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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Glycoprotein diversity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glycoprotein_diversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mechanisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-N-linked_glycosylation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#N-linked_glycosylation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span><i>N</i>-linked glycosylation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-N-linked_glycosylation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-O-linked_glycosylation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#O-linked_glycosylation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span><i>O</i>-linked glycosylation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-O-linked_glycosylation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phosphoserine_glycosylation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phosphoserine_glycosylation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Phosphoserine glycosylation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phosphoserine_glycosylation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-C-mannosylation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#C-mannosylation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span><i>C</i>-mannosylation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-C-mannosylation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation_of_GPI_anchors_(glypiation)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_of_GPI_anchors_(glypiation)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Formation of GPI anchors (glypiation)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_of_GPI_anchors_(glypiation)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_glycosylation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_glycosylation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Chemical glycosylation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_glycosylation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-enzymatic_glycosylation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-enzymatic_glycosylation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Non-enzymatic glycosylation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-enzymatic_glycosylation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Role_of_AGEs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_AGEs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.1</span> <span>Role of AGEs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_AGEs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deglycosylation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deglycosylation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Deglycosylation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deglycosylation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation_of_Notch_signalling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation_of_Notch_signalling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Regulation of Notch signalling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation_of_Notch_signalling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Clinical</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clinical-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Clinical subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Clinical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effects_on_therapeutic_efficacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_therapeutic_efficacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Effects on therapeutic efficacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_therapeutic_efficacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B2%D8%A9" title="غلكزة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="غلكزة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikozilacija" title="Glikozilacija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Glikozilacija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicosilaci%C3%B3" title="Glicosilació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Glicosilació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glykosylace" title="Glykosylace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Glykosylace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycosylering" title="Glycosylering – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Glycosylering" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glykosylierung" title="Glykosylierung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Glykosylierung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%BCkos%C3%BC%C3%BClimine" title="Glükosüülimine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Glükosüülimine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucosilaci%C3%B3n" title="Glucosilación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Glucosilación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86" title="گلیکوزیلاسیون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گلیکوزیلاسیون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycosylation" title="Glycosylation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Glycosylation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicosilaci%C3%B3n" title="Glicosilación – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Glicosilación" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%80%EB%A6%AC%EC%BD%94%EC%8B%A4%ED%99%94" title="글리코실화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="글리코실화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikosilasi" title="Glikosilasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Glikosilasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicosilazione" title="Glicosilazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Glicosilazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%96%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="גליקוזילציה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גליקוזילציה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="გლიკოზილირება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გლიკოზილირება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengglikosilan" title="Pengglikosilan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pengglikosilan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycosylering" title="Glycosylering – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Glycosylering" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B0%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B3%E3%82%B7%E3%83%AB%E5%8C%96" title="グリコシル化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="グリコシル化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glykosylering" title="Glykosylering – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Glykosylering" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikozylacja" title="Glikozylacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Glikozylacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicosila%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Glicosilação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Glicosilação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicozilare" title="Glicozilare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Glicozilare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Гликозилирование – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гликозилирование" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikozilacija" title="Glikozilacija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Glikozilacija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikozilacija" title="Glikozilacija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Glikozilacija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikozilacija" title="Glikozilacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Glikozilacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glykosylaatio" title="Glykosylaatio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Glykosylaatio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glykosylering" title="Glykosylering – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Glykosylering" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikozilasyon" title="Glikozilasyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Glikozilasyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Глікозилювання – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Глікозилювання" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%86%A3%E5%9F%BA%E5%8C%96" title="醣基化 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="醣基化" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q898365#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> 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</div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Covalent attachment and further modification of carbohydrate residues to a substrate molecule</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Glycation" title="Glycation">Glycation</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_glycosylation" title="Chemical glycosylation">Chemical glycosylation</a></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p><b>Glycosylation</b> is the reaction in which a <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrate</a> (or '<a href="/wiki/Glycan" title="Glycan">glycan</a>'), i.e. a <a href="/wiki/Glycosyl_donor" title="Glycosyl donor">glycosyl donor</a>, is attached to a hydroxyl or other functional group of another molecule (a <a href="/wiki/Glycosyl_acceptor" title="Glycosyl acceptor">glycosyl acceptor</a>) in order to form a <a href="/wiki/Glycoconjugate" title="Glycoconjugate">glycoconjugate</a>. In biology (but not always in chemistry), <b>glycosylation</b> usually refers to an enzyme-catalysed reaction, whereas <a href="/wiki/Glycation" title="Glycation">glycation</a> (also 'non-enzymatic glycation' and 'non-enzymatic glycosylation') may refer to a non-enzymatic reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Glycosylation is a form of co-translational and <a href="/wiki/Post-translational_modification" title="Post-translational modification">post-translational modification</a>. Glycans serve a variety of structural and functional roles in membrane and secreted proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-varki_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-varki-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of proteins synthesized in the <a href="/wiki/Rough_endoplasmic_reticulum" class="mw-redirect" title="Rough endoplasmic reticulum">rough endoplasmic reticulum</a> undergo glycosylation. Glycosylation is also present in the <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a> and nucleus as the <a href="/wiki/O-GlcNAc" title="O-GlcNAc"><i>O</i>-GlcNAc</a> modification. Aglycosylation is a feature of engineered antibodies to bypass glycosylation.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Five classes of glycans are produced: </p> <ul><li><i>N</i>-linked glycans attached to a <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> of <a href="/wiki/Asparagine" title="Asparagine">asparagine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Arginine" title="Arginine">arginine</a> <a href="/wiki/Side_chain" title="Side chain">side-chains</a>. <a href="/wiki/N-linked_glycosylation" title="N-linked glycosylation"><i>N</i>-linked glycosylation</a> requires participation of a special lipid called <a href="/wiki/Dolichol_phosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolichol phosphate">dolichol phosphate</a>.</li> <li><i>O</i>-linked glycans attached to the <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl">hydroxyl</a> <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> of <a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">serine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Threonine" title="Threonine">threonine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydroxylysine" title="Hydroxylysine">hydroxylysine</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyproline" title="Hydroxyproline">hydroxyproline</a> side-chains, or to oxygens on lipids such as <a href="/wiki/Ceramide" title="Ceramide">ceramide</a>.</li> <li>Phosphoglycans linked through the phosphate of a phosphoserine.</li> <li><i>C</i>-linked glycans, a rare form of glycosylation where a sugar is added to a carbon on a <a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">tryptophan</a> side-chain. <a href="/wiki/Aloin" title="Aloin">Aloin</a> is one of the few naturally occurring substances.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glypiation" title="Glypiation">Glypiation</a>, which is the addition of a GPI anchor that links proteins to lipids through glycan linkages.</li></ul> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purpose">Purpose</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Purpose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Glycosylation is the process by which a <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrate</a> is <a href="/wiki/Covalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Covalent">covalently</a> attached to a target <a href="/wiki/Macromolecule" title="Macromolecule">macromolecule</a>, typically <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a>. This modification serves various functions.<sup id="cite_ref-taylor_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taylor-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, some proteins do not fold correctly unless they are glycosylated.