&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42948903%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F175122%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F385492&rft.aulast=Cannon&rft.aufirst=W.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSatterthwaite2003" class="citation journal cs1">Satterthwaite, G. E. (2003). "Airy's zenith telescopes and "the Birth-Star of Modern Astronomy"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage</i>. <b>6</b> (1). James Cook University: 13. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JAHH....6...13S">2003JAHH....6...13S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3724%2FSP.J.1440-2807.2003.01.02">10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2003.01.02</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:117043816">117043816</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Astronomical+History+and+Heritage&rft.atitle=Airy%27s+zenith+telescopes+and+%22the+Birth-Star+of+Modern+Astronomy%22&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A117043816%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3724%2FSP.J.1440-2807.2003.01.02&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003JAHH....6...13S&rft.aulast=Satterthwaite&rft.aufirst=G.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWinterburn2002" class="citation web cs1">Winterburn, E. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/airy_george_01.shtml">"The Airy Transit Circle"</a>. <i>British History – Victorians</i>. BBC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=British+History+%E2%80%93+Victorians&rft.atitle=The+Airy+Transit+Circle&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Winterburn&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fbritish%2Fvictorians%2Fairy_george_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" title="List of presidents of the Royal Society">List of presidents of the Royal Society</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">At the time that this was written, the term "computer" referred to a human being who performed calculating work, either manually or with mechanical aids.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERambaut1911445-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911445_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911445_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambaut1911445_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRambaut1911">Rambaut 1911</a>, p. 445.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Airy.html">"George Biddell Airy"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=George+Biddell+Airy&rft.btitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+Archive&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Edmund+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FAiry.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Autobiography of Sir George Biddel Airy (see Google books)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sir George Biddell Airy KCB. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2008</span>. <q>edward maunder astronomer.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Autobiography+of+Sir+George+Biddell+Airy&rft.pages=342&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1896&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F13130558&rft.aulast=Airy&rft.aufirst=George+Biddell&rft.au=Wilfrid%2C+Airy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fb21777986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHutchins2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hutchins, R. (2004). 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B. 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(1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/216756690">"Bearing Pressures and Cracks"</a>. <i>Journal of Applied Mechanics</i>. <b>6</b>: <span class="nowrap">49–</span>53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1115%2F1.4008919">10.1115/1.4008919</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Mechanics&rft.atitle=Bearing+Pressures+and+Cracks&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E49-%3C%2Fspan%3E53&rft.date=1939&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1115%2F1.4008919&rft.aulast=Westergaard&rft.aufirst=H.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F216756690&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLewis2004" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, P.R. 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"The Female Touch". <i>Astronomy Now</i>. <b>12</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">43–</span>47. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998AsNow..12...43C">1998AsNow..12...43C</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+Now&rft.atitle=The+Female+Touch&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E43-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.date=1998-01&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998AsNow..12...43C&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Allan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chapman2003-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chapman2003_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChapman2003" class="citation journal cs1">Chapman, Allan (June 2003). "Porters, watchmen, and the crime of William Sayers: the non-scientific staff of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in Victorian times". <i>Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage</i>. <b>6</b> (1). James Cook University: 27. