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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-Romans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-Romans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Non-Romans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-Romans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Antiquity </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Antiquity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Antiquity subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classical_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Classical antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Founding_myths_and_Romans_of_the_republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Founding_myths_and_Romans_of_the_republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Founding myths and Romans of the republic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Founding_myths_and_Romans_of_the_republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romans_of_the_early_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romans_of_the_early_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Romans of the early empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romans_of_the_early_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Late antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Later history </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Later_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Later history subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Later_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Western_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Western Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_endurance_of_Roman_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_endurance_of_Roman_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Early endurance of Roman identity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_endurance_of_Roman_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disappearances_of_Roman_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disappearances_of_Roman_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Disappearances of Roman identity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disappearances_of_Roman_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reversion_to_Rome_proper" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reversion_to_Rome_proper"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Reversion to Rome proper </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reversion_to_Rome_proper-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 North Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Mediterranean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Mediterranean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Eastern Mediterranean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Mediterranean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Survival_of_the_Roman_Empire_in_the_east" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Survival_of_the_Roman_Empire_in_the_east"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Survival of the Roman Empire in the east </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Survival_of_the_Roman_Empire_in_the_east-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_Muslim_conquests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_Muslim_conquests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 After the Muslim conquests </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_the_Muslim_conquests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_fall_of_Constantinople" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_fall_of_Constantinople"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 After the fall of Constantinople </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_the_fall_of_Constantinople-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Modern identity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Roman people</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" > 28 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_(%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A8)" title="رومان (شعب) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رومان (شعب)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Рымляне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рымляне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimljani" title="Rimljani – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Rimljani" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%ADman%C3%A9" title="Římané – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Římané" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romerske_folk" title="Romerske folk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Romerske folk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="رومان – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="رومان" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6mer" title="Römer – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Römer" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinen" title="Romeinen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Romeinen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%B8" title="로마인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로마인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimljani" title="Rimljani – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rimljani" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romani" title="Romani – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Romani" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Romawi" title="Orang Romawi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Orang Romawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populus_Romanus" title="Populus Romanus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Populus Romanus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popolo_roman" title="Popolo roman – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Popolo roman" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="الرومان – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الرومان" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinen_(volk)" title="Romeinen (volk) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Romeinen (volk)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E4%BA%BA" title="ローマ人 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ローマ人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Римляне – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Римляне" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roomske" title="Roomske – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Roomske" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romak%C3%ABt" title="Romakët – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Romakët" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimania_(starovek%C3%BD_n%C3%A1rod)" title="Rimania (staroveký národ) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rimania (staroveký národ)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%99%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Римљани – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Римљани" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimljani" title="Rimljani – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rimljani" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romenler" title="Romenler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Romenler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%CC%B1rom" title="A̱rom – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="A̱rom" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Римляни – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Римляни" data-language-autonym="Українська" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Citizens of ancient Rome</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Romani people</a> or <a href="/wiki/Romanians" title="Romanians">Romanians</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Romans</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above nickname" style="font-size:115%; font-weight:normal;"><div><a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Rōmānī <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: Ῥωμαῖοι, Rhōmaîoi <a href="#cite_note-a-2">[a]</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Pompeii_family_feast_painting_Naples.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pompeii_family_feast_painting_Naples.jpg/220px-Pompeii_family_feast_painting_Naples.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pompeii_family_feast_painting_Naples.jpg/330px-Pompeii_family_feast_painting_Naples.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pompeii_family_feast_painting_Naples.jpg/440px-Pompeii_family_feast_painting_Naples.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2821" data-file-height="2518" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">1st century AD wall painting from <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> depicting a multigenerational banquet</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Classical Greek</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Languages of the Roman Empire">Other languages</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">Imperial cult</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Roman religion">Roman religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Ancient <a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a>, ancient <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> peoples, modern <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance peoples</a> and modern <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> The Roman people was the body of <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Rōmānī; <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: Ῥωμαῖοι Rhōmaîoi)<a href="#cite_note-a-2">[a]</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. This concept underwent considerable changes throughout the long history of the Roman civilisation, as its borders expanded and contracted. Originally only including the <a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> itself, Roman citizenship was extended to the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a> by the 1st century BC and to nearly every subject of the Roman empire in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>. At their peak, the Romans ruled large parts of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> through conquests made during the Roman Republic and the subsequent Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis2018127-3">[2]</a> Although defined primarily as a citizenship, "Roman-ness" has also and variously been described as a <a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">cultural identity</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">nationality</a>, or a multi-<a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnicity</a> that eventually encompassed a vast regional diversity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen2014426-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiemen202147-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarling_Buck191651-7">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanikoKaramuço20153-8">[6]</a> Citizenship grants, demographic growth, and settler and military colonies rapidly increased the number of Roman citizens. The increase achieved its peak with Emperor <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a>'s AD 212 <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonine Constitution">Antonine Constitution</a>, which extended citizenship rights to all free inhabitants of the empire. Roman identity provided a larger sense of common identity and became important when distinguishing from non-Romans, such as <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarian</a> settlers and invaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHope1997118-9">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilavec202091–92-10">[8]</a> Roman culture was far from homogeneous; though there was a common cultural idiom, one of the strengths of the Roman Empire was also its ability to incorporate traditions from other cultures, notably but not exclusively <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_map-2.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Roman_Empire_map-2.gif/260px-Roman_Empire_map-2.gif" decoding="async" width="260" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Roman_Empire_map-2.gif/390px-Roman_Empire_map-2.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Roman_Empire_map-2.gif/520px-Roman_Empire_map-2.gif 2x" data-file-width="845" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>Border changes of the Roman state from 6th century BC to 15th century AD </figcaption></figure>The collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> in the 5th century ended the political domination of the Roman Empire in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, but Roman identity survived in the west as an important political resource. Through the failures of the surviving <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, also called the Byzantine Empire, of reconquering and keeping control of the west and suppression from the new <a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Germanic kingdoms</a>, Roman identity faded away in the west, more or less disappearing in the 8th and 9th centuries. In the Greek-speaking east, still under imperial control, Roman identity survived until the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> in 1453 and beyond. Whereas Roman identity faded away in most of the lands where it was once prominent, for some regions and peoples it proved considerably more tenacious. In <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, "Romans" (Romani in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>) has continuously and uninterruptedly been the <a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">demonym</a> of the citizens of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> from the foundation of the city to the present-day. During the Eastern Roman Empire and for some time after its fall, Greeks identified as <a href="/wiki/Romioi" class="mw-redirect" title="Romioi">Romioi</a>, or related names. In Switzerland several names are Roman references: the <a href="/wiki/Romands" title="Romands">Romands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Romansh_people" title="Romansh people">Romansh people</a>. Several names derive from the Latin Romani (such as the <a href="/wiki/Romanians" title="Romanians">Romanians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aromanians" title="Aromanians">Aromanians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanians" title="Istro-Romanians">Istro-Romanians</a>), or from the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Walhaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Walhaz">walhaz</a> (a term originally referring to the Romans; adopted in the form <a href="/wiki/Vlach" class="mw-redirect" title="Vlach">Vlach</a> as the self-designation of the <a href="/wiki/Megleno-Romanians" title="Megleno-Romanians">Megleno-Romanians</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2014417-11">[9]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Romanness">Romanness</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Romanness">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture of ancient Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography of the Roman Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Social class in ancient Rome</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meaning_of_"Roman"">Meaning of "Roman"</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Meaning of "Roman"">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FayumCollection1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/FayumCollection1.png/220px-FayumCollection1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/FayumCollection1.png/330px-FayumCollection1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/FayumCollection1.png/440px-FayumCollection1.png 2x" data-file-width="2472" data-file-height="2704" /></a><figcaption>Six of the <a href="/wiki/Fayum_mummy_portraits" title="Fayum mummy portraits">Fayum mummy portraits</a>, contemporary portraits of people in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a> from the 1st century BC to the 3rd century AD</figcaption></figure> The term 'Roman' is today used interchangeably to describe a historical timespan, a <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a>, a geographical location, and a personal identity. Though these concepts are related, they are not identical. Many modern historians tend to have a preferred idea of what being Roman meant, so-called <a href="/wiki/Romanitas" title="Romanitas">Romanitas</a>, but this was a term rarely used in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERevell2009x-12">[10]</a> Like all identities, the identity of 'Roman' was flexible, dynamic and multi-layered,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20188-13">[11]</a> and never static or unchanging.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERevell2009x-12">[10]</a> Given that Rome was a geographically vast and chronologically long-lived state, there is no simple definition of what being Roman meant<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHope1997118–119-14">[12]</a> and definitions were inconsistent already in antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20184-15">[13]</a> Nevertheless, some elements remained common throughout much of Roman history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERevell2009x-12">[10]</a> Some ancient Romans considered aspects such as geography, language, and ethnicity as important markers of Romanness, whereas others saw <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a> and culture or behaviour as more important.