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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vertebrae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vertebrae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Vertebrae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vertebrae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Combined_vertebral_regions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Combined_vertebral_regions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Combined vertebral regions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Combined_vertebral_regions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shape" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shape"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Shape</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shape-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surfaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surfaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Surfaces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surfaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ligaments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ligaments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Ligaments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ligaments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spinal_cord" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spinal_cord"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Spinal cord</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spinal_cord-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Clinical significance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Clinical significance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Curvature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Curvature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Curvature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Curvature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anatomical_landmarks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anatomical_landmarks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Anatomical landmarks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anatomical_landmarks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Other animals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other animals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Variations_in_vertebrae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations_in_vertebrae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Variations in vertebrae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variations_in_vertebrae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_vertebrae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_vertebrae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Regional vertebrae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_vertebrae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fish_and_amphibians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish_and_amphibians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Fish and amphibians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish_and_amphibians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_vertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_vertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Other vertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_vertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dinosaurs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dinosaurs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Dinosaurs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dinosaurs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Vertebral column</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 119 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-119" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">119 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werwelkolom" title="Werwelkolom – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Werwelkolom" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirbels%C3%A4ule" title="Wirbelsäule – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Wirbelsäule" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%B0%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%B0%E1%88%B5" title="ደንደስ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ደንደስ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="عمود فقري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عمود فقري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columna_vertebral" title="Columna vertebral – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Columna vertebral" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A5%DC%A1%DC%98%DC%95%DC%90_%DC%A6%DC%A9%DC%AA%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܥܡܘܕܐ ܦܩܪܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܥܡܘܕܐ ܦܩܪܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columna_vertebral" title="Columna vertebral – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Columna vertebral" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-atj mw-list-item"><a href="https://atj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ototokwakan" title="Ototokwakan – Atikamekw" lang="atj" hreflang="atj" data-title="Ototokwakan" data-language-autonym="Atikamekw" data-language-local-name="Atikamekw" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Atikamekw</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atukupe_kangue_rys%C3%BDi" title="Atukupe kangue rysýi – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Atukupe kangue rysýi" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%8A%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Мугъзагьод – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Мугъзагьод" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jikhani_k%27ili" title="Jikhani k'ili – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Jikhani k'ili" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onur%C4%9Fa_s%C3%BCtunu" title="Onurğa sütunu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Onurğa sütunu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%BA%D8%A7_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88" title="اونورغا سوتونو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اونورغا سوتونو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1" title="মেরুদণ্ড – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মেরুদণ্ড" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chek-chui" title="Chek-chui – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chek-chui" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Пазваночнік – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пазваночнік" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Хрыбетнік – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Хрыбетнік" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%8A%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%B1" title="Гръбначен стълб – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Гръбначен стълб" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki%C4%8Dma" title="Kičma – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kičma" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwalenn_ar_c%27hein" title="Gwalenn ar c'hein – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Gwalenn ar c'hein" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columna_vertebral" title="Columna vertebral – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Columna vertebral" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%D1%83%D1%80%C4%83%D0%BC_%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Çурăм туни – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çурăм туни" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1te%C5%99" title="Páteř – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Páteř" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asgwrn_cefn" title="Asgwrn cefn – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Asgwrn cefn" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rygs%C3%B8jle" title="Rygsøjle – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Rygsøjle" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirbels%C3%A4ule" title="Wirbelsäule – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wirbelsäule" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selgroog" title="Selgroog – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Selgroog" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BB%CE%B7" title="Σπονδυλική στήλη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σπονδυλική στήλη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columna_vertebral" title="Columna vertebral – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Columna vertebral" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebraro" title="Vertebraro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vertebraro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizkarrezur" title="Bizkarrezur – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bizkarrezur" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%85%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7" title="ستون مهره‌ها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ستون مهره‌ها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonne_vert%C3%A9brale" title="Colonne vertébrale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Colonne vertébrale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wringe_(r%C3%AAchbonke)" title="Wringe (rêchbonke) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Wringe (rêchbonke)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Col%C3%BAn_veirteabrach" title="Colún veirteabrach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Colún veirteabrach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columna_vertebral" title="Columna vertebral – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Columna vertebral" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poi-n%C3%B2ng-kut" title="Poi-nòng-kut – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Poi-nòng-kut" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%99%EC%B6%94" title="척추 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="척추" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D5%B2%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Ողնաշար – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ողնաշար" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1" title="मेरूदण्ड – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मेरूदण्ड" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kralje%C5%BEnica" title="Kralježnica – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kralježnica" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spino" title="Spino – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Spino" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koluma_vertebra" title="Koluma vertebra – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Koluma vertebra" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columna_vertebral" title="Columna vertebral – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Columna vertebral" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hryggs%C3%BAla" title="Hryggsúla – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hryggsúla" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonna_vertebrale" title="Colonna vertebrale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Colonna vertebrale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%94" title="עמוד השדרה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עמוד השדרה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%86" title="ಬೆನ್ನುಮೂಳೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬೆನ್ನುಮೂಳೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galudgud" title="Galudgud – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Galudgud" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ხერხემალი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ხერხემალი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%82%D2%9B%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D2%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Омыртқа бағанасы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Омыртқа бағанасы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellkeyn" title="Mellkeyn – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Mellkeyn" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uti_wa_mgongo" title="Uti wa mgongo – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Uti wa mgongo" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8E%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D1%8B" title="Сюрса лы – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Сюрса лы" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birrbirreya_pi%C5%9Ft%C3%AA" title="Birrbirreya piştê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Birrbirreya piştê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D3%80" title="БархӀ – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="БархӀ" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лакку</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columna_vertebralis" title="Columna vertebralis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Columna vertebralis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mugurkauls" title="Mugurkauls – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mugurkauls" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9ckstrank" title="Réckstrank – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Réckstrank" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuburas" title="Stuburas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Stuburas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mokesa" title="Mokesa – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Mokesa" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerinc" title="Gerinc – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gerinc" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%80%98%D0%A0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B1" title="‘Рбетен столб – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="‘Рбетен столб" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazondamosina" title="Hazondamosina – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Hazondamosina" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D" title="നട്ടെല്ല് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നട്ടെല്ല്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B4%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="پشت‌مرزی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="پشت‌مرزی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turus_ruas_tulang_belakang" title="Turus ruas tulang belakang – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Turus ruas tulang