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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philological_constructs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Classical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canonical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canonical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Canonical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canonical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ages_of_Latin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ages_of_Latin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Ages of Latin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ages_of_Latin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Authors_of_the_Golden_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authors_of_the_Golden_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Authors of the Golden Age</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Authors_of_the_Golden_Age-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Authors of the Golden Age subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Authors_of_the_Golden_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Republican" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Republican"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Republican</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Republican-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Augustan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Augustan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Augustan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Augustan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Authors_of_the_Silver_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authors_of_the_Silver_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Authors of the Silver Age</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Authors_of_the_Silver_Age-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Authors of the Silver Age subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Authors_of_the_Silver_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-From_Tiberius_to_Trajan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_Tiberius_to_Trajan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>From Tiberius to Trajan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_Tiberius_to_Trajan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Through_the_death_of_Marcus_Aurelius,_180_AD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Through_the_death_of_Marcus_Aurelius,_180_AD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Through the death of Marcus Aurelius, 180 AD</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Through_the_death_of_Marcus_Aurelius,_180_AD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stylistic_shifts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stylistic_shifts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Stylistic shifts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stylistic_shifts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>General sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Classical Latin</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لاتينية كلاسيكية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لاتينية كلاسيكية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="قدیم لاتین دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قدیم لاتین دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassisches_Latein" title="Klassisches Latein – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Klassisches Latein" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llat%C3%AD_cl%C3%A0ssic" title="Llatí clàssic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llatí clàssic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassisches_Latein" title="Klassisches Latein – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Klassisches Latein" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lat%C3%ADn_cl%C3%A1sico" title="Latín clásico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Latín clásico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasika_latino" title="Klasika latino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Klasika latino" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_klasiko" title="Latin klasiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Latin klasiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="لاتین کلاسیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لاتین کلاسیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_classique" title="Latin classique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Latin classique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EC%A0%84_%EB%9D%BC%ED%8B%B4%EC%96%B4" title="고전 라틴어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고전 라틴어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Latin_Klasik" title="Bahasa Latin Klasik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Latin Klasik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%AA" title="לטינית קלאסית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לטינית קלאסית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Классикалық латын тілі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Классикалық латын тілі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_classegh" title="Latin classegh – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Latin classegh" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Класичен латински јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Класичен латински јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassiek_Latijn" title="Klassiek Latijn – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Klassiek Latijn" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E3%83%A9%E3%83%86%E3%83%B3%E8%AA%9E" title="古典ラテン語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古典ラテン語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassisk_latin" title="Klassisk latin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Klassisk latin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_classic" title="Latin classic – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Latin classic" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B7%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="کلاسیکی لاطینی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کلاسیکی لاطینی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Clasico" title="Latin Clasico – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Latin Clasico" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latim_cl%C3%A1ssico" title="Latim clássico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Latim clássico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%8C" title="Классическая латынь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Классическая латынь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Classical Latin" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasi%C4%8Dni_latinski_jezik" title="Klasični latinski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Klasični latinski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasik_Latince" title="Klasik Latince – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Klasik Latince" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Класична латина – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Класична латина" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B7%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="کلاسیکی لاطینی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کلاسیکی لاطینی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Latinh_c%E1%BB%95_%C4%91i%E1%BB%83n" title="Tiếng Latinh cổ điển – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Latinh cổ điển" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AA%9E" title="古典拉丁語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古典拉丁語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Literary form of the Latin language (75 BC-3rd ct. AD)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about written Classical Latin. For the spoken language, see <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Classical Latin</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">LINGVA·LATINA, lingua·latīna</i></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Rome_Colosseum_inscription_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Rome_Colosseum_inscription_2.jpg/200px-Rome_Colosseum_inscription_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Rome_Colosseum_inscription_2.jpg/300px-Rome_Colosseum_inscription_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Rome_Colosseum_inscription_2.jpg/400px-Rome_Colosseum_inscription_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">Latin inscription in the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="la-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Latin" title="Help:IPA/Latin">[ˈlɪŋɡʷa<span class="wrap"> </span>ɫaˈtiːna]</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a>-ruled lands</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">75 BC to AD 3rd century, when it developed into <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Latino-Faliscan_languages" title="Latino-Faliscan languages">Latino-Faliscan</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Classical Latin</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early form</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Latin alphabet">Classical Latin alphabet</a> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_regulators" title="List of language regulators">Regulated by</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Schools of grammar and rhetoric</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/lat-cla">lat-cla</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><i>None</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=51-AAB-aaa">51-AAB-aaa</a></code></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Classical Latin</b> is the form of Literary Latin recognized as a <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary</a> <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard</a> by writers of the late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. It formed parallel to <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> around 75 BC out of <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a>, and developed by the 3rd century AD into <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a>. In some later periods, the former was regarded as good or proper Latin; the latter as debased, degenerate, or corrupted. The word <i>Latin</i> is now understood by default to mean "Classical Latin"; for example, modern Latin textbooks almost exclusively teach Classical Latin. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> and his contemporaries of the late republic referred to the Latin language, in contrast to other languages such as Greek, as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">lingua latina</i></span> or <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sermo latinus</i></span>. They distinguished the common <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a>, however, as Vulgar Latin (<i>sermo vulgaris</i> and <i>sermo vulgi</i>), in contrast to the higher <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">register</a> that they called <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">latinitas</i></span>, sometimes translated as "Latinity".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Latinitas</i> was also called <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sermo familiaris</i></span> ("speech of the good families"), <i>sermo urbanus</i> ("speech of the city"), and in rare cases <i>sermo nobilis</i> ("noble speech"). Besides the noun <i>Latinitas</i>, it was referred to with the adverb <i>latine</i> ("in (good) Latin", literally "Latinly") or its comparative <i>latinius</i> ("in better Latin", literally "more Latinly"). </p><p><i>Latinitas</i> was spoken and written. It was the language taught in schools. <a href="/wiki/Prescriptive_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Prescriptive grammar">Prescriptive</a> rules therefore applied to it, and when special subjects like <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> were taken into consideration, additional rules applied. Since spoken <i>Latinitas</i> has become extinct (in favor of subsequent registers), the rules of <i>politus</i> (polished) texts may give the appearance of an artificial language. However, <i>Latinitas</i> was a form of <i>sermo</i> (spoken language), and as such, retains spontaneity. No texts by Classical Latin authors are noted for the type of rigidity evidenced by stylized art, with the exception of repetitious abbreviations and stock phrases found on inscriptions. </p><p>The standards, authors and manuals from the Classical Latin period formed the model for the language taught and used in later periods across Europe and beyond. While the Latin used in different periods deviated from "Classical" Latin, efforts were periodically made to relearn and reapply the models of the Classical period, for instance by <a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, and later during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, producing the highly classicising form of Latin now known as <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philological_constructs">Philological constructs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Philological constructs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical">Classical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Good Latin" in <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a> is known as "classical" <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a>. The term refers to the canonical relevance of literary works written in Latin in the late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, and early to middle <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. "[T]hat is to say, that of belonging to an exclusive group of authors (or works) that were considered to be emblematic of a certain genre."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECitroni2006204_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECitroni2006204-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>classicus</i> (masculine plural <i>classici</i>) was devised by the Romans to translate Greek ἐγκριθέντες (encrithentes), and "select" which refers to authors who wrote in a form of Greek that was considered model. Before then, the term <i>classis</i>, in addition to being a naval fleet, was a social class in one of the diachronic divisions of Roman society in accordance with property ownership under the Roman constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECitroni2006205_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECitroni2006205-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word is a transliteration of Greek κλῆσις (clēsis, or "calling") used to rank army draftees by property from first to fifth class. </p><p><i>Classicus</i> refers to those in the <i>prima classis</i> ("first class"), such as the authors of polished works of <i>Latinitas</i>, or <i>sermo urbanus</i>. It contains nuances of the certified and the authentic, or <i>testis classicus</i> ("reliable witness"). It was under this construct that <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Marcus Cornelius Fronto</a> (an <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">African</a>-<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> lawyer and language teacher) used <i>scriptores classici</i> ("first-class" or "reliable authors") in the second century AD. Their works were viewed as models of good Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECitroni2006206_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECitroni2006206-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the first known reference (possibly innovated during this time) to Classical Latin applied by authors, evidenced in the authentic language of their works.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECitroni2006207_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECitroni2006207-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canonical">Canonical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Canonical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_Ruhnken_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/David_Ruhnken_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg/220px-David_Ruhnken_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/David_Ruhnken_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg/330px-David_Ruhnken_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/David_Ruhnken_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg/440px-David_Ruhnken_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>David Ruhnken</figcaption></figure> <p>Imitating Greek grammarians, Romans such as <a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a> drew up lists termed <i>indices</i> or <i>ordines</i> modeled after the ones created by the Greeks, which were called <i>pinakes</i>. The Greek lists were considered classical, or <i>recepti scriptores</i> ("select writers"). <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Aulus Gellius</a> includes authors like <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a>, who are considered writers of <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> and not strictly in the period of classical Latin. The classical Romans distinguished Old Latin as <i>prisca Latinitas</i> and not <i>sermo vulgaris</i>. Each author's work in the Roman lists was considered equivalent to one in the Greek. In example, <a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a> was the Latin <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> was the equivalent of <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a>, etc. The lists of classical authors were as far as the Roman grammarians went in developing a <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a>. The topic remained at that point while interest in the <i>classici scriptores</i> declined in the medieval period as the best form of the language yielded to <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">medieval Latin</a>, inferior to classical standards. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> saw a revival in Roman culture, and with it, the return of Classic ("the best") Latin. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_S%C3%A9billet" title="Thomas Sébillet">Thomas Sébillet</a>'s <i>Art Poétique</i> (1548), "les bons et classiques poètes françois", refers to <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Meun" title="Jean de Meun">Jean de Meun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alain_Chartier" title="Alain Chartier">Alain Chartier</a>, who the first modern application of the words.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Merriam_Webster%27s_Collegiate_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary">Merriam Webster's <i>Collegiate Dictionary</i></a>, the term classical (from <i>classicus)</i> entered modern English in 1599, some 50 years after its re-introduction to the continent. In Governor <a href="/wiki/William_Bradford_(Plymouth_Colony_governor)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Bradford (Plymouth Colony governor)">William Bradford</a>'s <i>Dialogue</i> (1648), he referred to <a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">synods</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Separatist" class="mw-redirect" title="Separatist">separatist</a> church as "classical meetings", defined by meetings between "young men" from New England and "ancient men" from Holland and England.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1715, <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Echard" title="Laurence Echard">Laurence Echard</a>'s <i>Classical Geographical Dictionary</i> was published.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittlefield1904301_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittlefield1904301-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1736, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Ainsworth_(lexicographer)" title="Robert Ainsworth (lexicographer)">Robert Ainsworth</a>'s <i>Thesaurus Linguae Latinae Compendarius</i> turned English words and expressions into "proper and classical Latin."