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The agung is also ubiquitous among other groups found in [[Palawan]], [[Panay]], [[Mindoro]], [[Mindanao]], [[Sabah]], [[Sulawesi]], [[Sarawak]] and [[Kalimantan]] as an integral part of the [[Agung#In agung ensembles|agung orchestra]].<ref name=Philip>{{cite web | last = Mercurio | first = Philip Dominguez | year = 2006 | url = http://www.pnoyandthecity.blogspot.com | title = Traditional Music of the Southern Philippines | work = PnoyAndTheCity: A center for Kulintang - A home for Pasikings | access-date = 15 February 2006| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060228102028/http://www.pnoyandthecity.blogspot.com/| archive-date= 28 February 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref> ==Description== [[Image:Agung 02.jpg|thumb|left|230px|The agung. The left gong is the ''pangandungan'', used for basic beats. The right gong is the ''panentekan'', which complements the pangandungan.]] The agung is a large, heavy, wide-rimmed gong shaped like a kettle gong. of the agung produces a [[Bass (sound)|bass]] sound in the kulintang orchestra and weighs between 13 and 16 pounds, but it is possible to find agungs weigh as low as 5 pounds or as high as 20 or 30 pounds each, depending on the metal ([[bronze]], [[brass]] or [[iron]]) used to produce them. Though their diameters are smaller than the gandingan's, at roughly {{convert|22|in|mm}} to {{convert|24|in|mm}} in length, they have a much deeper turned-in ''takilidan'' (rim) than the latter, with a width of 12 to 13&nbsp;inches (330&nbsp;mm) including the knob.<ref name=Hila>{{cite web | last = Hila | first = Antonio C | year = 2006 | url = http://www.filipinoheritage.com/arts/phil-music/pre-colonial-indigenous-music.htm | title = Indigenous Music - Tuklas Sining: Essays on the Philippine Arts | work = Filipino Heritage.com | publisher = Tatak Pilipino | access-date = 15 November 2006| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061208033505/http://filipinoheritage.com/arts/phil-music/pre-colonial-indigenous-music.htm| archive-date= 8 December 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name=Spark>{{cite web | year = 2006 | url = http://www.kqed.org/arts/people/spark/profile.jsp?id=4324 | title = Danongan Kalanduyan | work = Spark| publisher = KQED - Arts and Culture | access-date = 15 November 2006 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061023000030/http://www.kqed.org/arts/people/spark/profile.jsp?id=4324| archive-date= 23 October 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name=Aga>{{cite web|last=Butocan |first=Aga M. |year=2006 |url=http://www.freewebs.com/kulintang/gandinganbabendir.htm |title=Gandingan/Babendil |work=Kulintang and the Maguindanaos |access-date=15 November 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217143050/http://www.freewebs.com/kulintang/gandinganbabendir.htm |archive-date=17 December 2007 }}</ref><ref name=Dria>{{cite web |last=Dria |first=Jose Arnaldo |year=2006 |url=http://litera1no4.tripod.com/maguindanao_frame.html |title=Maguindanao |work=Philippine Literature |access-date=15 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061128164657/http://litera1no4.tripod.com/maguindanao_frame.html |archive-date=28 November 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Garfias>Cadar, Usopay H., and Robert Garfias. "Some Principles of Formal Variation in the Kolintang Music of the Maranao." Asian Music Vol. 27, No. 2. (Spring - Summer, 1996), pp. 105–122.</ref><ref name=Otto>Otto, Steven W. "Repertorial Nomenclature in Muranao Kolintang Music ." Asian Music Vol. 27, No. 2. (Spring - Summer, 1996), pp. 123–130.</ref><ref name=Scholz>Scholz, Scott. "The Supportive Instruments of the Maguindanaon Kulintang Music." Asian Music XXVII.2 (1996): 33–52.</ref><ref name=Danny>Kalanduyan, Danongan S. "Maguindanaon Kulintang Music: Instruments, Repertoire, Performance, Contexts, and Social Functions." Asian Music XXVII.2 (1996): 3–18.</ref><ref name=Benitez>Benitez, Kristina. The Maguindanaon Kulintang: Musical Innovation, Transformation and the Concept of Binalig. Ann Harbor, MI: University of Michigan, 2005.