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class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Social_Research_(journal)" title="Social Research (journal)"><i>Social Research</i> (journal)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Sociological methodology" redirects here. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Sociological_Methodology" title="Sociological Methodology"><i>Sociological Methodology</i></a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style> <p><b>Social research</b> is <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a> conducted by <a href="/wiki/Social_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Social scientist">social scientists</a> following a systematic plan. Social research methodologies can be classified as <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative method">Quantitative designs</a> approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical analyses of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create <a href="/wiki/Validity_(statistics)" title="Validity (statistics)">valid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reliability_(statistics)" title="Reliability (statistics)">reliable</a> general claims.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative designs</a> emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analyses of texts, and may stress contextual subjective accuracy over generality.</li></ul> <p>Most methods contain elements of both. For example, qualitative data analysis often involves a fairly structured approach to coding raw data into systematic information and quantifying intercoder reliability.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is often a more complex relationship between "qualitative" and "quantitative" approaches than would be suggested by drawing a simple distinction between them. </p><p>Social scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyze a vast breadth of social phenomena: from analyzing <a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</a> survey data derived from millions of individuals, to conducting in-depth analysis of a single agent's social experiences; from monitoring what is happening on contemporary streets, to investigating historical documents. Methods rooted in classical <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a> have formed the basis for research in disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">media studies</a>. They are also often used in <a href="/wiki/Program_evaluation" title="Program evaluation">program evaluation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Market_research" title="Market research">market research</a>. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Methods"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Methods</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Sampling"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Sampling</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Methodological_assumptions"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Methodological assumptions</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Guidelines_for_%22good_research%22"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Guidelines for "good research"</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Ethics"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Ethics</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Respect_for_persons"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Respect for persons</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Beneficence"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Beneficence</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Justice"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Justice</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Types_of_methods"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Types of methods</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Foundations_of_social_research"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Foundations of social research</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Sociological_positivism"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sociological positivism</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Modern_methodologies"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Modern methodologies</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Social_research_organizations"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Social research organizations</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Methods" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <p>Social scientists are divided into camps of support for particular research techniques. These disputes relate to the historical core of social theory (<a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">antipositivism</a>; <a href="/wiki/Structure_and_agency" title="Structure and agency">structure and agency</a>). While very different in many aspects, both qualitative and quantitative approaches involve a systematic interaction between <a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Methods_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Methods-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The choice of method often depends largely on what the researcher intends to investigate. For example, a researcher concerned with drawing a statistical generalization across an entire population may administer a survey questionnaire to a representative sample population. By contrast, a researcher who seeks full contextual understanding of an individual's <a href="/wiki/Social_actions" class="mw-redirect" title="Social actions">social actions</a> may choose ethnographic <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">participant observation</a> or open-ended interviews. Studies will commonly combine, or <i><a href="/wiki/Triangulation_(social_science)" title="Triangulation (social science)">triangulate</a></i>, quantitative <i>and</i> qualitative methods as part of a multi-strategy design. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Sampling">Sampling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sampling" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <p>Typically a population is very large, making a <a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</a> or a complete <a href="/wiki/Enumeration" title="Enumeration">enumeration</a> of all the values in that population infeasible. A sample thus forms a manageable <a href="/wiki/Subset" title="Subset">subset</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Statistical_population" title="Statistical population">population</a>. In positivist research, statistics derived from a sample are analysed in order to draw <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inferences</a> regarding the population as a whole. The process of collecting information from a sample is referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling (statistics)">sampling</a></i>. Sampling methods may be either random (<a href="/wiki/Random_sampling" class="mw-redirect" title="Random sampling">random sampling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systematic_sampling" title="Systematic sampling">systematic sampling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stratified_sampling" title="Stratified sampling">stratified sampling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cluster_sampling" title="Cluster sampling">cluster sampling</a>) or non-random/<a href="/wiki/Nonprobability_sampling" title="Nonprobability sampling">nonprobability</a> (<a href="/wiki/Convenience_sampling" title="Convenience sampling">convenience sampling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Purposive_sampling" class="mw-redirect" title="Purposive sampling">purposive sampling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snowball_sampling" title="Snowball sampling">snowball sampling</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Methods_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Methods-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most common reason for sampling is to obtain information about a population. Sampling is quicker and cheaper than a complete <a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</a> of a population. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Methodological_assumptions">Methodological assumptions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Methodological assumptions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <p>Social research is based on <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> observations. <a href="/wiki/Charles_C._Ragin" title="Charles C. Ragin">Charles C. Ragin</a> writes in his <i>Constructing Social Research</i> book that "Social research involved the interaction between ideas and evidence. Ideas help social researchers make sense of evidence, and researchers use evidence to extend, revise and test ideas." Social research thus attempts to create or validate <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theories</a> through <a href="/wiki/Data_collection" title="Data collection">data collection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Data_analysis" title="Data analysis">data analysis</a>, and its goal is exploration, description, <a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">explanation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prediction" title="Prediction">prediction</a>. It should never lead or be mistaken with <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a>. Social research aims to find social patterns of regularity in social life and usually deals with <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">social groups</a> (aggregates of individuals), not individuals themselves (although science of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> is an exception here). Research can also be divided into <a href="/wiki/Pure_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure research">pure research</a> and <a href="/wiki/Applied_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied research">applied research</a>. Pure research has no application on real life, whereas applied research attempts to influence the real world. </p><p>There are no laws in <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> that parallel the <a href="/wiki/Physical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical law">laws</a> in <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a>. A law in social science is a universal generalization about a <a href="/wiki/Class_(set_theory)" title="Class (set theory)">class</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">facts</a>. A fact is an observed <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Observation#The_role_of_Observation_in_the_Scientific_Method" title="Observation">observation</a> means it has been seen, heard or otherwise experienced by researcher. A theory is a systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of social life. <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concepts</a> are the basic building blocks of theory and are abstract elements representing classes of phenomena. <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">Axioms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Postulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Postulate">postulates</a> are basic assertions assumed to be true. <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Propositions</a> are conclusions drawn about the relationships among concepts, based on analysis of axioms. <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypotheses</a> are specified expectations about empirical <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a> derived from propositions. Social research involves <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothesis testing">testing</a> these hypotheses to see if they are true. </p><p>Social research involves creating a theory, <a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">operationalization</a> (<a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measurement</a> of variables) and <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> (actual collection of <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a> to test hypothesized relationship). Social theories are written in the language of variables, in other words, theories describe logical relationships between variables. Variables are logical sets of attributes, with people being the "carriers" of those variables, for example, <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a> can be a variable with two or more attributes: <a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">male</a>, <a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">female</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-binary_gender" title="Non-binary gender">non-binary gender</a>. </p><p>Variables are also divided into <a href="/wiki/Independent_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent variable">independent variables</a> (data) that influences the <a href="/wiki/Dependent_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Dependent variable">dependent variables</a> (which scientists are trying to explain). For example, in a study of how different dosages of a drug are related to the severity of symptoms of a disease, a measure of the severity of the symptoms of the disease is a dependent variable and the administration of the drug in specified doses is the independent variable. Researchers will compare the different values of the dependent variable (severity of the symptoms) and attempt to draw conclusions. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id='Guidelines_for_"good_research"'><span id="Guidelines_for_.22good_research.22"></span>Guidelines for "good research"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=4" title='Edit section: Guidelines for "good research"' class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <p>When social scientists speak of "good research" the guidelines refer to how the science is mentioned and understood. It does not refer to how what the results are but how they are figured. <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Firebaugh" title="Glenn Firebaugh">Glenn Firebaugh</a> summarizes the principles for good research in his book <i>Seven Rules for Social Research</i>. The first rule is that "There should be the possibility of surprise in social research." As Firebaugh (p. 1) elaborates: "Rule 1 is intended to warn that you don't want to be blinded by preconceived ideas so that you fail to look for contrary evidence, or you fail to recognize contrary evidence when you do encounter it, or you recognize contrary evidence but suppress it and refuse to accept your findings for what they appear to say." </p><p>In addition, good research will "look for differences that make a difference" (Rule 2) and "build in reality checks" (Rule 3). Rule 4 advises researchers to replicate, that is, "to see if identical analyses yield similar results for different samples of people" (p. 90). The next two rules urge researchers to "compare like with like" (Rule 5) and to "study change" (Rule 6); these two rules are especially important when researchers want to estimate the effect of one variable on another (e.g. how much does college education actually matter for wages?). The final rule, "Let method be the servant, not the master," reminds