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JAHH....6...27C">2003JAHH....6...27C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3724%2FSP.J.1440-2807.2003.01.03">10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2003.01.03</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162033494">162033494</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Astronomical+History+and+Heritage&rft.atitle=Porters%2C+watchmen%2C+and+the+crime+of+William+Sayers%3A+the+non-scientific+staff+of+the+Royal+Observatory%2C+Greenwich%2C+in+Victorian+times&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27&rft.date=2003-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162033494%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3724%2FSP.J.1440-2807.2003.01.03&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003JAHH....6...27C&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Allan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-goward2005-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-goward2005_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGoward2005" class="citation web cs1">Goward, K.J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070807120343/http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/~ipswich/History/Airys_Country_Retreat.htm">"G B Airy's Country Retreat"</a>. <i>Institute of Astronomy</i>. University of Cambridge. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/~ipswich/History/Airys_Country_Retreat.htm">the original</a> on 7 August 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=G+B+Airy%27s+Country+Retreat&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Goward&rft.aufirst=K.J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ast.cam.ac.uk%2F~ipswich%2FHistory%2FAirys_Country_Retreat.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-goward2006-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-goward2006_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-goward2006_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGoward2006" class="citation web cs1">Goward, Kenneth J (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071115140710/http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/~ipswich/Observatory/Founding.htm">"Founding of Orwell Park Observatory"</a>. <i>Institute of Astronomy</i>. University of Cambridge. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/~ipswich/Observatory/Founding.htm">the original</a> on 15 November 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=Founding+of+Orwell+Park+Observatory&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Goward&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ast.cam.ac.uk%2F~ipswich%2FObservatory%2FFounding.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEadie2009" class="citation journal cs1">Eadie, MJ (2009). "Hubert Airy, contemporary men of science and the migraine aura". <i>J R Coll Physicians Edinb</i>. <b>39</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">263–</span>267. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1478271520093903011">10.1177/1478271520093903011</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20608346">20608346</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+R+Coll+Physicians+Edinb&rft.atitle=Hubert+Airy%2C+contemporary+men+of+science+and+the+migraine+aura&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E263-%3C%2Fspan%3E267&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1478271520093903011&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20608346&rft.aulast=Eadie&rft.aufirst=MJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFuller2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fuller, A. T. (2004). "Routh, Edward John (1831–1907)". <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F35850">10.1093/ref:odnb/35850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Routh%2C+Edward+John+%281831%E2%80%931907%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F35850&rft.aulast=Fuller&rft.aufirst=A.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGazette23868" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/23868/page/2801">"No. 23868"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a></i>. 18 June 1872. p. 2801.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+23868&rft.pages=2801&rft.date=1872-06-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F23868%2Fpage%2F2801&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/monetary-policy/inflation/inflation-calculator">"What would goods and services costing"</a>. <i>Inflation Calculator</i>. Bank of England<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Inflation+Calculator&rft.atitle=What+would+goods+and+services+costing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bankofengland.co.uk%2Fmonetary-policy%2Finflation%2Finflation-calculator&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A description and images of Airy's Suffolk cottage and church are found in Goward (2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(page 178)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ras.org.uk/about-the-ras/a-brief-history/766-past-ras-presidents">"List of Presidents and Dates of Office"</a>. <i>A brief history of the RAS</i>. Royal Astronomical Society<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=A+brief+history+of+the+RAS&rft.atitle=List+of+Presidents+and+Dates+of+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ras.org.uk%2Fabout-the-ras%2Fa-brief-history%2F766-past-ras-presidents&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAAS-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AAAS_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterA.pdf">"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. American Academy of Arts and Sciences<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Book+of+Members%2C+1780%E2%80%932010%3A+Chapter+A&rft.pub=American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amacad.org%2Fpublications%2FBookofMembers%2FChapterA.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/jsp/FeatureTypesData2.jsp?systemID=4&bodyID=8&typeID=9&system=Mars&body=Mars&type=Crater,%20craters&sort=AName&show=Fname&show=Lat&show=Long&show=Diam&show=Stat&show=Orig">"Mars Nomenclature: Crater, craters"</a>. <i>Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature</i>. USGS: Astrogeology Research Program<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gazetteer+of+Planetary+Nomenclature&rft.atitle=Mars+Nomenclature%3A+Crater%2C+craters&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplanetarynames.wr.usgs.gov%2Fjsp%2FFeatureTypesData2.jsp%3FsystemID%3D4%26bodyID%3D8%26typeID%3D9%26system%3DMars%26body%3DMars%26type%3DCrater%2C%2520craters%26sort%3DAName%26show%3DFname%26show%3DLat%26show%3DLong%26show%3DDiam%26show%3DStat%26show%3DOrig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lib.unb.ca/225/GBAiry.html">"George Biddell Airy"</a>. University of New Brunswick Libraries<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=George+Biddell+Airy&rft.pub=University+of+New+Brunswick+Libraries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flib.unb.ca%2F225%2FGBAiry.