</ref><ref name=Cadar1>Cadar, Usopay Hamdag (1971). The Maranao Kolintang Music: An Analysis of the Instruments, Musical Organization, Ethmologies, and Historical Documents. Seattle, WA: University of Washington.</ref><ref name=Jager>{{cite web | last = Jager | first = Fekke de | year = 2006 | url = http://www.kipas.nl/Instruments/Agung.htm | title = Agung | work = Music instruments from the Philippines | access-date = 15 November 2006 }}</ref><ref name=Hans1>{{cite web |last=Brandeis |first=Hans |year=2006 |url=http://aedv.cs.tu-berlin.de/~brandeis/music.html |title=Photographs of Mindanao, Philippines |work=Gallery of Photographs from Mindanao, Philippines. |publisher=Filipino Association of Berlin |access-date=15 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004132617/http://aedv.cs.tu-berlin.de/~brandeis/music.html |archive-date=4 October 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name= Yoshitaka>Terada, Yoshitaka. "Variational and Improvisational Techniques of Gandingan Playing in the Maguindanaon Kulintang Ensemble." Asian Music XXVII.2 (1996): 53–79.</ref> They are hung vertically above the floor at or a bit below the waist line, suspended by ropes fastened to structures like strong tree limb, beam of a house, ceiling, or gong stand.<ref name=Aga/><ref name=Dria/><ref name=Garfias/><ref name=Scholz/><ref name=Danny/><ref name=Cadar1/> The larger, lower pitched gong of the two is called the ''pangandungan'' by the Maguindanao and the ''p'nanggisa-an'' by the Maranao. Played on the musician's right, it provides the main part, which it predominantly played on the accents of the rhythmic structure. The smaller, higher pitched gong, the thicker of the two, is called the ''panentekan'' by the Maguindanao and the ''p'malsan'' or ''pumalsan'' by the Maranao. Found on the player's left, it is mainly played on the weaker double and triple beats of the rhythmic structure, in counterpoint to the pangandungan's part.<ref name=Garfias/><ref name=Scholz/><ref name=Danny/><ref name=Cadar1/><ref name=Cadar2>Cadar, Usopay H. "The Role of Kolintang Music in Maranao Society." Asian Music Vol. 27, No. 2. (Spring - Summer, 1996), pp. 80–103.</ref><ref name=Amin>{{cite web | last = Amin | first = Mohammad | year = 2005 | url = http://sulawesistudies.blogspot.com/2005/09/comparison-of-music-of-philippines-and.html | title = A Comparison of Music of the Philippines and Sulawesi | work = Sulawesi Studies| access-date = 15 November 2006 }}</ref> ==Origins== Scholars seem to agree that the origins of the ''agung'' are in [[Indonesia]], noting that the word ''agung/agong'' is derived from the [[Malay language|Malay]] ''agong'' and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]/[[Javanese language|Javanese]] ''ageng''.<ref name=Cadar1/> Further evidence of this comes from a British explorer, [[Thomas Forrest (navigator)|Thomas Forrest]], who in the 1770s wrote Filipinos were "fond of musical gongs which came from [[Cirebon|Cheribon]] on [[Java]] and have round knobs on them".<ref name=Forrest>Forrest, Thomas. A Voyage to New Guinea and the Moluccas: 1774-1776. Kuala Lumper: Oxford University Press, 1969</ref> ==Technique== [[Image:Agung 07.JPG|thumb|right|An agung player demonstrating the new technique of katinengka with his beater.]] The agung is usually performed while standing beside the instrument, holding the upper edge of its [[flange]] between the thumb and other fingers with the left hand while striking the knob with the right hand. The mallets, called ''balu'', are made from short sticks about half a foot in length and padded with soft but tough material such as rubber at one end. Using these balus, players handle the agung similar to the way a brass tom-tom is played.<ref name=Philip/><ref name=Hila/><ref name=Aga/><ref name=Dria/><ref name=Garfias/><ref name=Cadar1/><ref name=Yoshitaka/> A series of solid, fast decaying sounds are produced using dampening techniques. The desired effect is produced after striking the knob, by leaving one's hand or knee or the mallets themselves on it.