researchers that methods are the means, not the end, of social research; it is critical from the outset to fit the research design to the research issue, rather than the other way around. </p><p>Explanations in social theories can be <a href="/wiki/Idiographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiographic">idiographic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nomothetic" title="Nomothetic">nomothetic</a>. An idiographic approach to an explanation is one where the scientists seek to exhaust the <a href="/wiki/Idiosyncratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiosyncratic">idiosyncratic</a> causes of a particular condition or event, i.e. by trying to provide all possible explanations of a particular case. Nomothetic explanations tend to be more general with scientists trying to identify a few causal factors that impact a wide class of conditions or events. For example, when dealing with the problem of how people choose a job, idiographic explanation would be to list all possible reasons why a given person (or group) chooses a given job, while nomothetic explanation would try to find factors that determine why job applicants in general choose a given job. </p><p>Research in science and in social science is a long, slow and difficult process that sometimes produces false results because of methodological weaknesses and in rare cases because of fraud, so that reliance on any one study is inadvisable.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Ethics">Ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ethics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></div> <p>The ethics of social research are shared with those of medical research. In the United States, these are formalized by the <a href="/wiki/Belmont_report" class="mw-redirect" title="Belmont report">Belmont report</a> as: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Respect_for_persons">Respect for persons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Respect for persons" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The principle of respect for persons holds that (a) individuals should be respected as autonomous agents capable of making their own decisions, and that (b) subjects with diminished autonomy deserve special considerations.<sup id="cite_ref-Belmont_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belmont-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A cornerstone of this principle is the use of <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beneficence">Beneficence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Beneficence" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The principle of beneficence holds that (a) the subjects of research should be protected from harm, and, (b) the research should bring tangible benefits to society. By this definition, research with no scientific merit is automatically considered unethical.<sup id="cite_ref-Belmont_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belmont-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Justice">Justice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Justice" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The principle of justice states the benefits of research should be distributed fairly. The definition of fairness used is case-dependent, varying between "(1) to each person an equal share, (2) to each person according to individual need, (3) to each person according to individual effort, (4) to each person according to societal contribution, and (5) to each person according to merit."<sup id="cite_ref-Belmont_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belmont-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Types_of_methods">Types of methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Types of methods" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <p><i>The following list of research methods is not exhaustive:</i> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative method">Quantitative methods</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_analysis" title="Cluster analysis">Cluster analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation and association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_study" title="Longitudinal study">Longitudinal study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_statistics" title="Multivariate statistics">Multivariate statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Social network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_sequence_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sequence analysis">Social sequence analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Surveys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Questionnaire" title="Questionnaire">questionnaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_equation_modeling" title="Structural equation modeling">Structural equation modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey research">Survey research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_marketing_research" title="Quantitative marketing research">Quantitative marketing research</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Qualitative method">Qualitative methods</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archive" title="Archive">Archival research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_induction" title="Analytic induction">Analytic induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focus_group" title="Focus group">Focus group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_history_(sociology)" title="Life history (sociology)">Life history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphological_analysis_(problem-solving)" title="Morphological analysis (problem-solving)">Morphological analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Most_significant_change_technique" title="Most significant change technique">Most significant change technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-structured_interview" title="Semi-structured interview">Semi-structured interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structured_interview" title="Structured interview">Structured interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textual_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Textual analysis">Textual analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstructured_interview" title="Unstructured interview">Unstructured interview</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Multimethodology" title="Multimethodology">Mixed methods</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delphi_method" title="Delphi method">Delphi method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladder_interview" title="Ladder interview">Ladder interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q_methodology" title="Q methodology">Q methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repertory_grid" title="Repertory grid">Repertory grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangulation_(social_science)" title="Triangulation (social science)">Triangulation (social science)</a></li></ul> <p> </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Foundations_of_social_research">Foundations of social research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Foundations of social research" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociological_positivism">Sociological positivism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sociological positivism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The origin of the <a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">survey</a> can be traced back at least early as the <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> in 1086,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while some scholars pinpoint the origin of <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a> to 1663 with the publication of <a href="/wiki/John_Graunt" title="John Graunt">John Graunt</a>'s <i>Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social research began most intentionally, however, with the <a href="/wiki/Positivist" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist">positivist</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> in the early 19th century. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg/170px-Emile_Durkheim.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="229" data-file-height="324"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 241px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg/170px-Emile_Durkheim.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="241" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Statistical sociological research, and indeed the formal academic discipline of <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, began with the work of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> (1858–1917). While Durkheim rejected much of the detail of <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a>'s philosophy, he retained and refined its method, maintaining that the social sciences are a logical continuation of the natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insisting that they may retain the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach to causality.<sup id="cite_ref-Wacquant_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wacquant-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bordeaux" title="University of Bordeaux">University of Bordeaux</a> in 1895, publishing his <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method" title="The Rules of Sociological Method">Rules of the Sociological Method</a></i> (1895).<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2000_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2000-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this text he argued: <span class="nowrap">"[o]ur</span> main goal is to extend scientific rationalism to human conduct. ... What has been called our positivism is but a consequence of this rationalism."<sup id="cite_ref-DinW_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DinW-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Durkheim's seminal monograph, <i><a href="/wiki/Suicide_(Durkheim_book)" title="Suicide (Durkheim book)">Suicide</a></i> (1897), a case study of suicide rates among <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> populations, distinguished sociological analysis from <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> or philosophy. By carefully examining suicide statistics in different police districts, he attempted to demonstrate that Catholic communities have a lower suicide rate than that of Protestants, something he attributed to social (as opposed to individual or <a href="/wiki/Psychological" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological">psychological</a>) causes. He developed the notion of objective <i>suis generis</i> "<a href="/wiki/Social_fact" title="Social fact">social facts</a>" to delineate a unique empirical object for the science of sociology to study.<sup id="cite_ref-Wacquant_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wacquant-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through such studies he posited that sociology would be able to determine whether any given society is "healthy" or "pathological", and seek social reform to negate organic breakdown or "social <a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">anomie</a>". For Durkheim, sociology could be described as the "science of <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutions</a>, their genesis and their functioning".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_methodologies">Modern methodologies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Modern methodologies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>In the early 20th century innovation in survey methodology were developed that are still dominant. In 1928, the psychologist <a href="/wiki/Louis_Leon_Thurstone" title="Louis Leon Thurstone">Louis Leon Thurstone</a> developed a method to select and score multiple items with which to measure complex ideas, such as attitudes towards religion. In 1932, the psychologist <a href="/wiki/Rensis_Likert" title="Rensis Likert">Rensis Likert</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Likert_scale" title="Likert scale">Likert scale</a> where participants rate their agreement with statement using five options from totally disagree to totally agree. Likert like scales remain the most frequently used items in survey. </p><p>In the mid-20th century there was a general—but not universal—trend for American sociology to be more scientific in nature, due to the prominence at that time of action theory and other system-theoretical approaches. <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a> released his <i><a href="/wiki/Social_Theory_and_Social_Structure" title="Social Theory and Social Structure">Social Theory and Social Structure</a></i> (1949). By the turn of the 1960s, sociological research was increasingly employed as a tool by governments and businesses worldwide. Sociologists developed new types of quantitative and qualitative research methods. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Lazarsfeld" title="Paul Lazarsfeld">Paul Lazarsfeld</a> founded <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Applied_Social_Research" title="Bureau of Applied Social Research">Bureau of Applied Social Research</a>, where he exerted a tremendous influence over the techniques and the organization of social research. His many contributions to sociological method have earned him the title of the "founder of modern empirical sociology".<sup id="cite_ref-Hynek_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hynek-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lazarsfeld made great strides in <a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">statistical survey</a> analysis,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> panel methods, latent structure analysis, and contextual analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-Hynek_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hynek-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of his ideas have been so influential as to now be considered self-evident.