belakang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9k-t%C3%B9i" title="Cék-tùi – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Cék-tùi" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Карязбакарсь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Карязбакарсь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%80%D1%83%D1%83" title="Нугалам нуруу – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Нугалам нуруу" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wervelkolom" title="Wervelkolom – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wervelkolom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1" title="मेरुदण्ड – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मेरुदण्ड" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%84%8A%E6%A4%8E" title="脊椎 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="脊椎" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryggs%C3%B8yle" title="Ryggsøyle – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ryggsøyle" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryggs%C3%B8yle" title="Ryggsøyle – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ryggsøyle" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colomna_vertebrala" title="Colomna vertebrala – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Colomna vertebrala" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umurtqa_pog%CA%BBonasi" title="Umurtqa pogʻonasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Umurtqa pogʻonasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A9%9C_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A1%E0%A9%80" title="ਰੀੜ ਦੀ ਹੱਡੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰੀੜ ਦੀ ਹੱਡੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%91" title="کنگریڑ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کنگریڑ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C4%99gos%C5%82up" title="Kręgosłup – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kręgosłup" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coluna_vertebral" title="Coluna vertebral – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Coluna vertebral" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloan%C4%83_vertebral%C4%83" title="Coloană vertebrală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Coloană vertebrală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasa_tullu" title="Wasa tullu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Wasa tullu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Позвоночник – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Позвоночник" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%83" title="कशेरुः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="कशेरुः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rig-bane" title="Rig-bane – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Rig-bane" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shtylla_kurrizore" title="Shtylla kurrizore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shtylla kurrizore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutruzzu" title="Cutruzzu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Cutruzzu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%81%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%80" title="කශේරුව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කශේරුව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spine" title="Spine – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Spine" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AA%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%BE%D9%88" title="ڪرنگھو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڪرنگھو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrbtica" title="Chrbtica – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Chrbtica" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hrbtenica" title="Hrbtenica – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Hrbtenica" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafdhabar_(yadhax)" title="Lafdhabar (yadhax) – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Lafdhabar (yadhax)" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%95%D8%A8%DA%95%DB%95" title="بڕبڕە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بڕبڕە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Кичма – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Кичма" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki%C4%8Dma" title="Kičma – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kičma" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulang_tonggong" title="Tulang tonggong – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Tulang tonggong" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selk%C3%A4ranka" title="Selkäranka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Selkäranka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryggrad" title="Ryggrad – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ryggrad" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulugod" title="Gulugod – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Gulugod" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="முள்ளந்தண்டு நிரல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="முள்ளந்தண்டு நிரல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajgu_n_uzagur" title="Ajgu n uzagur – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Ajgu n uzagur" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%95" title="వెన్నెముక – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వెన్నెముక" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87" title="กระดูกสันหลัง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กระดูกสันหลัง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BC%D1%83%D2%B3%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сутунмуҳра – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Сутунмуҳра" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omurga" title="Omurga – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Omurga" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Хребет – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Хребет" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%91%DA%BE_%DA%A9%DB%8C_%DB%81%DA%88%DB%8C" title="ریڑھ کی ہڈی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ریڑھ کی ہڈی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D9%88%D9%85%DB%87%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7" title="ئومۇرتقا – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئومۇرتقا" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndoksaen" title="Ndoksaen – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Ndoksaen" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BB%99t_s%E1%BB%91ng" title="Cột sống – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cột sống" 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Spine_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Spine (disambiguation)">Spine (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Vertebral column</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Illu_vertebral_column.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Illu_vertebral_column.svg/250px-Illu_vertebral_column.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Illu_vertebral_column.svg/375px-Illu_vertebral_column.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Illu_vertebral_column.svg/500px-Illu_vertebral_column.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="656" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The human vertebral column and its regions</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Regions_of_a_vertebral_column.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Regions_of_a_vertebral_column.svg/250px-Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Regions_of_a_vertebral_column.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Regions_of_a_vertebral_column.svg/375px-Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Regions_of_a_vertebral_column.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Regions_of_a_vertebral_column.svg/500px-Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Regions_of_a_vertebral_column.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="947" data-file-height="639" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Vertebral column of a <a href="/wiki/Goat" title="Goat">goat</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>columna vertebralis</i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q482853" class="extiw" title="d:Q482853">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>vertebral column</b>, also known as the <b>spinal column</b>, <b>spine</b> or <b>backbone</b>, is the core part of the <a href="/wiki/Axial_skeleton" title="Axial skeleton">axial skeleton</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>. The vertebral column is the defining and <a href="/wiki/Eponymous" class="mw-redirect" title="Eponymous">eponymous</a> characteristic of the vertebrate <a href="/wiki/Endoskeleton" title="Endoskeleton">endoskeleton</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Notochord" title="Notochord">notochord</a> (an elastic <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a>-wrapped <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoprotein</a> rod) found in all <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">chordates</a> has been replaced by a segmented series of <a href="/wiki/Mineralized_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineralized tissue">mineralized</a> <a href="/wiki/Irregular_bone" title="Irregular bone">irregular bones</a> (or sometimes, <a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilages</a>) called <a href="/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra">vertebrae</a>, separated by <a href="/wiki/Fibrocartilaginous" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibrocartilaginous">fibrocartilaginous</a> <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc" title="Intervertebral disc">intervertebral discs</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_pulposus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus pulposus">center of which</a> is a notochord remnant).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dorsal portion of the vertebral column houses the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_canal" title="Spinal canal">spinal canal</a>, an elongated <a href="/wiki/Body_cavity" title="Body cavity">cavity</a> formed by alignment of the vertebral <a href="/wiki/Neural_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural arch">neural arches</a> that encloses and protects the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">spinal nerves</a> exiting via the <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_foramina" class="mw-redirect" title="Intervertebral foramina">intervertebral foramina</a> to innervate each <a href="/wiki/Body_segment" class="mw-redirect" title="Body segment">body segments</a>. </p><p>There are around 50,000 species of animals that have a vertebral column.<sup id="cite_ref-Krogh2010_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krogh2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The human spine is one of the most-studied examples, as the general structure of human vertebrae is fairly typical (<a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a>) of that found in other <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>. The shape of the vertebral body does, however, vary somewhat between different groups of living species. </p><p>Individual vertebrae are named according to their corresponding <a href="/wiki/List_of_human_anatomical_regions" title="List of human anatomical regions">body region</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neck" title="Neck">neck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thorax" title="Thorax">thorax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">abdomen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">pelvis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tail" title="Tail">tail</a>). In <a href="/wiki/Clinical_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical medicine">clinical medicine</a>, features on vertebrae (particularly the <a href="/wiki/Spinous_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinous process">spinous process</a>) can be used as <a href="/wiki/Surface_anatomy" title="Surface anatomy">surface landmarks</a> to guide <a href="/wiki/Medical_procedure" title="Medical procedure">medical procedures</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_puncture" title="Lumbar puncture">lumbar punctures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_anesthesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal anesthesia">spinal anesthesia</a>. There are also many different <a href="/wiki/Spinal_disease" title="Spinal disease">spinal diseases</a> in humans that can affect both the bony vertebrae and the intervertebral discs, with <a href="/wiki/Kyphosis" title="Kyphosis">kyphosis</a>/<a href="/wiki/Scoliosis" title="Scoliosis">scoliosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ankylosing_spondylitis" title="Ankylosing spondylitis">ankylosing spondylitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Degenerative_disc_disease" title="Degenerative disc disease">degenerative discs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spina_bifida" title="Spina bifida">spina bifida</a> being recognizable examples. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. In a human vertebral column, there are normally 33 vertebrae.<sup id="cite_ref-GRAYS2005_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GRAYS2005-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The upper 24 pre-sacral vertebrae are articulating and separated from each other by <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc" title="Intervertebral disc">intervertebral discs</a>, and the lower nine are fused in adults, five in the <a href="/wiki/Sacrum" title="Sacrum">sacrum</a> and four in the <a href="/wiki/Coccyx" title="Coccyx">coccyx</a>, or <i>tailbone</i>. The articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine. From top to bottom, there are 7 <a href="/wiki/Cervical_vertebrae" title="Cervical vertebrae">cervical vertebrae</a>, 12 <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_vertebrae" title="Thoracic vertebrae">thoracic vertebrae</a> and 5 <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebrae" title="Lumbar vertebrae">lumbar vertebrae</a>. The number of those in the cervical region, however, is only rarely changed,<sup id="cite_ref-Gray_1977_34_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gray_1977_34-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while that in the coccygeal region varies most.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excluding rare deviations, the total number of vertebrae ranges from 32 to 35.