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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Internal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Homeostatic_imbalances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homeostatic_imbalances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Homeostatic imbalances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homeostatic_imbalances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blood_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blood_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Blood pressure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blood_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>External</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Touch_and_pain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Touch_and_pain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Touch and pain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Touch_and_pain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Vision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Smell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Smell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.4</span> <span>Taste</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sound" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.5</span> <span>Sound</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sound-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equilibrium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equilibrium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.6</span> <span>Equilibrium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equilibrium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cellular_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cellular_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Cellular response</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cellular_response-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cellular response subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cellular_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mechanical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Mechanical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Chemical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Systematic_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systematic_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Systematic response</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Systematic_response-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Systematic response subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Systematic_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nervous-system_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nervous-system_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Nervous-system response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nervous-system_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muscular-system_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muscular-system_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Muscular-system response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muscular-system_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Endocrine-system_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Endocrine-system_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Endocrine-system response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Endocrine-system_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vasopressin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vasopressin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Vasopressin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vasopressin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epinephrine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epinephrine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Epinephrine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epinephrine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digestive-system_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digestive-system_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Digestive-system response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digestive-system_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cephalic_phase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cephalic_phase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Cephalic phase</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cephalic_phase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enteric_nervous_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enteric_nervous_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Enteric nervous system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enteric_nervous_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_methods_and_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_methods_and_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Research methods and techniques</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_methods_and_techniques-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research methods and techniques subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research_methods_and_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Clamping_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clamping_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Clamping techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clamping_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noninvasive_neuronal_scanning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noninvasive_neuronal_scanning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Noninvasive neuronal scanning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noninvasive_neuronal_scanning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Other methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Stimulus (physiology)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">48 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulus" title="Stimulus – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Stimulus" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reiz" title="Reiz – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Reiz" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%87_(%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%88%D8%B8%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%81_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1)" title="منبه (علم وظائف الأعضاء) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="منبه (علم وظائف