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArno201212-16">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDench20107-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen20134-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis2018137-19">[17]</a> At the height of the Roman Empire, Roman identity formed a collective geopolitical identity, extended to nearly all subjects of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman emperors">Roman emperors</a> and encompassing vast regional and ethnical diversity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis2018127-3">[2]</a> Often, what individual believed and did was far more important to the concept of Roman identity than long bloodlines and shared descent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArno201212-16">[14]</a> The key to 'Romanness' in the minds of some famous Roman orators, such as <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, was keeping with Roman tradition and serving the Roman state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArno201257-20">[18]</a> Cicero's view of Romanness were partly formed by his status as a "new man", the first of his family to serve in the Roman Senate, lacking prestigious lines of Roman descent himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArno2012viii-21">[19]</a> This is not to say that the importance of blood kinship was wholly dismissed. Orators such as Cicero frequently appealed to their noble contemporaries to live up to the 'greatness of their forefathers'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArno201257-20">[18]</a> These appeals were typically only invoked towards illustrious noble families, with other important traditions emphasising Rome's collective descent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDench20107-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen20145-22">[20]</a> Throughout its history, Rome proved to be uniquely capable of incorporating and integrating other peoples (<a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanisation</a>). This sentiment originated from the city's foundation myths, including Rome being founded as something akin to a political sanctuary by <a href="/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus">Romulus</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/The_Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rape of the Sabine Women">the rape of the Sabine women</a>, which represented how different peoples had commingled since the very beginning of the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDench20107-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen20145-22">[20]</a> Cicero and other Roman authors sneered at peoples such as the <a href="/wiki/Athenians" class="mw-redirect" title="Athenians">Athenians</a>, who prided themselves in their shared descent, and instead found pride in Rome's status as a "mongrel nation".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen20144-23">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a>, a Greek historian who lived in Roman times, even embellished the multicultural origin of the Romans, writing that Romans had since the foundation of Rome welcomed innumerable immigrants not only from the rest of Italy, but from the entire world, whose cultures merged with theirs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen20144-23">[21]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Villa_of_the_Mysteries_(Pompeii)_-_frescos_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg/220px-Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg/330px-Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg/440px-Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2922" data-file-height="3004" /></a><figcaption>Frescoes from the <a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Mysteries" title="Villa of the Mysteries">Villa of the Mysteries</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, Italy, <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman artwork</a> dated to the mid-1st century BC</figcaption></figure> A handful of Roman authors, such as <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>, expressed concerns in their writings concerning Roman "blood purity" as Roman citizens from outside of Roman Italy increased in number. Neither author, however, suggested that the naturalisation of new citizens should stop, only that <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumissions</a> (freeing slaves) and grants of citizenship should be less frequent. Their concerns of blood purity did not match modern ideas of <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a> or ethnicity, and had little to do with features such as skin colour or physical appearance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDench20108-24">[22]</a> Terms such as "<a href="/wiki/Aethiopia" title="Aethiopia">Aethiop</a>", which Romans used for <a href="/wiki/Black_people_in_ancient_Roman_history" title="Black people in ancient Roman history">black people</a>, carried no social implications, and though phenotype-related stereotypes certainly existed in Ancient Rome, inherited physical characteristics were typically not relevant to social status;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1993-25">[23]</a> people who looked different from the typical Mediterranean populace, such as black people, were not excluded from any profession and there are no records of stigmas or biases against "<a href="/wiki/Multiracial" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiracial">mixed race</a>" relationships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnowden199740–41,_50–51-26">[24]</a> The main dividing social differences in Ancient Rome were not based on physical features, but rather on differences in class or rank. Romans practised <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">slavery</a> extensively, but slaves in Ancient Rome were part of various different ethnic groups, and were not enslaved because of their ethnic affiliation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubel202011-27">[25]</a> According to the English historian <a href="/wiki/Emma_Dench" title="Emma Dench">Emma Dench</a>, it was "notoriously difficult to detect slaves by their appearance" in Ancient Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDench20108-24">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-Romans">Non-Romans</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Non-Romans">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constantineii90010167.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Constantineii90010167.jpg/220px-Constantineii90010167.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Constantineii90010167.jpg/330px-Constantineii90010167.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Constantineii90010167.jpg/440px-Constantineii90010167.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>Coin of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_II_(emperor)" title="Constantine II (emperor)">Constantine II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 337–340), depicting the emperor on horseback, trampling two <a href="/wiki/Barbarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarians">barbarians</a></figcaption></figure> Although Ancient Rome has been termed an 'evidently non-racist society',<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1993-25">[23]</a> Romans carried considerable cultural stereotypes and prejudices against cultures and peoples that were not integrated into the <a href="/wiki/Roman_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman world">Roman world</a>, i.e. "<a href="/wiki/Barbarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarians">barbarians</a>". Though views differed through Roman history, the attitude towards peoples beyond the Roman frontier among most Roman writers in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> can be summed up with "the only good barbarian is a dead barbarian".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŚliżewska201834-28">[26]</a> Throughout antiquity, the majority of Roman emperors included anti-barbarian imagery on their coinage, such as the emperor or <a href="/wiki/Victoria_(mythology)" title="Victoria (mythology)">Victoria</a> (the personification and goddess of victory) being depicted as stepping on or dragging defeated barbarian enemies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaló_Levi195227,_31-29">[27]</a> Per the writings of Cicero, what made people barbarians was not their language or descent, but rather their customs and character, or lack thereof.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubel20204-30">[28]</a> Romans viewed themselves as superior over foreigners, but this stemmed not from perceived biological differences, but rather from what they perceived as a superior way of life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubel202011-27">[25]</a> 'Barbarian' was as such a cultural, rather than biological, term. It was not impossible for a barbarian to become a Roman; the Roman state was itself seen as having the duty to conquer and transform, i.e. civilise, barbarian peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubel20209-31">[29]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arch_of_Titus_Menorah_22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Arch_of_Titus_Menorah_22.jpg/220px-Arch_of_Titus_Menorah_22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Arch_of_Titus_Menorah_22.jpg/330px-Arch_of_Titus_Menorah_22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Arch_of_Titus_Menorah_22.jpg/440px-Arch_of_Titus_Menorah_22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1575" data-file-height="879" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">Relief</a> from <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Titus" title="Arch of Titus">Arch of Titus</a> of Romans with loot from the <a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple in Jerusalem</a></figcaption></figure> A particularly disliked group of non-Romans within the empire <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Roman Empire">were the Jews</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubel202010-32">[30]</a> The majority of the Roman populace detested <a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Jews and Judaism</a>, though views were more varied among the Roman elite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubel202010-32">[30]</a> Although many, such as Tacitus, were also hostile to the Jews,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYavetz199891-33">[31]</a> others, such as Cicero, were merely unsympathetically indifferent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYavetz199881-34">[32]</a> The Roman state was not wholly opposed to the Jews, since there was a sizeable Jewish population in Rome itself, as well as at least thirteen <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogues</a> in the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYavetz199896-35">[33]</a> Roman <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a>, which led to <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">several wars, persecutions, and massacres</a> in <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judea</a>, was not rooted in racial prejudice, but rather in the perception that the Jews, uniquely among conquered peoples, refused to integrate into the Roman world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubel202010-32">[30]</a> The Jews adhered to their own set of rules, restrictions and obligations, which were typically either disliked or misunderstood by the Romans, and they remained faithful to their own religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYavetz1998105-36">[34]</a> The exclusivist religious practices of the Jews, and their opposition to abandoning their own customs in favour of those of Rome,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubel202010-32">[30]</a> even after being conquered and repeatedly suppressed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYavetz1998105-36">[34]</a> evoked the suspicion of the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubel202010-32">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Antiquity">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_antiquity">Classical antiquity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Classical antiquity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins (Italic tribe)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Rome">Rise of Rome</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Roman tribe</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Founding_myths_and_Romans_of_the_republic">Founding myths and Romans of the republic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Founding myths and Romans of the republic">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sc%C3%A8ne_de_banquet,_fresque,_Herculanum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sc%C3%A8ne_de_banquet%2C_fresque%2C_Herculanum.jpg/220px-Sc%C3%A8ne_de_banquet%2C_fresque%2C_Herculanum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sc%C3%A8ne_de_banquet%2C_fresque%2C_Herculanum.jpg/330px-Sc%C3%A8ne_de_banquet%2C_fresque%2C_Herculanum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sc%C3%A8ne_de_banquet%2C_fresque%2C_Herculanum.jpg/440px-Sc%C3%A8ne_de_banquet%2C_fresque%2C_Herculanum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1984" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">Fresco</a> of Roman banquet scene from <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>, Italy, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 50 BC</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">founding of Rome</a>, and the history of the city and its people throughout its first few centuries, is steeped in myth and uncertainty. The traditional date for Rome's foundation, 753 BC, and the traditional date for the foundation of the Roman Republic, 509 BC, though commonly used even in modern historiography, are uncertain and mythical.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanders1908316-37">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[c]</a> The myths surrounding Rome's foundation combined, if not confused, several different stories, going from the origins of the Latin people under a king by the name <a href="/wiki/Latinus" title="Latinus">Latinus</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Evander_of_Pallantium" title="Evander of Pallantium">Evander of Pallantium</a>, who was said to have brought Greek culture to Italy, and a myth of Trojan origin through the heroic figure <a href="/wiki/Aeneas" title="Aeneas">Aeneas</a>. The actual mythical founder of the city itself, <a href="/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus">Romulus</a>, only appears many generations into the complex web of foundation myths. Interpretations of these myths varied among authors in Antiquity,<a href="#cite_note-43">[d]</a> but most agreed that their civilisation had been founded by a mixture of migrants and fugitives. These origin narratives would favour the later extensive integrations of foreigners into the Roman world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2014411-44">[40]</a> The origins of the people that became the first Romans are clearer. As in neighbouring city-states, the early Romans were composed mainly of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic people</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradleyGlinister2013179-45">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawsonFarquharson1923132-46">[42]</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a>. The Latins were a people with a marked Mediterranean character, related to other neighbouring Italic peoples such as the <a href="/wiki/Falisci" title="Falisci">Falisci</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawsonFarquharson1923135-47">[43]</a> The early Romans were part of the Latin homeland, known as <a href="/wiki/Old_Latium" title="Old Latium">Latium</a>, and were Latins themselves. By the time of the 6th century, the inhabitants of Rome had conquered and destroyed all the other Latin settlements and communities such as <a href="/wiki/Antemnae" title="Antemnae">Antemnae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Collatia" title="Collatia">Collatia</a> and defeated the hegemony of the settlement of <a href="/wiki/Alba_Longa" title="Alba Longa">Alba Longa</a>, which had previously united the Latin people under its leadership, a position that now belonged to Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawsonFarquharson1923144-48">[44]</a> From the middle of the 4th century onwards, Rome won a series of victories which saw them rise to rule all of Italy south of the <a href="/wiki/Po_(river)" title="Po (river)">Po river</a> by 270 BC. Following the conquest of Italy, the Romans waged war against the great powers of their time; <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> to the south and west and the various <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Hellenistic kingdoms</a> to the east, and by the middle of the second century BC, all rivals had been defeated and Rome became recognised by other countries as the definite masters of the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichShipley19952-49">[45]</a> By the late 3rd century BC, about a third of the people in Italy south of the Po river had been made Roman citizens, meaning that they were liable for military service, and the rest had been made into allies, frequently called on to join Roman wars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichShipley19952-49">[45]</a> These allies were eventually made Roman citizens as well after refusal by the Roman government to make them so was met with the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9387_BC)" title="Social War (91–87 BC)">Social War</a>, after which Roman citizenship was extended to all the people south of the Po river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichShipley19953-50">[46]</a> In 49 BC, citizenship rights were also extended to the people of <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a> by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavan20162-51">[47]</a> The number of Romans would rapidly increase in later centuries through further extensions of citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavan20162-51">[47]</a> Typically, there were five different mechanisms for acquiring Roman citizenship: serving in the Roman army, holding office in cities with the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin Rights">Latin right</a>, being granted it directly by the government, being part of a community that was granted citizenship as a "block grant" or, as a slave, being freed by a Roman citizen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavan20167-52">[48]</a> Just as it could be gained, Roman status could also be lost, for instance through engaging practices considered corrupt or by being carried off into captivity in enemy raids (though one could again become a Roman upon returning from captivity).