<sup id="cite_ref-cord_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cord-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In about 10% of people, both the total number of pre-sacral vertebrae and the number of vertebrae in individual parts of the spine can vary.<sup id="cite_ref-Hu_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hu-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yan_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yan-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most frequent deviations are: 11 (rarely 13) thoracic vertebrae, 4 or 6 lumbar vertebrae, 3 or 5 coccygeal vertebrae (rarely up to 7).<sup id="cite_ref-Yan_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yan-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are numerous <a href="/wiki/Ligament" title="Ligament">ligaments</a> extending the length of the column, which include the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_longitudinal_ligament" title="Anterior longitudinal ligament">anterior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Posterior_longitudinal_ligament" title="Posterior longitudinal ligament">posterior longitudinal ligaments</a> at the front and back of the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral bodies">vertebral bodies</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ligamentum_flavum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligamentum flavum">ligamentum flavum</a> in deep to the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_lamina" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral lamina">laminae</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Interspinous_ligament" title="Interspinous ligament">interspinous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supraspinous_ligament" title="Supraspinous ligament">supraspinous ligaments</a> between <a href="/wiki/Spinous_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinous process">spinous processes</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Intertransverse_ligament" title="Intertransverse ligament">intertransverse ligaments</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Transverse_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse process">transverse processes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vertebrae">Vertebrae</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Vertebrae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra">Vertebra</a></div> <table width="260px" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 15px; float:left;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border-bottom:0px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray_111_-_Vertebral_column-coloured.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Numbering order of the vertebrae of the human spinal column" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Gray_111_-_Vertebral_column-coloured.png/90px-Gray_111_-_Vertebral_column-coloured.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Gray_111_-_Vertebral_column-coloured.png/135px-Gray_111_-_Vertebral_column-coloured.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Gray_111_-_Vertebral_column-coloured.png/180px-Gray_111_-_Vertebral_column-coloured.png 2x" data-file-width="233" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> </td> <td style="border-bottom:0px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dermatoms_alt.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A drawing of a human with dermatomes mapped out on the skin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Dermatoms_alt.svg/182px-Dermatoms_alt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="182" height="344" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Dermatoms_alt.svg/273px-Dermatoms_alt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Dermatoms_alt.svg/364px-Dermatoms_alt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="518" data-file-height="980" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-top:0px;" colspan="2">A <a href="/wiki/Dermatome_(anatomy)" title="Dermatome (anatomy)">dermatome</a> is an area of the skin that sends sensory messages to a specific spinal nerve (right). The effects of a <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord_injury" title="Spinal cord injury">spinal cord injury</a> depend on the level along the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal column">spinal column</a> (left). S1-S5 are part of the os sacrum. </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-top:0px;" colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="diagram of vertebrae and spinal nerves" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.svg/260px-ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.svg/390px-ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.svg/520px-ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="701" data-file-height="599" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-top:0px;" colspan="2">Spinal nerves exit the spinal cord between each pair of vertebrae. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The vertebrae in the human vertebral column is divided into different <a href="/wiki/List_of_human_anatomical_regions" title="List of human anatomical regions">body regions</a>, which correspond to the curvatures of the vertebral column. The articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine. Vertebrae in these regions are essentially alike, with minor variation. These regions are called the cervical spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, sacrum, and coccyx. There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae, and five lumbar vertebrae. </p><p>The number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. The number of those in the cervical region, however, is only rarely changed.<sup id="cite_ref-Gray_1977_34_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gray_1977_34-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vertebrae of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spines are independent bones and generally quite similar. The vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx are usually fused and unable to move independently. Two special vertebrae are the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_(anatomy)" title="Atlas (anatomy)">atlas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Axis_(anatomy)" title="Axis (anatomy)">axis</a>, on which the head rests. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:718_Vertebra-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/718_Vertebra-en.svg/500px-718_Vertebra-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/718_Vertebra-en.svg/750px-718_Vertebra-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/718_Vertebra-en.svg/1000px-718_Vertebra-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="310" /></a><figcaption>Anatomy of a vertebra</figcaption></figure> <p>A typical vertebra consists of two parts: the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral body">vertebral body</a> (or <i>centrum</i>), which is <a href="/wiki/Ventral" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral">ventral</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Anterior_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior (anatomy)">anterior</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Standard_anatomical_position" title="Standard anatomical position">standard anatomical position</a>) and withstands axial <a href="/wiki/Structural_load" title="Structural load">structural load</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral arch">vertebral arch</a> (also known as <i>neural arch</i>), which is <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal (anatomy)">dorsal</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Posterior_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior (anatomy)">posterior</a>) and provides articulations and anchorages for <a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">ribs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Core_(anatomy)" title="Core (anatomy)">core</a> <a href="/wiki/Skeletal_muscle" title="Skeletal muscle">skeletal muscles</a>. Together, these enclose the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_foramen" title="Vertebral foramen">vertebral foramen</a>, the series of which align to form the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_canal" title="Spinal canal">spinal canal</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Body_cavity" title="Body cavity">body cavity</a> that contains the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>. Because the vertebral column will outgrow the spinal cord during <a href="/wiki/Child_development" title="Child development">child development</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Adulthood" class="mw-redirect" title="Adulthood">adulthood</a> the spinal cord often ends at the upper <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_spine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumbar spine">lumbar spine</a> (at around L1/L2 level), the lower (<a href="/wiki/Caudal_(anatomical_term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudal (anatomical term)">caudal</a>) end of the spinal canal is occupied by a <a href="/wiki/Ponytail" title="Ponytail">ponytail</a>-like bundle of spinal nerves descriptively called <a href="/wiki/Cauda_equina" title="Cauda equina">cauda equina</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> <i> "<a href="/wiki/Tail_(horse)" title="Tail (horse)">horse's tail</a>"</i>), and the <a href="/wiki/Sacrum" title="Sacrum">sacrum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coccyx" title="Coccyx">coccyx</a> are fused without a central foramen. </p><p>The vertebral arch is formed by a ventral pair of <a href="/wiki/Pedicle_of_vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedicle of vertebral arch">pedicles</a> and a dorsal pair of <a href="/wiki/Lamina_of_the_vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamina of the vertebral arch">laminae</a>, and supports seven <a href="/wiki/Process_(anatomy)" title="Process (anatomy)">processes</a>, four <a href="/wiki/Articular_process" title="Articular process">articular</a>, two <a href="/wiki/Transverse_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse process">transverse</a> and one <a href="/wiki/Spinous_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinous process">spinous</a>, the latter also being known as the neural spine. The transverse and spinous processes and their associated <a href="/wiki/Ligament" title="Ligament">ligaments</a> serve as important attachment sites for <a href="/wiki/Back" class="mw-redirect" title="Back">back</a> and paraspinal muscles and the <a href="/wiki/Thoracolumbar_fascia" title="Thoracolumbar fascia">thoracolumbar fasciae</a>. The spinous processes of the cervical and lumbar regions can be felt through the skin, and are important <a href="/wiki/Surface_anatomy" title="Surface anatomy">surface landmarks</a> in <a href="/wiki/Clinical_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical medicine">clinical medicine</a>. </p><p>The four articular processes for two pairs of <a href="/wiki/Plane_joint" title="Plane joint">plane</a> <a href="/wiki/Facet_joint" title="Facet joint">facet joints</a> above and below each vertebra, articulating with those of the adjacent vertebrae and are joined by a thin portion of the neural arch called the <i><a href="/wiki/Pars_interarticularis" title="Pars interarticularis">pars interarticularis</a></i>. The orientation of the facet joints restricts the <a href="/wiki/Range_of_motion" title="Range of motion">range of motion</a> between the vertebrae. Underneath each pedicle is a small hole (enclosed by the pedicle of the vertebral below) called <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_foramen" title="Intervertebral foramen">intervertebral foramen</a>, which transmit the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">spinal nerve</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_root_ganglion" title="Dorsal root ganglion">dorsal root ganglion</a> that exit the spinal canal. </p><p>From top to bottom, the vertebrae are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_vertebrae" title="Cervical vertebrae">Cervical spine</a> (neck): 7 vertebrae (C1–C7)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_vertebrae" title="Thoracic vertebrae">Thoracic spine</a> (chest/upper back): 12 vertebrae (T1–T12)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebrae" title="Lumbar vertebrae">Lumbar spine</a> (lower back): 5 vertebrae (L1–L5)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_vertebrae" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral vertebrae">Sacrum</a> (pelvis region): 5 (fused) vertebrae (S1–S5)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coccygeal_vertebrae" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccygeal vertebrae">Coccyx</a> (tailbone): 4 (3–5, fused) vertebrae</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Combined_vertebral_regions">Combined vertebral regions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Combined vertebral regions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Cervicothoracic_spine"></span> <span class="anchor" id="Thoracolumbar_spine"></span> <span class="anchor" id="Lumbosacral_spine"></span> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Human_back" title="Human back">Human back</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_neck" class="mw-redirect" title="Human neck">Human neck</a></div> <p>For some medical purposes, adjacent vertebral regions may be considered together: </p> <ul><li><b>Cervicothoracic spine</b> (or region or division): the combined region of the <a href="/wiki/Cervical_vertebrae" title="Cervical vertebrae">cervical vertebrae</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_vertebrae" title="Thoracic vertebrae">thoracic vertebrae</a></li> <li><b>Thoracolumbar spine</b> (or region or division): the combined region of the thoracic vertebrae and the <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebrae" title="Lumbar vertebrae">lumbar vertebrae</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Lumbosacral spine</b> (or region or division): the combined region of the lumbar vertebrae and the <a href="/wiki/Sacral_vertebrae" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral vertebrae">sacral vertebrae</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shape">Shape</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Shape"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The vertebral column is curved in several places, a result of <a href="/wiki/Bipedalism#Primates" title="Bipedalism">human bipedal evolution</a>. These curves increase the vertebral column's strength, flexibility, and ability to absorb shock, stabilising the body in upright position. When the load on the spine is increased, the curvatures increase in depth (become more curved) to accommodate the extra weight. They then spring back when the weight is removed.