<sup id="cite_ref-varki_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-varki-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other cases, proteins are not stable unless they contain <a href="/wiki/Oligosaccharide" title="Oligosaccharide">oligosaccharides</a> linked at the <a href="/wiki/Amide" title="Amide">amide</a> <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> of certain <a href="/wiki/Asparagine" title="Asparagine">asparagine</a> residues. The influence of glycosylation on the folding and stability of <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoprotein</a> is twofold. Firstly, the highly soluble glycans may have a direct physicochemical stabilisation effect. Secondly, <i>N</i>-linked glycans mediate a critical quality control check point in glycoprotein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glycosylation also plays a role in cell-to-cell adhesion (a mechanism employed by cells of the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>) via <a href="/wiki/Glycan-protein_interactions" title="Glycan-protein interactions">sugar-binding proteins</a> called <a href="/wiki/Lectins" class="mw-redirect" title="Lectins">lectins</a>, which recognize specific carbohydrate moieties.<sup id="cite_ref-varki_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-varki-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glycosylation is an important parameter in the optimization of many glycoprotein-based drugs such as <a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoclonal antibodies">monoclonal antibodies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glycosylation also underpins the <a href="/wiki/ABO_blood_group" class="mw-redirect" title="ABO blood group">ABO blood group</a> system. It is the presence or absence of <a href="/wiki/Glycosyltransferase" title="Glycosyltransferase">glycosyltransferases</a> which dictates which blood group <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigens</a> are presented and hence what antibody specificities are exhibited. This immunological role may well have driven the diversification of glycan heterogeneity and creates a barrier to <a href="/wiki/Zoonotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoonotic">zoonotic</a> transmission of viruses.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, glycosylation is often used by viruses to shield the underlying viral protein from immune recognition. A significant example is the dense glycan shield of the envelope spike of the <a href="/wiki/Human_immunodeficiency_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human immunodeficiency virus">human immunodeficiency virus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Overall, glycosylation needs to be understood by the likely evolutionary selection pressures that have shaped it. In one model, diversification can be considered purely as a result of endogenous functionality (such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cell_trafficking&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cell trafficking (page does not exist)">cell trafficking</a>). However, it is more likely that diversification is driven by evasion of pathogen infection mechanism (e.g. <i><a href="/wiki/Helicobacter" title="Helicobacter">Helicobacter</a></i> attachment to terminal saccharide residues) and that diversity within the multicellular organism is then exploited endogenously. </p><p>Glycosylation can also modulate the thermodynamic and kinetic stability of the proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Glycoprotein_diversity">Glycoprotein diversity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Glycoprotein diversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Glycosylation increases diversity in the <a href="/wiki/Proteome" title="Proteome">proteome</a>, because almost every aspect of glycosylation can be modified, including: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycosidic_bond" title="Glycosidic bond">Glycosidic bond</a>—the site of glycan linkage</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycan_composition&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glycan composition (page does not exist)">Glycan composition</a>—the types of sugars that are linked to a given protein</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycan_structure&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glycan structure (page does not exist)">Glycan structure</a>—can be unbranched or branched chains of sugars</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycan_length&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glycan length (page does not exist)">Glycan length</a>—can be short- or long-chain oligosaccharides</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanisms">Mechanisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mechanisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are various mechanisms for glycosylation, although most share several common features:<sup id="cite_ref-varki_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-varki-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Glycosylation, unlike <a href="/wiki/Glycation" title="Glycation">glycation</a>, is an enzymatic process. Indeed, glycosylation is thought to be the most complex <a href="/wiki/Posttranslational_modification" class="mw-redirect" title="Posttranslational modification">post-translational modification</a>, because of the large number of enzymatic steps involved.<sup id="cite_ref-walsh_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-walsh-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The donor molecule is often an activated <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide_sugar" title="Nucleotide sugar">nucleotide sugar</a>.</li> <li>The process is non-templated (unlike DNA <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a> or protein <a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">translation</a>); instead, the cell relies on segregating enzymes into different cellular compartments (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">endoplasmic reticulum</a>, cisternae in <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi apparatus</a>). Therefore, glycosylation is a site-specific modification.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="N-linked_glycosylation"><i>N</i>-linked glycosylation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: N-linked glycosylation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/N-linked_glycosylation" title="N-linked glycosylation">N-linked glycosylation</a></div> <p><i>N</i>-linked glycosylation is a very prevalent form of glycosylation and is important for the folding of many eukaryotic glycoproteins and for cell–cell and cell–<a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a> attachment. The <i>N</i>-linked glycosylation process occurs in <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotes">eukaryotes</a> in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum and widely in <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>, but very rarely in <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>. In addition to their function in protein folding and cellular attachment, the <i>N</i>-linked glycans of a protein can modulate a protein's function, in some cases acting as an on/off switch. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="O-linked_glycosylation"><i>O</i>-linked glycosylation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: O-linked glycosylation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/O-linked_glycosylation" title="O-linked glycosylation">O-linked glycosylation</a></div> <p><i>O</i>-linked glycosylation is a form of glycosylation that occurs in <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotes">eukaryotes</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi apparatus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Flynne2008_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flynne2008-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but also occurs in <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phosphoserine_glycosylation">Phosphoserine glycosylation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Phosphoserine glycosylation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Xylose" title="Xylose">Xylose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fucose" title="Fucose">fucose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mannose" title="Mannose">mannose</a>, and <a href="/wiki/GlcNAc" class="mw-redirect" title="GlcNAc">GlcNAc</a> <a href="/wiki/Phosphoserine" title="Phosphoserine">phosphoserine</a> <a href="/wiki/Glycan" title="Glycan">glycans</a> have been reported in the literature. Fucose and GlcNAc have been found only in <i>Dictyostelium discoideum</i>, mannose in <i><a href="/wiki/Leishmania_mexicana" title="Leishmania mexicana">Leishmania mexicana</a></i>, and xylose in <i><a href="/wiki/Trypanosoma_cruzi" title="Trypanosoma cruzi">Trypanosoma cruzi</a></i>. Mannose has recently been reported in a vertebrate, the mouse, <i>Mus musculus</i>, on the cell-surface laminin receptor alpha dystroglycan<sup>4</sup>. It has been suggested this rare finding may be linked to the fact that alpha dystroglycan is highly conserved from lower vertebrates to mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="C-mannosylation"><i>C</i>-mannosylation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: C-mannosylation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C-mannosylation_process.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/C-mannosylation_process.svg/220px-C-mannosylation_process.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/C-mannosylation_process.svg/330px-C-mannosylation_process.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/C-mannosylation_process.svg/440px-C-mannosylation_process.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>The mannose molecule is attached to the C2 of the first tryptophan of the sequence</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Mannose" title="Mannose">mannose</a> sugar is added to the first <a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">tryptophan</a> residue in the sequence W–X–X–W (W indicates tryptophan; X is any amino acid). A <a href="/wiki/C-C_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="C-C bond">C-C bond</a> is formed between the first carbon of the <a href="/wiki/Mannose" title="Mannose">alpha-mannose</a> and the second carbon of the tryptophan.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, not all the sequences that have this pattern are mannosylated. It has been established that, in fact, only two thirds are and that there is a clear preference for the second <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> to be one of the polar ones (Ser, <a href="/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine">Ala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Gly</a> and Thr) in order for mannosylation to occur. Recently there has been a breakthrough in the technique of predicting whether or not the sequence will have a mannosylation site that provides an accuracy of 93% opposed to the 67% accuracy if we just consider the WXXW motif.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thrombospondins" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrombospondins">Thrombospondins</a> are one of the proteins most commonly modified in this way. However, there is another group of proteins that undergo <i>C</i>-mannosylation, type I <a href="/wiki/Cytokine_receptor" title="Cytokine receptor">cytokine receptors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>C</i>-mannosylation is unusual because the sugar is linked to a <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> rather than a reactive atom such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> or <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. In 2011, the first crystal structure of a protein containing this type of glycosylation was determined—that of human complement component 8.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently it is established that 18% of human <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, secreted and <a href="/wiki/Transmembrane_protein" title="Transmembrane protein">transmembrane</a> undergo the process of C-mannosylation.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous studies have shown that this process plays an important role in the secretion of <a href="/wiki/Thrombospondin_1" title="Thrombospondin 1">Trombospondin type 1</a> containing proteins which are retained in the <a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">endoplasmic reticulum</a> if they do not undergo C-mannosylation<sup id="cite_ref-:3_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This explains why a type of <a href="/wiki/Cytokine_receptor" title="Cytokine receptor">cytokine receptors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erythropoietin_receptor" title="Erythropoietin receptor">erythropoietin receptor</a> remained in the <a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">endoplasmic reticulum</a> if it lacked C-mannosylation sites.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_of_GPI_anchors_(glypiation)"><span id="Formation_of_GPI_anchors_.28glypiation.29"></span>Formation of GPI anchors (glypiation)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Formation of GPI anchors (glypiation)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Glypiation" title="Glypiation">Glypiation</a> is a special form of glycosylation that features the formation of a <a href="/wiki/GPI_anchor" class="mw-redirect" title="GPI anchor">GPI anchor</a>. In this kind of glycosylation a protein is attached to a lipid anchor, via a glycan chain. (See also <a href="/wiki/Prenylation" title="Prenylation">prenylation</a>.