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConant2015159-53">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Romans_of_the_early_empire">Romans of the early empire</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Romans of the early empire">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:220px;max-width:220px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:144px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Romans,_Vatican_Museum,_Sept._2011_-_Flickr_-_PhillipC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Romans%2C_Vatican_Museum%2C_Sept._2011_-_Flickr_-_PhillipC.jpg/218px-Romans%2C_Vatican_Museum%2C_Sept._2011_-_Flickr_-_PhillipC.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Romans%2C_Vatican_Museum%2C_Sept._2011_-_Flickr_-_PhillipC.jpg/327px-Romans%2C_Vatican_Museum%2C_Sept._2011_-_Flickr_-_PhillipC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Romans%2C_Vatican_Museum%2C_Sept._2011_-_Flickr_-_PhillipC.jpg/436px-Romans%2C_Vatican_Museum%2C_Sept._2011_-_Flickr_-_PhillipC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:220px;max-width:220px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:144px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Romans,_Vatican_Museum,_Rome,_Sept._2011_-_Flickr_-_PhillipC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Romans%2C_Vatican_Museum%2C_Rome%2C_Sept._2011_-_Flickr_-_PhillipC.jpg/218px-Romans%2C_Vatican_Museum%2C_Rome%2C_Sept._2011_-_Flickr_-_PhillipC.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Romans%2C_Vatican_Museum%2C_Rome%2C_Sept._2011_-_Flickr_-_PhillipC.jpg/327px-Romans%2C_Vatican_Museum%2C_Rome%2C_Sept._2011_-_Flickr_-_PhillipC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Romans%2C_Vatican_Museum%2C_Rome%2C_Sept._2011_-_Flickr_-_PhillipC.jpg/436px-Romans%2C_Vatican_Museum%2C_Rome%2C_Sept._2011_-_Flickr_-_PhillipC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Collection of female and male <a href="/wiki/Roman_portraiture" title="Roman portraiture">Roman busts</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Museums" title="Vatican Museums">Vatican Museums</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a></div></div></div></div> In the early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, the population was composed of several groups of distinct legal standing, including the Roman citizens themselves (cives romani), the provincials (provinciales), foreigners (peregrini) and free non-citizens such as freedmen (freed slaves) and slaves. Roman citizens were subject to the Roman legal system while provincials were subject to whatever laws and legal systems had been in place in their area at the time it was annexed by the Romans. Over time, Roman citizenship was gradually extended more and more and there was a regular "siphoning" of people from less privileged legal groups to more privileged groups, increasing the total percentage of subjects recognised as Romans though the incorporation of the provinciales and peregrini.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathisen2015153-54">[50]</a> The capability of the Roman Empire to integrate foreign peoples was one of the key elements that ensured its success. In antiquity, it was significantly easier as a foreigner to become a Roman than it was to become a member or citizen of any other contemporary state. This aspect of the Roman state was seen as important even by some of the emperors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20189-55">[51]</a> For instance, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 41–54) pointed it out when questioned by the senate on admitting <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> to join the senate:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20189-55">[51]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">What else proved fatal to <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Lacedaemon</a> or <a href="/wiki/History_of_Athens" title="History of Athens">Athens</a>, in spite of their power in arms, but their policy of holding the conquered aloof as alien-born? But the sagacity of our own founder <a href="/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus">Romulus</a> was such that several times he fought and naturalized a people in the course of the same day!<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20189-55">[51]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Affresco_romano_-_eracle_ed_onfale_-_area_vesuviana.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Affresco_romano_-_eracle_ed_onfale_-_area_vesuviana.JPG/170px-Affresco_romano_-_eracle_ed_onfale_-_area_vesuviana.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Affresco_romano_-_eracle_ed_onfale_-_area_vesuviana.JPG/255px-Affresco_romano_-_eracle_ed_onfale_-_area_vesuviana.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Affresco_romano_-_eracle_ed_onfale_-_area_vesuviana.JPG/340px-Affresco_romano_-_eracle_ed_onfale_-_area_vesuviana.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2073" data-file-height="2014" /></a><figcaption>Ancient <a href="/wiki/Roman_portraiture" title="Roman portraiture">Roman fresco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pompeian_Styles" title="Pompeian Styles">Pompeian Fourth Style</a> (45–79 AD), <a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum_of_Naples" class="mw-redirect" title="National Archaeological Museum of Naples">National Archaeological Museum of Naples</a>, Italy</figcaption></figure> From the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> (27 BC – AD 284) onwards, barbarians settled and integrated into the Roman world. Such settlers would have been granted certain legal rights simply by being within Roman territory, becoming provinciales and thus being eligible to serve as <a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxilia</a> (auxiliary soldiers), which in turn made them eligible to become full cives Romani. Through this relatively rapid process, thousands of former barbarians could quickly become Romans. This tradition of straightforward integration eventually culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonine Constitution">Antonine Constitution</a>, issued by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> in 212, in which all free inhabitants of Empire were granted the citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathisen2015154-56">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConant2015158-57">[53]</a> Caracalla's grant contributed to a vast increase in the number of people with the <a href="/wiki/Nomen_(Roman_name)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomen (Roman name)">nomen</a> (name indicating familial association) Aurelius.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavan20165-58">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[e]</a> By the time of the Antonine Constitution, many people throughout the provinces already considered themselves (and were considered by others) as Romans. Through the centuries of Roman expansion, large numbers of veterans and opportunists had settled in the provinces and colonies founded by Julius Caesar and <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> alone saw between 500,000 and a million people from Italy settled in Rome's provinces. In AD 14, four to seven percent of the free people in the provinces of the empire were already Roman citizens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavan20162-51">[47]</a> In addition to colonists, many provincials had also become citizens through grants by emperors and through other methods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavan20163-60">[55]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RomanEmpire_117.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/RomanEmpire_117.svg/220px-RomanEmpire_117.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/RomanEmpire_117.svg/330px-RomanEmpire_117.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/RomanEmpire_117.svg/440px-RomanEmpire_117.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in AD 117, at its greatest extent</figcaption></figure> In most cases, it is not clear to what extent the majority of the new Roman citizens regarded themselves as being Roman, or to what extent they were regarded as such by others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHope1997118-9">[7]</a> For some provincials under Roman rule, the only experience with "Romans" prior to themselves being granted citizenship was through Rome's at times coercive tax-collection system or its army, aspects which were not assimilative in terms of forming an empire-spanning collective identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis2014184-61">[56]</a> Caracalla's grant marked a radical change in imperial policy towards the provincials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams201818-62">[57]</a> It is possible that decades, and in many cases centuries, of <a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a> through Rome's cultural influence had already begun the evolution of a "national" Roman identity before 212 and that the grant only made the ongoing process legal,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis2014185-63">[58]</a> but the grant might also have served as the important prerequisite for a later nearly all-encompassing collective Roman identity. According to the British jurist <a href="/wiki/Tony_Honor%C3%A9" title="Tony Honoré">Tony Honoré</a>, the grant "gave many millions, perhaps a majority of the empire's inhabitants […] a new consciousness of being Roman".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams201818-62">[57]</a> It is likely that local identities survived after Caracalla's grant and remained prominent throughout the empire, but that self-identification as Roman provided a larger sense of common identity and became important when dealing with and distinguishing oneself from non-Romans, such as barbarian settlers and invaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilavec202091–92-10">[8]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Luxor.Aswan_%26_Qena_10.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Luxor.Aswan_%26_Qena_10.JPG/220px-Luxor.Aswan_%26_Qena_10.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Luxor.Aswan_%26_Qena_10.JPG/330px-Luxor.Aswan_%26_Qena_10.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Luxor.Aswan_%26_Qena_10.JPG/440px-Luxor.Aswan_%26_Qena_10.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Egyptian relief depicting Emperor <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 98–117; right) as a <a href="/wiki/Roman_pharaoh" title="Roman pharaoh">pharaoh</a></figcaption></figure> In many cases, ancient Romans associated the same things with their identity as historians do today: the rich ancient Latin literature, the impressive Roman architecture, the common marble statues, the variety of cult sites, the Roman infrastructure and legal tradition, as well as the almost corporate identity of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> were all cultural and symbolic ways to express Roman identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2014406–407-64">[59]</a> Although there was a more or less unifying Roman identity, Roman culture in classical times was also far from homogeneous. There was a common cultural idiom, large portions of which was based in earlier <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic culture">Hellenistic culture</a>, but Rome's strength also laid in its flexibility and its ability to incorporate traditions from other cultures. For instance, the religions of many conquered peoples were embraced through amalgamations of the gods of foreign pantheons with those of the Roman pantheon. In Egypt, Roman emperors were seen as the successors of the pharaohs (in modern historiography termed the <a href="/wiki/Roman_pharaoh" title="Roman pharaoh">Roman pharaohs</a>) and were depicted as such in artwork and in temples. Many cults from the eastern Mediterranean and beyond spread to Western Europe over the course of Roman rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2014409–410-65">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_antiquity">Late antiquity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Late antiquity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">Late Roman army</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Christianity">Rise of Christianity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epoca_romana,_ritratto_femminile_del_fayum,_IV_sec_dc.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Epoca_romana%2C_ritratto_femminile_del_fayum%2C_IV_sec_dc.JPG/170px-Epoca_romana%2C_ritratto_femminile_del_fayum%2C_IV_sec_dc.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Epoca_romana%2C_ritratto_femminile_del_fayum%2C_IV_sec_dc.JPG/255px-Epoca_romana%2C_ritratto_femminile_del_fayum%2C_IV_sec_dc.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Epoca_romana%2C_ritratto_femminile_del_fayum%2C_IV_sec_dc.JPG/340px-Epoca_romana%2C_ritratto_femminile_del_fayum%2C_IV_sec_dc.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>4th-century <a href="/wiki/Fayum_mummy_portraits" title="Fayum mummy portraits">portrait</a> of a woman from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a></figcaption></figure> Once the very core of ancient Romanness, the city of Rome gradually lost its exceptional status within the empire in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20189–10-66">[61]</a> By the end of the third century, the city's importance was almost entirely ideological, and several emperors and usurpers had begun reigning from other cities closer to the imperial frontier.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmissi201814-67">[62]</a> Rome's loss of status was also reflected in the perceptions of the city by the Roman populace. In the writings of the 4th-century Greek-speaking Roman soldier and author <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, Rome is described almost like a foreign city, with disparaging comments on its corruption and impurity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20189–10-66">[61]</a> Few Romans in late antiquity embodied all aspects of traditional Romanness. Many of them would have come from remote or less prestigious provinces and practiced religions and cults unheard of in Rome itself. Many of them would also have spoken 'barbarian languages' or Greek instead of Latin.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2023)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2023)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-68">[63]</a> Few inscriptions from late antiquity explicitly identify individuals as 'Roman citizens' or 'Romans'. Before the Antonine Constitution, being a Roman had been a mark of distinction and often stressed, but after the 3rd century Roman status went without saying. This silence does not mean that Romanness no longer mattered in the late Roman Empire, but rather that it had become less distinctive than other more specific marks of identity (such as local identities) and only needed to be stressed or highlighted if a person had recently become a Roman, or if the Roman status of a person was in doubt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20185-69">[64]</a> The prevalent view of the Romans themselves was that the populus Romanus, or Roman people, were a "people by constitution", as opposed to the barbarian peoples who were gentes, "peoples by descent" (i. e. ethnicities).