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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consumer_goods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consumer_goods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Consumer goods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consumer_goods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agricultural" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agricultural"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Agricultural</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agricultural-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Medical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Degradation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>End of life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon 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Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">30 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%B6_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%83" title="عديد حمض اللبنيك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عديد حمض اللبنيك" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AF_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="اسید پولیلاکتیک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اسید پولیلاکتیک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80cid_polil%C3%A0ctic" title="Àcid polilàctic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Àcid polilàctic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyselina_polyml%C3%A9%C4%8Dn%C3%A1" title="Kyselina polymléčná – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kyselina polymléčná" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polym%C3%A6lkesyre" title="Polymælkesyre – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Polymælkesyre" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polylactide" title="Polylactide – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Polylactide" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%B3%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%BF%CE%BE%CF%8D" title="Πολυγαλακτικό οξύ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πολυγαλακτικό οξύ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81cido_polil%C3%A1ctico" title="Ácido poliláctico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ácido poliláctico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polilaktoacido" title="Polilaktoacido – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Polilaktoacido" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poli(azido_laktiko)" title="Poli(azido laktiko) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Poli(azido laktiko)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="پلی‌لاکتیک اسید – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پلی‌لاکتیک اسید" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acide_polylactique" title="Acide polylactique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Acide polylactique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%B4%EB%A6%AC%EC%A0%96%EC%82%B0" title="폴리젖산 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="폴리젖산" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acido_polilattico" title="Acido polilattico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Acido polilattico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLA_(%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7)" title="PLA (פלסטיק) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="PLA (פלסטיק)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politejsav" title="Politejsav – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Politejsav" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymelkzuur" title="Polymelkzuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Polymelkzuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9D%E3%83%AA%E4%B9%B3%E9%85%B8" title="ポリ乳酸 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ポリ乳酸" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymelkesyre" title="Polymelkesyre – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Polymelkesyre" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polilaktyd" title="Polilaktyd – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Polilaktyd" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poli%C3%A1cido_l%C3%A1ctico" title="Poliácido láctico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Poliácido láctico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_polilactic" title="Acid polilactic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Acid polilactic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Полилактид – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Полилактид" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polylactic_acid" title="Polylactic acid – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Polylactic acid" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polylaktidi" title="Polylaktidi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Polylaktidi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polylaktid" title="Polylaktid – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Polylaktid" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polilaktik_asit" title="Polilaktik asit – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Polilaktik asit" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Полілактид – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Полілактид" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_polylactic" title="Acid polylactic – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Acid polylactic" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%81%9A%E4%B9%B3%E9%85%B8" title="聚乳酸 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="聚乳酸" data-language-autonym="中文" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Biodegradable polymer</div> <p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1084375498">.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox{border-collapse:collapse;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox td,.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox th{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:40%}.