<sup id="cite_ref-Openstax_Anatomy_&_Physiology_attribution_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Openstax_Anatomy_&_Physiology_attribution-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The upper cervical spine has a curve, convex forward, that begins at the <a href="/wiki/Axis_(anatomy)" title="Axis (anatomy)">axis</a> (second cervical vertebra) at the apex of the odontoid process or <a href="/wiki/Axis_(anatomy)#Dens" title="Axis (anatomy)">dens</a> and ends at the middle of the second thoracic vertebra; it is the least marked of all the curves. This inward curve is known as a <a href="/wiki/Lordosis" title="Lordosis">lordotic</a> curve. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spine_Adult_Male_Age_57.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Spine_Adult_Male_Age_57.png/200px-Spine_Adult_Male_Age_57.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="433" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Spine_Adult_Male_Age_57.png 1.5x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="596" /></a><figcaption>A thoracic spine <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> of a 57-year-old male.</figcaption></figure> <p>The thoracic curve, concave forward, begins at the middle of the second and ends at the middle of the twelfth thoracic vertebra. Its most prominent point behind corresponds to the spinous process of the seventh thoracic vertebra. This curve is known as a <a href="/wiki/Kyphosis" title="Kyphosis">kyphotic</a> curve. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lateral_lumbar_x_ray.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Lateral_lumbar_x_ray.jpg/200px-Lateral_lumbar_x_ray.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Lateral_lumbar_x_ray.jpg/300px-Lateral_lumbar_x_ray.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Lateral_lumbar_x_ray.jpg/400px-Lateral_lumbar_x_ray.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2212" data-file-height="2536" /></a><figcaption>Lateral lumbar X-ray of a 34-year-old male</figcaption></figure> <p>The lumbar curve is more marked in the female than in the male; it begins at the middle of the last thoracic vertebra, and ends at the sacrovertebral angle. It is convex anteriorly, the convexity of the lower three vertebrae being much greater than that of the upper two. This curve is described as a <a href="/wiki/Lordosis" title="Lordosis">lordotic</a> curve. </p><p>The sacral curve begins at the sacrovertebral articulation, and ends at the point of the <a href="/wiki/Coccyx" title="Coccyx">coccyx</a>; its concavity is directed downward and forward as a kyphotic curve. </p><p>The thoracic and sacral kyphotic curves are termed primary curves, because they are present in the <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a>. The cervical and lumbar curves are <i>compensatory</i>, or <i>secondary</i>, and are developed after birth. The cervical curve forms when the infant is able to hold up its head (at three or four months) and sit upright (at nine months). The lumbar curve forms later from twelve to eighteen months, when the child begins to walk. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surfaces">Surfaces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Surfaces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Anterior surface</dt></dl> <p>When viewed from in front, the width of the bodies of the vertebrae is seen to increase from the second cervical to the first thoracic; there is then a slight diminution in the next three vertebrae. Below this, there is again a gradual and progressive increase in width as low as the sacrovertebral angle. From this point there is a rapid diminution, to the apex of the coccyx.<sup id="cite_ref-GRAY1918_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GRAY1918-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Posterior surface</dt></dl> <p>From behind, the vertebral column presents in the median line the spinous processes. In the cervical region (with the exception of the second and seventh vertebrae), these are short, horizontal, and bifid. In the upper part of the thoracic region they are directed obliquely downward; in the middle they are almost vertical, and in the lower part they are nearly horizontal. In the lumbar region they are nearly horizontal. The spinous processes are separated by considerable intervals in the lumbar region, by narrower intervals in the neck, and are closely approximated in the middle of the thoracic region. Occasionally one of these processes deviates a little from the median line — which can sometimes be indicative of a fracture or a displacement of the spine. On either side of the spinous processes is the vertebral groove formed by the laminae in the cervical and lumbar regions, where it is shallow, and by the laminae and transverse processes in the thoracic region, where it is deep and broad; these grooves lodge the deep muscles of the back. Lateral to the spinous processes are the articular processes, and still more laterally the transverse processes. In the thoracic region, the transverse processes stand backward, on a plane considerably behind that of the same processes in the cervical and lumbar regions. In the cervical region, the transverse processes are placed in front of the articular processes, lateral to the pedicles and between the intervertebral foramina. In the thoracic region they are posterior to the pedicles, intervertebral foramina, and articular processes. In the lumbar region they are in front of the articular processes, but behind the intervertebral foramina.<sup id="cite_ref-GRAY1918_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GRAY1918-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Lateral surfaces</dt></dl> <p>The sides of the vertebral column are separated from the posterior surface by the articular processes in the cervical and thoracic regions and by the transverse processes in the lumbar region. In the thoracic region, the sides of the bodies of the vertebrae are marked in the back by the facets for articulation with the heads of the ribs. More posteriorly are the intervertebral foramina, formed by the juxtaposition of the vertebral notches, oval in shape, smallest in the cervical and upper part of the thoracic regions and gradually increasing in size to the last lumbar. They transmit the special spinal nerves and are situated between the transverse processes in the cervical region and in front of them, in the thoracic and lumbar regions.<sup id="cite_ref-GRAY1918_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GRAY1918-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ligaments">Ligaments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ligaments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are different ligaments involved in the holding together of the vertebrae in the column, and in the column's movement. The <a href="/wiki/Anterior_longitudinal_ligament" title="Anterior longitudinal ligament">anterior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Posterior_longitudinal_ligament" title="Posterior longitudinal ligament">posterior longitudinal ligaments</a> extend the length of the vertebral column along the front and back of the vertebral bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Interspinous_ligament" title="Interspinous ligament">interspinous ligaments</a> connect the adjoining spinous processes of the vertebrae.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (February 2019)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Supraspinous_ligament" title="Supraspinous ligament">supraspinous ligament</a> extends the length of the spine running along the back of the spinous processes, from the sacrum to the <a href="/wiki/Vertebra_prominens" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebra prominens">seventh</a> <a href="/wiki/Cervical_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Cervical vertebra">cervical vertebra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From there it is continuous with the <a href="/wiki/Nuchal_ligament" title="Nuchal ligament">nuchal ligament</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The striking <a href="/wiki/Segmentation_(biology)" title="Segmentation (biology)">segmented</a> pattern of the spine is established during <a href="/wiki/Human_embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Human embryogenesis">embryogenesis</a> when <a href="/wiki/Somites" class="mw-redirect" title="Somites">somites</a> are rhythmically added to the posterior of the embryo. Somite formation begins around the third week when the embryo begins <a href="/wiki/Gastrulation" title="Gastrulation">gastrulation</a> and continues until all somites are formed. Their number varies between species: there are 42 to 44 somites in the human embryo and around 52 in the chick embryo. The somites are spheres, formed from the <a href="/wiki/Paraxial_mesoderm" title="Paraxial mesoderm">paraxial mesoderm</a> that lies at the sides of the neural tube and they contain the precursors of spinal bone, the vertebrae ribs and some of the skull, as well as muscle, ligaments and skin. <a href="/wiki/Somitogenesis" title="Somitogenesis">Somitogenesis</a> and the subsequent distribution of somites is controlled by a <a href="/wiki/Clock_and_wavefront_model" title="Clock and wavefront model">clock and wavefront model</a> acting in cells of the paraxial mesoderm. Soon after their formation, <a href="/wiki/Sclerotome" class="mw-redirect" title="Sclerotome">sclerotomes</a>, which give rise to some of the bone of the skull, the vertebrae and ribs, migrate, leaving the remainder of the somite now termed a dermamyotome behind. This then splits to give the <a href="/wiki/Myotome_(embryology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Myotome (embryology)">myotomes</a> which will form the muscles and <a href="/wiki/Dermatome_(embryology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermatome (embryology)">dermatomes</a> which will form the skin of the back. Sclerotomes become subdivided into an anterior and a posterior compartment. This subdivision plays a key role in the definitive patterning of vertebrae that form when the posterior part of one somite fuses to the anterior part of the consecutive somite during a process termed resegmentation. Disruption of the somitogenesis process in humans results in diseases such as congenital scoliosis. So far, the human homologues of three genes associated to the mouse segmentation clock, (MESP2, DLL3 and LFNG), have been shown to be mutated in cases of congenital scoliosis, suggesting that the mechanisms involved in vertebral segmentation are conserved across vertebrates. In humans the first four somites are incorporated in the base of the <a href="/wiki/Occipital_bone" title="Occipital bone">occipital bone</a> of the skull and the next 33 somites will form the vertebrae, ribs, muscles, ligaments and skin.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12649586_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12649586-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The remaining posterior somites degenerate. During the fourth week of <a href="/wiki/Human_embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Human embryogenesis">embryogenesis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sclerotome" class="mw-redirect" title="Sclerotome">sclerotomes</a> shift their position to surround the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Notochord" title="Notochord">notochord</a>. This column of tissue has a segmented appearance, with alternating areas of dense and less dense areas. </p><p>As the sclerotome develops, it condenses further eventually developing into the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral body">vertebral body</a>. Development of the appropriate shapes of the vertebral bodies is regulated by <i><a href="/wiki/HOX_gene" class="mw-redirect" title="HOX gene">HOX genes</a></i>. </p><p>The less dense tissue that separates the sclerotome segments develop into the <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc" title="Intervertebral disc">intervertebral discs</a>. </p><p>The notochord disappears in the sclerotome (vertebral body) segments but persists in the region of the intervertebral discs as the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_pulposus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus pulposus">nucleus pulposus</a>. The nucleus pulposus and the fibers of the <a href="/wiki/Anulus_fibrosus_disci_intervertebralis" class="mw-redirect" title="Anulus fibrosus disci intervertebralis">anulus fibrosus</a> make up the intervertebral disc. </p><p>The primary curves (thoracic and sacral curvatures) form during fetal development. The secondary curves develop after birth. The cervical curvature forms as a result of lifting the head and the lumbar curvature forms as a result of walking. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spinal_cord">Spinal cord</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Spinal cord"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinal_cord_direv.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Spinal_cord_direv.svg/220px-Spinal_cord_direv.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Spinal_cord_direv.svg/330px-Spinal_cord_direv.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Spinal_cord_direv.svg/440px-Spinal_cord_direv.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> nested in the vertebral column.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></div> <p>The vertebral column surrounds the spinal cord which travels within the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_canal" title="Spinal canal">spinal canal</a>, formed from a central hole within each <a href="/wiki/Spinal_vertebrae" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal vertebrae">vertebra</a>. The spinal cord is part of the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> that supplies nerves and receives information from the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a> within the body. The spinal cord consists of <a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">grey</a> and <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white matter</a> and a central cavity, the <a href="/wiki/Central_canal_of_spinal_cord" class="mw-redirect" title="Central canal of spinal cord">central canal</a>. Adjacent to each vertebra emerge <a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">spinal nerves</a>. The spinal nerves provide <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous supply</a> to the body, with nerves emerging forming the <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_trunk" title="Sympathetic trunk">sympathetic trunk</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Splanchnic_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Splanchnic nerve">splanchnic nerves</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Spinal_canal" title="Spinal canal">spinal canal</a> follows the different curves of the column; it is large and triangular in those parts of the column that enjoy the greatest freedom of movement, such as the cervical and lumbar regions, and is small and rounded in the thoracic region, where motion is more limited.