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20187-70">[65]</a> Given that Romanness had become near-universal within the empire, local identities became more and more prominent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20185-69">[64]</a> In the late Roman Empire, one could identify as a Roman as a citizen of the empire, as a person originating from one of the major regions (Africa, Britannia, Gaul, Hispania etc.) or as originating from a specific province or city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201849-71">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[f]</a> Though the Romans themselves did not see them as equivalent concepts, there is no fundamental difference between such Roman sub-identities and the gens identities ascribed to barbarians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201846-72">[67]</a> In some cases, Roman authors ascribed different qualities to citizens of different parts of the empire, such as Ammianus Marcellinus who wrote of the differences between 'Gauls' and 'Italians'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201849-71">[66]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">late Roman army</a>, there were regiments named after Roman sub-identities, such as '<a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a>' and '<a href="/wiki/Batavians" class="mw-redirect" title="Batavians">Batavians</a>', as well as regiments named after barbarian gentes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> or <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201850-74">[68]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Istanbul_-_Ippodromo_-_Spettatori_-_Soldati_-_Base_obelisco_Teodosio_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Istanbul_-_Ippodromo_-_Spettatori_-_Soldati_-_Base_obelisco_Teodosio_01.jpg/220px-Istanbul_-_Ippodromo_-_Spettatori_-_Soldati_-_Base_obelisco_Teodosio_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Istanbul_-_Ippodromo_-_Spettatori_-_Soldati_-_Base_obelisco_Teodosio_01.jpg/330px-Istanbul_-_Ippodromo_-_Spettatori_-_Soldati_-_Base_obelisco_Teodosio_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Istanbul_-_Ippodromo_-_Spettatori_-_Soldati_-_Base_obelisco_Teodosio_01.jpg/440px-Istanbul_-_Ippodromo_-_Spettatori_-_Soldati_-_Base_obelisco_Teodosio_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Late Roman soldiers, possibly of barbarian origin, as depicted in a relief by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 379–395)</figcaption></figure> The Roman army underwent considerable changes in the 4th century, experiencing what some have called 'barbarisation',<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201850-74">[68]</a> traditionally understood as the result of recruitments of large amounts of barbarian soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBileta201625-75">[69]</a> Though barbarian origins were seldom forgotten, the large scale and <a href="/wiki/Meritocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Meritocratic">meritocratic</a> nature of the Roman army made it relatively easy for "barbarian" recruits to enter the army and rise through the ranks only through their skills and achievements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBileta201626-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[g]</a> It is not clear to what extent there was actual non-Roman influence on the military; it is plausible that extensive numbers of barbarians were made part of the normal Roman military but it is equally plausible that there was also, or instead, a certain 'barbarian <a href="/wiki/Chic" title="Chic">chic</a>' in the army, comparable to the 19th-century French <a href="/wiki/Zouave" title="Zouave">Zouaves</a> (French military units in North Africa who adopted native clothing and cultural practices).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201850-74">[68]</a> The rise of non-Roman customs in the Roman military might not have resulted from increasing numbers of barbarian recruits, but rather from Roman military units along the imperial borders forming their own distinctive identities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBileta201628-79">[72]</a> In the late empire, the term "barbarian" was sometimes used in a general sense by Romans not in the military for Roman soldiers stationed alongside the imperial border, in reference to their perceived aggressive nature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBileta201629–30-80">[73]</a> No matter the reason, the Roman military increasingly came to embody 'barbarian' aspects that in previous times had been considered antithetical to the Roman ideal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201850-74">[68]</a> Such aspects included emphasising strength and thirst for battle, as well as the assumption of "barbarian" strategies and customs, such as the <a href="/wiki/Barritus" title="Barritus">barritus</a> (a formerly Germanic battle cry), the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Schilderhebung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Schilderhebung (page does not exist)">Schilderhebung</a> (raising an elected emperor up on a shield) as well as Germanic battle formations. The assumption of these customs might instead of barbarisation be attributable to the Roman army simply adopting customs it found useful, a common practice. Some barbarian soldiers recruited into the Roman army proudly embraced Roman identification<a href="#cite_note-82">[h]</a> and in some cases, the barbarian heritage of certain late Roman individuals was even completely ignored in the wider Roman world.<a href="#cite_note-85">[i]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:377px;max-width:377px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:159px;max-width:159px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:157px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Chrisme_Colosseum_Rome_Italy_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Chrisme_Colosseum_Rome_Italy_crop.jpg/157px-Chrisme_Colosseum_Rome_Italy_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="157" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Chrisme_Colosseum_Rome_Italy_crop.jpg/236px-Chrisme_Colosseum_Rome_Italy_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Chrisme_Colosseum_Rome_Italy_crop.jpg/314px-Chrisme_Colosseum_Rome_Italy_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2533" data-file-height="2543" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:214px;max-width:214px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:157px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png/212px-Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png" decoding="async" width="212" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png/318px-Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png/424px-Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png 2x" data-file-width="2187" data-file-height="1619" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Chi_Rho" title="Chi Rho">Chi Rho</a> as depicted on a 4th-century sarcophagus and the spread of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> from AD 325 (dark blue) to AD 600 (light blue)</div></div></div></div> Religion had always been an important marker of Romanness. As Christianity gradually became the dominant religion in the Roman Empire through late antiquity, and eventually became the only legal faith, the Christianised Roman aristocracy had to redefine their Roman identity in Christian terms. The rise of Christianity did not go unnoticed or unchallenged by the conservative elements of the pagan Roman elite, who became aware that power was slipping from their hands. Many of them, pressured by the increasingly anti-pagan and militant Christians, turned to emphasising that they were the only 'true Romans' as they preserved the traditional Roman religion and literary culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHen201861–62-86">[77]</a> According to the Roman statesman and orator <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Quintus Aurelius Symmachus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 345–402), true Romans were those who followed the traditional Roman way of life, including its ancient religions, and it was adherence to those religions that in the end would protect the empire from its enemies, as in previous centuries. Per Symmachus and his supporters, Romanness had nothing to do with Christianity, but depended on Rome's pagan past and its status as the heart of a vast and polytheistic empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHen201863-87">[78]</a> The ideas of Symmachus were not popular among the Christians. Some church leaders, such as <a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Milan" class="mw-redirect" title="Archbishop of Milan">Archbishop of Mediolanum</a>, launched formal and vicious assaults on paganism and those members of the elite which defended it. Like Symmachus, Ambrose saw Rome as the greatest city of the Roman Empire, but not because of its pagan past but because of its Christian present. Throughout late antiquity, Romanness became increasingly defined by Christian faith, which would eventually become the standard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHen201864-88">[79]</a> The status of Christianity was much increased through the adoption of the religion by the Roman emperors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHen201861-89">[80]</a> Throughout late antiquity, the emperors and their courts were viewed as the Romans par excellence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConant2015157-90">[81]</a> As the Roman Empire lost, or ceded control of, territories to various barbarian rulers, the status of the Roman citizens in those provinces sometimes came into question. People born as Roman citizens in regions that then came under barbarian control could be subjected to the same prejudice as barbarians were.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConant2015156-91">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[j]</a> Over the course of the Roman Empire, men from nearly all of its provinces had come to rule as emperors. As such, Roman identity remained political, rather than ethnic, and open to people of various origins. This nature of Roman identity ensured that there was never a strong consolidation of a 'core identity' of Romans in Italy, but also likely contributed to the long-term endurance and success of the Roman state. The fall of the Western Roman Empire coincided with the first time the Romans actively excluded an influential foreign group within the empire, the barbarian and barbarian-descended generals of the 5th century, from Roman identity and access to the Roman imperial throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2014415-93">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_history">Later history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Later history">edit</a>]</div> The Roman Empire's expansion facilitated the spread of Roman identity over a large stretch of territories that had never before had a common identity and never would again. The effects of Roman rule on the personal identities of the empire's subjects was considerable and the resulting Roman identity outlasted actual imperial control by several centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20183-94">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Europe">Western Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Western Europe">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_two_emperors" title="Problem of two emperors">Problem of two emperors</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_endurance_of_Roman_identity">Early endurance of Roman identity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Early endurance of Roman identity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diptych_Rufus_Gennadius_Probus_Orestes_VandA_139-1866.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Diptych_Rufus_Gennadius_Probus_Orestes_VandA_139-1866.jpg/170px-Diptych_Rufus_Gennadius_Probus_Orestes_VandA_139-1866.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Diptych_Rufus_Gennadius_Probus_Orestes_VandA_139-1866.jpg/255px-Diptych_Rufus_Gennadius_Probus_Orestes_VandA_139-1866.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Diptych_Rufus_Gennadius_Probus_Orestes_VandA_139-1866.jpg/340px-Diptych_Rufus_Gennadius_Probus_Orestes_VandA_139-1866.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2739" data-file-height="4106" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Consular_diptych" title="Consular diptych">Consular diptych</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rufius_Gennadius_Probus_Orestes" title="Rufius Gennadius Probus Orestes">Rufius Gennadius Probus Orestes</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Roman consul</a> appointed during the time that Rome was under <a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic rule</a></figcaption></figure> From the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the late 5th century to the wars of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> in the 6th century, the predominant structure of societies in the west was a near-completely barbarian military but also a near-completely Roman civil administration and aristocracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201851-95">[85]</a> The new Barbarian rulers took steps to present themselves as legitimate rulers within the Roman framework,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGillett2002118–119-96">[86]</a> with the pretense of legitimacy being especially strong among the rulers of Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1962127-97">[87]</a> The early kings of Italy, first <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theoderic the Great</a>, were legally and ostensibly <a href="/wiki/Viceroys" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroys">viceroys</a> of the eastern emperor and thus integrated into the Roman government. Like the western emperors before them, they continued to appoint western consuls, which were accepted in the east and by the other barbarian kings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1962126-98">[88]</a> The imperial court in the east extended various honours to powerful barbarian rulers in the west, which was interpreted by the barbarians as enhancing their legitimacy; something they used to justify territorial expansion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathisen2012105–107-99">[89]</a> In the early 6th century, <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> of the Franks and Theoderic the Great of the Ostrogoths nearly went to war with each other, a conflict that could have resulted in the re-establishment of the western empire under either king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201852-100">[90]</a> Concerned about such a prospect, the eastern court never again extended similar honours to western rulers,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathisen2012105–107-99">[89]</a> instead beginning to emphasise its own exclusive Roman legitimacy, which it would continue to do for the rest of its history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201852-100">[90]</a> Culturally and legally, Roman identity remained prominent in the west for centuries,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201814-101">[91]</a> still providing a sense of unity throughout the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConant2015157-90">[81]</a> Italy's Ostrogothic Kingdom preserved the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>, which often dominated politics in Rome,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201811–12-102">[92]</a> illustrating the survival of and continued respect for Roman institutions and identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnish1988151-103">[93]</a> The barbarian kings continued to use <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> throughout the early Middle Ages,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201814-101">[91]</a> often issuing their own law collections. In 6th-century law collections issued by the Visigoths in Spain and the Franks in Gaul, it is clear that there were still large populations identifying as Romans in these regions given that the law collections distinguish between barbarians who live by their own laws and Romans who live by Roman law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201814-101">[91]</a> Even after Italy was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> in the late 6th century, the continued administration and urbanisation of northern Italy attest to a continued survival of Roman institutions and values.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnish1988151-103">[93]</a> It was still possible for non-citizens (such as barbarians) in the west to become Roman citizens well into the 7th and 8th centuries; several surviving Visigothic and Frankish documents explain the benefits of becoming a Roman citizen and there are records of rulers and nobles freeing slaves and making them into citizens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201812–13-104">[94]</a> Despite this, Roman identity was in a steep decline by the 7th and 8th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-106">[k]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Disappearances_of_Roman_identity">Disappearances of Roman identity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Disappearances of Roman identity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Justinien_527-565.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Justinien_527-565.svg/220px-Justinien_527-565.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Justinien_527-565.svg/330px-Justinien_527-565.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Justinien_527-565.svg/440px-Justinien_527-565.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="871" /></a><figcaption>The 6th-century reconquests of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> (in yellow)</figcaption></figure>The great turning point in the history of the latter-day Romans of the west was the wars of Justinian I (533–555), aimed at reconquering the lost provinces of the Western Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201853-105">[95]</a> During Justinian's early reign, eastern authors re-wrote 5th-century history to portray the west as "lost" to barbarian invasions, rather than attempting to further integrate the barbarian rulers into the Roman world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201852-100">[90]</a> By the end of the Justinianic wars, imperial control had returned to northern Africa and Italy, but the wars being founded on the idea that anything outside of the eastern empire's direct control was no longer part of the Roman Empire meant that there could no longer be any doubt that the lands beyond the imperial frontier were no longer Roman and instead remained "lost to barbarians". As a result, Roman identity in the still barbarian-ruled regions (i.e. Gaul, Spain and Britain) declined dramatically.