الأعضاء)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Est%C3%ADmulu" title="Estímulu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Estímulu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimul" title="Stimul – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Stimul" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BB" title="Стымул – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Стымул" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Дразнимост – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Дразнимост" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Est%C3%ADmul" title="Estímul – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Estímul" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulace" title="Stimulace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Stimulace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulus" title="Stimulus – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Stimulus" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reiz" title="Reiz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Reiz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiimul" title="Stiimul – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Stiimul" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulo" title="Stimulo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Stimulo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estimulu_(fisiologia)" title="Estimulu (fisiologia) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Estimulu (fisiologia)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%B1%DA%A9_(%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C)" title="محرک (فیزیولوژی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="محرک (فیزیولوژی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%EA%B7%B9_(%EC%83%9D%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99)" title="자극 (생리학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="자극 (생리학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%95_(%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8)" title="उद्दीपक (शरीरविज्ञान) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="उद्दीपक (शरीरविज्ञान)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podra%C5%BEaj" title="Podražaj – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Podražaj" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulus_(fisiologi)" title="Stimulus (fisiologi) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Stimulus (fisiologi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimolo" title="Stimolo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Stimolo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%99" title="גירוי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גירוי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se%C9%A3tiya%C9%A3" title="Seɣtiyaɣ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Seɣtiyaɣ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estimilis" title="Estimilis – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Estimilis" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%AEm%C3%BBl%C3%BBs" title="Stîmûlûs – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Stîmûlûs" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BB" title="Стимул – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Стимул" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulus_(physiologia)" title="Stimulus (physiologia) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Stimulus (physiologia)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inger" title="Inger – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Inger" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Дразба – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Дразба" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B6%E1%80%B7%E1%80%86%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%BB%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA" title="လှုံ့ဆော်ချက် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="လှုံ့ဆော်ချက်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulus" title="Stimulus – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Stimulus" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulus" title="Stimulus – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Stimulus" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodziec_(fizjologia)" title="Bodziec (fizjologia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bodziec (fizjologia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Est%C3%ADmulo_(fisiologia)" title="Estímulo (fisiologia) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Estímulo (fisiologia)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BB" title="Стимул – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Стимул" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulus" title="Stimulus – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Stimulus" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dra%C5%BEljaj" title="Dražljaj – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Dražljaj" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%A9%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95_(%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DB%86%D9%84%DB%86%D8%AC%DB%8C)" title="وریاکەرەوە (فیزیۆلۆجی) – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="وریاکەرەوە (فیزیۆلۆجی)" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81" title="Стимулус – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стимулус" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulus" title="Stimulus – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Stimulus" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84rsyke" title="Ärsyke – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ärsyke" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulus" title="Stimulus – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Stimulus" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%AF_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A7%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A7%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%82" title="శాస్త్రీయ నిబంధనా సిద్ధాంతం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="శాస్త్రీయ నిబంధనా సిద్ధాంతం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99" title="ตัวกระตุ้น – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ตัวกระตุ้น" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uyaran_(fizyoloji)" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Detectable change in the internal or external surroundings</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phototrophic_Response_to_Stimulus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Phototrophic_Response_to_Stimulus.svg/220px-Phototrophic_Response_to_Stimulus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Phototrophic_Response_to_Stimulus.svg/330px-Phototrophic_Response_to_Stimulus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Phototrophic_Response_to_Stimulus.svg/440px-Phototrophic_Response_to_Stimulus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="412" /></a><figcaption>The light from the lamp (1.) functions as a detectable change in the plant's environment. As a result, the plant exhibits a reaction of phototropism—directional growth (2.) toward the light stimulus.