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spinal cord terminates in the <a href="/wiki/Conus_medullaris" title="Conus medullaris">conus medullaris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cauda_equina" title="Cauda equina">cauda equina</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Clinical significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3D_Medical_Animation_Spina_Bifida.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="3D Medical Animation still shot of Spina Bifida" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/3D_Medical_Animation_Spina_Bifida.jpg/235px-3D_Medical_Animation_Spina_Bifida.jpg" decoding="async" width="235" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/3D_Medical_Animation_Spina_Bifida.jpg/353px-3D_Medical_Animation_Spina_Bifida.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/3D_Medical_Animation_Spina_Bifida.jpg/470px-3D_Medical_Animation_Spina_Bifida.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>3D Medical Animation still shot of Spina Bifida</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disease">Disease</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Spina_bifida" title="Spina bifida">Spina bifida</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Congenital_vertebral_anomaly" title="Congenital vertebral anomaly">congenital disorder</a> in which there is a defective closure of the vertebral arch. Sometimes the spinal <a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">meninges</a> and also the spinal cord can protrude through this, and this is called <i>spina bifida cystica</i>. Where the condition does not involve this protrusion it is known as <i>spina bifida occulta</i>. Sometimes all of the vertebral arches may remain incomplete.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another, though rare, congenital disease is <a href="/wiki/Klippel%E2%80%93Feil_syndrome" title="Klippel–Feil syndrome">Klippel–Feil syndrome</a>, which is the fusion of any two of the cervical vertebrae. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Spondylolisthesis" title="Spondylolisthesis">Spondylolisthesis</a> is the forward displacement of a vertebra and <a href="/wiki/Retrolisthesis" title="Retrolisthesis">retrolisthesis</a> is a posterior displacement of one <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral body">vertebral body</a> with respect to the adjacent vertebra to a degree less than a dislocation. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Spondylolysis" title="Spondylolysis">Spondylolysis</a>, also known as a pars defect, is a defect or fracture at the pars interarticularis of the vertebral arch. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Spinal_disc_herniation" title="Spinal disc herniation">Spinal disc herniation</a>, more commonly called a "slipped disc", is the result of a tear in the outer ring (<a href="/wiki/Anulus_fibrosus_disci_intervertebralis" class="mw-redirect" title="Anulus fibrosus disci intervertebralis">anulus fibrosus</a>) of the <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc" title="Intervertebral disc">intervertebral disc</a>, which lets some of the soft gel-like material, the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_pulposus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus pulposus">nucleus pulposus</a>, bulge out in a <a href="/wiki/Hernia" title="Hernia">hernia</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Spinal_stenosis" title="Spinal stenosis">Spinal stenosis</a> is a narrowing of the spinal canal which can occur in any region of the spine though less commonly in the thoracic region. The stenosis can constrict the spinal canal giving rise to a <a href="/wiki/Functional_neurological_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Functional neurological deficit">neurological deficit</a>. </p><p>Pain at the <a href="/wiki/Coccyx" title="Coccyx">coccyx</a> (tailbone) is known as <a href="/wiki/Coccydynia" title="Coccydynia">coccydynia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-review_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-review-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord_injury" title="Spinal cord injury">Spinal cord injury</a> is damage to the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> that causes changes in its function, either temporary or permanent. Spinal cord injuries can be divided into categories: complete transection, hemisection, central spinal cord lesions, posterior spinal cord lesions, and anterior spinal cord lesions. </p><p>Scalloping vertebrae is the increase in the concavity of the posterior vertebral body. It can be seen on lateral X-ray and sagittal views of CT and MRI scans. Its concavity is due to the increased pressure exerting on the vertebrae due to a mass. Internal spinal mass such as spinal <a href="/wiki/Astrocytoma" title="Astrocytoma">astrocytoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ependymoma" title="Ependymoma">ependymoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schwannoma" title="Schwannoma">schwannoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurofibroma" title="Neurofibroma">neurofibroma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Achondroplasia" title="Achondroplasia">achondroplasia</a> causes vertebrae scalloping.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Curvature">Curvature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Curvature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Child_teenager_--_Smart-Servier_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Child_teenager_--_Smart-Servier_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Child_teenager_--_Smart-Servier_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Child_teenager_--_Smart-Servier_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Child_teenager_--_Smart-Servier_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Child_teenager_--_Smart-Servier_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Child_teenager_--_Smart-Servier_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7318" data-file-height="4608" /></a><figcaption>Diagram showing normal curvature of the vertebrae from childhood to teenage</figcaption></figure> <p>Excessive or abnormal spinal curvature is classed as a <a href="/wiki/Spinal_disease" title="Spinal disease">spinal disease</a> or dorsopathy and includes the following abnormal curvatures: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyphosis" title="Kyphosis">Kyphosis</a> is an exaggerated kyphotic (convex) curvature of the thoracic region in the <a href="/wiki/Sagittal_plane" title="Sagittal plane">sagittal plane</a>, also called hyperkyphosis. This produces the so-called "humpback" or "dowager's hump", a condition commonly resulting from <a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">osteoporosis</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordosis" title="Lordosis">Lordosis</a> is an exaggerated lordotic (concave) curvature of the lumbar region in the <a href="/wiki/Sagittal_plane" title="Sagittal plane">sagittal plane</a>, is known as <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_hyperlordosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumbar hyperlordosis">lumbar hyperlordosis</a> and also as "swayback". Temporary lordosis is common during <a href="/wiki/Maternal_physiological_changes_in_pregnancy#Musculoskeletal" title="Maternal physiological changes in pregnancy">pregnancy</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scoliosis" title="Scoliosis">Scoliosis</a>, lateral curvature, is the most common abnormal curvature, occurring in 0.5% of the population. It is more common among <a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">females</a> and may result from <a href="/wiki/Axial_Twist_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Axial Twist theory">unequal growth</a> of the two sides of one or more vertebrae,<sup id="cite_ref-Kouwenhoven2006_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kouwenhoven2006-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lussanet2019_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lussanet2019-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so that they do not fuse properly. It can also be caused by pulmonary <a href="/wiki/Atelectasis" title="Atelectasis">atelectasis</a> (partial or complete deflation of one or more lobes of the lungs) as observed in <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pneumothorax" title="Pneumothorax">pneumothorax</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyphoscoliosis" title="Kyphoscoliosis">Kyphoscoliosis</a>, a combination of kyphosis and scoliosis.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anatomical_landmarks">Anatomical landmarks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Anatomical landmarks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Surface_projections_of_the_organs_of_the_trunk.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Surface_projections_of_the_organs_of_the_trunk.png/240px-Surface_projections_of_the_organs_of_the_trunk.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="384" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Surface_projections_of_the_organs_of_the_trunk.png/360px-Surface_projections_of_the_organs_of_the_trunk.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Surface_projections_of_the_organs_of_the_trunk.png/480px-Surface_projections_of_the_organs_of_the_trunk.png 2x" data-file-width="1583" data-file-height="2533" /></a><figcaption>Surface projections of organs of the <a href="/wiki/Torso" title="Torso">torso</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Transpyloric_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpyloric line">transpyloric line</a> is seen at <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebra_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumbar vertebra 1">L1</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Individual vertebrae of the human vertebral column can be felt and used as <a href="/wiki/Surface_anatomy" title="Surface anatomy">surface anatomy</a>, with reference points are taken from the middle of the vertebral body. This provides <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_landmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomical landmark">anatomical landmarks</a> that can be used to guide procedures such as a <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_puncture" title="Lumbar puncture">lumbar puncture</a> and also as vertical reference points to describe the locations of other parts of human anatomy, such as the positions of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variations_in_vertebrae">Variations in vertebrae</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Variations in vertebrae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The general structure of vertebrae in other animals is largely the same as in humans. Individual vertebrae are composed of a centrum (body), arches protruding from the top and bottom of the centrum, and various processes projecting from the centrum and/or arches. An arch extending from the top of the centrum is called a neural arch, while the <a href="/wiki/Haemal_arch" title="Haemal arch">haemal arch</a> is found underneath the centrum in the caudal (tail) vertebrae of <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, most <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, some birds, some dinosaurs and some <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> with long tails. The vertebral processes can either give the structure rigidity, help them articulate with ribs, or serve as muscle attachment points. Common types are transverse process, diapophyses, parapophyses, and zygapophyses (both the cranial zygapophyses and the caudal zygapophyses). The centrum of the vertebra can be classified based on the fusion of its elements. In <a href="/wiki/Temnospondyli" title="Temnospondyli">temnospondyls</a>, bones such as the <a href="/wiki/Spinous_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinous process">spinous process</a>, the pleurocentrum and the intercentrum are separate ossifications. Fused elements, however, classify a vertebra as having holospondyly. </p><p>A vertebra can also be described in terms of the shape of the ends of the centrum. Centra with flat ends are <i>acoelous</i>, like those in mammals. These flat ends of the centra are especially good at supporting and distributing compressive forces. <i>Amphicoelous</i> vertebra have centra with both ends concave. This shape is common in fish, where most motion is limited. Amphicoelous centra often are integrated with a full <a href="/wiki/Notochord" title="Notochord">notochord</a>. <i>Procoelous</i> vertebrae are anteriorly concave and posteriorly convex. They are found in frogs and modern reptiles. <i>Opisthocoelous</i> vertebrae are the opposite, possessing anterior convexity and posterior concavity. They are found in salamanders, and in some non-avian dinosaurs. <i>Heterocoelous</i> vertebrae have <a href="/wiki/Saddle" title="Saddle">saddle</a>-shaped articular surfaces. This type of configuration is seen in turtles that retract their necks, and birds, because it permits extensive lateral and vertical flexion motion without stretching the nerve cord too extensively or wringing it about its long axis. </p><p>In horses, the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_horse" title="Arabian horse">Arabian</a> (breed) can have one less vertebrae and pair of ribs. This anomaly disappears in foals that are the product of an Arabian and another breed of horse.<sup id="cite_ref-GBE73p27_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GBE73p27-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_vertebrae">Regional vertebrae</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Regional vertebrae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vertebrae are defined by their location in the vertebral column. Cervical vertebrae are those in the neck area. With the exception of the two <a href="/wiki/Sloth" title="Sloth">sloth</a> genera (<i><a href="/wiki/Choloepus" class="mw-redirect" title="Choloepus">Choloepus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Bradypus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bradypus">Bradypus</a></i>) and the <a href="/wiki/Manatee" title="Manatee">manatee</a> genus, (<i><a href="/wiki/Trichechus" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichechus">Trichechus</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all mammals have seven cervical vertebrae.