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201853-105">[95]</a> During the reconquest of Italy, the Roman Senate disappeared and most of its members moved to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. Though the senate achieved a certain legacy in the west,<a href="#cite_note-107">[l]</a> the end of the institution removed a group that had always set the standard of what Romanness was supposed to mean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201838-108">[96]</a> The war in Italy also divided the Roman elite there between those who enjoyed barbarian rule and those who supported the empire and later withdrew to imperial territory, meaning that Roman identity ceased to provide a sense of social and political cohesion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201838-108">[96]</a> The division of Western Europe into multiple different kingdoms accelerated the disappearance of Roman identity, as the previously unifying identity was replaced by local identities based on the region one was from. The fading connectivitiy also meant that while largely Roman law and culture continued on, the language became increasingly fragmented and split, Latin gradually developing into what would become the modern <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20184-15">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201815–18,_38–39-109">[97]</a> Where they had once been the majority of the population, the Romans of Gaul and Hispania gradually and quietly faded away as their descendants adopted other names and identities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201815–18,_38–39-109">[97]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a>, the people of the large urban centers clinged to Roman identity, but rural populations integrated and assimilated with Germanic colonisers (the <a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>). Once the large cities declined, Roman identity faded away in Britain as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESorrill201235–36-110">[98]</a> The adoption of local identities in Gaul and Hispania was made more attractive in that they were not binary opposed to the identity of the barbarian rulers in the same way that 'Roman' was; for instance, one could not be both Roman and Frankish, but it was possible to, for instance, be both Arvernian (i.e. from <a href="/wiki/Auvergne" title="Auvergne">Auvergne</a>) and Frankish.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201855-111">[99]</a> In Hispania, "Gothic" transitioned from simply an ethnic identity to being both an ethnic one (in the sense of descent from Goths) and a political one (in the sense of allegiance to the king). Gothic becoming more fluid and multi-dimensional as an identity facilitated a smooth transition from people identifying as Romans to people identifying as Goths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchberger2015Conclusion-112">[100]</a> There were few differences between the Goths and the Romans of Hispania at this point; the Visigoths no longer practised <a href="/wiki/Arian_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Arian Christianity">Arian Christianity</a> and Romans, just like the Goths, were from the 6th century onwards allowed to serve in the military. Though Roman identity was rapidly disappearing, the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a> in the 6th and 7th centuries thus also produced several prominent latter-day Roman generals, such as <a href="/wiki/Claudius,_Duke_of_Lusitania" title="Claudius, Duke of Lusitania">Claudius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Paulus" title="Flavius Paulus">Paulus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArce2018373–374-113">[101]</a> The disappearance of the Romans is reflected in the barbarian law collections. In the <a href="/wiki/Salic_law" title="Salic law">Salic law</a> of Clovis I (from around 500), the Romans and the Franks are the two major parallel populations of the kingdom and both have well-defined legal statuses. A century later in the <a href="/wiki/Lex_Ripuaria" title="Lex Ripuaria">Lex Ripuaria</a>, the Romans are just one of many smaller semi-free populations, restricted in their legal capacity, with many of their former advantages now associated with Frankish identity. Such legal arrangements would have been unthinkable under the Roman Empire and under the early decades of barbarian rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201848-114">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201855-111">[99]</a> By <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>'s imperial coronation in 800, Roman identity largely disappeared in Western Europe and fell to low social status.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201839-115">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarti20161055–1056-116">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[m]</a> The situation was somewhat paradoxical: living Romans, in Rome and elsewhere, had a poor reputation, with records of anti-Roman attacks and the use of 'Roman' as an insult, but the name of Rome was also used a source of great and unfailing political power and prestige, employed by many aristocratic families (sometimes proudly proclaiming invented Roman origins) and rulers throughout history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201839-115">[103]</a> Through suppressing Roman identity in the lands they ruled and discounting the remaining empire in the east as "Greek", the Frankish state hoped to avoid the possibility of the Roman people proclaiming a Roman emperor in the same way that the Franks proclaimed a Frankish king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201820-119">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reversion_to_Rome_proper">Reversion to Rome proper</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Reversion to Rome proper">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:4_Gift_Bringers_of_Otto_III.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/4_Gift_Bringers_of_Otto_III.jpg/220px-4_Gift_Bringers_of_Otto_III.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/4_Gift_Bringers_of_Otto_III.jpg/330px-4_Gift_Bringers_of_Otto_III.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/4_Gift_Bringers_of_Otto_III.jpg/440px-4_Gift_Bringers_of_Otto_III.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="631" /></a><figcaption>Personifications (left to right) of the <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gallic</a> and Roman peoples, depicted as bringing gifts to <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Otto_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor">Otto III</a></figcaption></figure>The population of the city of Rome continued to identify, and be identified, as Romans by westerners. Although Rome's history was not forgotten, the city's importance in the Middle Ages primarily stemmed from it being the seat of the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">pope</a>,<a href="#cite_note-120">[n]</a> a view shared by both westerners and the eastern empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201810-121">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelogu2018157-122">[108]</a> During the centuries following Justinian's reconquest, when the city was still under imperial control, the population was not specially administered and did not have any political participation in wider imperial affairs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelogu2018157-122">[108]</a> When clashing with the emperors, the popes sometimes employed the fact that they had the backing of the populus Romanus ("people of Rome") as a legitimising factor, meaning that the city still endured some ideological importance in terms of Romanness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201811-123">[109]</a> Western European authors and intellectuals increasingly associated Romanness only with the city itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201810-121">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[o]</a> By the second half of the 8th century, westerners almost exclusively used the term to refer to the population of the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelogu2018157-122">[108]</a> When the temporal power of the papacy was established through the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> in the 8th century, the popes used the fact that they were accompanied and supported by the populus Romanus as something that legitimised their sovereignty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelogu2018157-122">[108]</a> The Roman populace considered neither the eastern empire nor Charlemagne's new "<a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>" to be properly Roman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranier2018225-125">[110]</a> Though the continuity from Rome to Constantinople was accepted in the west,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranier2018223–225-126">[111]</a> surviving sources point to the easterners being seen as Greeks who had abandoned Rome and Roman identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranier2018225-125">[110]</a> The Carolingian kings on the other hand were seen as having more to do with the Lombard kings of Italy than the ancient Roman emperors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranier2018223–225-126">[111]</a> The medieval Romans also often equated the Franks with the ancient Gauls, and viewed them as aggressive, insolent and vain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranier2018196-127">[112]</a> Despite this, the Holy Roman emperors were recognised by the citizens of Rome as true Roman emperors,<a href="#cite_note-128">[p]</a> albeit only because of their support and coronation by the popes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranier2018225-125">[110]</a> The Franks and other westerners did not view the population of Rome favourably either. Foreign sources are generally hostile, ascribing traits such as unrest and deceit to the Romans and describing them as "as proud as they are helpless". Anti-Roman sentiment lasted throughout the Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-130">[q]</a> The Romans partly owed their bad reputation to sometimes trying to take an independent position towards the popes of the Holy Roman emperors. Given that these rulers were seen as having <a href="/wiki/Universal_power" title="Universal power">universal power</a>, the Romans were considered intruders in affairs that exceeded their competence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranier2018158,_168-129">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Africa">North Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: North Africa">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vandal_Kingdom_Hilderic_Denarius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Vandal_Kingdom_Hilderic_Denarius.jpg/220px-Vandal_Kingdom_Hilderic_Denarius.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Vandal_Kingdom_Hilderic_Denarius.jpg/330px-Vandal_Kingdom_Hilderic_Denarius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Vandal_Kingdom_Hilderic_Denarius.jpg/440px-Vandal_Kingdom_Hilderic_Denarius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption>Coin of the Vandal king <a href="/wiki/Hilderic" title="Hilderic">Hilderic</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr>  523–530). Reverse depicts <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> personified and is inscribed Felix Karthago ("fortunate Carthage").</figcaption></figure> Unlike the other kingdoms, the <a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal Kingdom</a> in North Africa did not maintain a pretense of loyalty to the Roman Empire. Since the term 'Roman' was seen as implying political loyalty to the empire, it was regarded by the Vandal government as politically loaded and suspicious. As a consequence, the Roman population of the kingdom rarely self-identified as such,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConant2015164-131">[114]</a> though important markers of Romanness, such as Roman naming customs, adherence to Nicene Christianity as well as the Latin-language literary tradition,<a href="#cite_note-133">[r]</a> survived throughout the kingdom's existence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker20185-134">[116]</a> Despite objections to 'Roman' as a term for the populace, the Vandals partly appealed to Roman legitimacy to legitimise themselves as rulers, given that the Vandal kings had marriage connections to the imperial <a href="/wiki/Theodosian_dynasty" title="Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian dynasty</a>. However, the Vandal state more strongly worked to legitimise itself through appealing to the pre-Roman cultural elements of the region, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian empire">Carthaginian Empire</a>. Some symbols of the ancient state were revived and the city of <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, capital of the kingdom, was heavily emphasised in poetry, on coinage and in the creation of a new "Carthaginian calendar". Coins minted by the Vandals were inscribed with Felix Karthago ("fortunate Carthage") and Carthagine Perpetua ("Carthage eternal").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201844,_48-135">[117]</a> The Vandalic promotion of independent African symbols had a profound effect on the formerly Roman populace of their kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201812–14-136">[118]</a> By the time the soldiers of the eastern empire landed in Africa during Justinian's <a href="/wiki/Vandalic_War" title="Vandalic War">Vandalic War</a>, the Romance people of North Africa had ceased to identify as Romans, instead preferring either Libyans (Libicus) or <a href="/wiki/Punic_people" title="Punic people">Punic people</a> (Punicus). Contemporary eastern authors also described them as Libyans (Λίβυες).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201812–14-136">[118]</a> During the Vandal Kingdom's brief existence, the Vandal ruling class had culturally and ethnically merged with the Romano-Africans. By the time the kingdom fell, the only real cultural differences between the "Libyans" and "Vandals" were that Vandals adhered to Arian Christianity and were permitted to serve in the army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker20187,_10-137">[119]</a> After North Africa was reincorporated into the empire, the eastern Roman government deported the Vandals from the region, which shortly thereafter led to disappearance of the Vandals as a distinct group. The only individuals recorded to have been deported were soldiers; given that the wives and children of the "Vandals" thus remained in North Africa, the name at this stage appears to mainly have denoted the soldier class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201826-138">[120]</a> Despite North Africa's reincorporation into the empire, the distinction between "Libyans" and "Romans" (i.e. the inhabitants of the eastern empire) was maintained by both groups. Per the writings of the 6th-century eastern historian <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a>, the Libyans were descended from Romans, ruled by the Romans, and served in the Roman army, but their Romanness had diverged too much from that of the populace of the empire as a result of the century of Vandal rule. Imperial policy reflected the view that the North Africans were no longer Romans. Whereas governors in the eastern provinces were often native to their respective provinces, the military and administrative staff in North Africa was almost entirely constituted by easterners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201855–57-139">[121]</a> The imperial government distrusting the locals was hardly surprising given that imperial troops had been harassed by local (formerly Roman) peasants during the Vandalic War, supportive of the Vandal regime, and that there had been several rebels thereafter, such as <a href="/wiki/Guntarith" title="Guntarith">Guntarith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stotzas" title="Stotzas">Stotzas</a>, who sought to restore an independent kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201856-140">[122]</a> The distinction between the Romans and the Romance people of North Africa is also reflected in foreign sources, and the two populations appear to not yet have been reconciled by the time the African provinces fell during the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest of the Maghreb</a> and Roman rule was terminated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201855–57-139">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[s]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Eastern Mediterranean">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantine Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greeks" title="Ottoman Greeks">Ottoman Greeks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/R%C3%BBm" class="mw-redirect" title="Rûm">Rûm</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Survival_of_the_Roman_Empire_in_the_east">Survival of the Roman Empire in the east</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Survival of the Roman Empire in the east">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hexagram-Constans_II_and_Constantine_IV-sb0995.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Hexagram-Constans_II_and_Constantine_IV-sb0995.jpg/220px-Hexagram-Constans_II_and_Constantine_IV-sb0995.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Hexagram-Constans_II_and_Constantine_IV-sb0995.jpg/330px-Hexagram-Constans_II_and_Constantine_IV-sb0995.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Hexagram-Constans_II_and_Constantine_IV-sb0995.jpg/440px-Hexagram-Constans_II_and_Constantine_IV-sb0995.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="299" /></a><figcaption>Coin depicting emperors <a href="/wiki/Constans_II" title="Constans II">Constans II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 641–668) and <a href="/wiki/Constantine_IV" title="Constantine IV">Constantine IV</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 668–685). The coin is inscribed with the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> phrase Deus adiuta Romanis ("May God help the Romans").