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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glycoconjugates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glycoconjugates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Glycoconjugates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glycoconjugates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glycomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glycomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Glycomics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glycomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenges_in_the_study_of_sugar_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges_in_the_study_of_sugar_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Challenges in the study of sugar structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challenges_in_the_study_of_sugar_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_tools_and_techniques_for_glycan_structure_prediction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_tools_and_techniques_for_glycan_structure_prediction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Modern tools and techniques for glycan structure prediction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_tools_and_techniques_for_glycan_structure_prediction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern tools and techniques for glycan structure prediction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_tools_and_techniques_for_glycan_structure_prediction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Multiple_reaction_monitoring_(MRM)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multiple_reaction_monitoring_(MRM)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Multiple reaction monitoring (MRM)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multiple_reaction_monitoring_(MRM)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Skin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="mw-page-title-main">Glycobiology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glykobiologi" title="Glykobiologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Glykobiologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glykobiologie" title="Glykobiologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Glykobiologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Γλυκοβιολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γλυκοβιολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicobiolog%C3%ADa" title="Glicobiología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Glicobiología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C" title="گلیکوبیولوژی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گلیکوبیولوژی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycobiologie" title="Glycobiologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Glycobiologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%B9%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99" title="당생물학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="당생물학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicobiologia" title="Glicobiologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Glicobiologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycobiologie" title="Glycobiologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Glycobiologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B3%96%E9%8E%96%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="糖鎖生物学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="糖鎖生物学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikobiologia" title="Glikobiologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Glikobiologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicobiologia" title="Glicobiologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Glicobiologia" 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lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Glikobiyoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Глікобіологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Глікобіологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B3%96%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="糖生物学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="糖生物学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Glycobiology_(journal)" title="Glycobiology (journal)">Glycobiology (journal)</a>.</div> <p>Defined in the narrowest sense, <b>glycobiology</b> is the study of the structure, biosynthesis, and biology of <a href="/wiki/Saccharide" class="mw-redirect" title="Saccharide">saccharides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a> chains or <a href="/wiki/Glycans" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycans">glycans</a>) that are widely distributed in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-Varki_2008_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Varki_2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Varki_1999_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Varki_1999-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sugars or saccharides are essential components of all living things and aspects of the various roles they play in biology are researched in various medical, biochemical and biotechnological fields. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycobiology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> the specific term <i>glycobiology</i> was coined in 1988 by Prof. <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Dwek" title="Raymond Dwek">Raymond Dwek</a> to recognize the coming together of the traditional disciplines of <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrate</a> chemistry and <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-rademacher_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rademacher-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This coming together was as a result of a much greater understanding of the cellular and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Glycan" title="Glycan">glycans</a>. However, as early as the late nineteenth century pioneering efforts were being made by <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Emil_Fischer#Significant_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermann Emil Fischer">Emil Fisher</a> to establish the structure of some basic sugar molecules. Each year the Society of Glycobiology awards the <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Kornfeld" title="Rosalind Kornfeld">Rosalind Kornfeld</a> award for lifetime achievement in the field of glycobiology.