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox td+td{width:60%}</style> </p> <table class="infobox ib-chembox"> <caption>Polylactic acid </caption> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Polylactid_sceletal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The skeletal formula of PLA" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Polylactid_sceletal.svg/200px-Polylactid_sceletal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Polylactid_sceletal.svg/300px-Polylactid_sceletal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Polylactid_sceletal.svg/400px-Polylactid_sceletal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="522" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;">Identifiers </th></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/CAS_Registry_Number" title="CAS Registry Number">CAS Number</a></div> </td> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="commonchemistry.cas.org"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=26100-51-6">26100-51-6</a></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ChemSpider" title="ChemSpider">ChemSpider</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>None</li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/CompTox_Chemicals_Dashboard" title="CompTox Chemicals Dashboard">CompTox Dashboard</a> <span style="font-weight:normal">(<abbr title="U.S. Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</abbr>)</span></div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="comptox.epa.gov"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/chemical/details/DTXSID20904011">DTXSID20904011</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413769#P3117" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;">Properties </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">Density</a> </td> <td>1210–1430 kg/m<sup>3</sup><sup id="cite_ref-MATBASE_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MATBASE-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">Melting point</a> </td> <td>150 to 160 °C (302 to 320 °F; 423 to 433 K)<sup id="cite_ref-MATBASE_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MATBASE-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">Solubility in water</a></div> </td> <td>0 mg/ml <sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;">Hazards </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/NFPA_704" title="NFPA 704"><b>NFPA 704</b></a> (fire diamond) </td> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1170367383">.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-ref{float:right;padding:1px;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-container{width:82px;font-family:sans-serif;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-container-ref{float:left;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-images{float:left;font-size:20px;text-align:center;position:relative;height:80px;width:80px;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-map{position:absolute;height:80px;width:80px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond .noresize{margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-code{line-height:1em;text-align:center;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-code>a{color:black}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-blue{width:13px;top:31px;left:15px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-red{width:12px;top:12px;left:35px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-yellow{width:13px;top:31px;left:54px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-image{position:relative;top:51px;left:0}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-text{vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;line-height:80%;position:absolute;top:52px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-text a>span{position:absolute;color:black}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-wors{font-size:15px;width:23px;left:29px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-wox{font-size:15px;font-stretch:condensed;width:21px;line-height:80%;top:-4px;left:29px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-abcp{font-size:13.5px;font-stretch:condensed;width:28px;left:26px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-ac{font-size:10px;width:30px;left:25px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-strike{text-decoration:line-through}</style><div class="nfpa-704-diamond notheme"><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-container"><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-images nounderlines"> <div class="nfpa-704-diamond-map"><figure class="noresize" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="NFPA 704 four-colored diamond" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/80px-NFPA_704.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/120px-NFPA_704.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/160px-NFPA_704.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" usemap="#ImageMap_3d8171e88c0df7b6" /></span><map name="ImageMap_3d8171e88c0df7b6"><area href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Blue" shape="poly" coords="23,23,47,47,23,70,0,47" alt="Health 0: Exposure under fire conditions would offer no hazard beyond that of ordinary combustible material. E.g. sodium chloride" title="Health 0: Exposure under fire conditions would offer no hazard beyond that of ordinary combustible material. E.g. sodium chloride" /><area href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Red" shape="poly" coords="47,0,70,23,47,47,23,23" alt="Flammability 1: Must be pre-heated before ignition can occur. Flash point over 93 °C (200 °F). E.g. canola oil" title="Flammability 1: Must be pre-heated before ignition can occur. Flash point over 93 °C (200 °F). E.g. canola oil" /><area href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Yellow" shape="poly" coords="70,23,94,47,70,70,47,47" alt="Instability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogen" title="Instability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogen" /><area href="/wiki/NFPA_704#White" shape="poly" coords="47,47,70,70,47,94,23,70" alt="Special hazards (white): no code" title="Special hazards (white): no code" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-code nfpa-704-diamond-blue"> <a href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Blue" title="NFPA 704"><span title="Health 0: Exposure under fire conditions would offer no hazard beyond that of ordinary combustible material. E.g. sodium chloride" class="notheme mw-no-invert">0</span></a></div><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-code nfpa-704-diamond-red"> <a href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Red" title="NFPA 704"><span title="Flammability 1: Must be pre-heated before ignition can occur. Flash point over 93 °C (200 °F). E.g. canola oil" class="notheme mw-no-invert">1</span></a></div><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-code nfpa-704-diamond-yellow"> <a href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Yellow" title="NFPA 704"><span title="Instability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogen" class="notheme mw-no-invert">0</span></a></div></div></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:left; background:#f8eaba; border:1px solid #a2a9b1;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their <a href="/wiki/Standard_state" title="Standard state">standard state</a> (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).</div> <div style="margin-top: 0.3em;"></div> <div style="margin-top: 0.3em; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Chemical_infobox#References" title="Wikipedia:Chemical infobox">Infobox references</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chemical compound</div> <p><b>Polylactic acid</b>, also known as <b>poly</b>(<b>lactic acid</b>) or <b>polylactide</b> (<b>PLA</b>), is a <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastic</a> material. As a <a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">thermoplastic</a> <a href="/wiki/Polyester" title="Polyester">polyester</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Polyhydroxyalkanoate" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyhydroxyalkanoate">polyhydroxyalkanoate</a>) it has the backbone formula <span class="chemf nowrap">(C<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span>O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>)<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><i>n</i></sub></span></span></span> or <span class="chemf nowrap">[–C(CH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>)HC(=O)O–]<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><i>n</i></sub></span></span></span>. PLA is formally obtained by <a href="/wiki/Condensation_reaction" title="Condensation reaction">condensation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic acid</a> <span class="chemf nowrap">C(CH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>)(OH)HCOOH</span> with loss of water (hence its name). It can also be prepared by <a href="/wiki/Ring-opening_polymerization" title="Ring-opening polymerization">ring-opening polymerization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lactide" title="Lactide">lactide</a> <span class="chemf nowrap">[–C(CH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>)HC(=O)O–]<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>, the cyclic dimer of the basic repeating unit. Often PLA is blended with other polymers. PLA can be <a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_plastic" title="Biodegradable plastic">biodegradable</a> or long-lasting, depending on the manufacturing process, additives and <a href="/wiki/Copolymer" title="Copolymer">copolymers</a>. </p><p>PLA has become a popular material due to it being economically produced from <a href="/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">renewable resources</a> and the possibility to use it for <a href="/wiki/Compost" title="Compost">compostable</a> products.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2022, PLA had the highest consumption volume of any <a href="/wiki/Bioplastic" title="Bioplastic">bioplastic</a> of the world, with a share of ca. 26 % of total bioplastic demand.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although its production is growing, PLA is still not as important as traditional <a href="/wiki/Commodity_plastics" title="Commodity plastics">commodity polymers</a> like PET or PVC. Its widespread application has been hindered by numerous physical and processing shortcomings.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PLA is the most widely used <a href="/wiki/3D_printing_filament" title="3D printing filament">plastic filament</a> material in <a href="/wiki/Fused_filament_fabrication" title="Fused filament fabrication">FDM 3D printing</a>, due to its low melting point, high strength, low thermal expansion, and good layer adhesion, although it possesses poor heat resistance unless <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(materials_science)" title="Annealing (materials science)">annealed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Simmons_2019_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simmons_2019-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the name "polylactic acid" is widely used, it does not comply with <a href="/wiki/IUPAC" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC">IUPAC</a> standard nomenclature, which is "poly(lactic acid)".<sup id="cite_ref-IUPAC2019_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IUPAC2019-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name "polylactic acid" is potentially ambiguous or confusing, because PLA is not a polyacid (<a href="/wiki/Polyelectrolyte" title="Polyelectrolyte">polyelectrolyte</a>), but rather a polyester.