<ref name=Garfias/><ref name=Cadar1/><ref name=Jager/> When one player is using two gongs, the assistant holding the lower-pitched gong positions it at an angle and dampens its surface using their hands. Recently, new ways of handling the agung have emerged, including grasping a portion of the boss rather than the flange to dampen or using regular strokes upon the busel while striking the surrounding gong surface with the opposite, wooden end of the beater. The latter technique, called ''katinengka'', is used by downriver musicians to produce metallic sounds during kulintang performances.<ref name=Benitez/> Different combinations of players, gongs and mallets can be used for playing the agung: two players with each assigned their own gong or just one. When playing alone, the agung player could either play both gongs with the player holding the higher-pitched gongs face-to-face,<ref name=Scholz/><ref name=Danny/> with the lower one held at an angle by an assistant for stability,<ref name=Philip/> or just one gong. The latter style, common among downriver Maguindanaos in Simuay, who consider this style an old one, uses only the higher-pitch gong for it, unlike the lower-pitched gong, is considered the lead gong, therefore having primary importance. An example of this is when single gong agungs are used during a tagunggo piece.<ref name=Benitez/> The number of mallets used by the player could also vary as well. For most occasions, only one mallet is used but for other techniques, the player could use two mallets, one in each hand. An even more interesting technique uses only one balu but requires the player to play the agung in reverse order of pitches. Called patuy,<ref name=Danny/> this technique and the one with two mallets are normally reserved only for competition and exhibition instances.<ref name=Philip/> ==Uses== [[Image:Agung 04.jpg|thumb|right|Playing the agung as part of the kulintang ensemble]] ===Kulintang ensemble=== The main use for the agung in Maguindanao and Maranao society is as a supportive/accompanying instrument of an orthodox kulintang ensemble. Using basic patterns and interlocking rhythms, a player would use the agung to complement the melody played by the kulintang.<ref name=Garfias/><ref name=Scholz/><ref name=Zonia>{{cite web | last = Velasco | first = Zonia Elvas | year = 1997 | url = http://members.aol.com/TaraCelest/kulintang_instruments.html | title = Kulintangan | work = Palabunibuniyan Gongs | publisher = Filipino Folk Arts Theatre | access-date = 15 November 2006 }}</ref> The patterns players use are normally considered freer than either the babendil or the dabakan; players could manipulate the patterns freely as long as they conform, reaffirm,<ref name=Scholz/> reinforce and even generate the rhythmic mode of the piece.<ref name=Yoshitaka/> The length of the patterns themselves may vary depending on how they fit into the melodic improvisation.<ref name=Cadar2/> Rapid style is useful especially during exhibition of playing skills.<ref name=Benitez/> Among both the Maguindanao and the Maranao, the agung embodies all that is masculine and thus the agung is traditionally considered a masculine instrument. To be considered a good player, one must possess strength, stamina (playing extremely fast tempos with no mistakes) and endurance. Players must also exhibit improvisation skills for different patterns to be considered as having quality musicianship—lest the audience considers the patterns played repetitions and mundane.<ref name=Aga/><ref name=Scholz/><ref name=Danny/><ref name=Cadar1/><ref name=Yoshitaka/><ref name=Cadar2/> Because of the highly skilled nature required for playing the agung, it is not uncommon to see agung players have friendly rivalries during a performance,<ref name=Garfias/> using tricks in an attempt to throw others off-beat.<ref name=Scholz/> For instance, if the p’nanggisa's elaborations are so elusive that the p’mals has a hard time ornamenting or if the reversed happens and the p’mals ornaments to the point the p’nanggisa's performance is engulfed, the player that cannot keep up is usually embarrassed,<ref name=Cadar2/> becoming the butt of jokes.