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1768, <a href="/wiki/David_Ruhnken" title="David Ruhnken">David Ruhnken</a>'s <i>Critical History of the Greek Orators</i> recast the molded view of the classical by applying the word "canon" to the <i>pinakes</i> of orators after the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a>, or list of authentic books of the Bible. In doing so, Ruhnken had secular <a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">catechism</a> in mind.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ages_of_Latin">Ages of Latin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ages of Latin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wilhelm_Siegmund_Teuffel_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Wilhelm_Siegmund_Teuffel_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg/220px-Wilhelm_Siegmund_Teuffel_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Wilhelm_Siegmund_Teuffel_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg/330px-Wilhelm_Siegmund_Teuffel_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Wilhelm_Siegmund_Teuffel_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="539" /></a><figcaption>Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1870, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Siegmund_Teuffel" title="Wilhelm Siegmund Teuffel">Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel</a>'s <i>Geschichte der Römischen Literatur</i> (<i>A History of Roman Literature</i>) defined the philological notion of classical Latin through a typology similar to the <a href="/wiki/Ages_of_Man" title="Ages of Man">Ages of Man</a>, setting out the Golden and Silver Ages of classical Latin. Wilhem Wagner, who published Teuffel's work in German, also produced an English translation which he published in 1873. Teuffel's classification, still in use today (with modifications), groups classical Latin authors into periods defined by political events rather than by style. </p><p>Teuffel went on to publish other editions, but the English translation of <i>A History of Roman Literature</i> gained immediate success. </p><p>In 1877, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomas_Cruttwell" title="Charles Thomas Cruttwell">Charles Thomas Cruttwell</a> produced a similar work in English. In his preface, Cruttwell notes "Teuffel's admirable history, without which many chapters in the present work could not have attained completeness." He also credits Wagner. </p><p>Cruttwell adopts the time periods found in Teuffel's work, but he presents a detailed analysis of style, whereas Teuffel was more concerned with history. Like Teuffel, Cruttwell encountered issues while attempting to condense the voluminous details of time periods in an effort to capture the meaning of phases found in their various writing styles. Like Teuffel, he has trouble finding a name for the first of the three periods (the current <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> phase), calling it "from <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Livius_Andronicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Livius Andronicus">Livius</a> to <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a>." He says the language "is marked by immaturity of art and language, by a vigorous but ill-disciplined imitation of Greek poetical models, and in prose by a dry sententiousness of style, gradually giving way to a clear and fluent strength..." These abstracts have little meaning to those not well-versed in Latin literature. In fact, Cruttwell admits "The ancients, indeed, saw a difference between <a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pacuvius" title="Pacuvius">Pacuvius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Accius" title="Lucius Accius">Accius</a>, but it may be questioned whether the advance would be perceptible by us." </p><p>In time, some of Cruttwell's ideas become established in Latin philology. While praising the application of rules to classical Latin (most intensely in the Golden Age, he says "In gaining accuracy, however, classical Latin suffered a grievous loss. It became cultivated as distinct from a natural language... Spontaneity, therefore, became impossible and soon invention also ceased... In a certain sense, therefore, Latin was studied as a dead language, while it was still a living."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECruttwell18773_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttwell18773-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also problematic in Teuffel's scheme is its appropriateness to the concept of classical Latin. Cruttwell addresses the issue by altering the concept of the classical. The "best" Latin is defined as "golden" Latin, the second of the three periods. The other two periods (considered "classical") are left hanging. By assigning the term "pre-classical" to Old Latin and implicating it to post-classical (or post-Augustan) and silver Latin, Cruttwell realized that his construct was not accordance with ancient usage and assertions: "[T]he epithet classical is by many restricted to the authors who wrote in it [golden Latin]. It is best, however, not to narrow unnecessarily the sphere of classicity; to exclude <a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a> on the one hand or <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a> on the other, would savour of artificial restriction rather than that of a natural classification." The contradiction remains—Terence is, and is not a classical author, depending on the context.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECruttwell1877142_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttwell1877142-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Authors_of_the_Golden_Age">Authors of the Golden Age</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Authors of the Golden Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bakalovich_at_Maecenas%27_reception.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Bakalovich_at_Maecenas%27_reception.jpg/220px-Bakalovich_at_Maecenas%27_reception.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Bakalovich_at_Maecenas%27_reception.jpg/330px-Bakalovich_at_Maecenas%27_reception.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Bakalovich_at_Maecenas%27_reception.jpg/440px-Bakalovich_at_Maecenas%27_reception.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1981" data-file-height="1209" /></a><figcaption><i>At Maecenas' Reception</i>, oil, <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Baka%C5%82owicz" title="Stefan Bakałowicz">Stefan Bakałowicz</a>, 1890. An artist's view of the classical. Maecenas knew and entertained everyone literary in the Golden Age, especially Augustus.</figcaption></figure> <p>Teuffel's definition of the "First Period" of Latin was based on inscriptions, fragments, and the literary works of the earliest known authors. Though he does use the term "Old Roman" at one point, most of these findings remain unnamed. Teuffel presents the Second Period in his major work, <i>das goldene Zeitalter der römischen Literatur</i> (<i>Golden Age of Roman Literature</i>), dated 671–767 <a href="/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita" title="Ab urbe condita">AUC</a> (83 BC – AD 14), according to his own recollection. The timeframe is marked by the dictatorship of <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla_Felix" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix">Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix</a> and the death of the emperor <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873216_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873216-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873226_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873226-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wagner's translation of Teuffel's writing is as follows: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The golden age of the Roman literature is that period in which the climax was reached in the perfection of form, and in most respects also in the methodical treatment of the subject-matters. It may be subdivided between the generations, in the first of which (the Ciceronian Age) prose culminated, while poetry was principally developed in the Augustan Age.</p></blockquote> <p>The Ciceronian Age was dated 671–711 AUC (83–43 BC), ending just after the death of Marcus Tullius Cicero. The Augustan 711–67 AUC (43 BC – 14 AD) ends with the death of Augustus. The Ciceronian Age is further divided by the consulship of Cicero in 691 AUC (63 BC) into a first and second half. Authors are assigned to these periods by years of principal achievements. </p><p> The Golden Age had already made an appearance in German philology, but in a less systematic way. In a translation of Bielfeld's <i>Elements of universal erudition</i> (1770):</p><blockquote><p>The Second Age of Latin began about the time of Caesar [his ages are different from Teuffel's], and ended with Tiberius. This is what is called the Augustan Age, which was perhaps of all others the most brilliant, a period at which it should seem as if the greatest men, and the immortal authors, had met together upon the earth, in order to write the Latin language in its utmost purity and perfection...<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBielfeld1770244_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielfeld1770244-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and of Tacitus, his conceits and sententious style is not that of the golden age...