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorton2002" class="citation book cs1">Morton, Oliver (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mappingmarsscien00mort_0"><i>Mapping Mars: Science, Imagination, and the Birth of a World</i></a></span>. New York: Picador USA. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mappingmarsscien00mort_0/page/22">22</a>–23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-24551-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-24551-3"><bdi>0-312-24551-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mapping+Mars%3A+Science%2C+Imagination%2C+and+the+Birth+of+a+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=22-23&rft.pub=Picador+USA&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-312-24551-3&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmappingmarsscien00mort_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=1879&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced">"APS Member History"</a>. <i>search.amphilsoc.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=search.amphilsoc.org&rft.atitle=APS+Member+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.amphilsoc.org%2Fmemhist%2Fsearch%3Fcreator%3D%26title%3D%26subject%3D%26subdiv%3D%26mem%3D%26year%3D1879%26year-max%3D%26dead%3D%26keyword%3D%26smode%3Dadvanced&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCocksCocks1995" class="citation book cs1">Cocks, E. E.; Cocks, J. C. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780936389271"><i>Who's Who on the Moon: A Biographical Dictionary of Lunar Nomenclature</i></a>. Tudor Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-936389-27-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-936389-27-3"><bdi>0-936389-27-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who%27s+Who+on+the+Moon%3A+A+Biographical+Dictionary+of+Lunar+Nomenclature&rft.pub=Tudor+Publishers&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-936389-27-3&rft.aulast=Cocks&rft.aufirst=E.+E.&rft.au=Cocks%2C+J.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780936389271&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHolthuijsen2007" class="citation book cs1">Holthuijsen, Leo H. (2007). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wavesoceaniccoas00holt_995"><i>Waves in oceanic and coastal waters</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wavesoceaniccoas00holt_995/page/n123">106</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86028-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86028-4"><bdi>978-0-521-86028-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Waves+in+oceanic+and+coastal+waters&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86028-4&rft.aulast=Holthuijsen&rft.aufirst=Leo+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwavesoceaniccoas00holt_995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theiet.org/membership/library-archives/the-iet-archives/iet-history/honorary-fellows-list/">"Honorary Fellows list"</a>. <i>www.theiet.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.theiet.org&rft.atitle=Honorary+Fellows+list&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theiet.org%2Fmembership%2Flibrary-archives%2Fthe-iet-archives%2Fiet-history%2Fhonorary-fellows-list%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/20px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRambaut1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Rambaut" title="Arthur Rambaut">Rambaut, Arthur Alcock</a> (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Airy,_Sir_George_Biddell" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Airy, Sir George Biddell">Airy, Sir George Biddell</a>". In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">445–</span>447.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Airy%2C+Sir+George+Biddell&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E445-%3C%2Fspan%3E447&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Rambaut&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Alcock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAnonymous1896" class="citation book cs1">Anonymous (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/eminentpersonsbi05timeiala/page/178">"SIR GEORGE AIRY (1801–1891) (Obituary Notice, Tuesday, 5 January 1892)"</a>. <i>Eminent Persons: Biographies reprinted from The Times</i>. Vol. V (1891–1892). London: Macmillan and Co. pp. <span class="nowrap">178–</span>182<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2019</span> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=SIR+GEORGE+AIRY+%281801%E2%80%931891%29+%28Obituary+Notice%2C+Tuesday%2C+5+January+1892%29&rft.btitle=Eminent+Persons%3A+Biographies+reprinted+from+The+Times&rft.place=London&rft.series=Vol.+V+%281891%E2%80%931892%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E178-%3C%2Fspan%3E182&rft.pub=Macmillan+and+Co.&rft.date=1896&rft.au=Anonymous&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feminentpersonsbi05timeiala%2Fpage%2F178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Obituaries">Obituaries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Obituaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Routh" title="Edward Routh">E. J. R.</a>, <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society</i>, <b>51</b> (1892), i–xii</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></i>, 5 January 1892</li> <li><i>East Anglian Daily Times</i>, 11 January 1892</li> <li><i>Suffolk Chronicle</i>, 9 January 1892</li> <li><i>Daily Times</i>, 5 January 1892</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0052//0000212.000.html">"Obituary – Sir George Biddell Airy"</a>. <i>Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</i>. <b>52</b>: <span class="nowrap">212–</span>229. 1892. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1892MNRAS..52..212.">1892MNRAS..52..212.