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Glycoconjugates">Glycoconjugates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycobiology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Glycoconjugates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Glycoconjugates" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycoconjugates">Glycoconjugates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glycosylation" title="Glycosylation">Glycosylation</a></div> <p>Sugars may be linked to other types of biological molecule to form glycoconjugates. The enzymatic process of glycosylation creates sugars/saccharides linked to themselves and to other molecules by the glycosidic bond, thereby producing glycans. <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">Glycoproteins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proteoglycan" title="Proteoglycan">proteoglycans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glycolipid" title="Glycolipid">glycolipids</a> are the most abundant glycoconjugates found in mammalian cells. They are found predominantly on the outer cell membrane and in secreted fluids. Glycoconjugates have been shown to be important in cell-cell interactions due to the presence on the cell surface of various <a href="/wiki/Glycan-protein_interactions" title="Glycan-protein interactions">glycan binding receptors</a> in addition to the glycoconjugates themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-Ma_2004_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ma_2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Takahashi_2004_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Takahashi_2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to their function in protein folding and cellular attachment, the <a href="/wiki/Glycans#N-Linked_glycans" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycans">N-linked glycans</a> of a protein can modulate the protein's function, in some cases acting as an on-off switch.<sup id="cite_ref-immune_glycan_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-immune_glycan-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Glycomics">Glycomics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycobiology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Glycomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Glycomics" title="Glycomics">Glycomics</a></div> <p>"<a href="/wiki/Glycomics" title="Glycomics">Glycomics</a>, analogous to <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">proteomics</a>, is the systematic study of all glycan structures of a given cell type or organism" and is a subset of glycobiology.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenges_in_the_study_of_sugar_structures">Challenges in the study of sugar structures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycobiology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Challenges in the study of sugar structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Part of the variability seen in saccharide structures is because <a href="/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">monosaccharide</a> units may be coupled to each other in many different ways, as opposed to the <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a> in <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, which are always coupled together in a standard fashion.<sup id="cite_ref-kreuger_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kreuger-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study of glycan structures is also complicated by the lack of a direct template for their biosynthesis, contrary to the case with proteins where their amino acid sequence is determined by their corresponding <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Glycans are secondary gene products and therefore are generated by the coordinated action of many enzymes in the subcellular compartments of a cell. Since the structure of a glycan may depend on the <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expression</a>, activity and accessibility of the different biosynthetic enzymes, it is not possible to use <a href="/wiki/Recombinant_DNA" title="Recombinant DNA">recombinant DNA</a> technology in order to produce large quantities of glycans for structural and functional studies as it is for proteins. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_tools_and_techniques_for_glycan_structure_prediction">Modern tools and techniques for glycan structure prediction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycobiology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Modern tools and techniques for glycan structure prediction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Advanced analytical instruments and software programs, when used in combination, can unlock the mystery of glycan structures. Current techniques for structural annotation and analysis of glycans include <a href="/wiki/Liquid_Chromatography" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid Chromatography">liquid chromatography</a> (LC), <a href="/wiki/Capillary_electrophoresis" title="Capillary electrophoresis">capillary electrophoresis</a> (CE), <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">mass spectrometry</a> (MS), <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">nuclear magnetic resonance</a> (NMR) and lectin arrays.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the most widely used techniques is <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">mass spectrometry</a> which uses three principal units: the ionizer, analyzer and detector. </p><p>Glycan arrays, like that offered by the Consortium for Functional Glycomics and Z Biotech LLC, contain carbohydrate compounds that can be screened with lectins or antibodies to define carbohydrate specificity and identify ligands. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multiple_reaction_monitoring_(MRM)"><span id="Multiple_reaction_monitoring_.28MRM.29"></span>Multiple reaction monitoring (MRM)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycobiology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Multiple reaction monitoring (MRM)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>MRM is a mass spectrometry-based technique that has recently been used for site-specific glycosylation profiling. Although MRM has been used extensively in metabolomics and proteomics, its high sensitivity and linear response over a wide dynamic range make it especially suited for glycan biomarker research and discovery. MRM is performed on a triple quadrupole (QqQ) instrument, which is set to detect a predetermined precursor ion in the first quadrupole, a fragmented in the collision quadrupole, and a predetermined fragment ion in the third quadrupole. It is a non-scanning technique, wherein each transition is detected individually and the detection of multiple transitions occurs concurrently in duty cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-immune_glycan_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-immune_glycan-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This technique is being used to characterize the immune glycome.<sup id="cite_ref-immune_glycan_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-immune_glycan-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medicine">Medicine</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycobiology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Drugs already on the market, such as <a href="/wiki/Heparin" title="Heparin">heparin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erythropoietin" title="Erythropoietin">erythropoietin</a> and a few anti-flu drugs, have proven effective and highlight the importance of <a href="/wiki/Glycans" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycans">glycans</a> as a new class of drug. Additionally, the search for new anti-cancer drugs is opening up new possibilities in glycobiology.