<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBielfeld1770345_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielfeld1770345-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Evidently, Teuffel received ideas about golden and silver Latin from an existing tradition and embedded them in a new system, transforming them as he thought best. </p><p>In Cruttwell's introduction, the Golden Age is dated 80 BC – AD 14 (from <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a>), which corresponds to Teuffel's findings. Of the "Second Period", Cruttwell paraphrases Teuffel by saying it "represents the highest excellence in prose and poetry." The Ciceronian Age (known today as the "Republican Period") is dated 80–42 BC, marked by the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippi" title="Battle of Philippi">Battle of Philippi</a>. Cruttwell omits the first half of Teuffel's Ciceronian, and starts the Golden Age at Cicero's consulship in 63 BC—an error perpetuated in Cruttwell's second edition. He likely meant 80 BC, as he includes Varro in Golden Latin. Teuffel's Augustan Age is Cruttwell's Augustan Epoch (42 BC – 14 AD). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republican">Republican</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Republican"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CiceroBust.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/CiceroBust.jpg/170px-CiceroBust.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/CiceroBust.jpg/255px-CiceroBust.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/CiceroBust.jpg 2x" data-file-width="314" data-file-height="453" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Marcus Tullius Cicero</a>, after whom Teuffel named his Ciceronian period of the Golden Age</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_of_Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_in_Naples.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Bust_of_Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_in_Naples.jpg/170px-Bust_of_Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_in_Naples.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Bust_of_Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_in_Naples.jpg/255px-Bust_of_Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_in_Naples.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Bust_of_Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_in_Naples.jpg/340px-Bust_of_Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_in_Naples.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1450" /></a><figcaption>Julius Caesar</figcaption></figure> <p>The literary histories list includes all authors from Canonical to the Ciceronian Age—even those whose works are fragmented or missing altogether. With the exception of a few major writers, such as Cicero, Caesar, Virgil and Catullus, ancient accounts of Republican literature praise jurists and orators whose writings, and analyses of various styles of language cannot be verified because there are no surviving records. The reputations of Aquilius Gallus, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Hortensius_Hortalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Quintus Hortensius Hortalus">Quintus Hortensius Hortalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucullus" title="Lucullus">Lucius Licinius Lucullus</a>, and many others who gained notoriety without readable works, are presumed by their association within the Golden Age. A list of canonical authors of the period whose works survived in whole or in part is shown here: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Marcus Terentius Varro</a> (116–27 BC), highly influential grammarian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus_Pomponius_Atticus" title="Titus Pomponius Atticus">Titus Pomponius Atticus</a> (112/109 – 35/32), publisher and correspondent of Cicero</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Marcus Tullius Cicero</a> (106–43 BC), orator, philosopher, essayist, whose works define golden Latin prose and are used in Latin curricula beyond the elementary level</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servius_Sulpicius_Rufus" title="Servius Sulpicius Rufus">Servius Sulpicius Rufus</a> (106–43 BC), jurist, poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decimus_Laberius" title="Decimus Laberius">Decimus Laberius</a> (105–43 BC), writer of mimes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Furius_Bibaculus" title="Marcus Furius Bibaculus">Marcus Furius Bibaculus</a> (1st century BC), writer of <i>ludicra</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Gaius Julius Caesar</a> (100–44 BC), general, statesman, historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Oppius" title="Gaius Oppius">Gaius Oppius</a> (1st century BC), secretary to Julius Caesar, probable author under Caesar's name</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Matius" title="Gaius Matius">Gaius Matius</a> (1st century BC), public figure, correspondent with Cicero</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a> (100–24 BC), biographer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publilius_Syrus" title="Publilius Syrus">Publilius Syrus</a> (1st century BC), writer of mimes and maxims</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Cornificius" title="Quintus Cornificius">Quintus Cornificius</a> (1st century BC), public figure and writer on rhetoric</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus_Lucretius_Carus" class="mw-redirect" title="Titus Lucretius Carus">Titus Lucretius Carus</a> (Lucretius; 94–50 BC), poet, philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publius_Nigidius_Figulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Nigidius Figulus">Publius Nigidius Figulus</a> (98–45 BC), public officer, grammarian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Hirtius" title="Aulus Hirtius">Aulus Hirtius</a> (90–43 BC), public officer, military historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Helvius_Cinna" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaius Helvius Cinna">Gaius Helvius Cinna</a> (1st century BC), poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Caelius_Rufus" title="Marcus Caelius Rufus">Marcus Caelius Rufus</a> (87–48 BC), orator, correspondent with Cicero</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Sallustius_Crispus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaius Sallustius Crispus">Gaius Sallustius Crispus</a> (86–34 BC), historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Younger" title="Cato the Younger">Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis</a> (Cato the Younger; 95–46 BC), orator</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publius_Valerius_Cato" title="Publius Valerius Cato">Publius Valerius Cato</a> (1st century BC), poet, grammarian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Valerius_Catullus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaius Valerius Catullus">Gaius Valerius Catullus</a> (Catullus; 84–54 BC), poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Licinius_Macer_Calvus" title="Gaius Licinius Macer Calvus">Gaius Licinius Macer Calvus</a> (82–47 BC), orator, poet</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Augustan">Augustan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Augustan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Augustan_literature_(ancient_Rome)" title="Augustan literature (ancient Rome)">Augustan literature (ancient Rome)</a></div> <p>The Golden Age is divided by the assassination of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>. In the wars that followed, a generation of Republican literary figures was lost. Cicero and his contemporaries were replaced by a new generation who spent their formative years under the old constructs, and forced to make their mark under the watchful eye of a new emperor. The demand for great orators had ceased,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873385_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873385-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> shifting to an emphasis on poetry. Other than the historian <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, the most remarkable writers of the period were the poets <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a>. Although Augustus evidenced some toleration to republican sympathizers, he exiled Ovid, and imperial tolerance ended with the continuance of the <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a>. </p><p>Augustan writers include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Publius Vergilius Maro</a> (Virgil, spelled also as Vergil; 70 – 19 BC),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Quintus Horatius Flaccus</a> (65 – 8 BC), known for lyric poetry and satires</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Propertius" class="mw-redirect" title="Sextus Propertius">Sextus Aurelius Propertius</a> (50 – 15 BC), poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albius_Tibullus" class="mw-redirect" title="Albius Tibullus">Albius Tibullus</a> (54–19 BC), elegiac poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publius_Ovidius_Naso" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Ovidius Naso">Publius Ovidius Naso</a> (43 BC – AD 18), poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Titus Livius</a> (64 BC – AD 12), historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grattius_Faliscus" class="mw-redirect" title="Grattius Faliscus">Grattius Faliscus</a> (a contemporary of Ovid), poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Marcus Manilius</a> (1st century BC and AD), astrologer, poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Gaius Julius Hyginus</a> (64 BC – AD 17), librarian, poet, mythographer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Verrius_Flaccus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Verrius Flaccus">Marcus Verrius Flaccus</a> (55 BC – AD 20), grammarian, philologist, calendarist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Marcus Vitruvius Pollio</a> (80–70 BC — after 15 BC), engineer, architect</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Antistius_Labeo" title="Marcus Antistius Labeo">Marcus Antistius Labeo</a> (d. AD 10 or 11), jurist, philologist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cestius_Pius" title="Lucius Cestius Pius">Lucius Cestius Pius</a> (1st century BC & AD), Latin