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F52.4.212">10.1093/mnras/52.4.212</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=Obituary+%E2%80%93+Sir+George+Biddell+Airy&rft.volume=52&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E212-%3C%2Fspan%3E229&rft.date=1892&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmnras%2F52.4.212&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1892MNRAS..52..212.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2F%2Ffull%2Fseri%2FMNRAS%2F0052%2F%2F0000212.000.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers</i>, <b>108</b> (1891–92), 391–394</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AJ.../0011//0000096.000.html"><i>Astronomical Journal</i> <b>11</b> (1892) 96</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AN.../0129//0000021.000.html"><i>Astronomische Nachrichten</i> <b>129</b> (1892) 33/34</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/Obs../0015//0000073.000.html"><i>The Observatory</i> <b>15</b> (1892) 73</a></li> <li>Obituary in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Popular Science Monthly/Volume 40/April 1892/Notes and Obituary Notes"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_40/April_1892/Notes_and_Obituary_Notes">"Notes and Obituary Notes" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular Science Monthly">Popular Science Monthly</a></i>. Vol. 40. April 1892.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science+Monthly&rft.atitle=Notes+and+Obituary+Notes&rft.volume=40&rft.date=1892-04&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:George_Biddell_Airy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:George Biddell Airy">George Biddell Airy</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikisource logo"><img alt="Wikisource logo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/20px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> Works by or about <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:George_Biddell_Airy" class="extiw" title="s:Author:George Biddell Airy">George Biddell Airy</a> at <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" class="extiw" title="q:George Biddell Airy">George Biddell Airy</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Popular Science Monthly/Volume 3/May 1873/Sketch of George Biddell Airy"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_3/May_1873/Sketch_of_George_Biddell_Airy">"Sketch of George Biddell Airy" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular Science Monthly">Popular Science Monthly</a></i>. Vol. 3. May 1873. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0161-7370">0161-7370</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science+Monthly&rft.atitle=Sketch+of+George+Biddell+Airy&rft.volume=3&rft.date=1873-05&rft.issn=0161-7370&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Airy.html">"George Biddell Airy"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=George+Biddell+Airy&rft.btitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+Archive&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Edmund+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FAiry.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person.php?LinkID=mp56451">Portraits of George Biddell Airy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery,_London" title="National Portrait Gallery, London">National Portrait Gallery, London</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20018#P1816" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/3620">Works by George Biddell Airy</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/40519">Works by Wilfrid Airy</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Airy%2C%20George%20Biddell%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Airy%2C%20George%20B%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Airy%2C%20G%2E%20B%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22George%20Biddell%20Airy%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22George%20B%2E%20Airy%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22G%2E%20B%2E%20Airy%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Airy%2C%20George%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22George%20Airy%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22George%20Biddell%20Airy%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22George%20B%2E%20Airy%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22G%2E%20B%2E%20Airy%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22G%2E%20Biddell%20Airy%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Airy%2C%20George%20Biddell%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Airy%2C%20George%20B%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Airy%2C%20G%2E%20B%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Airy%2C%20G%2E%20Biddell%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22George%20Airy%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Airy%2C%20George%22%20OR%20title%3A%22George%20Biddell%20Airy%22%20OR%20title%3A%22George%20B%2E%20Airy%22%20OR%20title%3A%22G%2E%20B%2E%20Airy%22%20OR%20title%3A%22George%20Airy%22%20OR%20description%3A%22George%20Biddell%20Airy%22%20OR%20description%3A%22George%20B%2E%20Airy%22%20OR%20description%3A%22G%2E%20B%2E%20Airy%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Airy%2C%20George%20Biddell%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Airy%2C%20George%20B%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22George%20Airy%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Airy%2C%20George%22%29%20OR%20%28%221801-1892%22%20AND%20Airy%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about George Biddell Airy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0002//0000159.000.html">Awarding of RAS gold medal, 1833: MNRAS <b>2</b> (1833) 159</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0007//0000064.000.html">Awarding of RAS gold medal, 1846: MNRAS <b>7</b> (1846) 64</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeisstein" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Wolfgang_Weisstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Eric Wolfgang Weisstein">Weisstein, Eric Wolfgang</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Airy.html">"Airy, George (1801–1892)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/ScienceWorld" class="mw-redirect" title="ScienceWorld">ScienceWorld</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ScienceWorld&rft.atitle=Airy%2C+George+%281801%E2%80%931892%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscienceworld.wolfram.com%2Fbiography%2FAiry.