<sup id="cite_ref-Hynek_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hynek-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 32px;height: 28px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="32" data-height="28" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output 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title="History of social science">History of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History of sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_science" title="History of political science">History of political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scale_(social_sciences)" title="Scale (social sciences)">Scale (social sciences)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobtrusive_measures" class="mw-redirect" title="Unobtrusive measures">Unobtrusive measures</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_research_organizations">Social research organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Social research organizations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <ul><li>Center for the Advanced Study of Communities and Information, United States</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_of_Research_in_Theories_and_Practices_that_Overcome_Inequalities" title="Centre of Research in Theories and Practices that Overcome Inequalities">Centre of Research in Theories and Practices that Overcome Inequalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Social_Research_Council" title="Economic and Social Research Council">Economic and Social Research Council</a>, United Kingdom (Research Funding Council)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Centre_of_Research_in_Social_and_Cultural_Anthropology" title="National Centre of Research in Social and Cultural Anthropology">National Centre of Research in Social and Cultural Anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Social_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute for Social Research">Institute for Social Research</a>, Germany</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_Observation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass Observation">Mass Observation</a>, United Kingdom</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melbourne_Institute_of_Applied_Economic_and_Social_Research" title="Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research">Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research</a>, Australia</li> <li>Centre for Social Research and Methods, Australia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Centre_for_Social_Research" title="National Centre for Social Research">National Centre for Social Research</a>, United Kingdom</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Opinion_Research_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="National Opinion Research Center">National Opinion Research Center</a>, United States</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_School_for_Social_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="New School for Social Research">New School for Social Research</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Science_Research_Network" title="Social Science Research Network">Social Science Research Network</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shackman, Gene. What is Program Evaluation, A Beginner's Guide. Module 3. Methods. The Global Social Change Research Project. 2009. Available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.ideas-int.org">http://www.ideas-int.org</a>. See Resources.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFElizabeth_H._BradleyLeslie_A._CurryKelly_J._Devers2007" class="citation journal cs1">Elizabeth H. Bradley; Leslie A. Curry; Kelly J. Devers (August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1955280">"Qualitative Data Analysis for Health Services Research: Developing Taxonomy, Themes, and Theory"</a>. <i>Health Serv Res</i>. <b>42</b> (4): 1758–1772. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-6773.2006.00684.x">10.1111/j.1475-6773.2006.00684.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1955280">1955280</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17286625">17286625</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Serv+Res&rft.atitle=Qualitative+Data+Analysis+for+Health+Services+Research%3A+Developing+Taxonomy%2C+Themes%2C+and+Theory&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1758-1772&rft.date=2007-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1955280%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17286625&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-6773.2006.00684.x&rft.au=Elizabeth+H.+Bradley&rft.au=Leslie+A.+Curry&rft.au=Kelly+J.+Devers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1955280&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Methods-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Methods_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Methods_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Haralambos & Holborn. <i>Sociology: Themes and perspectives</i> (2004) 6th ed, Collins Educational. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-715447-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-715447-0">978-0-00-715447-0</a>. Chapter 14: Methods</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/2015/5/20/8630535/same-sex-marriage-study">"This was the biggest political science study of last year. It was a complete fraud"</a>. <i>Vox</i>. 20 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=This+was+the+biggest+political+science+study+of+last+year.+It+was+a+complete+fraud.&rft.date=2015-05-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2F2015%2F5%2F20%2F8630535%2Fsame-sex-marriage-study&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Belmont-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belmont_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belmont_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belmont_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040405065531/http://ohsr.od.nih.gov/guidelines/belmont.html">"Belmont report"</a>. The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. April 18, 1979. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ohsr.od.nih.gov/guidelines/belmont.html">the original</a> on April 5, 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Belmont+report&rft.pub=The+National+Commission+for+the+Protection+of+Human+Subjects+of+Biomedical+and+Behavioral+Research&rft.date=1979-04-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fohsr.od.nih.gov%2Fguidelines%2Fbelmont.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. H. Halsey (2004), <i>A history of sociology in Britain: science, literature, and society</i>, p. 34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geoffrey Duncan Mitchell (1970), <i>A new dictionary of sociology</i>, p. 201</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Willcox, Walter (1938) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1400906"><i>The Founder of Statistics</i>.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wacquant-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wacquant_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wacquant_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wacquant, Loic. 1992. "Positivism". In Bottomore, Tom and William Outhwaite, ed., <i>The Blackwell Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Social Thought</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2000-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2000_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gianfranco Poggi (2000). <i>Durkheim.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DinW-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DinW_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Durkheim, Emile. 1895. <i>Rules of the Sociological Method</i>. Cited in Wacquant (1992).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Durkheim, Émile [1895] <i>The Rules of Sociological Method</i> 8th edition, trans. Sarah A. Solovay and John M. Mueller, ed. George E. G. Catlin (1938, 1964 edition), p. 45</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hynek-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hynek_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hynek_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hynek_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeábek2001" class="citation journal cs1">Jeábek, Hynek (2001). "Paul Lazarsfeld — The Founder of Modern Empirical Sociology: A Research Biography". <i>International Journal of Public Opinion Research</i>. <b>13</b> (3): 229–244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fijpor%2F13.3.229">10.1093/ijpor/13.3.229</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Public+Opinion+Research&rft.atitle=Paul+Lazarsfeld+%E2%80%94+The+Founder+of+Modern+Empirical+Sociology%3A+A+Research+Biography&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=229-244&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fijpor%2F13.3.229&rft.aulast=Je%C3%A1bek&rft.aufirst=Hynek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lazarsfeld, P. F., & Henry, N. W. (1966). <i>Readings in mathematical social science</i>. Cambridge: MIT Press.