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other vertebrates, the number of cervical vertebrae can range from a single vertebra in <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a> to as many as 25 in <a href="/wiki/Swan" title="Swan">swans</a> or 76 in the <a href="/wiki/Extinct" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinct">extinct</a> <a href="/wiki/Plesiosaur" title="Plesiosaur">plesiosaur</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Elasmosaurus" title="Elasmosaurus">Elasmosaurus</a></i>. The dorsal vertebrae range from the bottom of the neck to the top of the <a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">pelvis</a>. Dorsal vertebrae attached to the <a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">ribs</a> are called thoracic vertebrae, while those without ribs are called lumbar vertebrae. The sacral vertebrae are those in the pelvic region, and range from one in amphibians, to two in most birds and modern reptiles, or up to three to five in mammals. When multiple sacral vertebrae are fused into a single structure, it is called the sacrum. The <a href="/wiki/Synsacrum" title="Synsacrum">synsacrum</a> is a similar fused structure found in birds that is composed of the sacral, lumbar, and some of the thoracic and caudal vertebra, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Pelvic_girdle" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelvic girdle">pelvic girdle</a>. Caudal vertebrae compose the tail, and the final few can be fused into the <a href="/wiki/Pygostyle" title="Pygostyle">pygostyle</a> in birds, or into the <a href="/wiki/Coccygeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccygeal">coccygeal</a> or tail bone in <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fish_and_amphibians">Fish and amphibians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Fish and amphibians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vertebre_pesce_20130806_04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Vertebre_pesce_20130806_04.jpg/220px-Vertebre_pesce_20130806_04.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Vertebre_pesce_20130806_04.jpg/330px-Vertebre_pesce_20130806_04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Vertebre_pesce_20130806_04.jpg/440px-Vertebre_pesce_20130806_04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2009" data-file-height="1949" /></a><figcaption>A vertebra (diameter 5 mm) of a small <a href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">ray-finned fish</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fish_anatomy#Vertebrae" title="Fish anatomy">Fish anatomy § Vertebrae</a></div> <p>The vertebrae of <a href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">lobe-finned fishes</a> consist of three discrete bony elements. The vertebral arch surrounds the spinal cord, and is of broadly similar form to that found in most other vertebrates. Just beneath the arch lies a small plate-like pleurocentrum, which protects the upper surface of the <a href="/wiki/Notochord" title="Notochord">notochord</a>, and below that, a larger arch-shaped intercentrum to protect the lower border. Both of these structures are embedded within a single cylindrical mass of cartilage. A similar arrangement was found in the primitive <a href="/wiki/Labyrinthodontia" title="Labyrinthodontia">Labyrinthodonts</a>, but in the evolutionary line that led to reptiles (and hence, also to mammals and birds), the intercentrum became partially or wholly replaced by an enlarged pleurocentrum, which in turn became the bony vertebral body.<sup id="cite_ref-VB_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VB-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In most <a href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">ray-finned fishes</a>, including all <a href="/wiki/Teleost" title="Teleost">teleosts</a>, these two structures are fused with, and embedded within, a solid piece of bone superficially resembling the vertebral body of mammals. In living <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, there is simply a cylindrical piece of bone below the vertebral arch, with no trace of the separate elements present in the early tetrapods.<sup id="cite_ref-VB_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VB-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Chondrichthyes" title="Chondrichthyes">cartilaginous fish</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</a>, the vertebrae consist of two cartilaginous tubes. The upper tube is formed from the vertebral arches, but also includes additional cartilaginous structures filling in the gaps between the vertebrae, and so enclosing the spinal cord in an essentially continuous sheath. The lower tube surrounds the notochord, and has a complex structure, often including multiple layers of <a href="/wiki/Calcification" title="Calcification">calcification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-VB_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VB-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">Lampreys</a> have vertebral arches, but nothing resembling the vertebral bodies found in all <a href="/wiki/Higher_vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher vertebrates">higher vertebrates</a>. Even the arches are discontinuous, consisting of separate pieces of arch-shaped cartilage around the spinal cord in most parts of the body, changing to long strips of cartilage above and below in the tail region. <a href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">Hagfishes</a> lack a true vertebral column, and are therefore not properly considered vertebrates, but a few tiny neural arches are present in the tail.<sup id="cite_ref-VB_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VB-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_vertebrates">Other vertebrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other vertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The general structure of human vertebrae is fairly typical of that found in other <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniotes</a>). The shape of the vertebral body does, however, vary somewhat between different groups. In humans and other mammals, it typically has flat upper and lower surfaces, while in reptiles the anterior surface commonly has a concave socket into which the expanded convex face of the next vertebral body fits. Even these patterns are only generalisations, however, and there may be variation in form of the vertebrae along the length of the spine even within a single species. Some unusual variations include the saddle-shaped sockets between the cervical vertebrae of birds and the presence of a narrow hollow canal running down the centre of the vertebral bodies of <a href="/wiki/Gecko" title="Gecko">geckos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuatara" title="Tuatara">tuataras</a>, containing a remnant of the notochord.<sup id="cite_ref-VB_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VB-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reptiles often retain the primitive intercentra, which are present as small crescent-shaped bony elements lying between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae; similar structures are often found in the caudal vertebrae of mammals. In the tail, these are attached to chevron-shaped bones called <i><a href="/wiki/Haemal_arches" class="mw-redirect" title="Haemal arches">haemal arches</a></i>, which attach below the base of the spine, and help to support the musculature. These latter bones are probably <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Rib#In_other_animals" title="Rib">ventral ribs</a> of fish. The number of vertebrae in the spines of reptiles is highly variable, and may be several hundred in some species of <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snake</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-VB_26-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VB-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In birds, there is a variable number of cervical vertebrae, which often form the only truly flexible part of the spine. The thoracic vertebrae are partially fused, providing a solid brace for the wings during flight. The sacral vertebrae are fused with the lumbar vertebrae, and some thoracic and caudal vertebrae, to form a single structure, the <i><a href="/wiki/Synsacrum" title="Synsacrum">synsacrum</a></i>, which is thus of greater relative length than the sacrum of mammals. In living birds, the remaining caudal vertebrae are fused into a further bone, the <a href="/wiki/Pygostyle" title="Pygostyle">pygostyle</a>, for attachment of the tail feathers.<sup id="cite_ref-VB_26-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VB-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aside from the tail, the number of vertebrae in mammals is generally fairly constant. There are almost always seven cervical vertebrae (<a href="/wiki/Sloth" title="Sloth">sloths</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manatee" title="Manatee">manatees</a> are among the few exceptions), followed by around twenty or so further vertebrae, divided between the thoracic and lumbar forms, depending on the number of ribs. There are generally three to five vertebrae with the sacrum, and anything up to fifty caudal vertebrae.<sup id="cite_ref-VB_26-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VB-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dinosaurs">Dinosaurs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Dinosaurs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The vertebral column in <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a> consists of the cervical (neck), dorsal (back), sacral (hips), and caudal (tail) vertebrae. <a href="/wiki/Saurischia" title="Saurischia">Saurischian</a> dinosaur vertebrae sometimes possess features known as <i><a href="/wiki/Pleurocoel" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleurocoel">pleurocoels</a></i>, which are hollow depressions on the lateral portions of the vertebrae, perforated to create an entrance into the air chambers within the vertebrae, which served to decrease the weight of these bones without sacrificing strength. These pleurocoels were filled with air sacs, which would have further decreased weight. In <a href="/wiki/Sauropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Sauropod">sauropod</a> dinosaurs, the largest known land vertebrates, pleurocoels and air sacs may have reduced the animal's weight by over a ton in some instances, a handy evolutionary adaption in animals that grew to over 30 metres in length. In many <a href="/wiki/Hadrosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadrosaur">hadrosaur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Theropod">theropod</a> dinosaurs, the caudal vertebrae were reinforced by ossified tendons. The presence of three or more sacral vertebrae, in association with the hip bones, is one of the defining characteristics of dinosaurs. The <a href="/wiki/Occipital_condyle#In_dinosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Occipital condyle">occipital condyle</a> is a structure on the posterior part of a dinosaur's skull that articulates with the first cervical vertebra.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg/18px-Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg/27px-Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg/36px-Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="653" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Anatomy" title="Portal:Anatomy">Anatomy portal</a></span></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article uses <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">anatomical terminology</a>.</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_back_pain" title="Low back pain">Low back pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromechanics_of_idiopathic_scoliosis" title="Neuromechanics of idiopathic scoliosis">Neuromechanics of idiopathic scoliosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_spine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutral spine">Neutral spine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLiemWalker2001" class="citation book cs1">Liem KF, Walker WF (2001). <i>Functional anatomy of the vertebrates: an evolutionary perspective</i>. Harcourt College Publishers. p. 277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-022369-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-022369-3"><bdi>978-0-03-022369-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Functional+anatomy+of+the+vertebrates%3A+an+evolutionary+perspective&rft.pages=277&rft.pub=Harcourt+College+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-03-022369-3&rft.aulast=Liem&rft.aufirst=Karel+F.&rft.au=Walker%2C+Warren+Franklin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVertebral+column" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Krogh2010-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Krogh2010_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrogh2010" class="citation book cs1">Krogh D (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ph7NSAAACAAJ"><i>Biology: A Guide to the Natural World</i></a>. Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company. p. 333. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-61655-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-61655-5"><bdi>978-0-321-61655-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230124144510/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ph7NSAAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-01-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-06-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Natural+World&rft.pages=333&rft.pub=Benjamin-Cummings+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-321-61655-5&rft.aulast=Krogh&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPh7NSAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVertebral+column" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GRAYS2005-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GRAYS2005_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrakeVoglMitchellGray2005" class="citation book cs1">Drake RL, Vogl W, Mitchell AW, Gray H (2005). <i>Gray's anatomy for students</i>. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8089-2306-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8089-2306-0"><bdi>978-0-8089-2306-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gray%27s+anatomy+for+students&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Elsevier%2FChurchill+Livingstone&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8089-2306-0&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=Richard+L&rft.au=Vogl%2C+Wayne&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+Adam+W+M&rft.au=Gray%2C+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVertebral+column" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gray_1977_34-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gray_1977_34_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gray_1977_34_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrayPickHowden1977" class="citation book cs1">Gray H, Pick TP, Howden R (1977). <i>Gray's Anatomy</i>. 