</figcaption></figure>Eastern Mediterranean populations, which remained under Eastern Roman (or "<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a>") control after the 5th century, retained "Roman" as their predominant identity;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201819-142">[123]</a> the majority of the population saw themselves as being Roman beyond any doubt and their emperor as ruling from the cultural and religious center of the Roman Empire: Constantinople, the New Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis2014177-143">[124]</a> In the centuries when the Byzantine Empire was still a vast Mediterranean-spanning state, Roman identity was more strong in the imperial heartlands than on the peripheries,<a href="#cite_note-144">[t]</a> though it was also strongly embraced in the peripheral regions in times of uncertainty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201819-142">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[u]</a> As in earlier centuries, the Romans of the early Byzantine Empire were considered a people united by being subjects of the Roman state, rather than a people united through sharing ethnic descent (i.e. gens like those ascribed to different barbarian groups).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20187-70">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[v]</a> The term extended to all Christian citizens of the empire, in a general sense referring to those who followed <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian Christianity</a> and were loyal to the emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201820,_27-148">[126]</a> In Byzantine writings up until at least the 12th century, the idea of the Roman "homeland" consistently referred not to Greece or Italy, but to the entire old Roman world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis2014188–189-149">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[w]</a> Despite this, the Romans of Byzantium were also aware that their present empire was no longer as powerful as it once had been, and that centuries of warfare and strife had left the Roman Empire reduced in territory and somewhat humbled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis201774-152">[129]</a> Given that the rulers of the Byzantine Empire were predominantly Hellenic, and the percentage of the population that was Hellenic became greater as the empire's borders were increasingly reduced, Western Europeans, from as early as the 6th century onwards,<a href="#cite_note-154">[x]</a> often referred to it as a Greek empire, inhabited by Greeks. To the early Byzantines themselves, up until the 11th century or so, terms such as <a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Greeks" title="Names of the Greeks">"Hellenes"</a> were seen as offensive, as it downplayed their Roman nature and furthermore associated them with the ancient Pagan Greeks rather than the more recent Christian Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron20097-155">[131]</a> The westerners were not unaware of Byzantium's Romanness; when not wishing to distance themselves from the eastern empire, the term Romani was frequently used for soldiers and subjects of the eastern emperors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201820-119">[106]</a> From the 6th to 8th century, western authors also sometimes employed terms such as res publica or sancta res publica for the Byzantine Empire, still identifying it with the old Roman Republic. Such references ceased as Byzantine control of Italy and Rome itself crumbled and the Papacy began to use the term for their own, much more regional, domain and sphere of influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201811-123">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="After_the_Muslim_conquests">After the Muslim conquests</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: After the Muslim conquests">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manuel_II_Helena_sons.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Manuel_II_Helena_sons.JPG/220px-Manuel_II_Helena_sons.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Manuel_II_Helena_sons.JPG/330px-Manuel_II_Helena_sons.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Manuel_II_Helena_sons.JPG/440px-Manuel_II_Helena_sons.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1121" data-file-height="1541" /></a><figcaption>15th-century miniature depicting Emperor <a href="/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaiologos" title="Manuel II Palaiologos">Manuel II Palaiologos</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1391–1425) and his family. The text titles him as "Emperor and <a href="/wiki/Autokrator" title="Autokrator">Autocrat</a> of the Romans" and "forever <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a>".</figcaption></figure> As the Byzantine Empire lost its territories in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and Italy, the Christians who lived in those regions ceased to be recognised by the Byzantine government as Romans,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis201774-152">[129]</a> much in the same vein as had happened with the North Africans under Vandal rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201812–14-136">[118]</a> The decrease in the diversity of peoples recognised as being Roman meant that the term Roman increasingly came to be applied only to the now dominant Hellenic population of the remaining territories, rather than to all imperial citizens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis201774-152">[129]</a> As the Hellenic populace were united by following Orthodox Christianity, spoke the same Greek language, and believed that they shared a common ethnic origin,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmarnakis2015213-156">[132]</a> "Roman" (Rhōmaîoi in Greek)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201819-142">[123]</a> thus gradually transformed into an ethnic identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmarnakis2015221-157">[133]</a> By the late 7th century, Greek, rather than Latin, had begun being referred to in the east as the rhomaisti (Roman way of speaking).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis201774-152">[129]</a> In chronicles written in the 10th century, the Rhōmaîoi begin to appear as just one of the ethnicities in the empire (alongside, for instance, Armenians) and by the late 11th century, there are references in historical writings to people as being "Rhōmaîos by birth", signalling the completion of the transformation of "Roman" into an ethnic description. At this point, "Roman" also began being used for Greek populations outside of the imperial borders, such as to the Greek-speaking Christians under <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Seljuk</a> rule in Anatolia, who were referred to as Rhōmaîoi despite actively resisting attempts at re-integration by the Byzantine emperors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis201780-158">[134]</a> Only a handful of late sources retain the old view of a Roman being a citizen of the Roman world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmarnakis2015221-157">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[y]</a> The capture of Constantinople by the non-Roman Latin crusaders of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> in 1204 ended the unbroken Roman continuity from Rome to Constantinople. In order to legitimise themselve as Romans in the decades when they no longer controlled Constantinople, the Byzantine elite began to look to other markers of what Romans were. The elites of the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Empire of Nicaea</a>, the Byzantine government-in-exile, chiefly looked to Greek cultural heritage and Orthodox Christianity, connecting the contemporary Romans to the ancient Greeks. This contributed to Romanness becoming even more increasingly associated with people who were ethno-culturally Hellenic. Under the Nicene emperors <a href="/wiki/John_III_Doukas_Vatatzes" title="John III Doukas Vatatzes">John III</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1222–1254) and <a href="/wiki/Theodore_II_Laskaris" title="Theodore II Laskaris">Theodore II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1254–1258), these ideas were taken further than ever before as they explicitly stated that the present Rhōmaîoi were Hellenes, descendants of the Ancient Greeks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis201785-160">[135]</a> Though they saw themselves as Hellenic, the Nicene emperors also maintained that they were the only true Roman emperors. "Roman" and "Hellenic" were not viewed as opposing terms, but building blocks of the same double-identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis201786-161">[136]</a> During the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Palaiologos" title="Palaiologos">Palaiologos</a> dynasty, from the recapture of Constantinople in 1261 to the fall of the empire in 1453, Hellene lost ground as a self-identity, with few known uses of the term, and Rhōmaîoi once again became the dominant term used for self-description.<a href="#cite_note-Kaplanis_2014_92-162">[137]</a> Some Byzantine authors went as far as to return to using "Hellenic" and "Greek" solely as terms for the ancient pagan Greeks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmarnakis2015221–222-163">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[z]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="After_the_fall_of_Constantinople">After the fall of Constantinople</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: After the fall of Constantinople">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer,_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_1.jpg/220px-Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_1.jpg/330px-Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_1.jpg/440px-Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1187" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greeks" title="Ottoman Greeks">Ottoman Greeks</a> in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, painted by <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Mayer" title="Luigi Mayer">Luigi Mayer</a> (1755–1803)</figcaption></figure> Rhōmaîoi survived the fall of the Byzantine Empire as the primary self-designation of the Christian Greek inhabitants of the new Turkish <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. The popular historical memory of these Romans was not occupied with the glorious past of the Roman Empire of old or the Hellenism in the Byzantine Empire, but focused on legends of the fall and the loss of their Christian homeland and Constantinople. One such narrative was the myth that the last emperor, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_XI_Palaiologos" title="Constantine XI Palaiologos">Constantine XI Palaiologos</a> would one day return from the dead to reconquer the city,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis201788-165">[139]</a> a myth that endured in Greek folklore up until the time of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a> (1821–1829) and beyond.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicol1992107–108-166">[140]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</a>, especially those who lived in the cities and were not part of the military or administration, also self-identified as Romans (Rūmī, رومى), as inhabitants of former Byzantine territory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKafadar200711-167">[141]</a> The term Rūmī had originally been used by Muslims for Christians in general, though later became restricted to just the Byzantines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÖzbaran200166-168">[142]</a> After 1453, the term was not only sometimes a Turkish self-identification, but it was also used to refer to Ottoman Turks by other Islamic states and peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKafadar200711-167">[141]</a> The identification of the Ottomans with the Romans was also made outside of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a>. 16th-century Portuguese sources refer to the Ottomans they battled in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> as "rumes"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÖzbaran200164-169">[143]</a> and the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> dynasty referred to the Ottomans as Lumi (魯迷), a transliteration of Rūmī, and to Constantinople as Lumi cheng (魯迷城, "Lumi city").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMosca2010153-170">[144]</a> As applied to Ottoman Turks, Rūmī began to fall out of use at the end of the 17th century, and instead the word increasingly became associated only with the Greek population of the empire, a meaning that it still bears in Turkey today.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene201551-171">[145]</a> As applied to the Greeks, the self-identity as Romans endured longer, and for a long time there was widespread hope that the Romans would be liberated and that their empire would be restored.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos200984–85-172">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[aa]</a> By the time of the Greek War of Independence, the dominant self-identity of the Greeks was still Rhōmaîoi or Romioi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakrygiannis1849117-174">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_identity">Modern identity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Modern identity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy of the Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rossetti_-_Proclamazione_della_Repubblica_Romana,_nel_1849,_in_Piazza_del_Popolo_-_1861.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Rossetti_-_Proclamazione_della_Repubblica_Romana%2C_nel_1849%2C_in_Piazza_del_Popolo_-_1861.jpg/220px-Rossetti_-_Proclamazione_della_Repubblica_Romana%2C_nel_1849%2C_in_Piazza_del_Popolo_-_1861.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Rossetti_-_Proclamazione_della_Repubblica_Romana%2C_nel_1849%2C_in_Piazza_del_Popolo_-_1861.jpg/330px-Rossetti_-_Proclamazione_della_Repubblica_Romana%2C_nel_1849%2C_in_Piazza_del_Popolo_-_1861.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Rossetti_-_Proclamazione_della_Repubblica_Romana%2C_nel_1849%2C_in_Piazza_del_Popolo_-_1861.jpg/440px-Rossetti_-_Proclamazione_della_Repubblica_Romana%2C_nel_1849%2C_in_Piazza_del_Popolo_-_1861.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Proclamation in 1849 of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(1849)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republic (1849)">Roman Republic</a> in <a href="/wiki/Piazza_del_Popolo" title="Piazza del Popolo">Piazza del Popolo</a>, Rome</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> of Rome continue to identify with the demonym 'Roman' to this day. Rome is the most populous city in Italy with the city proper being home to about 2.8 million citizens and the <a href="/wiki/Rome_metropolitan_area" title="Rome metropolitan area">Rome metropolitan area</a> to over four million people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorld_Population_Review-175">[148]</a> Since the collapse of the western Roman empire, the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">Papacy</a> has continued the institution of the <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifex Maximus">Pontifex Maximus</a> and governments inspired by the ancient Roman Republic have been revived in the city four times. The earliest such government was the <a href="/wiki/Commune_of_Rome" title="Commune of Rome">Commune of Rome</a> in the 12th century, founded as opposition towards the temporal powers of the Pope, which was followed by the government of <a href="/wiki/Cola_di_Rienzo" title="Cola di Rienzo">Cola di Rienzo</a>, who used the titles of 'tribune' and 'senator', in the 14th century, a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(18th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republic (18th century)">sister republic to revolutionary France</a> in the 18th century, which restored the office of Roman consul, and finally as the short-lived <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(1849)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republic (1849)">Roman Republic</a> in 1849, with a government based on the <a href="/wiki/Triumvirate" title="Triumvirate">triumvirates</a> of ancient Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilcox2013-176">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVandiver_Nicassio200921-177">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1976268-178">[151]</a> Roman self-identification among Greeks only began losing ground with the Greek War of Independence, when multiple factors saw the name 'Hellene' rise to replace it. Among these factors were that names such as "Hellene", "Hellas" and "Greece" were already in use for the country and its people by the other nations in Europe, the absence of the old Byzantine government to reinforce Roman identity, and the term Romioi becoming associated with those Greeks still under Ottoman rule rather than those actively fighting for independence. Thus, in the eyes of the independence movement, a Hellene was a brave and rebellious freedom fighter while a Roman was an idle slave under the Ottomans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhrantzes1839398-179">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorais180537-180">[153]</a> The new Hellenic national identity was heavily focused on the cultural heritage of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a> rather than medieval Byzantium, though adherence to Orthodox Christianity remained an important aspect of Greek identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEfstathiadou2011191-181">[154]</a> An identity re-oriented towards ancient Greece also worked in Greece's favour internationally. In Western Europe, the Greek War of Independence saw large-scale support owing to <a href="/wiki/Philhellenism" title="Philhellenism">philhellenism</a>, a sense of "civilisational debt" to the world of classical antiquity, rather than any actual interest in the modern country. Despite the modern Greeks bearing more resemblance to the medieval Byzantines than the Greeks of the ancient world, public interest in the revolt elsewhere in Europe hinged almost entirely on sentimental and intellectual attachments to a romanticised version of ancient Greece. Comparable uprisings against the Ottomans by other peoples in the Balkans, such as the <a href="/wiki/First_Serbian_Uprising" title="First Serbian Uprising">First Serbian Uprising</a> (1804–1814), had been almost entirely ignored in Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrison201839-182">[155]</a> Many Greeks, particularly those outside the then newly founded Greek state, continued to refer to themselves as Romioi well into the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-184">[ab]</a> What Greek identity ought to be remained unresolved for a long time. As late as the 1930s, more than a century of the war of independence, Greek artists and authors still debated the contribution of Greece to European culture, and whether it should derive from a romantic fascination with classical antiquity, a nationalist dream of a restored Byzantine Empire, the strong oriental influence from the centuries of Ottoman rule or if it should be something entirely new, or "Neohellenic", reminding Europe that there was not only an ancient Greece, but also a modern one.