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:2px solid #90db90"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_simple.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DNA_simple.svg/45px-DNA_simple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DNA_simple.svg/68px-DNA_simple.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DNA_simple.svg/90px-DNA_simple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="114" data-file-height="270" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><b>Science of life</b></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="background:#ddddff;display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: #e7f4e7;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Glossary</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree"> Phylogeny</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b>Properties of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Response to environment</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)"> Domains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdoms</a> of life</b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukarya</a> (<a href="/wiki/Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Animals">Animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">Fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">Plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protists" class="mw-redirect" title="Protists">Protists</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible 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title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a 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unsolved problems in biology">List of unsolved problems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_sciences" title="Biomedical sciences">Biomedical sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharming_(genetics)" title="Pharming (genetics)"> Pharming</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template talk:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, a <b>stimulus</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a change in a <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">living thing's</a> internal or external <a href="/wiki/Environment_(systems)" title="Environment (systems)">environment</a>. This change can be <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">detected</a> by an organism or organ using <b>sensitivity,</b> and leads to a physiological reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">Sensory receptors</a> can receive stimuli from outside the body, as in <a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">touch receptors</a> found in the skin or light receptors in the eye, as well as from inside the body, as in <a href="/wiki/Chemoreceptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoreceptors">chemoreceptors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mechanoreceptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanoreceptors">mechanoreceptors</a>. When a stimulus is detected by a sensory receptor, it can elicit a <a href="/wiki/Reflex_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Reflex action">reflex</a> via <a href="/wiki/Transduction_(physiology)" title="Transduction (physiology)">stimulus transduction</a>. An internal stimulus is often the first component of a <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostatic control system</a>. External stimuli are capable of producing systemic responses throughout the body, as in the <a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">fight-or-flight response</a>. In order for a stimulus to be detected with high probability, its level of strength must exceed the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_threshold" title="Absolute threshold">absolute threshold</a>; if a signal does reach threshold, the information is transmitted to the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> (CNS), where it is integrated and a decision on how to react is made. Although stimuli commonly cause the body to respond, it is the CNS that finally determines whether a signal causes a reaction or not. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal">Internal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Internal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Homeostatic_imbalances">Homeostatic imbalances</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Homeostatic imbalances"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostatic</a> outbalances are the main driving force for changes of the body. These stimuli are monitored closely by receptors and sensors in different parts of the body. These sensors are <a href="/wiki/Mechanoreceptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanoreceptors">mechanoreceptors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemoreceptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoreceptors">chemoreceptors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermoreceptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoreceptors">thermoreceptors</a> that, respectively, respond to pressure or stretching, chemical changes, or temperature changes. Examples of mechanoreceptors include <a href="/wiki/Baroreceptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Baroreceptors">baroreceptors</a> which detect changes in blood pressure, <a href="/wiki/Merkel%27s_discs" class="mw-redirect" title="Merkel's discs">Merkel's discs</a> which can detect sustained touch and pressure, and <a href="/wiki/Hair_cell" title="Hair cell">hair cells</a> which detect sound stimuli. Homeostatic imbalances that can serve as internal stimuli include nutrient and ion levels in the blood, oxygen levels, and water levels. Deviations from the homeostatic ideal may generate a <a href="/wiki/Homeostatic_emotion" class="mw-redirect" title="Homeostatic emotion">homeostatic emotion</a>, such as pain, thirst or fatigue, that motivates behavior that will restore the body to stasis (such as withdrawal, drinking or resting).