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicaltra05airygoog">Mathematical Tracts on the Lunar and Planetary Theories 4th edition</a> (London, McMillan, 1858)</li> <li>Full texts of some of the papers by Airy are available at <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr">Gallica: bibliothèque numérique de la Bibliothèque nationale de France</a></i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/c/F58766">"Archival material relating to George Biddell Airy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_National_Archives_(United_Kingdom)" title="The National Archives (United Kingdom)">UK National Archives</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archival+material+relating+to+George+Biddell+Airy&rft.pub=UK+National+Archives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Fdetails%2Fc%2FF58766&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Biddell+Airy" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20018#P3029" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid lightgreen">Professional and academic associations </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sabine" title="Edward Sabine">Edward Sabine</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b>31st <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">President of the Royal Society</a> </b><br />1871–1878 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Copley_Medallists_1801%E2%80%931850" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Copley Medallists 1801–1850"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Copley_Medallists_(1801–1850)35" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medallists</a> (1801–1850)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astley_Cooper" title="Astley Cooper">Astley Cooper</a> (1801)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Hyde_Wollaston" title="William Hyde Wollaston">William Hyde Wollaston</a> (1802)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Chenevix_(chemist)" title="Richard Chenevix (chemist)">Richard Chenevix</a> (1803)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Smithson_Tennant" title="Smithson Tennant">Smithson Tennant</a> (1804)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a> (1805)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Andrew_Knight" title="Thomas Andrew Knight">Thomas Andrew Knight</a> (1806)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Everard_Home" title="Everard Home">Everard Home</a> (1807)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_(chemist)" title="William Henry (chemist)">William Henry</a> (1808)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Troughton" title="Edward Troughton">Edward Troughton</a> (1809)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sir_Benjamin_Collins_Brodie,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 1st Baronet">Benjamin Collins Brodie</a> (1811)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Thomas_Brande" title="William Thomas Brande">William Thomas Brande</a> (1813)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Ivory_(mathematician)" title="James Ivory (mathematician)">James Ivory</a> (1814)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/David_Brewster" title="David Brewster">David Brewster</a> (1815)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kater" title="Henry Kater">Henry Kater</a> (1817)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Seppings" title="Robert Seppings">Robert Seppings</a> (1818)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Hans Christian Ørsted</a> (1820)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sabine" title="Edward Sabine">Edward Sabine</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">John Herschel</a> (1821)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Buckland" title="William Buckland">William Buckland</a> (1822)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Pond" title="John Pond">John Pond</a> (1823)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Brinkley_(astronomer)" title="John Brinkley (astronomer)">John Brinkley</a> (1824)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago" title="François Arago">François Arago</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Barlow_(mathematician)" title="Peter Barlow (mathematician)">Peter Barlow</a> (1825)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_South" title="James South">James South</a> (1826)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Prout" title="William Prout">William Prout</a> / <a href="/wiki/Henry_Foster_(scientist)" title="Henry Foster (scientist)">Henry Foster</a> (1827)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">George Biddell Airy</a> (1831)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%A9on_Denis_Poisson" title="Siméon Denis Poisson">Siméon Denis Poisson</a> (1832)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Plana" title="Giovanni Plana">Giovanni Plana</a> (1834)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Snow_Harris" title="William Snow Harris">William Snow Harris</a> (1835)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a> / <a href="/wiki/Francis_Kiernan" title="Francis Kiernan">Francis Kiernan</a> (1836)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Antoine_C%C3%A9sar_Becquerel" title="Antoine César Becquerel">Antoine César Becquerel</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Frederic_Daniell" title="John Frederic Daniell">John Frederic Daniell</a> (1837)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> (1838)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brown_(botanist,_born_1773)" title="Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)">Robert Brown</a> (1839)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Justus_von_Liebig" title="Justus von Liebig">Justus von Liebig</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_Sturm" title="Jacques Charles François Sturm">Jacques Charles François Sturm</a> (1840)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Georg