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEfstathiadou2011204-185">[157]</a> The modern <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek people</a> still sometimes use Romioi to refer to themselves, as well as the term "Romaic" ("Roman") to refer to their <a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a> language.<a href="#cite_note-186">[158]</a> Roman identity also survives prominently in some of the Greek populations outside of Greece itself. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Greeks in Ukraine">Greeks in Ukraine</a>, settled there as part of <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Greek_Plan" title="Greek Plan">Greek Plan</a> in the 18th century, maintain Roman identity, designating themselves as Rumaioi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoutira2006384-187">[159]</a> The term Rum or Rumi also sees continued usage by Turks and Arabs as a religious term for followers of the Greek Orthodox Church, not only those of Greek ethnicity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoudometof200870-188">[160]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:English-language_version_of_Linguistic_map_of_Switzerland.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/English-language_version_of_Linguistic_map_of_Switzerland.png/220px-English-language_version_of_Linguistic_map_of_Switzerland.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/English-language_version_of_Linguistic_map_of_Switzerland.png/330px-English-language_version_of_Linguistic_map_of_Switzerland.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/English-language_version_of_Linguistic_map_of_Switzerland.png/440px-English-language_version_of_Linguistic_map_of_Switzerland.png 2x" data-file-width="999" data-file-height="711" /></a><figcaption>Language map of Switzerland, with regions speaking French (<a href="/wiki/Romandy" title="Romandy">Romandy</a>) in blue and <a href="/wiki/Romansh_language" title="Romansh language">Romansh</a> in green</figcaption></figure> The vast majority of the <a href="/wiki/Romance_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance peoples">Romance peoples</a> that descended from the intermingling of Romans and Germanic peoples following the collapse of Roman political unity in the west diverged into groups that no longer identify as Romans. In the Alpine regions north of Italy however, Roman identity showed considerable tenacity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20188-13">[11]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Romansh_people" title="Romansh people">Romansh people</a> of Switzerland are descended from these populations,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20188-13">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBilligmeier1979450-189">[161]</a> which in turn were descended from Romanised <a href="/wiki/Rhaetian_people" title="Rhaetian people">Rhaetians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBilligmeier1979450-189">[161]</a> Though most of the Romans of the region were assimilated by the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a> that settled there during the 5th and 6th centuries, the people who resisted assimilation became the Romansh people. In their own, <a href="/wiki/Romansh_language" title="Romansh language">Romansh language</a>, they are called rumantsch or romontsch, which derives from the Latin romanice ("Romance").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBilligmeier1979450-189">[161]</a> Roman identity also survives in the <a href="/wiki/Romands" title="Romands">Romands</a>, the French-speaking community of Switzerland, and their homeland, <a href="/wiki/Romandy" title="Romandy">Romandy</a>, which covers the western part of the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGessLycheMeisenburg2012173–174-190">[162]</a> In some regions, the Germanic word for the Romans (also used for western neighbours in general), <a href="/wiki/Walhaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Walhaz">walhaz</a>, became an <a href="/wiki/Ethnonym" title="Ethnonym">ethnonym</a>, although it is in many cases only attested centuries after the end of Roman rule in said regions. The term walhaz is the origin of the modern term '<a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh</a>', i.e. the people of <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, and of the historical exonym '<a href="/wiki/Vlachs" title="Vlachs">Vlach</a>', which was used through the Middle Ages and the Modern Period for various <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Romance_languages" title="Eastern Romance languages">Eastern Romance peoples</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2014417-11">[9]</a> As endonyms, Roman identification was maintained by several Eastern Romance peoples. Prominently, the <a href="/wiki/Romanians" title="Romanians">Romanians</a> call themselves români and their nation România.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerciu_Drăghicescu2012788-191">[163]</a> How and when the Romanians came to adopt these names is not entirely clear,<a href="#cite_note-193">[ac]</a> but one theory is the idea of <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Romanians#Theory_of_Daco-Roman_continuity" title="Origin of the Romanians">Daco-Roman continuity</a>, that the modern Romanians are descended from <a href="/wiki/Daco-Roman" title="Daco-Roman">Daco-Romans</a> that came about as a result of Roman colonisation following the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 98–117).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELightDumbrăveanu_Andone199728–43-194">[165]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Aromanians" title="Aromanians">Aromanians</a>, also of unclear origin, refer to themselves by various names, including arumani, armani, aromani and rumani, all of which are etymologically derived from the Latin Rōmānī.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERužica200628–30-195">[166]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanians" title="Istro-Romanians">Istro-Romanians</a> sometimes identify as rumeri or similar terms, though these names have lost strength and Istro-Romanians often identify with their native villages instead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurlacu201015–22-196">[167]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Megleno-Romanians" title="Megleno-Romanians">Megleno-Romanians</a> also identified as rumâni in the past, though this name was mostly replaced in favour of the term vlasi centuries ago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerciu_Drăghicescu2012311-197">[168]</a> Vlasi is derived from "Vlach",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerciu_Drăghicescu2012311-197">[168]</a> in turn deriving from walhaz.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2014417-11">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Italic_peoples" title="List of ancient Italic peoples">List of ancient Italic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Latinism" title="Pan-Latinism">Pan-Latinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance-speaking_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance-speaking world">Romance-speaking world</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 40em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-a-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-a_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-a_2-1">b</a> The official <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Languages of the Roman Empire">languages of the Roman Empire</a> were Latin and Greek.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2012553-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Though not an ethnicity in the sense of sharing the same genetic descent, the Romans could, per Diemen (2021) and others, be seen as an ethnicity in the sense of "a social identity (based on a contrast vis‐à‐vis others) characterised by metaphoric or fictive kinship".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiemen202147-5">[4]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> The 753 BC figure for Rome's foundation was first suggested by the antiquarian <a href="/wiki/Titus_Pomponius_Atticus" title="Titus Pomponius Atticus">Titus Pomponius Atticus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 110–32 BC), and then adopted by the scholar <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Marcus Terentius Varro</a> (116–27 BC), coming to be known as the 'Varronian chronology'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForsythe200594-38">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanders1908316-37">[35]</a> There were several alternate proposed dates for the foundation of the city and of the republic even in antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanders1908316-37">[35]</a> The chronology of Atticus and Varro was not universally adopted until a considerable amount of time after it had first been suggested.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanders1908316-37">[35]</a> Dates suggested by other ancient authors range in time from 814 to 729 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanders1908322–324-39">[37]</a> In the earliest Greek accounts of Roman history, formulated in the 5th century BC, the Greeks believed Rome to predate their own colonies in the western mediterranean, which would place the city's foundation before the 8th century BC. An early date is not impossible given that archaeological evidence in Rome confirms that the site was at least inhabited prior to 753 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanders1908320-40">[38]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Some Roman authors, such as <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> (64/59 BC – AD 12/17) attempted to combine the foundation myths into relatively straightforward stories, whereas others, such as the author of the 4th-century AD <a href="/wiki/Origo_gentis_romanae" class="mw-redirect" title="Origo gentis romanae">Origo gentis Romanae</a>, leave the contradictions open.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2014410-42">[39]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Though it is well-established in modern historiography, "Caracalla" was a nickname for the emperor, whose actual name was Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavan20165-58">[54]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> The 6th-century Gallo-Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours" title="Gregory of Tours">Gregory of Tours</a> in his writings consistently identifies himself as an '<a href="/wiki/Auvergne" title="Auvergne">Arvernian</a>' rather than as a Roman. Though Gregory rarely discusses ethnic identities in his writings, with only a handful of references to various barbarian gentes, types of identity that evidently mattered a lot to him were civititas, which city or settlement one was from, and ducatus, a slightly wider stretch of territory (such as the region of <a href="/wiki/Champagne_(province)" title="Champagne (province)">Champagne</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201846-72">[67]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Sometimes the inclusion of barbarian elements in the Roman army became awkward due to the prevailing anti-barbarian stereotypes. In the 4th-century civil war between <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 379–395) and <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 383–388), the army of Magnus Maximus was composed solely of Roman soldiers whereas the victorious Theodosius bolstered his forces with <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Gothic</a> soldiers. Given the negative stereotypes, the <a href="/wiki/Panegyric" title="Panegyric">panegyrist</a> <a href="/wiki/Latinius_Pacatus_Drepanius" title="Latinius Pacatus Drepanius">Latinius Pacatus Drepanius</a> (<abbr title="floruit ('flourished' – known to have been active at a particular time or during a particular period)">fl.</abbr> 389–393) described the troops of Maximus as having 'lost' their Romanness due to following the usurper, while emphasising the Roman qualities of the Gothic soldiers (though despite their loyalty, Pacatus never describes them as 'Roman'), describing them as uncharacteristically loyal for barbarians, disciplined and following orders. Though their barbarian nature is repeatedly emphasised, the Roman qualities of the Gothic warriors means that the army of Theodosius, in the view of Pacatus, remained fundamentally Roman. Per Pacatus, the remaining troops of Maximus were pardoned by Theodosius after the defeat of the usurper, and through this became Roman again. For people born within the empire, virtue and following the right Roman leader was thus seen by Pacatus as enough to be Roman, but for the barbarian troops who exhibited the same qualities it was not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiemen202146–54-77">[71]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> For instance, a 3rd-century funerary inscription from Pannonia reads Francus ego cives Romanus miles in armis, which translates to "I, a Frank, a Roman citizen, a soldier in arms".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201816-81">[74]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> The barbarian heritage of <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Stilicho" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Stilicho">Flavius Stilicho</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 359–408), whose father was a <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandal</a> but mother a Roman, regent in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> during the early reign of <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 393–423), was not a matter of debate until after his fall from grace and execution in 408.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESánchez-Ostiz2018313-83">[75]</a> During his tenure as regent, Stilicho was repeatedly compared to heroes of the ancient Roman Republic, such as <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus">Scipio Africanus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESánchez-Ostiz2018320-84">[76]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> The prominent late Roman figure <a href="/wiki/Orestes_(father_of_Romulus_Augustulus)" title="Orestes (father of Romulus Augustulus)">Orestes</a> (died 476) was born a Roman citizen in <a href="/wiki/Pannonia" title="Pannonia">Pannonia</a> and spoke Latin as his native language. In the 430s, Pannonia was ceded to <a href="/wiki/Attila_the_Hun" class="mw-redirect" title="Attila the Hun">Attila the Hun</a>, whom Orestes came to serve as a secretary. Though there is no reason to believe that Orestes himself ever doubted his own Romanness, the loss of his native province to the barbarians and his own personal association with Attila led to Orestes becoming the target of the same prejudice against non-Romans as the barbarians were, with records of Orestes being offended at being treated worse at the imperial court than the Hunnic warriors who accompanied him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConant2015156-91">[82]</a> Despite this, Orestes remained fundamentally Roman in his outlook, and in time even became a general of the empire. In 475, Orestes installed his son, <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a>, as the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConant2015157-90">[81]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> A well-documented case of the Romans "disappearing" is northern Gaul in the 6th and 7th centuries. In the 6th century, the personnel of churches in the region was dominated by people with Roman names. For instance, only a handful of non-Roman and non-Biblical names are recorded in the episcopal list of <a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Metz</a> from before the year 600. After 600, the situation is reversed and bishops had predominantly Frankish names. The reason for this change in naming practices might be a change in naming practices in Gaul, that people entering church services no longer adopted Roman names or that the Roman families which had provided the church personnel dropped in status.