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Developmental constraints, Hox genes, and cancer". <i>The Journal of Experimental Zoology</i>. <b>285</b> (1): 19–26. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999JEZ...285...19G">1999JEZ...285...19G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291097-010X%2819990415%29285%3A1%3C19%3A%3AAID-JEZ3%3E3.0.CO%3B2-Z">10.1002/(SICI)1097-010X(19990415)285:1<19::AID-JEZ3>3.0.CO;2-Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10327647">10327647</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Experimental+Zoology&rft.atitle=Why+do+almost+all+mammals+have+seven+cervical+vertebrae%3F+Developmental+constraints%2C+Hox+genes%2C+and+cancer&rft.volume=285&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19-26&rft.date=1999-04&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10327647&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F%28SICI%291097-010X%2819990415%29285%3A1%3C19%3A%3AAID-JEZ3%3E3.0.CO%3B2-Z&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999JEZ...285...19G&rft.aulast=Galis&rft.aufirst=F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVertebral+column" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VB-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VB_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VB_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VB_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VB_26-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VB_26-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VB_26-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VB_26-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VB_26-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomerParsons1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Romer" title="Alfred Romer">Romer AS</a>, Parsons TS (1977). <i>The Vertebrate Body</i>. 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Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 299–300. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-3413-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-3413-5"><bdi>1-4051-3413-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Study+of+Dinosaurs&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=299-300&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-4051-3413-5&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=AJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVertebral+column" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_column&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/backbone" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:backbone">backbone</a></b></i> or <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/spine" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:spine">spine</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Vertebral_column" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Vertebral column"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Vertebral column</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spineuniverse.com/displayarticle.php/article1295.html">Spinal Term Glossary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bones_of_the_torso" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bones_of_torso" title="Template:Bones of torso"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bones_of_torso" title="Template talk:Bones of torso"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bones_of_torso" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bones of torso"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bones_of_the_torso" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">Bones</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Torso" title="Torso">torso</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra">Vertebrae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Body of vertebra">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral arch">Arch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedicle_of_vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedicle of vertebral arch">pedicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamina_of_the_vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamina of the vertebral arch">lamina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_notch" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral notch">notch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_foramen" title="Vertebral foramen">Vertebral foramen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_foramen" title="Intervertebral foramen">Intervertebral foramen</a></li> <li><i>Processes</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse processes">transverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articular_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Articular processes">articular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinous_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinous process">spinous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_canal" title="Spinal canal">Spinal canal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cervical_vertebrae" title="Cervical vertebrae">Cervical vertebrae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uncinate_process_of_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Uncinate process of vertebra">Uncinate process of vertebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_foramen" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse foramen">Transverse foramen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_tubercle_of_cervical_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior tubercle of cervical vertebra">Anterior tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carotid_tubercle" class="mw-redirect" title="Carotid tubercle">Carotid tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_tubercle_of_cervical_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior tubercle of cervical vertebra">Posterior tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlas_(anatomy)" title="Atlas (anatomy)">Atlas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_mass_of_atlas" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral mass of atlas">lateral mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_arch_of_atlas" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior arch of atlas">anterior arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_arch_of_atlas" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior arch of atlas">posterior arch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_(anatomy)" title="Axis (anatomy)">Axis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dens (anatomy)">dens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebra_prominens" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebra prominens">Vertebra prominens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_vertebrae" title="Thoracic vertebrae">Thoracic vertebrae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costal_facet" title="Costal facet">Costal facets</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_costal_facet" title="Superior costal facet">superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_costal_facet" title="Inferior costal facet">inferior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_costal_facet" title="Transverse costal facet">transverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncinate_process_of_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Uncinate process of vertebra">Uncinate process of vertebra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebrae" title="Lumbar vertebrae">Lumbar vertebrae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Processes</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accessory_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Accessory process">accessory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammillary_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammillary process">mammillary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sacrum" title="Sacrum">Sacrum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Base_of_the_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Base of the sacrum">Base</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_promontory" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral promontory">sacral promontory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ala_of_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ala of sacrum">Ala of sacrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_surface_of_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral surface of sacrum">Lateral surface</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_tuberosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral tuberosity">sacral tuberosity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_surface_of_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelvic surface of sacrum">Pelvic surface</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_sacral_foramina" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior sacral foramina">anterior sacral foramina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_surface_of_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal surface of sacrum">Dorsal surface</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_sacral_foramina" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior sacral foramina">posterior sacral foramina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_sacral_crest" class="mw-redirect" title="Median sacral crest">Median sacral crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_sacral_crest" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial sacral crest">Medial sacral crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_sacral_crest" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral sacral crest">Lateral sacral crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral canal">Sacral canal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_hiatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral hiatus">sacral hiatus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coccyx" title="Coccyx">Coccyx</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>none</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thorax" title="Thorax">Thorax</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rib_cage" title="Rib cage">Rib cage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">Ribs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/True_ribs" class="mw-redirect" title="True ribs">true ribs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_ribs" class="mw-redirect" title="False ribs">false ribs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_ribs" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating ribs">floating ribs</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Parts</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angle_(rib)" class="mw-redirect" title="Angle (rib)">angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubercle_(rib)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubercle (rib)">tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costal_groove" class="mw-redirect" title="Costal groove">costal groove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neck_of_rib" class="mw-redirect" title="Neck of rib">neck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_rib" class="mw-redirect" title="Head of rib">head</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_sternum" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sternum">Sternum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suprasternal_notch" title="Suprasternal notch">Suprasternal notch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manubrium" class="mw-redirect" title="Manubrium">Manubrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternal_angle" title="Sternal angle">Sternal angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_sternum" class="mw-redirect" title="Body of sternum">Body of sternum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiphisternal_joint" title="Xiphisternal joint">Xiphisternal joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiphoid_process" title="Xiphoid process">Xiphoid process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_cage" class="mw-redirect" title="Thoracic cage">Thoracic cage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_thoracic_aperture" title="Superior thoracic aperture">Superior thoracic aperture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercostal_space" title="Intercostal space">Intercostal space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costal_margin" title="Costal margin">Costal margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrasternal_angle" title="Infrasternal angle">Infrasternal angle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spinal_nerves" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spinal_nerves" title="Template:Spinal nerves"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spinal_nerves" title="Template talk:Spinal nerves"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spinal_nerves" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spinal nerves"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spinal_nerves" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">Spinal nerves</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cervical_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Cervical nerves">Cervical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_spinal_nerve_1" title="Cervical spinal nerve 1">C1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_spinal_nerve_2" title="Cervical spinal nerve 2">C2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_spinal_nerve_3" title="Cervical spinal nerve 3">C3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_spinal_nerve_4" title="Cervical spinal nerve 4">C4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_spinal_nerve_5" title="Cervical spinal nerve 5">C5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_spinal_nerve_6" title="Cervical spinal nerve 6">C6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_spinal_nerve_7" title="Cervical spinal nerve 7">C7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_spinal_nerve_8" title="Cervical spinal nerve 8">C8</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Anterior_ramus_of_spinal_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior ramus of spinal nerve">anterior</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_plexus" title="Cervical plexus">Cervical