<sup id="cite_ref-Craig_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Blood_pressure">Blood pressure</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Blood pressure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Blood pressure, heart rate, and cardiac output are measured by stretch receptors found in the <a href="/wiki/Carotid_artery" title="Carotid artery">carotid arteries</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">Nerves</a> embed themselves within these receptors and when they detect stretching, they are stimulated and fire <a href="/wiki/Action_Potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Action Potential">action potentials</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>. These impulses inhibit the constriction of blood vessels and lower the heart rate. If these nerves do not detect stretching, the body determines perceives low blood pressure as a dangerous stimulus and signals are not sent, preventing the inhibition CNS action; blood vessels constrict and the heart rate increases, causing an increase in blood pressure in the body.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="External">External</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: External"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Touch_and_pain">Touch and pain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Touch and pain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sensory feelings, especially pain, are stimuli that can elicit a large response and cause neurological changes in the body. Pain also causes a behavioral change in the body, which is proportional to the intensity of the pain. The feeling is recorded by sensory receptors on the skin and travels to the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>, where it is integrated and a decision on how to respond is made; if it is decided that a response must be made, a signal is sent back down to a muscle, which behaves appropriately according to the stimulus.<sup id="cite_ref-Craig_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The postcentral gyrus is the location of the <a href="/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary somatosensory area">primary somatosensory area</a>, the main sensory receptive area for the <a href="/wiki/Sense_of_touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Sense of touch">sense of touch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Purves_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Purves-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pain receptors are known as <a href="/wiki/Nociceptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Nociceptors">nociceptors</a>. Two main types of <a href="/wiki/Nociceptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Nociceptors">nociceptors</a> exist, A-fiber nociceptors and <a href="/wiki/Group_C_nerve_fiber" title="Group C nerve fiber">C-fiber</a> nociceptors. <a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_sensory_fiber" title="Type Ia sensory fiber">A-fiber</a> receptors are myelinated and conduct currents rapidly. They are mainly used to conduct fast and sharp types of pain. Conversely, C-fiber receptors are unmyelinated and slowly transmit. These receptors conduct slow, burning, diffuse pain.<sup id="cite_ref-Stucky_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stucky-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Absolute_threshold" title="Absolute threshold">absolute threshold</a> for touch is the minimum amount of sensation needed to elicit a response from touch receptors. This amount of sensation has a definable value and is often considered to be the force exerted by dropping the wing of a bee onto a person's cheek from a distance of one centimeter. This value will change based on the body part being touched.<sup id="cite_ref-Gale_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gale-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vision">Vision</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Vision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vision provides opportunity for the brain to perceive and respond to changes occurring around the body. Information, or stimuli, in the form of light enters the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>, where it excites a special type of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neuron</a> called a <a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptor cell</a>. A local <a href="/wiki/Receptor_potential" title="Receptor potential">graded potential</a> begins in the photoreceptor, where it excites the <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> enough for the impulse to be passed along through a track of neurons to the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>. As the signal travels from photoreceptors to larger neurons, <a href="/wiki/Action_Potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Action Potential">action potentials</a> must be created for the signal to have enough strength to reach the CNS.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the stimulus does not warrant a strong enough response, it is said to not reach <a href="/wiki/Absolute_threshold" title="Absolute threshold">absolute threshold</a>, and the body does not react. However, if the stimulus is strong enough to create an action potential in neurons away from the photoreceptor, the body will integrate the information and react appropriately. Visual information is processed in the <a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">occipital lobe</a> of the CNS, specifically in the <a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">primary visual cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Absolute_threshold" title="Absolute threshold">absolute threshold</a> for vision is the minimum amount of sensation needed to elicit a response from <a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptors</a> in the eye. This amount of sensation has a definable value and is often considered to be the amount of light present from someone holding up a single candle 30 miles away, if one's eyes were <a href="/wiki/Adaptation_(eye)" title="Adaptation (eye)">adjusted to the dark</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gale_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gale-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Smell">Smell</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Smell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">Smell</a> allows the body to recognize chemical molecules in the air through inhalation. <a href="/wiki/Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">Olfactory</a> <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a> located on either side of the <a href="/wiki/Nasal_septum" title="Nasal septum">nasal septum</a> consist of <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_epithelium" title="Olfactory epithelium">olfactory epithelium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lamina_propria" title="Lamina propria">lamina