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_glycosylation">Chemical glycosylation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Chemical glycosylation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Glycosylation can also be effected using the tools of <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_organic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic organic chemistry">synthetic organic chemistry</a>. Unlike the biochemical processes, synthetic glycochemistry relies heavily on protecting groups<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (e.g. the 4,6-<i>O</i>-benzylidene) in order to achieve desired regioselectivity. The other challenge of chemical glycosylation is the stereoselectivity that each glycosidic linkage has two stereo-outcomes, α/β or <i>cis</i>/<i>trans</i>. Generally, the α- or <i>cis</i>-glycoside is more challenging to synthesis.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New methods have been developed based on solvent participation or the formation of bicyclic sulfonium ions as chiral-auxiliary groups.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-enzymatic_glycosylation">Non-enzymatic glycosylation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Non-enzymatic glycosylation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The non-enzymatic glycosylation is also known as <a href="/wiki/Glycation" title="Glycation">glycation</a> or non-enzymatic glycation. It is a spontaneous reaction and a type of <a href="/wiki/Post-translational_modification" title="Post-translational modification">post-translational modification</a> of proteins meaning it alters their structure and biological activity. It is the <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent</a> attachment between the <a href="/wiki/Carbonyl_group" title="Carbonyl group">carbonil group</a> of a reducing sugar (mainly glucose and fructose) and the amino acid <a href="/wiki/Side_chain" title="Side chain">side chain</a> of the protein. In this process the intervention of an enzyme is not needed. It takes place across and close to the water channels and the protruding tubules.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At first, the reaction forms temporary molecules which later undergo different reactions (<a href="/wiki/Amadori_rearrangement" title="Amadori rearrangement">Amadori rearrangements</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schiff_base" title="Schiff base">Schiff base</a> reactions, <a href="/wiki/Maillard_reaction" title="Maillard reaction">Maillard reactions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cross-link" title="Cross-link">crosslinkings</a>...) and form permanent residues known as <a href="/wiki/Advanced_glycation_end-product" title="Advanced glycation end-product">Advanced Glycation end-products</a> (AGEs). </p><p>AGEs accumulate in long-lived extracellular proteins such as <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a><sup id="cite_ref-:4_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is the most glycated and structurally abundant protein, especially in humans. Also, some studies have shown <a href="/wiki/Lysine" title="Lysine">lysine</a> may trigger spontaneous non-enzymatic glycosylation.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Role_of_AGEs">Role of AGEs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Role of AGEs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>AGEs are responsible for many things. These molecules play an important role especially in nutrition, they are responsible for the brownish color and the aromas and flavors of some foods. It is demonstrated that cooking at high temperature results in various food products having high levels of AGEs.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Having elevated levels of AGEs in the body has a direct impact on the development of many diseases. It has a direct implication in <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">diabetes mellitus type 2</a> that can lead to many complications such as: <a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">cataracts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">renal failure</a>, heart damage...<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And, if they are present at a decreased level, skin elasticity is reduced which is an important symptom of aging.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They are also the precursors of many <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a> and regulate and modify their receptor mechanisms at the <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> level.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deglycosylation">Deglycosylation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Deglycosylation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are different <a href="/wiki/Enzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymes">enzymes</a> to remove the <a href="/wiki/Glycans" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycans">glycans</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">proteins</a> or remove some part of the <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a> chain. </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%CE%912-3,6,8,9-Neuraminidase&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Α2-3,6,8,9-Neuraminidase (page does not exist)">α2-3,6,8,9-Neuraminidase</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Arthrobacter_ureafaciens" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthrobacter ureafaciens">Arthrobacter ureafaciens</a>): cleaves all non-reducing terminal branched and unbranched <a href="/wiki/Sialic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Sialic acids">sialic acids</a>.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%CE%921,4-Galactosidase&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Β1,4-Galactosidase (page does not exist)">β1,4-Galactosidase</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Streptococcus_pneumoniae" title="Streptococcus pneumoniae">Streptococcus pneumoniae</a>): releases only β1,4-linked, nonreducing terminal <a href="/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">galactose</a> from complex carbohydrates and <a href="/wiki/Glycoproteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycoproteins">glycoproteins</a>.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%CE%92-N-Acetylglucosaminidase&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Β-N-Acetylglucosaminidase (page does not exist)">β-<i>N</i>-Acetylglucosaminidase</a> (from Streptococcus pneumoniae): cleaves all non-reducing terminal β-linked N-acetylglucosamine residues from complex carbohydrates and glycoproteins.