<ref name=Scholz/> Normally agung players switch off after each piece, but during instances like this where one player cannot handle the part being played, players either remain at their gongs or switch during the performance. It is also possible for agung players to switch places with the dabakan after two pieces. Even though the players compete, they still understand they are a single entity, closely accompanying the melody,<ref name=Cadar2/> employ different variations without destroying the music's basic patterns.<ref name=Garfias/> ===Interactions with the opposite sex=== [[Image:Agung 11.jpg|thumb|right|An agung played during a contest by a Magui Moro Master Artist using two balus.]] There was also a secondary motive for men, especially young males, for learning the agung: the ability to interact with young, unmarried women. Both Maranao and Maguindanao cultures traditionally adhere to Islamic customs which prohibit dating or causal conversation between the opposite sexes (unless married to or related to by blood)<ref name=Yoshitaka/> and therefore performances such as kulintang music provided the opportunity for such a connection.<ref name=Philip/> Among the Maguindanao, the rhythmic modes of duyog and sinulog a kamamatuan allowed agung players to serenade the young, unmarried women on the kulintang.<ref name=Scholz/> Tidto, the other rhythmic mode, could also be used but players rarely use this for serenading since the kulintang player is usually an older woman.<ref name=Yoshitaka/> ===Contest=== The latter mode actually is reserved specifically for solo agung contest. Unlike other Southern Filipino groups who participate in group contest, the Maguindanao are unique in that they also hold solo agung contest<ref name=Philip/> to find out who in the community is the best papagagung (expert agung player).<ref name=Danny/> Tidto is prefect for such contest since the agung is often the focus of attention, the focal point during the ensemble during this mode.<ref name=Scholz/> Players normally perform two or more versions<ref name=Yoshitaka/> playing the three types of techniques discussed above.<ref name=Philip/> ===Signaling and the supernatural=== Other than its use in the kulintang ensemble, the agung also had other non-ensemble uses among the Maguindanao and Maranao. The agung has been used to warn others of impending danger, announcing the time of day and other important occasions. For instance, long ago the sultan would beat the agung repeatedly to announce the onset of a meeting or during the fasting month of [[Ramadhan]], the agung would ring either at three in the morning to indicate the signal to eat (sawl) or at sunset, to mark the end for fasting that day. And supposedly due to the deep, loud sound the agung produces, people believed that it possessed supernatural powers. For instance, during an earthquake, the locals of Maguindanao would strike the agung in a fast, loud rhythm called baru-baru, believing its vibrations would either lessen or even halt the jolt of an earthquake.<ref name=Philip/><ref name=Aga/><ref name=Dria/> ==Similar agung instruments== ===Kulintang ensembles=== In the [[Sulu Archipelago]], the kulintang orchestra uses not two but three low-sounding agungs, which serve as accompaniment in Tausug, Samal and Yakan ensembles. For the Tausug and Samal, the largest of the agungs with a wide turned-in rim is called the ''tunggalan'' or ''tamak '', which provides slow, regular beats, similar to the Maguindanaon pangandungan and Maranao p’nanggisa-an. The smaller pair of agungs, the ''duahan'', syncopate with the tunggalan/tamak. These are further classified: the wider-rimmed duahan is called the ''pulakan'' and the narrower one is called the ''huhugan'' or ''buahan'' by the Tausug and ''bua'' by the Samal.<ref name=Yoshitaka/><ref name=Maceda1>Maceda, Jose. "A Concept of Time in a Music of Southeast Asia." Ethnomusicology Vol. 30. No. 1. (Winter 1986), pp. 11–53.