propria</a>. The olfactory epithelium, which contains olfactory receptor cells, covers the inferior surface of the <a href="/wiki/Cribriform_plate" title="Cribriform plate">cribiform plate</a>, the superior portion of the perpendicular plate, the superior nasal concha. Only roughly two percent of airborne compounds inhaled are carried to olfactory organs as a small sample of the air being inhaled. Olfactory receptors extend past the epithelial surface providing a base for many cilia that lie in the surrounding mucus. Odorant-binding proteins interact with these <a href="/wiki/Cilium" title="Cilium">cilia</a> stimulating the receptors. Odorants are generally small organic molecules. Greater water and lipid solubility is related directly to stronger smelling odorants. Odorant binding to G protein coupled receptors activates <a href="/wiki/Adenylate_cyclase" class="mw-redirect" title="Adenylate cyclase">adenylate cyclase</a>, which converts <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a> to camp. <a href="/wiki/Cyclic_adenosine_monophosphate" title="Cyclic adenosine monophosphate">cAMP</a>, in turn, promotes the opening of sodium channels resulting in a localized potential.<sup id="cite_ref-Martini_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martini-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Absolute_threshold" title="Absolute threshold">absolute threshold</a> for smell is the minimum amount of sensation needed to elicit a response from receptors in the nose. This amount of sensation has a definable value and is often considered to be a single drop of perfume in a six-room house. This value will change depending on what substance is being smelled.<sup id="cite_ref-Gale_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gale-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Taste">Taste</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Taste"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Taste" title="Taste">Taste</a> records flavoring of food and other materials that pass across the <a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</a> and through the mouth. Gustatory cells are located on the surface of the <a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</a> and adjacent portions of the <a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">pharynx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">larynx</a>. Gustatory cells form on <a href="/wiki/Taste_bud" title="Taste bud">taste buds</a>, specialized <a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">epithelial cells</a>, and are generally turned over every ten days. From each cell, protrudes microvilli, sometimes called taste hairs, through also the taste pore and into the oral cavity. Dissolved chemicals interact with these receptor cells; different tastes bind to specific receptors. Salt and sour receptors are chemically gated ion channels, which depolarize the cell. Sweet, bitter, and umami receptors are called <a href="/wiki/Gustducin" title="Gustducin">gustducins</a>, specialized <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">G protein coupled receptors</a>. Both divisions of receptor cells release neurotransmitters to afferent fibers causing <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a> firing.<sup id="cite_ref-Martini_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martini-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Absolute_threshold" title="Absolute threshold">absolute threshold</a> for taste is the minimum amount of sensation needed to elicit a response from receptors in the mouth. This amount of sensation has a definable value and is often considered to be a single drop of <a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">quinine sulfate</a> in 250 gallons of water.<sup id="cite_ref-Gale_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gale-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sound">Sound</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sound"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Changes in pressure caused by sound reaching the external ear resonate in the <a href="/wiki/Eardrum" title="Eardrum">tympanic membrane</a>, which articulates with the auditory ossicles, or the bones of the middle ear. These tiny bones multiply these pressure fluctuations as they pass the disturbance into the cochlea, a spiral-shaped bony structure within the inner ear. Hair cells in the cochlear duct, specifically the <a href="/wiki/Organ_of_Corti" title="Organ of Corti">organ of Corti</a>, are deflected as waves of fluid and membrane motion travel through the chambers of the cochlea. Bipolar sensory neurons located in the center of the cochlea monitor the information from these receptor cells and pass it on to the brainstem via the cochlear branch of <a href="/wiki/Vestibulocochlear_nerve" title="Vestibulocochlear nerve">cranial nerve VIII</a>. Sound information is processed in the <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobe</a> of the CNS, specifically in the <a href="/wiki/Primary_auditory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary auditory cortex">primary auditory cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Martini_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martini-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Absolute_threshold" title="Absolute threshold">absolute threshold</a> for sound is the minimum amount of sensation needed to elicit a response from receptors in the ears. This amount of sensation has a definable value and is often considered to be a watch ticking in an otherwise soundless environment 20 feet away.<sup id="cite_ref-Gale_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gale-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Equilibrium">Equilibrium</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Equilibrium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Semi circular ducts, which are connected directly to the <a href="/wiki/Cochlea" title="Cochlea">cochlea</a>, can interpret and convey to the brain information about equilibrium by a similar method as the one used for hearing. <a href="/wiki/Hair_cell" title="Hair cell">Hair cells</a> in these parts of the ear protrude kinocilia and stereocilia into a gelatinous material that lines the ducts of this canal. In parts of these semi circular canals, specifically the maculae, calcium carbonate crystals known as statoconia rest on the surface of this gelatinous material. When tilting the head or when the body undergoes linear acceleration, these crystals move disturbing the cilia of the hair cells and, consequently, affecting the release of neurotransmitter to be taken up by surrounding sensory nerves. In other areas of the semi circular canal, specifically the ampulla, a structure known as the cupula—analogous to the gelatinous material in the maculae—distorts hair cells in a similar fashion when the fluid medium that surrounds it causes the cupula itself to move. The ampulla communicates to the brain information about the head's horizontal rotation. Neurons of the adjacent vestibular ganglia monitor the hair cells in these ducts. These sensory fibers form the vestibular branch of the <a href="/wiki/Vestibulocochlear_nerve" title="Vestibulocochlear nerve">cranial nerve VIII</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Martini_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martini-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cellular_response">Cellular response</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cellular response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></div> <p>In general, cellular response to stimuli is defined as a change in state or activity of a cell in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, or gene expression.