<sup id="cite_ref-olden_k_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-olden_k-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anti-cancer drugs with new and varied action mechanisms together with anti-inflammatory and anti-infection drugs are today undergoing clinical trials. They may alleviate or complete current therapies. Although these <a href="/wiki/Glycans" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycans">glycans</a> are molecules that are difficult to synthesize in a reproducible way, owing to their complex structure, this new field of research is highly encouraging for the future. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Skin">Skin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycobiology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Skin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Glycobiology, in which recent developments have been made possible by the latest technological advances, helps provide a more specific and precise understanding of skin aging. It has now been clearly established that glycans are major constituents of the skin and play a decisive role in skin homeostasis. </p> <ul><li>They play a crucial role in the recognition of molecules and cells, they act, most notably, at the surface of cells to deliver biological messages.<sup id="cite_ref-Faury_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faury-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>They are instrumental in the metabolism of cells: synthesis, proliferation and differentiation</li> <li>They have a role to play in the structure and architecture of tissue.</li></ul> <p>Vital to the proper functioning of skin, glycans undergo both qualitative and quantitative changes in the course of aging.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The functions of communication and metabolism are impaired and the skin's architecture is degraded. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycobiology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_signal_transduction" title="Sugar signal transduction">Sugar signal transduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycan-protein_interactions" title="Glycan-protein interactions">Glycan-protein interactions</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycobiology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Varki_2008-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Varki_2008_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVarkiCummingsEskoStanley2022" class="citation book cs1">Varki A, Cummings RD, Esko JD, Stanley P, Hart GW, Aebi M, Mohnen D, Kinoshita T, Packer NH, Prestegard JH, Schnaar RL, Seeberger PH (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579918/"><i>Essentials of Glycobiology</i></a> (4th ed.). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1101%2F9781621824213">10.1101/9781621824213</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-621824-21-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-621824-21-3"><bdi>978-1-621824-21-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35536922">35536922</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+Glycobiology&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Laboratory+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35536922&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1101%2F9781621824213&rft.isbn=978-1-621824-21-3&rft.aulast=Varki&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Cummings%2C+RD&rft.au=Esko%2C+JD&rft.au=Stanley%2C+P&rft.au=Hart%2C+GW&rft.au=Aebi%2C+M&rft.au=Mohnen%2C+D&rft.au=Kinoshita%2C+T&rft.au=Packer%2C+NH&rft.au=Prestegard%2C+JH&rft.au=Schnaar%2C+RL&rft.au=Seeberger%2C+PH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK579918%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlycobiology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Varki_1999-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Varki_1999_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarkiCummingsEskoFreeze1999" class="citation book cs1">Varki A, Cummings R, Esko J, Freeze H, Hart G, Marth J (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=glyco.TOC&depth=2"><i>Essentials of glycobiology</i></a>. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87969-560-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-87969-560-9"><bdi>0-87969-560-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+glycobiology&rft.pub=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Laboratory+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-87969-560-9&rft.aulast=Varki&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Cummings%2C+R&rft.au=Esko%2C+J&rft.au=Freeze%2C+H&rft.au=Hart%2C+G&rft.au=Marth%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Dglyco.TOC%26depth%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlycobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rademacher-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rademacher_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRademacherParekhDwek1988" class="citation journal cs1">Rademacher TW, Parekh RB, Dwek RA (1988). 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Experimental+Dermatology&rft.atitle=Changes+in+glycosaminoglycans+and+related+proteoglycans+in+intrinsically+aged+human+skin+in+vivo&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=454-456&rft.date=2011&rft.issn=1600-0625&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34434784%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21426414&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1600-0625.2011.01258.x&rft.aulast=Oh&rft.aufirst=Jang-Hee&rft.au=Kim%2C+Yeon+Kyung&rft.au=Jung%2C+Ji-Yong&rft.au=Shin%2C+Jeong-eun&rft.au=Chung%2C+Jin+Ho&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlycobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycobiology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bio-world.com/glycobiology/lectins.html">Vendor Glycoconjugates, Glycan Recognizing Proteins</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.functionalglycomics.org">The Functional Glycomics Gateway</a>. monthly updated web resource, a collaboration of <i>Nature</i> and the Consortium for Functional Glycomics.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibiology.org/biochemistry/glycans/">Carolyn Bertozzi's Seminar: "Chemical Glycobiology"</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmanual_Maverakis" class="citation web cs1">Emanual Maverakis; et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0896841114001759/1-s2.0-S0896841114001759-main.pdf?_tid=fbc3820c-0881-11e5-b633-00000aacb362&acdnat=1433179187_223619b43246b42b6d0f8c696bf10ac7">"Glycans in the immune system and The Altered Glycan Theory of Autoimmunity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Glycans+in+the+immune+system+and+The+Altered+Glycan+Theory+of+Autoimmunity&rft.au=Emanual+Maverakis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fac.els-cdn.com%2FS0896841114001759%2F1-s2.0-S0896841114001759-main.pdf%3F_tid%3Dfbc3820c-0881-11e5-b633-00000aacb362%26acdnat%3D1433179187_223619b43246b42b6d0f8c696bf10ac7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlycobiology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" 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