plexus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachial_plexus" title="Brachial plexus">Brachial plexus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Posterior_ramus_of_spinal_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior ramus of spinal nerve">posterior</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_branches_of_cervical_nerves" title="Posterior branches of cervical nerves">Posterior branches of cervical nerves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suboccipital_nerve" title="Suboccipital nerve">Suboccipital – C1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_occipital_nerve" title="Greater occipital nerve">Greater occipital – C2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_occipital_nerve" title="Third occipital nerve">Third occipital – C3</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Thoracic nerves">Thoracic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_spinal_nerve_1" title="Thoracic spinal nerve 1">T1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_spinal_nerve_2" title="Thoracic spinal nerve 2">T2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_spinal_nerve_3" title="Thoracic spinal nerve 3">T3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_spinal_nerve_4" title="Thoracic spinal nerve 4">T4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_spinal_nerve_5" title="Thoracic spinal nerve 5">T5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_spinal_nerve_6" title="Thoracic spinal nerve 6">T6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_spinal_nerve_7" title="Thoracic spinal nerve 7">T7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_spinal_nerve_8" title="Thoracic spinal nerve 8">T8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_spinal_nerve_9" title="Thoracic spinal nerve 9">T9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_spinal_nerve_10" title="Thoracic spinal nerve 10">T10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_spinal_nerve_11" title="Thoracic spinal nerve 11">T11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_spinal_nerve_12" title="Thoracic spinal nerve 12">T12</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i>anterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intercostal_nerves" title="Intercostal nerves">Intercostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercostobrachial_nerve" title="Intercostobrachial nerve">Intercostobrachial – T2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoraco-abdominal_nerves" title="Thoraco-abdominal nerves">Thoraco-abdominal nerves – T7–T11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcostal_nerve" title="Subcostal nerve">Subcostal – T12</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>posterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_branches_of_thoracic_nerves" title="Posterior branches of thoracic nerves">Posterior branches of thoracic nerves</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lumbar_nerves" title="Lumbar nerves">Lumbar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbar_spinal_nerve_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumbar spinal nerve 1">L1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumbar_spinal_nerve_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumbar spinal nerve 2">L2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumbar_spinal_nerve_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumbar spinal nerve 3">L3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumbar_spinal_nerve_4" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumbar spinal nerve 4">L4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumbar_spinal_nerve_5" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumbar spinal nerve 5">L5</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i>anterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbar_plexus" title="Lumbar plexus">Lumbar plexus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumbosacral_trunk" title="Lumbosacral trunk">Lumbosacral trunk</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>posterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_branches_of_the_lumbar_nerves" title="Posterior branches of the lumbar nerves">Posterior branches of the lumbar nerves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_cluneal_nerves" title="Superior cluneal nerves">Superior cluneal L1–L3</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sacral_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral nerves">Sacral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_spinal_nerve_1" title="Sacral spinal nerve 1">S1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_spinal_nerve_2" title="Sacral spinal nerve 2">S2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_spinal_nerve_3" title="Sacral spinal nerve 3">S3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_spinal_nerve_4" title="Sacral spinal nerve 4">S4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_spinal_nerve_5" title="Sacral spinal nerve 5">S5</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i>anterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_plexus" title="Sacral plexus">Sacral plexus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>posterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_branches_of_sacral_nerves" title="Posterior branches of sacral nerves">Posterior branches of sacral nerves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_cluneal_nerves" title="Medial cluneal nerves">Medial cluneal nerves</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coccygeal_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccygeal nerve">Coccygeal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>anterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coccygeal_plexus" title="Coccygeal plexus">Coccygeal plexus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>posterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_branch_of_coccygeal_nerve" title="Posterior branch of coccygeal nerve">Posterior branch of coccygeal nerve</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spinal_disease" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spinal_disease" title="Template:Spinal disease"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spinal_disease" title="Template talk:Spinal disease"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spinal_disease" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spinal disease"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spinal_disease" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spinal_disease" title="Spinal disease">Spinal disease</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Deforming</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spinal_curvature" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal curvature">Spinal curvature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyphosis" title="Kyphosis">Kyphosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordosis" title="Lordosis">Lordosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scoliosis" title="Scoliosis">Scoliosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scheuermann%27s_disease" title="Scheuermann's disease">Scheuermann's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torticollis" title="Torticollis">Torticollis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spondylopathy" title="Spondylopathy">Spondylopathy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">inflammatory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spondylitis" title="Spondylitis">Spondylitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ankylosing_spondylitis" title="Ankylosing spondylitis">Ankylosing spondylitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacroiliitis" title="Sacroiliitis">Sacroiliitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discitis" title="Discitis">Discitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spondylodiscitis" title="Spondylodiscitis">Spondylodiscitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pott%27s_disease" title="Pott's disease">Pott's disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">non inflammatory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spondylosis" title="Spondylosis">Spondylosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spondylolysis" title="Spondylolysis">Spondylolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spondylolisthesis" title="Spondylolisthesis">Spondylolisthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrolisthesis" title="Retrolisthesis">Retrolisthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_stenosis" title="Spinal stenosis">Spinal stenosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facet_syndrome" title="Facet syndrome">Facet syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Back_pain" title="Back pain">Back pain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neck_pain" title="Neck pain">Neck pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_back_pain" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper back pain">Upper back pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_back_pain" title="Low back pain">Low back pain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coccydynia" title="Coccydynia">Coccydynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciatica" title="Sciatica">Sciatica</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiculopathy" title="Radiculopathy">Radiculopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc#Disease" title="Intervertebral disc">Intervertebral disc disorder</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schmorl%27s_nodes" title="Schmorl's nodes">Schmorl's nodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degenerative_disc_disease" title="Degenerative disc disease">Degenerative disc disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_disc_herniation" title="Spinal disc herniation">Spinal disc herniation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facet_joint_arthrosis" title="Facet joint arthrosis">Facet joint arthrosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_regional_anatomy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_regional_anatomy" title="Template:Human regional anatomy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_regional_anatomy" title="Template talk:Human regional anatomy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_regional_anatomy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human regional anatomy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_regional_anatomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_body#Regional_groups" title="Human body">Human regional anatomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">Body</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">Skin</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_head" title="Human head">Head</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hair" title="Hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Face" title="Face">Face</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forehead" title="Forehead">Forehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheek" title="Cheek">Cheek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chin" title="Chin">Chin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyebrow" title="Eyebrow">Eyebrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyelid" title="Eyelid">Eyelid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">Nose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lip" title="Lip">Lip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">Tongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">Tooth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaw" title="Jaw">Jaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandible" title="Mandible">Mandible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_bone" title="Occipital bone">Occiput</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalp" title="Scalp">Scalp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_(anatomy)" title="Temple (anatomy)">Temple</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neck" title="Neck">Neck</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adam%27s_apple" title="Adam's apple">Adam's apple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throat" title="Throat">Throat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nape" title="Nape">Nape</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Torso" title="Torso">Torso</a> (Trunk)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">Abdomen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waist" title="Waist">Waist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midriff" title="Midriff">Midriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navel" title="Navel">Navel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vertebral column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_back" title="Human back">Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorax" title="Thorax">Thorax</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breast" title="Breast">Breast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipple" title="Nipple">Nipple</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">Pelvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_organ" title="Sex organ">Genitalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_penis" title="Human penis">Penis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrotum" title="Scrotum">Scrotum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">Vulva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">Anus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Limb_(anatomy)" title="Limb (anatomy)">Limbs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arm" title="Arm">Arm</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder" title="Shoulder">Shoulder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axilla" title="Axilla">Axilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbow" title="Elbow">Elbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forearm" title="Forearm">Forearm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrist" title="Wrist">Wrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand" title="Hand">Hand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finger" title="Finger">Finger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nail_(anatomy)" title="Nail (anatomy)">Fingernail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thumb" title="Thumb">Thumb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_finger" title="Index finger">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_finger" title="Middle finger">Middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_finger" title="Ring finger">Ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_finger" title="Little finger">Little</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_leg" 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