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Receptors on cell surfaces are sensing components that monitor stimuli and respond to changes in the environment by relaying the signal to a control center for further processing and response. Stimuli are always converted into electrical signals via <a href="/wiki/Transduction_(physiology)" title="Transduction (physiology)">transduction</a>. This electrical signal, or <a href="/wiki/Receptor_potential" title="Receptor potential">receptor potential</a>, takes a specific pathway through the nervous system to initiate a systematic response. Each type of receptor is specialized to respond preferentially to only one kind of stimulus energy, called the <a href="/wiki/Adequate_stimulus" title="Adequate stimulus">adequate stimulus</a>. Sensory receptors have a well-defined range of stimuli to which they respond, and each is tuned to the particular needs of the organism. Stimuli are relayed throughout the body by mechanotransduction or chemotransduction, depending on the nature of the stimulus.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanical">Mechanical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mechanical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In response to a mechanical stimulus, cellular sensors of force are proposed to be extracellular matrix molecules, cytoskeleton, transmembrane proteins, proteins at the membrane-phospholipid interface, elements of the nuclear matrix, chromatin, and the lipid bilayer. Response can be twofold: the extracellular matrix, for example, is a conductor of mechanical forces but its structure and composition is also influenced by the cellular responses to those same applied or endogenously generated forces.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mechanosensitive ion channels are found in many cell types and it has been shown that the permeability of these channels to cations is affected by stretch receptors and mechanical stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This permeability of ion channels is the basis for the conversion of the mechanical stimulus into an electrical signal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical">Chemical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Chemical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chemical stimuli, such as odorants, are received by cellular receptors that are often coupled to ion channels responsible for chemotransduction. Such is the case in <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_receptor_neuron" title="Olfactory receptor neuron">olfactory cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depolarization in these cells result from opening of non-selective cation channels upon binding of the odorant to the specific receptor. <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">G protein-coupled receptors</a> in the plasma membrane of these cells can initiate second messenger pathways that cause cation channels to open. </p><p>In response to stimuli, the <a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">sensory receptor</a> initiates sensory transduction by creating graded potentials or action potentials in the same cell or in an adjacent one. Sensitivity to stimuli is obtained by chemical amplification through <a href="/wiki/Second_messenger_system" title="Second messenger system">second messenger pathways</a> in which enzymatic cascades produce large numbers of intermediate products, increasing the effect of one receptor molecule.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Systematic_response">Systematic response</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Systematic response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nervous-system_response">Nervous-system response</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Nervous-system response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Though receptors and stimuli are varied, most extrinsic stimuli first generate <a href="/w/index.php?title=Localized_potential&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Localized potential (page does not exist)">localized</a> <a href="/wiki/Graded_potential" title="Graded potential">graded potentials</a> in the neurons associated with the specific sensory organ or tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-Martini_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martini-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>, internal and external stimuli can elicit two different categories of responses: an excitatory response, normally in the form of an <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a>, and an inhibitory response.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neuron</a> is stimulated by an excitatory impulse, neuronal <a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">dendrites</a> are bound by <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitters</a> which cause the cell to become permeable to a specific type of ion; the type of neurotransmitter determines to which ion the neurotransmitter will become permeable. In <a href="/wiki/Excitatory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Excitatory postsynaptic potential">excitatory postsynaptic potentials</a>, an excitatory response is generated. This is caused by an excitatory neurotransmitter, normally <a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">glutamate</a> binding to a neuron's dendrites, causing an influx of sodium ions through channels located near the binding site. </p><p>This change in membrane permeability in the dendrites is known as a local graded potential and causes the membrane voltage to change from a negative <a href="/wiki/Resting_potential" title="Resting potential">resting potential</a> to a