Ohm</a> (1841)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_MacCullagh" title="James MacCullagh">James MacCullagh</a> (1842)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Dumas" title="Jean-Baptiste Dumas">Jean-Baptiste Dumas</a> (1843)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Matteucci" title="Carlo Matteucci">Carlo Matteucci</a> (1844)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Schwann" title="Theodor Schwann">Theodor Schwann</a> (1845)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urbain_Le_Verrier" title="Urbain Le Verrier">Urbain Le Verrier</a> (1846)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">John Herschel</a> (1847)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Couch_Adams" title="John Couch Adams">John Couch Adams</a> (1848)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Murchison" title="Roderick Murchison">Roderick Murchison</a> (1849)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Andreas_Hansen" title="Peter Andreas Hansen">Peter Andreas Hansen</a> (1850)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lucasian_Professors_of_Mathematics72" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lucasian_Professors_of_Mathematics" title="Template:Lucasian Professors of Mathematics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lucasian_Professors_of_Mathematics" title="Template talk:Lucasian Professors of Mathematics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lucasian_Professors_of_Mathematics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lucasian Professors of Mathematics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lucasian_Professors_of_Mathematics72" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematics" title="Lucasian Professor of Mathematics">Lucasian Professors of Mathematics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Barrow" title="Isaac Barrow">Isaac Barrow</a> <small>(1664)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> <small>(1669)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whiston" title="William Whiston">William Whiston</a> <small>(1702)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Saunderson" title="Nicholas Saunderson">Nicholas Saunderson</a> <small>(1711)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Colson" title="John Colson">John Colson</a> <small>(1739)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Waring" title="Edward Waring">Edward Waring</a> <small>(1760)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Milner" title="Isaac Milner">Isaac Milner</a> <small>(1798)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodhouse" title="Robert Woodhouse">Robert Woodhouse</a> <small>(1820)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Turton" title="Thomas Turton">Thomas Turton</a> <small>(1822)</small></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">George Biddell Airy</a> <small>(1826)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> <small>(1828)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_King_(mathematician)" title="Joshua King (mathematician)">Joshua King</a> <small>(1839)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">George Stokes</a> <small>(1849)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Larmor" title="Joseph Larmor">Joseph Larmor</a> <small>(1903)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> <small>(1932)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lighthill" title="James Lighthill">James Lighthill</a> <small>(1969)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> <small>(1979)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Green_(physicist)" title="Michael Green (physicist)">Michael Green</a> <small>(2009)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cates" title="Michael Cates">Michael Cates</a> <small>(2015)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Astronomers_Royal256" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Astronomers_Royal" title="Template:Astronomers Royal"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Astronomers_Royal" title="Template talk:Astronomers Royal"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomers_Royal" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomers Royal"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Astronomers_Royal256" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Astronomer_Royal" title="Astronomer Royal">Astronomers Royal</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Flamsteed" title="John Flamsteed">John Flamsteed</a> (1675)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_Halley" title="Edmond Halley">Edmond Halley</a> (1720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley" title="James Bradley">James Bradley</a> (1742)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Bliss" title="Nathaniel Bliss">Nathaniel Bliss</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevil_Maskelyne" title="Nevil Maskelyne">Nevil Maskelyne</a> (1765)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Pond" title="John Pond">John Pond</a> (1811)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">George Biddell Airy</a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Christie_(astronomer)" title="William Christie (astronomer)">William Christie</a> (1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Watson_Dyson" title="Frank Watson Dyson">Frank Watson Dyson</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Spencer_Jones" title="Harold Spencer Jones">Harold Spencer Jones</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_van_der_Riet_Woolley" title="Richard van der Riet Woolley">Richard van der Riet Woolley</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Ryle" title="Martin Ryle">Martin Ryle</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Graham-Smith" title="Francis Graham-Smith">Francis Graham-Smith</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Wolfendale" title="Arnold Wolfendale">Arnold Wolfendale</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Rees,_Baron_Rees_of_Ludlow" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow">Martin Rees</a> (1995)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Astronomers_Royal" title="Category:Astronomers Royal">Category:Astronomers