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endo-%CE%B1-N-Acetylgalactosaminidase" class="mw-redirect" title="Endo-α-N-Acetylgalactosaminidase"><i>endo</i>-α-<i>N</i>-Acetylgalactosaminidase</a> (<i>O</i>-glycosidase from <i><a href="/wiki/Streptococcus_pneumoniae" title="Streptococcus pneumoniae">Streptococcus pneumoniae</a></i>): removes <i>O</i>-glycosylation. This enzyme cleaves <a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">serine</a>- or <a href="/wiki/Threonine" title="Threonine">threonine</a>-linked unsubstituted Galβ1,3GalNAc</li> <li><a href="/wiki/PNGase_F" title="PNGase F">PNGase F</a>: cleaves <a href="/wiki/Asparagine" title="Asparagine">asparagine</a>-linked oligosaccharides unless α1,3-core fucosylated.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regulation_of_Notch_signalling">Regulation of Notch signalling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Regulation of Notch signalling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Notch_signaling" class="mw-redirect" title="Notch signaling">Notch signalling</a> is a cell signalling pathway whose role is, among many others, to control the <a href="/wiki/Cell_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell differentiation">cell differentiation</a> process in equivalent <a href="/wiki/Precursor_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Precursor cells">precursor cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means it is crucial in embryonic development, to the point that it has been tested on mice that the removal of glycans in Notch proteins can result in <a href="/wiki/Embryonic_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryonic death">embryonic death</a> or malformations of vital organs like the heart.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the specific modulators that control this process are <a href="/wiki/Glycosyltransferase" title="Glycosyltransferase">glycosyltransferases</a> located in the <a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">endoplasmic reticulum</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi apparatus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Notch proteins go through these organelles in their maturation process and can be subject to different types of glycosylation: <a href="/wiki/N-linked_glycosylation" title="N-linked glycosylation">N-linked glycosylation</a> and <a href="/wiki/O-linked_glycosylation" title="O-linked glycosylation">O-linked glycosylation</a> (more specifically: O-linked glucose and O-linked fucose).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All of the Notch proteins are modified by an O-fucose, because they share a common trait: O-fucosylation <a href="/wiki/Consensus_sequence" title="Consensus sequence">consensus sequences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the modulators that intervene in this process is the Fringe, a glycosyltransferase that modifies the O-fucose to activate or deactivate parts of the signalling, acting as a positive or negative regulator, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical">Clinical</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Clinical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are three types of glycosylation disorders sorted by the type of alterations that are made to the glycosylation process: congenital alterations, acquired alterations and non-enzymatic acquired alterations. </p> <ul><li><b>Congenital alterations:</b> Over 40 <a href="/wiki/Congenital_disorder_of_glycosylation" title="Congenital disorder of glycosylation">congenital disorders of glycosylation</a> (CGDs) have been reported in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Jaeken2013_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jaeken2013-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These can be divided into four groups: disorders of protein <a href="/wiki/N-linked_glycosylation" title="N-linked glycosylation"><i>N</i>-glycosylation</a>, disorders of protein <i>O</i>-glycosylation, disorders of lipid glycosylation and disorders of other glycosylation pathways and of multiple glycosylation pathways. No effective treatment is known for any of these disorders. 80% of these affect the nervous system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><b>Acquired alterations:</b> In this second group the main disorders are infectious diseases, <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_disease" title="Autoimmune disease">autoimmune illnesses</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>. In these cases, the changes in glycosylation are the cause of certain biological events. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis" title="Rheumatoid arthritis">Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)</a>, the body of the patient produces antibodies against the enzyme lymphocytes galactosyltransferase which inhibits the glycosylation of IgG. Therefore, the changes in the N-glycosylation produce the immunodeficiency involved in this illness. In this second group we can also find disorders caused by <a href="/wiki/Mutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutations">mutations</a> on the enzymes that control the glycosylation of Notch proteins, such as <a href="/wiki/Alagille_syndrome" title="Alagille syndrome">Alagille syndrome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Non-enzymatic acquired alterations:</b> Non-enzymatic disorders, are also acquired, but they are due to the lack of enzymes that attach oligosaccharides to the protein. In this group the illnesses that stand out are <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>All these diseases are difficult to diagnose because they do not only affect one organ, they affect many of them and in different ways. As a consequence, they are also hard to treat. However, thanks to the many advances that have been made in <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">next-generation sequencing</a>, scientists can now understand better these disorders and have discovered new CDGs. <sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_therapeutic_efficacy">Effects on therapeutic efficacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Effects on therapeutic efficacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It has been reported that mammalian glycosylation can improve the therapeutic efficacy of <a href="/wiki/Biotherapeutic" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotherapeutic">biotherapeutics</a>. For example, therapeutic efficacy of recombinant <a href="/wiki/Interferon_gamma" title="Interferon gamma">human interferon gamma</a>, expressed in <a href="/wiki/HEK_293_cells" title="HEK 293 cells">HEK 293</a> platform, was improved against drug-resistant <a href="/wiki/Ovarian_cancer" title="Ovarian cancer">ovarian cancer</a> cell lines.