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_D._Bailey1994" class="citation book cs1">Kenneth D. Bailey (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PVDQHrCezMoC"><i>Methods of Social Research</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-901279-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-901279-6"><bdi>978-0-02-901279-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Methods+of+Social+Research&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-02-901279-6&rft.au=Kenneth+D.+Bailey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPVDQHrCezMoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+research" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_H._McBurneyTheresa_L._White2009" class="citation book cs1">Donald H. McBurney; Theresa L. White (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AUDoy-lSe_EC"><i>Research Methods</i></a>. Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-60219-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-60219-4"><bdi>978-0-495-60219-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Research+Methods&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-495-60219-4&rft.au=Donald+H.+McBurney&rft.au=Theresa+L.+White&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAUDoy-lSe_EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+research" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_Firebaugh" title="Glenn Firebaugh">Glenn Firebaugh</a>, <i>Seven Rules for Social Research</i>, Princeton University Press, 2008, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13567-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13567-0">978-0-691-13567-0</a></li> <li>Arnold A. Groh, <i>Research Methods in Indigenous Contexts</i>, New York: Springer, 2018, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-72774-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-72774-5">978-3-319-72774-5</a></li> <li>Mills, C. Wright. Appendix to Sociological Imagination (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061106060908/http://ddl.uwinnipeg.ca/res_des/files/readings/cwmills-intel_craft.pdf">Appendix, On Intellectual Craftsmanship</a>, pp. 195–226. In the Sociological Imagination. New York: Oxford University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Babbie" title="Earl Babbie">Earl Babbie</a>, <i>The Practice of Social Research</i>, 10th edition, Wadsworth, Thomson Learning Inc., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-62029-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-534-62029-9">0-534-62029-9</a></li> <li>W. Lawrence Neuman, <i>Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches</i>, 6th edition, Allyn & Bacon, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-205-45793-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-205-45793-2">0-205-45793-2</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> 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role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Social_research&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-medium minerva-icon--modified-history"></span> <span class="last-modified-bar__text modified-enhancement" data-user-name="Remsense" data-user-gender="unknown" data-timestamp="1726351148"> <span>Last edited on 14 September 2024, at 21:59</span> </span> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-small minerva-icon--expand"></span> </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%AB_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="بحث اجتماعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بحث اجتماعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologick%C3%BD_v%C3%BDzkum" title="Sociologický výzkum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sociologický výzkum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymchwil_cymdeithasol" title="Ymchwil cymdeithasol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ymchwil cymdeithasol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirische_Sozialforschung" title="Empirische Sozialforschung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Empirische Sozialforschung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodolog%C3%ADa_de_ciencias_sociales" title="Metodología de ciencias sociales – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Metodología de ciencias sociales" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socia_esplorado" title="Socia esplorado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Socia esplorado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gizarte_ikerkuntza" title="Gizarte ikerkuntza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gizarte ikerkuntza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DA%98%D9%88%D9%87%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%DB%8C" title="پژوهش اجتماعی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پژوهش اجتماعی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recherche_en_sciences_sociales" title="Recherche en sciences sociales – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Recherche en sciences sociales" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C_%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC" title="사회 연구 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사회 연구" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="सामाजिक अनुसंधान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सामाजिक अनुसंधान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penelitian_sosial" title="Penelitian sosial – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penelitian sosial" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panalit%C3%A8n_Sosial" title="Panalitèn Sosial – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Panalitèn Sosial" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%86" title="ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ ಸಂಶೋಧನೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ ಸಂಶೋಧನೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%BB" title="社会調査 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="社会調査" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtimoiy_tadqiqot" title="Ijtimoiy tadqiqot – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ijtimoiy tadqiqot" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cercetare_sociologic%C4%83" title="Cercetare sociologică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cercetare sociologică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Емпиријско социјално истраживање – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Емпиријско социјално истраживање" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyal_ara%C5%9Ft%C4%B1rma" title="Sosyal araştırma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sosyal araştırma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Соціологічне дослідження – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Соціологічне дослідження" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%A3%E7%90%86%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="羣理研究 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="羣理研究" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="社會研究 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="社會研究" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 14 September 2024, at 21:59<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a 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