educator</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Pompeius_Trogus" title="Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus">Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus</a> (1st century BC), historian, naturalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Porcius_Latro" title="Marcus Porcius Latro">Marcus Porcius Latro</a> (late 1st century BC – early 1st century AD), rhetorician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Valgius_Rufus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaius Valgius Rufus">Gaius Valgius Rufus</a> (consul 12 BC), poet</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Authors_of_the_Silver_Age">Authors of the Silver Age</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Authors of the Silver Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tiberius_NyCarlsberg01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tiberius_NyCarlsberg01.jpg/170px-Tiberius_NyCarlsberg01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tiberius_NyCarlsberg01.jpg/255px-Tiberius_NyCarlsberg01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tiberius_NyCarlsberg01.jpg/340px-Tiberius_NyCarlsberg01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1492" data-file-height="2093" /></a><figcaption>The second emperor, <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>, limited free speech, precipitating the rise of Silver Latin, with its emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">mannerism</a> rather than on solid content, according to Teuffel's model</figcaption></figure> <p>In his second volume, <i>Imperial Period</i>, Teuffel initiated a slight alteration in approach, making it clear that his terms applied to Latin and not just to the period. He also changed his dating scheme from AUC to modern BC/AD. Though he introduces <i>das silberne Zeitalter der römischen Literatur</i>, (The Silver Age of Roman Literature)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873526_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873526-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from the death of Augustus to the death of <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> (14–117 AD), he also mentions parts of a work by <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a>, a <i>wenig Einfluss der silbernen Latinität</i> (a slight influence of silver Latin). It is clear that his mindset had shifted from Golden and Silver Ages to Golden and Silver Latin, also to include <i>Latinitas</i>, which at this point must be interpreted as Classical Latin. He may have been influenced in that regard by one of his sources E. Opitz, who in 1852 had published <i>specimen lexilogiae argenteae latinitatis</i>, which includes Silver Latinity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873530_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873530-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though Teuffel's First Period was equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> and his Second Period was equal to the Golden Age, his Third Period <i>die römische Kaiserheit</i> encompasses both the Silver Age and the centuries now termed <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a>, in which the forms seemed to break loose from their foundation and float freely. That is, men of literature were confounded about the meaning of "good Latin." The last iteration of Classical Latin is known as Silver Latin. The Silver Age is the first of the Imperial Period, and is divided into <i>die Zeit der julischen Dynastie (</i>14–68); <i>die Zeit der flavischen Dynastie</i> (69–96), and <i>die Zeit des Nerva und Trajan</i> (96–117). Subsequently, Teuffel goes over to a century scheme: 2nd, 3rd, etc., through 6th. His later editions (which came about towards the end of the 19th century) divide the Imperial Age into parts: 1st century (Silver Age), 2nd century (the <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Antonines" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonines">Antonines</a>), and the 3rd through 6th centuries. Of the Silver Age proper, Teuffel points out that anything like freedom of speech had vanished with <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuffelSchwabe18924–5_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuffelSchwabe18924–5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...the continual apprehension in which men lived caused a restless versatility... Simple or natural composition was considered insipid; the aim of language was to be brilliant... Hence it was dressed up with abundant tinsel of epigrams, rhetorical figures and poetical terms... <a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">Mannerism</a> supplanted style, and bombastic pathos took the place of quiet power.</p></blockquote> <p>The content of new literary works was continually proscribed by the emperor, who exiled or executed existing authors and played the role of literary man, himself (typically badly). Artists therefore went into a repertory of new and dazzling mannerisms, which Teuffel calls "utter unreality." Cruttwell picks up this theme:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECruttwell18776_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttwell18776-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The foremost of these [characteristics] is unreality, arising from the extinction of freedom... Hence arose a declamatory tone, which strove by frigid and almost hysterical exaggeration to make up for the healthy stimulus afforded by daily contact with affairs. The vein of artificial rhetoric, antithesis and epigram... owes its origin to this forced contentment with an uncongenial sphere. With the decay of freedom, taste sank...</p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marcus_Aurelius_Metropolitan_Museum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Marcus_Aurelius_Metropolitan_Museum.png/170px-Marcus_Aurelius_Metropolitan_Museum.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Marcus_Aurelius_Metropolitan_Museum.png/255px-Marcus_Aurelius_Metropolitan_Museum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Marcus_Aurelius_Metropolitan_Museum.png/340px-Marcus_Aurelius_Metropolitan_Museum.png 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="694" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>, emperor over the last generation of classicists and himself a classicist.</figcaption></figure> <p>In Cruttwell's view (which had not been expressed by Teuffel), Silver Latin was a "rank, weed-grown garden," a "decline."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECruttwell1877341_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttwell1877341-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cruttwell had already decried what he saw as a loss of spontaneity in Golden Latin. Teuffel regarded the Silver Age as a loss of natural language, and therefore of spontaneity, implying that it was last seen in the Golden Age. Instead, Tiberius brought about a "sudden collapse of letters." The idea of a decline had been dominant in English society since <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a></i>. Once again, Cruttwell evidences some unease with his stock pronouncements: "The <i>Natural History</i> of Pliny shows how much remained to be done in fields of great interest." The idea of Pliny as a model is not consistent with any sort of decline. Moreover, Pliny did his best work under emperors who were as tolerant as Augustus had been. To include some of the best writings of the Silver Age, Cruttwell extended the period through the death of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> (180 AD). The philosophic prose of a good emperor was in no way compatible with either Teuffel's view of unnatural language, or Cruttwell's depiction of a decline. Having created these constructs, the two philologists found they could not entirely justify them. Apparently, in the worst implication of their views, there was no such thing as Classical Latin by the ancient definition, and some of the very best writing of any period in world history was deemed stilted, degenerate, unnatural language. </p><p>The Silver Age furnishes the only two extant Latin novels: Apuleius's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Ass" title="The Golden Ass">The Golden Ass</a></i> and Petronius's <i><a href="/wiki/Satyricon" title="Satyricon">Satyricon</a></i>. </p><p>Writers of the Silver Age include: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_Tiberius_to_Trajan">From Tiberius to Trajan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: From Tiberius to Trajan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Germanicus1914.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Germanicus1914.jpg/125px-Germanicus1914.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Germanicus1914.jpg/188px-Germanicus1914.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Germanicus1914.jpg/250px-Germanicus1914.