Royal</a> </b></li> <li><b> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Portal:Astronomy</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_Royal_Society139" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Template:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Template talk:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_Royal_Society139" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" title="List of presidents of the Royal Society">Presidents</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Brouncker,_2nd_Viscount_Brouncker" title="William Brouncker, 2nd Viscount Brouncker">Viscount Brouncker</a> (1662)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Williamson_(English_politician)" title="Joseph Williamson (English politician)">Joseph Williamson</a> (1677)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wren" title="Christopher Wren">Christopher Wren</a> (1680)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Hoskyns,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir John Hoskyns, 2nd Baronet">John Hoskyns</a> (1682)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Wyche" title="Cyril Wyche">Cyril Wyche</a> (1683)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pepys" title="Samuel Pepys">Samuel Pepys</a> (1684)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Vaughan,_3rd_Earl_of_Carbery" title="John Vaughan, 3rd Earl of Carbery">Earl of Carbery</a> (1686)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Herbert,_8th_Earl_of_Pembroke" title="Thomas Herbert, 8th Earl of Pembroke">Earl of Pembroke</a> (1689)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sir_Robert_Southwell_(diplomat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Robert Southwell (diplomat)">Robert Southwell</a> (1690)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Montagu,_1st_Earl_of_Halifax" title="Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax">Charles Montagu</a> (1695)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Somers,_1st_Baron_Somers" title="John Somers, 1st Baron Somers">Lord Somers</a> (1698)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (1703)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Sloane" title="Hans Sloane">Hans Sloane</a> (1727)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Folkes" title="Martin Folkes">Martin Folkes</a> (1741)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Parker,_2nd_Earl_of_Macclesfield" title="George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield">Earl of Macclesfield</a> (1752)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Douglas,_14th_Earl_of_Morton" title="James Douglas, 14th Earl of Morton">Earl of Morton</a> (1764)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Burrow" title="James Burrow">James Burrow</a> (1768)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_West_(antiquary)" title="James West (antiquary)">James West</a> (1768)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Burrow" title="James Burrow">James Burrow</a> (1772)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Pringle_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pringle (physician)">John Pringle</a> (1772)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a> (1778)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Hyde_Wollaston" title="William Hyde Wollaston">William Hyde Wollaston</a> (1820)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a> (1820)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Davies_Gilbert" title="Davies Gilbert">Davies Gilbert</a> (1827)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Prince_Augustus_Frederick,_Duke_of_Sussex" title="Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex">Duke of Sussex</a> (1830)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spencer_Compton,_2nd_Marquess_of_Northampton" title="Spencer Compton, 2nd Marquess of Northampton">Marquess of Northampton</a> (1838)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Parsons,_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse" title="William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse">Earl of Rosse</a> (1848)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Wrottesley,_2nd_Baron_Wrottesley" title="John Wrottesley, 2nd Baron Wrottesley">Lord Wrottesley</a> (1854)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sir_Benjamin_Collins_Brodie,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 1st Baronet">Benjamin Collins Brodie</a> (1858)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sabine" title="Edward Sabine">Edward Sabine</a> (1861)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">George Biddell Airy</a> (1871)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a> (1873)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Spottiswoode" title="William Spottiswoode">William Spottiswoode</a> (1878)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a> (1883)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">George Gabriel Stokes</a> (1885)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a> (1890)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a> (1895)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Huggins" title="William Huggins">William Huggins</a> (1900)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a> (1905)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Geikie" title="Archibald Geikie">Archibald Geikie</a> (1908)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a> (1913)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> (1915)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> (1920)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> (1925)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a> (1930)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">William Henry Bragg</a> (1935)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Hallett Dale</a> (1940)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Robinson_(organic_chemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Robinson (organic chemist)">Robert Robinson</a> (1945)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian,_1st_Baron_Adrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian">Lord Adrian</a> (1950)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Norman