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_glycation_endproduct" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced glycation endproduct">Advanced glycation endproduct</a> – Proteins or lipids that become glycated as a result of exposure to sugars<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_glycosylation" title="Chemical glycosylation">Chemical glycosylation</a> – Reaction of a glycosyl donor and acceptor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fucosylation" title="Fucosylation">Fucosylation</a> – The covalent attachment of a fucosyl group to an acceptor molecule.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycation" title="Glycation">Glycation</a> – Attachment of a sugar to a protein or lipid</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycorandomization" title="Glycorandomization">Glycorandomization</a> – Technology enabling rapid molecule diversification</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLimaBaynes2013" class="citation book cs1">Lima, M.; Baynes, J.W. (2013). "Glycation". In Lennarz, William J.; Lane, M. Daniel (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of Biological Chemistry</i> (Second ed.). 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"Improved therapeutic efficacy of mammalian expressed-recombinant interferon gamma against ovarian cancer cells". <i>Experimental Cell Research</i>. <b>359</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">20–</span>29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.yexcr.2017.08.014">10.1016/j.yexcr.2017.08.014</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28803068">28803068</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12800448">12800448</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Experimental+Cell+Research&rft.atitle=Improved+therapeutic+efficacy+of+mammalian+expressed-recombinant+interferon+gamma+against+ovarian+cancer+cells&rft.volume=359&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E29&rft.date=2017-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12800448%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28803068&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.yexcr.2017.08.014&rft.aulast=Razaghi&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Villacr%C3%A9s%2C+C&rft.au=Jung%2C+V&rft.au=Mashkour%2C+N&rft.au=Butler%2C+M&rft.au=Owens%2C+L&rft.au=Heimann%2C+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlycosylation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://crdd.osdd.net/raghava/glycoep/">GlycoEP</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChauhanRaoRaghava2013" class="citation journal cs1">Chauhan JS, Rao A, Raghava GP (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3695939">"<i>In silico</i> platform for prediction of N-, O- and C-glycosites in eukaryotic protein sequences"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>8</b> (6): e67008. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PLoSO...867008C">2013PLoSO...867008C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0067008">10.1371/journal.pone.0067008</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3695939">3695939</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23840574">23840574</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=In+silico+platform+for+prediction+of+N-%2C+O-+and+C-glycosites+in+eukaryotic+protein+sequences&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=e67008&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3695939%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23840574&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0067008&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PLoSO...867008C&rft.aulast=Chauhan&rft.aufirst=JS&rft.au=Rao%2C+A&rft.au=Raghava%2C+GP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3695939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlycosylation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarkiCummingsEskoFreeze1999" class="citation book cs1">Varki A, Cummings R, Esko J, Freeze H, Hart G, Marth J, eds. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20709/"><i>Essentials of Glycobiology</i></a>. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87969-559-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-87969-559-5"><bdi>0-87969-559-5</bdi></a>. NBK20709.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+Glycobiology&rft.pub=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Laboratory+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-87969-559-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK20709%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlycosylation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dkfz-heidelberg.de/spec/glyprot/">GlyProt: In-silico <i>N</i>-glycosylation of proteins on the web</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged October 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/NetNGlyc/">NetNGlyc: The NetNglyc server predicts <i>N</i>-glycosylation sites in human proteins using artificial neural networks that examine the sequence context of Asn-Xaa-Ser/Thr sequons.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wiley-vch.de/home/thesugarcode">Supplementary Material of the Book "The Sugar Code"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.piercenet.com/browse.cfm?fldID=4E12331D-5056-8A76-4E72-1C5A427505F1">Additional information on glycosylation and figures</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmanual_Maverakis2015" class="citation journal cs1">Emanual Maverakis; et al. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4340844">"Glycans in the immune system and The Altered Glycan Theory of Autoimmunity"</a>. <i>Journal of Autoimmunity</i>. <b>57</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jaut.2014.12.002">10.1016/j.jaut.2014.12.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4340844">4340844</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25578468">25578468</a>.