</ref><ref name=Maceda2>Maceda, Jose. Gongs and Bamboo: A Panorama of Philippine Music Instruments. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1998.</ref> ===In agung ensembles=== [[Image:Karatung 02.jpg|thumb|left|240px|A Tiruray agung ensemble, called a karatung, demonstrated at [[San Francisco State University]]]] Agungs also play a major role in agung orchestras—ensembles composed of large hanging, suspended or held,<ref name=Philip/> knobbed gongs which act as drones without any accompanying melodic instrument like a kulintang.<ref name=Maceda1/><ref name=Criselda>{{cite web | last = de Leon | first = Ma. Criselda | year = 2006 | url = http://litera1no4.tripod.com/tiruray_frame.html | title = Tiruray | work = Philippine Literature | access-date = 15 November 2006| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061128165041/http://litera1no4.tripod.com/tiruray_frame.html| archive-date= 28 November 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref> Such orchestras are prevalent among Indigenous Philippine groups (Bagobo,<ref name=Baes>{{cite web | last = Baes | first = Jones | year = 2006 | url = http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about_cultarts/comarticles.php?artcl_Id=148 | title = Asiatic Musical Traditions in the Philippines | work = Articles on Culture and Arts | publisher = National Commission for Culture and the Arts | access-date = 15 November 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060117212307/http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about_cultarts/comarticles.php?artcl_Id=148 |archive-date = 17 January 2006}}</ref> Bilaan,<ref name=Sanchez>{{cite web | last = Sanchez | first = Kristine | year = 2006 | url = http://litera1no4.tripod.com/bilaan_frame.html | title = Bilaan | work = Philippine Literature | access-date = 15 November 2006 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061128164719/http://litera1no4.tripod.com/bilaan_frame.html| archive-date= 28 November 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref> Bukidon, [[Hanunó'o language|Hanunoo]],<ref name=Hila/><ref name=Servano>{{cite web | last = Servano | first = Miniña R. | year = 2006 | url = http://litera1no4.tripod.com/mangyan_frame.html | title = Mangyan | work = Philippine Literature | access-date = 15 November 2006| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061111195718/http://litera1no4.tripod.com/mangyan_frame.html| archive-date= 11 November 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref> Magsaka, Manabo, [[Mangyan peoples|Mangyan]],<ref name=Hila/> [[Peoples of Palawan|Palawan]], Subanun, [[Suludnon people|Suludnon]], [[Tboli people|T’boli]], Tagakaolu, [[Tagbanwa people|Tagbanwa]]<ref name=Hila/> and the Tiruray),<ref name=Maceda1/> regions in [[Borneo|Kalimantan]] and [[Indonesia]] ([[Iban people|Iban]], Modang, [[Murut people|Murut]]) and Sabah and Sarawak in [[Malaysia]] ([[Bidayuh]], [[Iban people|Iban]], [[Kadazan-Dusun]], Kajan, Kayan), places where agung orchestras take precedence over kulintang-like orchestras. The composition and tuning of these orchestras vary widely from one group to another.<ref name=Maceda1/><ref name=Matusky>Matusky, Patricia. "An Introduction to the Major Instruments and Forms of Traditional Malay Music." Asian Music Vol 16. No. 2. (Spring-Summer 1985), pp. 121–182.</ref> For instance, the Hanunoo of Mindoro have a small agung ensemble consisting of only two light gongs played by two musicians on the floor in a simple duple rhythm<ref name=Hila/><ref name=Servano/> while the Manobo have an ensemble (called an ''ahong'') consisting of 10 small agungs hung vertically on a triangular frame. It includes three musicians: one standing up, playing the melody, and the rest sitting. The ahong is divided by purpose, with the higher-pitched gongs (''kaantuhan'') carrying the melody, three to four lower-pitched gongs (''gandingan'') playing melodic [[ostinato]] figures, and the lowest-pitched gong (''bandil'') setting the tempo.