more positive voltage, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Depolarization" title="Depolarization">depolarization</a>. The opening of sodium channels allows nearby sodium channels to open, allowing the change in permeability to spread from the dendrites to the <a href="/wiki/Perikaryon" class="mw-redirect" title="Perikaryon">cell body</a>. If a graded potential is strong enough, or if several graded potentials occur in a fast enough frequency, the depolarization is able to spread across the cell body to the <a href="/wiki/Axon_hillock" title="Axon hillock">axon hillock</a>. From the axon hillock, an action potential can be generated and propagated down the neuron's <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axon</a>, causing sodium ion channels in the axon to open as the impulse travels. Once the signal begins to travel down the axon, the membrane potential has already passed <a href="/wiki/Threshold_potential" title="Threshold potential">threshold</a>, which means that it cannot be stopped. This phenomenon is known as an all-or-nothing response. Groups of sodium channels opened by the change in membrane potential strengthen the signal as it travels away from the axon hillock, allowing it to move the length of the axon. As the depolarization reaches the end of the axon, or the <a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">axon terminal</a>, the end of the neuron becomes permeable to calcium ions, which enters the cell via calcium ion channels. Calcium causes the release of neurotransmitters stored in <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">synaptic vesicles</a>, which enter the synapse between two neurons known as the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons; if the signal from the presynaptic neuron is excitatory, it will cause the release of an excitatory neurotransmitter, causing a similar response in the postsynaptic neuron.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These neurons may communicate with thousands of other receptors and target cells through extensive, complex dendritic networks. Communication between receptors in this fashion enables discrimination and the more explicit interpretation of external stimuli. Effectively, these localized graded potentials trigger action potentials that communicate, in their frequency, along nerve axons eventually arriving in specific cortexes of the brain. In these also highly specialized parts of the brain, these signals are coordinated with others to possibly trigger a new response.<sup id="cite_ref-Martini_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martini-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If a signal from the presynaptic neuron is inhibitory, inhibitory neurotransmitters, normally <a href="/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Aminobutyric acid">GABA</a> will be released into the synapse.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This neurotransmitter causes an <a href="/wiki/Inhibitory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Inhibitory postsynaptic potential">inhibitory postsynaptic potential</a> in the postsynaptic neuron. This response will cause the postsynaptic neuron to become permeable to chloride ions, making the membrane potential of the cell negative; a negative membrane potential makes it more difficult for the cell to fire an action potential and prevents any signal from being passed on through the neuron. Depending on the type of stimulus, a neuron can be either excitatory or inhibitory.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muscular-system_response">Muscular-system response</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Muscular-system response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nerves in the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a> spread out to various parts of the body, including <a href="/wiki/Muscle_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscle fiber">muscle fibers</a>. A muscle fiber and the <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">motor neuron</a> to which it is connected.<sup id="cite_ref-English_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-English-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spot at which the motor neuron attaches to the muscle fiber is known as the <a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction" title="Neuromuscular junction">neuromuscular junction</a>. When muscles receive information from internal or external stimuli, muscle fibers are stimulated by their respective motor neuron. Impulses are passed from the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> down neurons until they reach the motor neuron, which releases the neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a> (ACh) into the neuromuscular junction. ACh binds to <a href="/wiki/Nicotinic_acetylcholine_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors">nicotinic acetylcholine receptors</a> on the surface of the muscle cell and opens ion channels, allowing sodium ions to flow into the cell and potassium ions to flow out; this ion movement causes a depolarization, which allows for the release of calcium ions within the cell. Calcium ions bind to proteins within the muscle cell to allow for muscle contraction; the ultimate consequence of a stimulus.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Endocrine-system_response">Endocrine-system response</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Endocrine-system response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vasopressin">Vasopressin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Vasopressin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine system</a> is affected largely by many internal and external stimuli. One internal stimulus that causes <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormone</a> release is <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hypotension" title="Hypotension">Hypotension</a>, or low blood pressure, is a large driving force for the release of <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a>, a hormone which causes the retention of water in the kidneys. This process also increases an individual's thirst. By fluid retention or by consuming fluids, if an individual's blood pressure returns to normal, vasopressin release slows and less fluid is retained by the kidneys. <a href="/wiki/Hypovolemia" title="Hypovolemia">Hypovolemia</a>, or low fluid levels in the body, can also act as a stimulus to cause this response.