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1141" data-file-height="1565" /></a><figcaption>Germanicus Caesar</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Duble_herma_of_Socrates_and_Seneca_Antikensammlung_Berlin_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Duble_herma_of_Socrates_and_Seneca_Antikensammlung_Berlin_07.jpg/125px-Duble_herma_of_Socrates_and_Seneca_Antikensammlung_Berlin_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Duble_herma_of_Socrates_and_Seneca_Antikensammlung_Berlin_07.jpg/188px-Duble_herma_of_Socrates_and_Seneca_Antikensammlung_Berlin_07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Duble_herma_of_Socrates_and_Seneca_Antikensammlung_Berlin_07.jpg/250px-Duble_herma_of_Socrates_and_Seneca_Antikensammlung_Berlin_07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1790" data-file-height="2208" /></a><figcaption>Ancient bust of Seneca, part of a <a href="/wiki/Double_Herm_of_Socrates_and_Seneca" title="Double Herm of Socrates and Seneca">double herm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Antikensammlung_Berlin" title="Antikensammlung Berlin">Antikensammlung Berlin</a>)</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Cremutius_Cordus" title="Aulus Cremutius Cordus">Aulus Cremutius Cordus</a> (died AD 25), historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Velleius_Paterculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Velleius Paterculus">Marcus Velleius Paterculus</a> (19 BC – AD 31), military officer, historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a> (20 BC – AD 50), rhetorician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masurius_Sabinus" title="Masurius Sabinus">Masurius Sabinus</a> (1st century AD), jurist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a> (15 BC – AD 50), fabulist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanicus_Julius_Caesar" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanicus Julius Caesar">Germanicus Julius Caesar</a> (15 BC – AD 19), royal family, imperial officer, translator</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Cornelius_Celsus" title="Aulus Cornelius Celsus">Aulus Cornelius Celsus</a> (25 BC – AD 50), physician, encyclopedist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a> (1st century AD), historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Bocchus" title="Cornelius Bocchus">Cornelius Bocchus</a> (1st century AD), natural historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a> (d. AD 45), geographer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Lucius Annaeus Seneca</a> (4 BC – AD 65), educator, imperial advisor, philosopher, man of letters</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus_Calpurnius_Siculus" title="Titus Calpurnius Siculus">Titus Calpurnius Siculus</a> (1st century AD or possibly later), poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Valerius_Probus" title="Marcus Valerius Probus">Marcus Valerius Probus</a> (1st century AD), literary critic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus</a> (10 BC – AD 54), emperor, man of letters, public officer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Suetonius_Paulinus" title="Gaius Suetonius Paulinus">Gaius Suetonius Paulinus</a> (1st century AD), general, natural historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Junius_Moderatus_Columella" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella">Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella</a> (AD 4 – 70), military officer, agriculturalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Quintus Asconius Pedianus</a> (9 BC – 76 AD), historian, Latinist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Musonius_Rufus" title="Gaius Musonius Rufus">Gaius Musonius Rufus</a> (AD 20 – 101), stoic philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Marcius_Barea_Soranus" class="mw-redirect" title="Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus">Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus</a> (1st century AD), imperial officer and public man</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Gaius Plinius Secundus</a> (AD 23 – 79), imperial officer and encyclopedist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Valerius_Flaccus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaius Valerius Flaccus">Gaius Valerius Flaccus</a> (1st century AD), epic poet</li> <li>Tiberius Catius <a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a> (AD 28 – 103), epic poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Licinius_Mucianus" title="Gaius Licinius Mucianus">Gaius Licinius Mucianus</a> (d. AD 76), general, man of letters</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucilius_Junior" title="Lucilius Junior">Lucilius Junior</a> (1st century AD), poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Persius_Flaccus" class="mw-redirect" title="Aulus Persius Flaccus">Aulus Persius Flaccus</a> (34–62 AD), poet and satirist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Marcus Fabius Quintilianus</a> (35–100 AD), rhetorician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Frontinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sextus Julius Frontinus">Sextus Julius Frontinus</a> (AD 40 – 103), engineer, writer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Annaeus_Lucanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Annaeus Lucanus">Marcus Annaeus Lucanus</a> (AD 39 – 65), poet, historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publius_Juventius_Celsus" title="Publius Juventius Celsus">Publius Juventius Celsus</a> Titus Aufidius Hoenius Severianus (1st and early 2nd centuries AD), imperial officer, jurist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aemilius_Asper" title="Aemilius Asper">Aemilius Asper</a> (1st and 2nd centuries AD), grammarian, literary critic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Valerius_Martialis" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Valerius Martialis">Marcus Valerius Martialis</a> (AD 40 – 104), poet, epigrammatist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publius_Papinius_Statius" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Papinius Statius">Publius Papinius Statius</a> (AD 45 – 96), poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decimus_Junius_Juvenalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Decimus Junius Juvenalis">Decimus Junius Juvenalis</a> (1st and 2nd centuries AD), poet, satirist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florus" title="Florus">Publius Annaeus Florus</a> (1st and 2nd centuries AD), poet, rhetorician and probable author of the <a href="/wiki/Epitome_of_Livy" class="mw-redirect" title="Epitome of Livy">epitome of Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velius_Longus" title="Velius Longus">Velius Longus</a> (1st and 2nd centuries AD), grammarian, literary critic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavius_Caper" title="Flavius Caper">Flavius Caper</a> (1st and 2nd centuries AD), grammarian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Publius or Gaius Cornelius Tacitus</a> (AD 56 − 120), imperial officer, historian and in Teuffel's view "the last classic of Roman literature."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus</a> (AD 62 – 114), historian, imperial officer and correspondent</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Through_the_death_of_Marcus_Aurelius,_180_AD"><span id="Through_the_death_of_Marcus_Aurelius.2C_180_AD"></span>Through the death of Marcus Aurelius, 180 AD</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Through the death of Marcus Aurelius, 180 AD"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apuleius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_12788.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Apuleius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_12788.png/125px-Apuleius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_12788.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Apuleius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_12788.png 1.5x" data-file-width="143" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Sketch of Apuleius</figcaption></figure> <p>Of the additional century granted by Cruttwell to Silver Latin, Teuffel says: "The second century was a happy period for the Roman State, the happiest indeed during the whole Empire... But in the world of letters the lassitude and enervation, which told of Rome's decline, became unmistakeable... its forte is in imitation."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuffelSchwabe1892192_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuffelSchwabe1892192-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Teuffel, however, excepts the jurists; others find other "exceptions", recasting Teuffels's view.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2014)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus</a> (70/75 – after 130 AD), biographer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Marcus Junianus Justinus</a> (2nd century AD), historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvius_Julianus" title="Salvius Julianus">Lucius Octavius Cornelius Publius Salvius Julianus Aemilianus</a> (AD 110–170), imperial officer, jurist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pomponius" title="Sextus Pomponius">Sextus Pomponius</a> (2nd century AD), jurist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Terentius_Scaurus" title="Quintus Terentius Scaurus">Quintus Terentius Scaurus</a> (2nd century AD), grammarian, literary critic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Aulus Gellius</a> (AD 125 – after 180), grammarian, polymath</li> <li>Lucius <a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a> Platonicus (123/125–180 AD), novelist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Marcus Cornelius Fronto</a> (AD 100–170), advocate, grammarian</li> <li>Gaius <a href="/wiki/Sulpicius_Apollinaris" title="Sulpicius Apollinaris">Sulpicius Apollinaris</a> (2nd century AD), educator, literary commentator</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granius_Licinianus" title="Granius Licinianus">Granius Licinianus</a> (2nd century AD), writer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Ampelius" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Ampelius">Lucius Ampelius</a> (2nd century AD), educator</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_(jurist)" title="Gaius (jurist)">Gaius</a> (AD 130–180), jurist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Volusius_Maecianus" title="Lucius Volusius Maecianus">Lucius Volusius Maecianus</a> (2nd century AD), educator, jurist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Minucius_Felix" title="Marcus Minucius Felix">Marcus Minucius Felix</a> (d. AD 250), apologist of Christianity, "the first Christian work in Latin" (Teuffel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus" title="Sextus Julius Africanus">Sextus Julius Africanus</a> (2nd century AD), Christian historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> Antoninus Augustus (121–180 AD), stoic philosopher, Emperor in Latin, essayist in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a>, role model of the last generation of classicists (Cruttwell)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stylistic_shifts">Stylistic