<ref name=Lydia>{{cite web | last = de Leon | first = Lydia Mary | year = 2006 | url = http://litera1no4.tripod.com/manobo_frame.html | title = Manobo | work = Philippine Literature | access-date = 15 November 2006| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061128164911/http://litera1no4.tripod.com/manobo_frame.html| archive-date= 28 November 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref> [[File:Karatung 01.jpg|thumb|right|An antique bronze karatung set]] The Tiruray call their agung ensemble a ''kelo-agung'', ''kalatong'', or ''karatung''. It is made up of five shallow bossed gongs of graduating size, each played by one person. The smallest, the ''segaron'', is used as the lead instrument, providing a steady beat.<ref name=Philip/><ref name=Criselda/> The Manobo ''sagabong'' ensemble follows a similar format, consisting of five small gongs, each held by one musician playing a unique pattern with rubber mallets, interlocking with other parts.<ref name=Lydia/> The T’boli and Palawan have similar agung ensembles: the T’boli ensemble is composed of three to four agungs with two to three of them collectively called ''semagi'' which play variations, and the other agung, ''tang'', providing a steady beat. The Palawan call their ensemble, composed of four gongs, a ''basal''. It includes one to two large humped, low-sounding agungs and a pair of smaller humped, higher-pitched ''sanangs'' which produce metallic sounds.<ref name=Maceda1/><ref name=Juan>Francisco, Juan R. "Une epopee palawan chantee par Usuj." Asian Folklore Studies Vol. 44. No. 1. (1985), pp. 132–134.</ref><ref name=Hans2>Brandeis, Hans. "Utom: Summoning the Spirit: Music in the T'boli Heartland." ''[[Yearbook for Traditional Music]]'', 30(1998): 203.</ref><ref name=Englis>Englis, Francisco. "Philippines: Musique des hautes -terres Palawan (Palawan Highland Music)." Asian Music Vol. 25. No. ½. (1993–1994), pp. 312–314.</ref> The Subanon also have an agung ensemble similar to the Tiruray karatung, called a ''gagung sua''.<ref name=Benitez/> Both the Bagabo and the B’laan refer to their agung ensemble as a ''tagunggo'', a set of eight metal gongs suspended on a harness, which is played by two, three, or more people. Seven of the smaller-sized gongs produce a running melody with the eighth, largest gong playing syncopation with the other gongs to produce a particular rhythm.<ref name=Baes/><ref name=Sanchez/> The Manabo also have an agung ensemble similar to the tagunggo, called a ''tagungguan''.<ref name=Lydia/> The Kadazan-Dusun, located on the western coast of [[Sabah]], refer to their agung ensemble as a ''tawag'' or ''bandil'', which consists of six to seven large gongs in shoreline groups and 7–8 large gongs for those in interior valleys. In southwestern [[Sarawak]], [[Bidayuh]] agung ensembles consist of nine large gongs divided into four groups (''taway'', ''puum'', ''bandil'', and ''sanang''), while among the [[Iban people|Iban]] of Sawarak, [[Brunei]], Kalimantan, agung ensembles are smaller in comparison. Such ensembles can either perform alone or with one or two drums, played with the hands or wooden sticks, as accompaniment. They play either [[wikt:homophonic|homophonically]] or in an interlocking fashion with the gongs. These agung orchestras often perform at many types of social events, including agriculture rituals, weddings, victory celebrations, curing rites, rituals for the dead, entertainment for visitors, and other community rituals.<ref name=Maceda1/><ref name=Criselda/><ref name=Matusky/><ref name=Lydia/> ==References== {{reflist|30em}} {{Commons category|Agung}} {{Indonesian musical instruments}} {{Traditional musical instruments of Malaysia}} {{S Filipino instruments}} {{percussion}} {{good article}} [[Category:Agung]] [[Category:Gong and chime music]] [[Category:Indigenous music]] [[Category:Indonesian musical instruments]] [[Category:Malaysian musical instruments]] [[Category:Philippine musical instruments]] [[Category:Gongs]] [[Category:Asian percussion instruments]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a 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