Hinshelwood</a> (1955)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> (1960)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Patrick Blackett</a> (1965)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Lloyd Hodgkin">Alan Lloyd Hodgkin</a> (1970)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_R._Todd" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander R. Todd">Lord Todd</a> (1975)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> (1980)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a> (1985)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Atiyah" title="Michael Atiyah">Sir Michael Atiyah</a> (1990)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Sir Aaron Klug</a> (1995)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_May,_Baron_May_of_Oxford" title="Robert May, Baron May of Oxford">Lord May</a> (2000)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Rees,_Baron_Rees_of_Ludlow" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow">Lord Rees</a> (2005)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Nurse" title="Paul Nurse">Sir Paul Nurse</a> (2010)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Venki_Ramakrishnan" title="Venki Ramakrishnan">Venki Ramakrishnan</a> (2015)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Smith_(statistician)" title="Adrian Smith (statistician)">Adrian Smith</a> (2020)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20018#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata3520" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20018#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata3520" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20018#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000110227020">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/24591712">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1797345/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJhCGhWRrcYCQRV83qfXh3">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/116274646">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Airy, George Biddell, 1801-1892"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80138214">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb105191491">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb105191491">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Airy, George Biddell"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/LIAV044469">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35712473">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ola2002142375&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX1507974">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p075267039">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/2002226">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9812830668705606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/21557">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007257529205171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058523595306706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA02025782?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:airy.george-biddell">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/319487">MathSciNet</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/61402825">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1053394">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://structurae.net/persons/1010139">Structurae</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/116274646.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/116274646">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/076149617">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6w779z7">SNAC</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w66979np">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/agent/40983">Te Papa (New Zealand)</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&oldid=1280174837">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Biddell_Airy&oldid=1280174837</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-866f5d587f-jcgdk","wgBackendResponseTime":188,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.363","walltime":"1.872","ppvisitednodes":{"value":9792,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":209108,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":13231,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":14,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":6,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":212744,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1652.402 1 -total"," 16.98% 280.617 2 Template:Reflist"," 15.21% 251.345 1 Template:Infobox_scientist"," 8.85% 146.254 4 Template:Navbox"," 8.00% 132.196 9 Template:Cite_book"," 7.52% 124.315 1 Template:Copley_Medallists_1801-1850"," 6.29% 103.911 1 Template:EB1911"," 5.58% 92.223 14 Template:Cite_journal"," 5.44% 89.825 3 Template:Cite_wikisource/make_link"," 5.41% 89.337 13 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= 1,\n [\"CITEREFSatterthwaite2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwade\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestergaard1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinterburn2002\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Acad\"] = 1,\n [\"Astronomers Royal\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite ODNB\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite PSM\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 14,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 14,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 5,\n [\"Copley Medallists 1801-1850\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Airy, George Biddell\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"Gutenberg author\"] = 2,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox scientist\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive author\"] = 1,\n [\"London Gazette\"] = 1,\n [\"Lucasian Professors of Mathematics\"] = 1,\n [\"MacTutor\"] = 1,\n [\"MacTutor Biography\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"NPG name\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Post-nominals\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n 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