shifts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Stylistic shifts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Style_(fiction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Style (fiction)">Style</a> of language refers to repeatable features of speech that are somewhat less general than the fundamental characteristics of a language. The latter provides unity, allowing it to be referred to by a single name. Thus Old Latin, Classical Latin, <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>, etc., are not considered different languages, but are all referred to by the term, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>. This is an ancient practice continued by moderns rather than a philological innovation of recent times. That Latin had case endings is a fundamental feature of the language. Whether a given form of speech prefers to use prepositions such as <i>ad</i>, <i>ex</i>, <i>de,</i> for "to", "from" and "of" rather than simple case endings is a matter of style. Latin has a large number of styles. Each and every author has a style, which typically allows his prose or poetry to be identified by experienced Latinists. Problems in comparative literature have risen out of group styles finding similarity by period, in which case one may speak of Old Latin, Silver Latin, Late Latin as styles or a phase of styles. </p><p>The ancient authors themselves first defined style by recognizing different kinds of <i>sermo</i>, or "speech". By valuing Classical Latin as "first class", it was better to write with <i>Latinitas</i> selected by authors who were attuned to literary and upper-class languages of the city as a standardized style. All <i>sermo</i> that differed from it was a different style. Thus, in rhetoric, Cicero was able to define sublime, intermediate, and low styles within Classical Latin. St. Augustine recommended low style for sermons.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Style was to be defined by deviation in speech from a standard. Teuffel termed this standard "Golden Latin". </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Edwin_Sandys" class="mw-redirect" title="John Edwin Sandys">John Edwin Sandys</a>, who was an authority in Latin style for several decades, summarizes the differences between Golden and Silver Latin as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Silver Latin is to be distinguished by: </p> <ul><li>"an exaggerated conciseness and point"</li> <li>"occasional archaic words and phrases derived from poetry"</li> <li>"increase in the number of Greek words in ordinary use" (the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> in <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a> refers to "both our languages," Latin and Greek<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</li> <li>"literary reminiscences"</li> <li>"The literary use of words from the common dialect" (<i>dictare</i> and <i>dictitare</i> as well as classical <i>dicere</i>, "to say")</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Social class in ancient Rome</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">When rarely used in English, the term is capitalized: <i>Latinitas</i>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECitroni2006204-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECitroni2006204_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCitroni2006">Citroni 2006</a>, p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECitroni2006205-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECitroni2006205_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCitroni2006">Citroni 2006</a>, p. 205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECitroni2006206-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECitroni2006206_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCitroni2006">Citroni 2006</a>, p. 206, reported in <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Aulus Gellius</a>, 9.8.15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECitroni2006207-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECitroni2006207_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCitroni2006">Citroni 2006</a>, p. 207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBradford1855" class="citation book cs1">Bradford, William (1855) [1648]. "Gov. Bradford's Dialogue". In Morton, Nathaniel (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newenglandsmemor00m"><i>New England's Memorial</i></a>. Boston: Congregational Board of Publication. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newenglandsmemor00m/page/330">330</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gov.+Bradford%27s+Dialogue&rft.btitle=New+England%27s+Memorial&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=330&rft.pub=Congregational+Board+of+Publication&rft.date=1855&rft.aulast=Bradford&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewenglandsmemor00m&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELittlefield1904301-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittlefield1904301_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLittlefield1904">Littlefield 1904</a>, p. 301.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAinsworth1736" class="citation journal cs1">Ainsworth, Robert (January 1736). "Article XXX: Thesaurus Linguae Latinae Compendarius". <i>The Present State of the Republic of Letters</i>. <b>XVII</b>. London: W. Innys and R. Manby.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Present+State+of+the+Republic+of+Letters&rft.atitle=Article+XXX%3A+Thesaurus+Linguae+Latinae+Compendarius&rft.volume=XVII&rft.date=1736-01&rft.aulast=Ainsworth&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGorak1991" class="citation book cs1">Gorak, Jan (1991). <i>The making of the modern canon: genesis and crisis of a literary idea</i>. London: Athlone. p. 51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+making+of+the+modern+canon%3A+genesis+and+crisis+of+a+literary+idea&rft.place=London&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Athlone&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Gorak&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttwell18773-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECruttwell18773_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCruttwell1877">Cruttwell 1877</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttwell1877142-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECruttwell1877142_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCruttwell1877">Cruttwell 1877</a>, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873216-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873216_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTeuffel1873">Teuffel 1873</a>, p. 216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873226-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873226_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTeuffel1873">Teuffel 1873</a>, p. 226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielfeld1770244-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBielfeld1770244_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBielfeld1770">Bielfeld 1770</a>, p. 244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielfeld1770345-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBielfeld1770345_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBielfeld1770">Bielfeld 1770</a>, p. 345.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873385-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873385_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTeuffel1873">Teuffel 1873</a>, p. 385, "Public life became extinct, all political business passed into the hands of the monarch..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873526-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873526_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTeuffel1873">Teuffel 1873</a>, p. 526.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873530-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuffel1873530_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTeuffel1873">Teuffel 1873</a>, p. 530.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuffelSchwabe18924–5-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuffelSchwabe18924–5_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTeuffelSchwabe1892">Teuffel & Schwabe 1892</a>, pp. 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttwell18776-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECruttwell18776_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCruttwell1877">Cruttwell 1877</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttwell1877341-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECruttwell1877341_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCruttwell1877">Cruttwell 1877</a>, p. 341.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuffelSchwabe1892192-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuffelSchwabe1892192_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTeuffelSchwabe1892">Teuffel & Schwabe 1892</a>, p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAuerbach1965" class="citation book cs1">Auerbach, Erich (1965) [1958]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/literarylanguage0000auer_o1q3"><i>Literary Language and its Public in Late Latin Antiquity and in the Middle Ages</i></a></span>. Bollingen Series LXXIV. Translated by Mannheim, Ralph. <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_Books" title="Pantheon Books">Pantheon Books</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/literarylanguage0000auer_o1q3/page/33">33</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literary+Language+and+its+Public+in+Late+Latin+Antiquity+and+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.series=Bollingen+Series+LXXIV&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Auerbach&rft.aufirst=Erich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fliterarylanguage0000auer_o1q3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandys1921" class="citation book cs1">Sandys, John Edwin (1921). <i>A Companion to Latin Studies Edited for the Syndics of the University Press</i> (3rd ed.). Cambridge: University Press. pp. 824–26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Latin+Studies+Edited+for+the+Syndics+of+the+University+Press&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=824-26&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Sandys&rft.aufirst=John+Edwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suetonius, Claudius, 24.1.