</cite><span 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<li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_network" title="Metabolic network">Metabolic network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bioenergetics" title="Bioenergetics">Energy<br /> metabolism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aerobic_respiration" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerobic respiration">Aerobic respiration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">Glycolysis</a> → <a href="/wiki/Pyruvate_dehydrogenase" title="Pyruvate dehydrogenase">Pyruvate decarboxylation</a> → <a href="/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle" title="Citric acid cycle">Citric acid cycle</a> → <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation" title="Oxidative phosphorylation">Oxidative phosphorylation</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Electron_transport_chain" title="Electron transport chain">electron transport chain</a> + <a href="/wiki/ATP_synthase" title="ATP synthase">ATP synthase</a></span>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_respiration" title="Anaerobic respiration">Anaerobic respiration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Electron acceptors other than oxygen</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">Glycolysis</a> → <a href="/wiki/Substrate-level_phosphorylation" title="Substrate-level phosphorylation">Substrate-level phosphorylation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetone%E2%80%93butanol%E2%80%93ethanol_fermentation" title="Acetone–butanol–ethanol fermentation">ABE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fermentation" title="Ethanol fermentation">Ethanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid_fermentation" title="Lactic acid fermentation">Lactic acid</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific<br /> paths</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Protein_metabolism" title="Protein metabolism">Protein metabolism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protein_biosynthesis" title="Protein biosynthesis">Protein synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_catabolism" title="Protein catabolism">Catabolism</a> (protein→peptide→amino acid)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_synthesis" title="Amino acid synthesis">Amino acid synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_catabolism#Amino_acid_degradation" title="Protein catabolism">Amino acid degradation</a> (amino acid→pyruvate, acetyl CoA, or TCA intermediate)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urea_cycle" title="Urea cycle">Urea cycle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_metabolism" title="Nucleic acid metabolism">Nucleotide<br /> metabolism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Purine_metabolism" title="Purine metabolism">Purine metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide_salvage" title="Nucleotide salvage">Nucleotide salvage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrimidine_metabolism" title="Pyrimidine metabolism">Pyrimidine metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purine_nucleotide_cycle" title="Purine nucleotide cycle">Purine nucleotide cycle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_metabolism" title="Carbohydrate metabolism">Carbohydrate metabolism</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_catabolism" title="Carbohydrate catabolism">carbohydrate catabolism</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Anabolism" title="Anabolism">anabolism</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">Glycolysis</a> ⇄ <a href="/wiki/Gluconeogenesis" title="Gluconeogenesis">Gluconeogenesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycogenolysis" title="Glycogenolysis">Glycogenolysis</a> ⇄ <a href="/wiki/Glycogenesis" title="Glycogenesis">Glycogenesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentose_phosphate_pathway" title="Pentose phosphate pathway">Pentose phosphate pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fructolysis" title="Fructolysis">Fructolysis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polyol_pathway" title="Polyol pathway">Polyol pathway</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactolysis" title="Galactolysis">Galactolysis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leloir_pathway" title="Leloir pathway">Leloir pathway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Glycosylation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N-linked_glycosylation" title="N-linked glycosylation">N-linked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O-linked_glycosylation" title="O-linked glycosylation">O-linked</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nonhuman</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxygenic_photosynthesis" title="Anoxygenic photosynthesis">Anoxygenic photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">Carbon fixation</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=DeLey-Doudoroff_pathway&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="DeLey-Doudoroff pathway (page does not exist)">DeLey-Doudoroff pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entner-Doudoroff_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Entner-Doudoroff pathway">Entner-Doudoroff pathway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xylose_metabolism" title="Xylose metabolism">Xylose metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiotrophic_fungus" title="Radiotrophic fungus">Radiotrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lipid_metabolism" title="Lipid metabolism">Lipid metabolism</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Lipolysis" title="Lipolysis">lipolysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lipogenesis" title="Lipogenesis">lipogenesis</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_metabolism" title="Fatty acid metabolism">Fatty acid metabolism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_degradation" title="Fatty acid degradation">Fatty acid degradation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Beta_oxidation" title="Beta oxidation">Beta oxidation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_synthesis" title="Fatty acid synthesis">Fatty acid synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steroid" title="Steroid">Steroid metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphingolipid_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphingolipid metabolism">Sphingolipid metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eicosanoid_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Eicosanoid metabolism">Eicosanoid metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketosis" title="Ketosis">Ketosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_cholesterol_transport" title="Reverse cholesterol transport">Reverse cholesterol transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Metal metabolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_iron_metabolism" title="Human iron metabolism">Iron metabolism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethanol metabolism">Ethanol metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphagen" title="Phosphagen">Phospagen system (ATP-PCr)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&oldid=1275440334">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glycosylation&oldid=1275440334</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a 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