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201853-105">[95]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> In Gaul, members of the aristocracy were sometimes identified as "senators" from the 5th century to the 7th century and the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingian dynasty</a> claimed to be descended from a former Roman senatorial family. In Spain, references to people of "senatorial stock" appear as late as the 7th century and in Lombard Italy, "Senator" became a personal name, with at least two people known to have had the name in the 8th century. The practice of representing themselves as "the Senate" was revived by the aristocracy within the city of Rome in the 8th century, though the institution itself was not revived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201811–12-102">[92]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> 8th century sources from <a href="/wiki/Salzburg" title="Salzburg">Salzburg</a> still reference that there was a social group in the city called the Romani tributales but Romans at this time mostly merged with the wider tributales (tributary peoples) distinction rather than being separate in Frankish documents. Throughout most of former Gaul, the Roman elite which had lingered for centuries merged with the Frankish elite and lost their previous distinct identity. Though "Romans" continued to be a dominant identity in regional politics in southern Gaul for a while, the specific references to some individuals as "Romans" or "descendants of Romans" indicates that their Roman status was perhaps no longer being taken for granted and needed pointing out. The last groups of Romani in the Frankish realm lingered for some time, especially in Salzburg and <a href="/wiki/Raetia" title="Raetia">Raetia</a>, but mostly fade away in the early 9th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201815–16,_38–39-117">[105]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> For instance, in the 6th century writings of <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours" title="Gregory of Tours">Gregory of Tours</a>, Rome is not mentioned until <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Saint Peter</a> arrives there, and Gregory appears indifferent to Rome once having been the capital of an empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHen201864-88">[79]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> As with the other early Medieval changes to Roman identity, the origins of this change can be traced to the 6th century. <a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a>, who served the Gothic kings, used 'Romans' to describe Roman people across Italy, but Pope <a href="/wiki/Gregory_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory the Great">Gregory the Great</a>, at the end of the 6th century, uses 'Roman' almost exclusively for the people in the city. The <a href="/wiki/Historia_langobardorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia langobardorum">Historia Langobardorum</a>, written by <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Deacon" title="Paul the Deacon">Paul the Deacon</a> in the 8th century, postulates that the term civis Romanus ("Roman citizen") is applied solely to someone who either lived in, or was born in, the city of Rome and it could for instance be applied to the <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Ravenna" class="mw-redirect" title="Archbishop of Ravenna">Archbishop of Ravenna</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marinianus_of_Ravenna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marinianus of Ravenna (page does not exist)">Marinianus</a>, only because he had originally been born in Rome. This indicates that the term at some point ceased to generally refer to all the Latin-speaking subjects of the Lombard kings and became restricted to the city itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201810-121">[107]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Only in the sense of sharing continuity with the ancient emperors and governing the Roman Empire. The Holy Roman emperors were not seen as "Romans" in any sense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranier2018225-125">[110]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> As late as the 13th and 14th centuries, the writer <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a> wrote that the Romans "stand out among all Italians for the ugliness of their manners and their outward appearance".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranier2018158,_168-129">[113]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> By the time of the Vandal Kingdom's fall, the <a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic language</a> was in sharp decline, if not almost entirely extinct. There are records of bishops from the Vandal Kingdom pretending not to be able to speak Latin to avoid debates with bishops from the eastern empire and the other kingdoms, but such claims were doubted even by their contemporaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201818–19-132">[115]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> The Arab historian <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abd_al-Hakam" title="Ibn Abd al-Hakam">Ibn Abd al-Hakam</a>, who wrote of the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, described North Africa as home to three peoples: the Berbers, the Romans (Rūm) and the Africans (Afāriq).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201855–57-139">[121]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> For instance, Byzantine individuals from Italy almost never describe themselves as "Roman" and <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac</a> sources almost always treat the Romans in third person.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201819-142">[123]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> For instance, an inscription on a brick from <a href="/wiki/Sirmium" title="Sirmium">Sirmium</a>, inscribed during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sirmium" title="Siege of Sirmium">Avar siege of the city in 580–582</a>, reads "Oh Lord, help the town and halt the Avar and protect the Romanía and the scribe. Amen."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201819-142">[123]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> There are early references to Romans as a gens, for instance the late antiquity works of <a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a>, but they are very rare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20187–8-146">[125]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> For much of its history, the populace of the Byzantine Empire firmly believed that the western empire, and other territories, would eventually be reconquered. As late as the middle of the 12th-century, the Byzantine princess <a href="/wiki/Anna_Komnene" title="Anna Komnene">Anna Komnene</a> wrote that if her father, emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1081–1118), "had not been hindered by unfavourable circumstances, he would have rightfully restored Roman rule over the whole former Roman world, up to the limits of the Atlantic Ocean in the west and India in the east".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis2014188-150">[128]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> One of the earliest western references to the easterners as "Greeks" comes from Bishop <a href="/wiki/Avitus_of_Vienne" title="Avitus of Vienne">Avitus of Vienne</a> who wrote, in the context of the Frankish king Clovis I's baptism; "Let Greece, to be sure, rejoice in having an orthodox ruler, but she is no longer the only one to deserve such a great gift".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl201825-153">[130]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> The 15th century Byzantine historian <a href="/wiki/Doukas_(historian)" title="Doukas (historian)">Doukas</a>, for instance, refers to the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a> general <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giustiniani" title="Giovanni Giustiniani">Giovanni Giustiniani</a>, who assisted the Byzantines at the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a>, as a 'general of the Romans'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmarnakis2015221-157">[133]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> In the writings of <a href="/wiki/Doukas_(historian)" title="Doukas (historian)">Doukas</a>, the Greeks are a foreign people, separated from the present Romans by both time and religious differences. Doukas also uses the terms in an insulting manner for the anti-unionists active near the fall of Constantinople.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmarnakis2015221–222-163">[138]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> As an example, the chronicler <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gaza_Paisios_Ligaridis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaza Paisios Ligaridis (page does not exist)">Gaza Paisios Ligaridis</a> wrote in the 17th century that "it is a great comfort to us thrice-miserable Romans to hear that there shall come a resurrection, a deliverance of our <a href="/wiki/Genos" title="Genos">Genos</a>". When the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774</a> failed to lead to the restoration of the empire, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaisarios_Dapontes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaisarios Dapontes (page does not exist)">Kaisarios Dapontes</a> wrote that "the empire of the Romans will never be resurrected" and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Athanasios_Komninos-Ypsilantis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Athanasios Komninos-Ypsilantis (page does not exist)">Athanasios Komninos-Ypsilantis</a> wrote that "if therefore, in the time appointed by the prophecies, the Romans have not been liberated, then it will be very difficult for the resurrection of the Roman empire to take place".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos200984–85-172">[146]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Charanis" title="Peter Charanis">Peter Charanis</a>, who was born on the island of <a href="/wiki/Lemnos" title="Lemnos">Lemnos</a> in 1908 and later became a professor of <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine history</a> at <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University" title="Rutgers University">Rutgers University</a>, recounts that when the island was taken from the Ottomans by Greece in 1912, Greek soldiers were sent to each village and stationed themselves in the public squares. According to Charanis, some of the island children ran to see what Greek soldiers looked like; ‘‘what are you looking at?’’ one of the soldiers asked. ‘‘At Hellenes,’’ the children replied. ‘‘Are you not Hellenes yourselves?’’ the soldier retorted. ‘‘No, we are Romans’’ the children replied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis200742–43-183">[156]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> One of the earliest records of the Romanians possibly being referred to as Romans is given in the <a href="/wiki/Nibelungenlied" title="Nibelungenlied">Nibelungenlied</a>, a German <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poem</a> written before 1200 in which a "Duke Ramunc from the land of <a href="/wiki/Vlach" class="mw-redirect" title="Vlach">Vlachs</a>" is mentioned. It has been argued that "Ramunc" was not the name of the duke, but a collective name that highlighted his ethnicity. Other documents, especially Byzantine or Hungarian ones, also attest the old Romanians as Romans or their descendants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrugaș201671–124-192">[164]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2012553-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochette2012553_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRochette2012">Rochette 2012</a>, p. 553. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis2018127-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStouraitis2018127_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStouraitis2018127_3-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStouraitis2018">Stouraitis 2018</a>, p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen2014426-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen2014426_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGruen2014">Gruen 2014</a>, p. 426. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiemen202147-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiemen202147_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiemen202147_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDiemen2021">Diemen 2021</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarling_Buck191651-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarling_Buck191651_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDarling_Buck1916">Darling Buck 1916</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanikoKaramuço20153-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanikoKaramuço20153_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanikoKaramuço2015">Faniko & Karamuço 2015</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHope1997118-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHope1997118_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHope1997118_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHope1997">Hope 1997</a>, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilavec202091–92-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilavec202091–92_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilavec202091–92_10-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMilavec2020">Milavec 2020</a>, pp. 91–92. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2014417-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2014417_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2014417_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2014417_11-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPohl2014">Pohl 2014</a>, p. 417. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERevell2009x-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERevell2009x_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERevell2009x_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERevell2009x_12-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRevell2009">Revell 2009</a>, p. x. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20188-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl20188_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl20188_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl20188_13-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPohl2018">Pohl 2018</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHope1997118–119-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHope1997118–119_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHope1997">Hope 1997</a>, pp. 118–119. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl20184-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl20184_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl20184_15-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPohl2018">Pohl 2018</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArno201212-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArno201212_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArno201212_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFArno2012">Arno 2012</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDench20107-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDench20107_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDench20107_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDench20107_17-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDench2010">Dench 2010</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen20134-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen20134_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGruen2013">Gruen 2013</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStouraitis2018137-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStouraitis2018137_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStouraitis2018">Stouraitis 2018</a>, p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArno201257-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArno201257_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArno201257_20-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFArno2012">Arno 2012</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArno2012viii-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArno2012viii_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFArno2012">Arno 2012</a>, p. viii. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen20145-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen20145_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen20145_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGruen2014">Gruen 2014</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen20144-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen20144_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen20144_23-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGruen2014">Gruen 2014</a>, p. 4. </li> <li 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href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFArce2018" class="citation book cs1">Arce, Javier (2018). 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Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 47 (1): 77–107. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4436494">4436494</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia%3A+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Alte+Geschichte&rft.atitle=Latin+Authors+on+Jews+and+Dacians&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=77-107&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4436494%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Yavetz&rft.aufirst=Zvi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+people" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists and other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&oldid=1256513780">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_people&oldid=1256513780</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" 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