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_sources">General sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: General sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBielfeld1770" class="citation cs2">Bielfeld, Baron (1770), <i>The Elements of Universal Erudition, Containing an Analytical Abridgement of the Science, Polite Arts and Belles Lettres</i>, vol. III, translated by Hooper, W., London: G Scott</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Elements+of+Universal+Erudition%2C+Containing+an+Analytical+Abridgement+of+the+Science%2C+Polite+Arts+and+Belles+Lettres&rft.place=London&rft.pub=G+Scott&rft.date=1770&rft.aulast=Bielfeld&rft.aufirst=Baron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCitroni2006" class="citation cs2">Citroni, Mario (2006), "The Concept of the Classical and the Canons of Model Authors in Roman Literature", in Porter, James I. (ed.), <i>The Classical Tradition of Greece and Rome</i>, translated by Packham, RA, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 204–34</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Concept+of+the+Classical+and+the+Canons+of+Model+Authors+in+Roman+Literature&rft.btitle=The+Classical+Tradition+of+Greece+and+Rome&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pages=204-34&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Citroni&rft.aufirst=Mario&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCruttwell1877" class="citation cs2">Cruttwell, Charles Thomas (1877), <i>A History of Roman Literature from the Earliest Period to the Death of Marcus Aurelius</i>, London: Charles Griffin & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Roman+Literature+from+the+Earliest+Period+to+the+Death+of+Marcus+Aurelius&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Charles+Griffin+%26+Co.&rft.date=1877&rft.aulast=Cruttwell&rft.aufirst=Charles+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittlefield1904" class="citation cs2">Littlefield, George Emery (1904), <i>Early Schools and School-books of New England</i>, Boston, MA: Club of Odd Volumes</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Schools+and+School-books+of+New+England&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pub=Club+of+Odd+Volumes&rft.date=1904&rft.aulast=Littlefield&rft.aufirst=George+Emery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSettis2006" class="citation cs2">Settis, Salvatore (2006), <i>The Future of the "Classical"</i>, translated by Cameron, Allan, Cambridge, UK; Malden, MA: Polity Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+the+%22Classical%22&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK%3B+Malden%2C+MA&rft.pub=Polity+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Settis&rft.aufirst=Salvatore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeuffel1873" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Siegmund_Teuffel" title="Wilhelm Siegmund Teuffel">Teuffel, Wilhelm Sigismund</a> (1873), <i>A History of Roman Literature</i>, translated by Wagner, Wilhelm, London: George Bell & Sons</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Roman+Literature&rft.place=London&rft.pub=George+Bell+%26+Sons&rft.date=1873&rft.aulast=Teuffel&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm+Sigismund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeuffelSchwabe1892" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Teuffel, Wilhelm Sigismund; Schwabe, Ludwig (1892), <i>Teuffel's History of Roman Literature Revised and Enlarged</i>, vol. II, The Imperial Period, translated by Warr, George C.W. (from the 5th German ed.), London: George Bell & Sons</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teuffel%27s+History+of+Roman+Literature+Revised+and+Enlarged&rft.place=London&rft.edition=from+the+5th+German&rft.pub=George+Bell+%26+Sons&rft.date=1892&rft.aulast=Teuffel&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm+Sigismund&rft.au=Schwabe%2C+Ludwig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Classical Latin</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Classical+Latin&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Classical+Latin">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Classical+Latin&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W._Sidney_Allen" title="W. Sidney Allen">Allen, William Sidney</a>. 1978. <i>Vox Latina: A Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin</i>. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCruttwell2005" class="citation book cs1">Cruttwell, Charles Thomas (2005) [1877]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7525"><i>A History of Roman Literature from the Earliest Period to the Death of Marcus Aurelius</i></a>. London: Charles Griffin and Company, Project Gutenberg<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Roman+Literature+from+the+Earliest+Period+to+the+Death+of+Marcus+Aurelius&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Charles+Griffin+and+Company%2C+Project+Gutenberg&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Cruttwell&rft.aufirst=Charles+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F7525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Dickey, Eleanor. 2012. "How to Say 'Please' in Classical Latin". <i>The Classical Quarterly</i> 62, no. 2: 731–48. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0009838812000286">10.1017/S0009838812000286</a>.</li> <li>Getty, Robert J. 1963. "Classical Latin meter and prosody, 1935–1962". <i><a href="/wiki/Lustrum_(journal)" title="Lustrum (journal)">Lustrum</a></i> 8: 104–60.</li> <li>Levene, David. 1997. "God and man in the Classical Latin panegyric". <i>Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society</i> 43: 66–103.</li> <li>Lovric, Michelle, and Nikiforos Doxiadis Mardas. 1998. <i>How to Insult, Abuse & Insinuate In Classical Latin</i>. London: Ebury Press.</li> <li>Rosén, Hannah. 1999. <i>Latine Loqui: Trends and Directions In the Crystallization of Classical Latin</i>. München: W. Fink.</li> <li>Spevak, Olga. 2010. <i>Constituent Order In Classical Latin Prose</i>. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeuffel2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Teuffel, W. S. (2001) [1870]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geschichtederrm00teufgoog"><i>Geschichte der Römischen Literatur</i></a> (in German). Leipzig: B.G. Teubner<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+der+R%C3%B6mischen+Literatur&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=B.G.+Teubner&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Teuffel&rft.aufirst=W.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeschichtederrm00teufgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Classical_Latin_literature" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Classical Latin literature">Classical Latin literature</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/">The Latin Library</a>—<a href="/wiki/The_Latin_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="The Latin Library">Public domain Latin texts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/collection?collection=Perseus:corpus:perseus,Latin+Texts">Latin Texts</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Collection</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/home.html">Greek and Roman Authors on LacusCurtius</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://latin.packhum.org/">Classical Latin Texts</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Packard_Humanities_Institute" title="Packard Humanities Institute">Packard Humanities Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://attalus.org/latin/index.html">Latin Texts</a> at Attalus</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholalatina.it/en/latin-and-greek-texts/">A collection of Latin and Greek texts</a> at the Schola Latina</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Latin_periods" title="Template:Latin periods"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Latin_periods" title="Template talk:Latin periods"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Latin_periods" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Latin periods"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ages_of_Latin" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Ages of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>until 75 BC</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><span class="nowrap"><i>75 BC – 200 AD</i></span><br /><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Classical Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>200–700</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>700–1500</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>1300–1500</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>1300–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i><br /><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>1900–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i><br /><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary Latin</a> </p> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background:#eee;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History of Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin_studies" title="Neo-Latin studies">Neo-Latin studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latino_sine_flexione" title="Latino sine flexione">Latino sine flexione</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Latin" title="Hiberno-Latin">Hiberno-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judeo-Latin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&oldid=1242899893">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_Latin&oldid=1242899893</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a 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