<sup id="cite_ref-Baylis_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baylis-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Epinephrine">Epinephrine</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Epinephrine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">Epinephrine</a>, also known as adrenaline, is also used commonly to respond to both internal and external changes. One common cause of the release of this hormone is the <a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a>. When the body encounters an external stimulus that is potentially dangerous, epinephrine is released from the <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_glands" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrenal glands">adrenal glands</a>. Epinephrine causes physiological changes in the body, such as constriction of blood vessels, dilation of pupils, increased heart and respiratory rate, and the metabolism of glucose. All of these responses to a single stimuli aid in protecting the individual, whether the decision is made to stay and fight, or run away and avoid danger.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digestive-system_response">Digestive-system response</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Digestive-system response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cephalic_phase">Cephalic phase</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Cephalic phase"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Digestive_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Digestive system">digestive system</a> can respond to external stimuli, such as the sight or smell of food, and cause physiological changes before the food ever enters the body. This reflex is known as the <a href="/wiki/Cephalic_phase" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalic phase">cephalic phase</a> of <a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">digestion</a>. The sight and smell of food are strong enough stimuli to cause salivation, gastric and pancreatic enzyme secretion, and endocrine secretion in preparation for the incoming nutrients; by starting the digestive process before food reaches the stomach, the body is able to more effectively and efficiently metabolize food into necessary nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once food hits the mouth, taste and information from receptors in the mouth add to the digestive response. <a href="/wiki/Chemoreceptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoreceptors">Chemoreceptors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mechanoreceptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanoreceptors">mechanorceptors</a>, activated by chewing and swallowing, further increase the enzyme release in the stomach and intestine.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Enteric_nervous_system">Enteric nervous system</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Enteric nervous system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Digestive_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Digestive system">digestive system</a> is also able to respond to internal stimuli. The digestive tract, or <a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system" title="Enteric nervous system">enteric nervous system</a> alone contains millions of neurons. These neurons act as sensory receptors that can detect changes, such as food entering the small intestine, in the digestive tract. Depending on what these sensory receptors detect, certain enzymes and digestive juices from the pancreas and liver can be secreted to aid in metabolism and breakdown of food.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_methods_and_techniques">Research methods and techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Research methods and techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clamping_techniques">Clamping techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Clamping techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Voltage_clamp" title="Voltage clamp">Voltage clamp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Current_clamp" title="Current clamp">Current clamp</a></div> <p>Intracellular measurements of electrical potential across the membrane can be obtained by microelectrode recording. Patch clamp techniques allow for the manipulation of the intracellular or extracellular ionic or lipid concentration while still recording potential. In this way, the effect of various conditions on threshold and propagation can be assessed.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noninvasive_neuronal_scanning">Noninvasive neuronal scanning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Noninvasive neuronal scanning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/PET_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="PET scan">PET scan</a> and <a href="/wiki/MRI_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI scan">MRI scan</a></div> <p>Positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) permit the noninvasive visualization of activated regions of the brain while the test subject is exposed to different stimuli. Activity is monitored in relation to blood flow to a particular region of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_methods">Other methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Other methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hindlimb withdrawal time is another method. Sorin Barac et al. in a recent paper published in the Journal of Reconstructive Microsurgery monitored the response of test rats to pain stimuli by inducing an acute, external heat stimulus and measuring hindlimb withdrawal times (HLWT).<sup id="cite_ref-Barac_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barac-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reflex" title="Reflex">Reflex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_stimulation_therapy" title="Sensory stimulation therapy">Sensory stimulation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulation" title="Stimulation">Stimulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(psychology)" title="Stimulus (psychology)">Stimulus (psychology)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stimulus_(physiology)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wordorigins.org/index.php/more/849/">Prescriptivist's Corner: Foreign Plurals</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190517182851/http://www.wordorigins.org/index.php/more/849/">Archived</a> 17 May 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: "Biologists use <i>stimuli</i>, but <i>stimuluses</i> is in general use."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/subjects/excitability">"Excitability – Latest research and news | Nature"</a>. <i>www.nature.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211105134210/https://www.nature.com/subjects/excitability">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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