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical_properties">Chemical properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polylactic_acid&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Chemical properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synthesis">Synthesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polylactic_acid&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Synthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The monomer is typically made from fermented plant starch such as from <a href="/wiki/Corn_starch" title="Corn starch">corn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">cassava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a> or <a href="/wiki/Beet_pulp" title="Beet pulp">sugar beet pulp</a>. </p><p>Several industrial routes afford usable (i.e. high molecular weight) PLA. Two main monomers are used: <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic acid</a>, and the cyclic di-ester, <a href="/wiki/Lactide" title="Lactide">lactide</a>. The most common route to PLA is the ring-opening <a href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</a> of lactide with various metal <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalysts</a> (typically <a href="/wiki/Tin(II)_2-ethylhexanoate" title="Tin(II) 2-ethylhexanoate">tin ethylhexanoate</a>) <a href="/wiki/Solution_polymerization" title="Solution polymerization">in solution</a> or as a <a href="/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)" title="Suspension (chemistry)">suspension</a>. The metal-catalyzed reaction tends to cause <a href="/wiki/Racemization" title="Racemization">racemization</a> of the PLA, reducing its stereoregularity compared to the starting material (usually corn starch).<sup id="cite_ref-sodergard_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sodergard-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The direct condensation of lactic acid monomers can also be used to produce PLA. This process needs to be carried out at less than 200 °C; above that temperature, the entropically favored lactide monomer is generated. This reaction generates one equivalent of water for every condensation (<a href="/wiki/Esterification" class="mw-redirect" title="Esterification">esterification</a>) step. The condensation reaction is reversible and subject to equilibrium, so removal of water is required to generate high molecular weight species. Water removal by application of a vacuum or by <a href="/wiki/Azeotropic_distillation" title="Azeotropic distillation">azeotropic distillation</a> is required to drive the reaction toward polycondensation. Molecular weights of 130 kDa can be obtained this way. Even higher molecular weights can be attained by carefully crystallizing the crude polymer from the melt. Carboxylic acid and alcohol end groups are thus concentrated in the amorphous region of the solid polymer, and so they can react. Molecular weights of 128–152 kDa are obtainable thus.<sup id="cite_ref-sodergard_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sodergard-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PLA_from_lactic_acid_%26_lactide.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Two main routes to PLA"><img alt="Two main routes to PLA" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/PLA_from_lactic_acid_%26_lactide.png/300px-PLA_from_lactic_acid_%26_lactide.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/PLA_from_lactic_acid_%26_lactide.png/450px-PLA_from_lactic_acid_%26_lactide.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/PLA_from_lactic_acid_%26_lactide.png/600px-PLA_from_lactic_acid_%26_lactide.png 2x" data-file-width="2633" data-file-height="2222" /></a></span></dd></dl> <p>Another method devised is by contacting lactic acid with a zeolite. This condensation reaction is a one-step process, and runs about 100 °C lower in temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stereoisomers">Stereoisomers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polylactic_acid&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Stereoisomers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to the <a href="/wiki/Chirality_(chemistry)" title="Chirality (chemistry)">chiral</a> nature of lactic acid, several distinct forms of polylactide exist: poly-<small>L</small>-lactide (<b>PLLA</b>) is the product resulting from polymerization of <small>L</small>,<small>L</small>-lactide (also known as <small>L</small>-lactide). Progress in biotechnology has resulted in the development of commercial production of the <small>D</small> enantiomer form.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Polymerization of a <a href="/wiki/Racemic_mixture" title="Racemic mixture">racemic mixture</a> of <small>L</small>- and <small>D</small>-lactides usually leads to the synthesis of poly-<small>DL</small>-lactide (<b>PDLLA</b>), which is amorphous. Use of stereospecific catalysts can lead to <a href="/wiki/Heterotactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotactic">heterotactic</a> PLA which has been found to show crystallinity. The degree of crystallinity, and hence many important properties, is largely controlled by the ratio of <small>D</small> to <small>L</small> enantiomers used, and to a lesser extent on the type of catalyst used. Apart from lactic acid and lactide, <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid_O-carboxyanhydride" title="Lactic acid O-carboxyanhydride">lactic acid <i>O</i>-carboxyanhydride</a> ("lac-OCA"), a five-membered cyclic compound has been used academically as well. This compound is more reactive than lactide, because its polymerization is driven by the loss of one equivalent of carbon dioxide per equivalent of lactic acid. Water is not a co-product.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The direct biosynthesis of PLA, in a manner similar to production of <a href="/wiki/Poly(hydroxyalkanoate)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poly(hydroxyalkanoate)">poly(hydroxyalkanoate)s</a>, has been reported.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_properties">Physical properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polylactic_acid&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Physical properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>PLA polymers range from amorphous glassy polymer to semi-crystalline and highly crystalline polymer with a <a href="/wiki/Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">glass transition</a> 60–65 °C, a <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting temperature</a> 130-180 °C, and a <a href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</a> 2.7–16 GPa.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heat-resistant PLA can withstand temperatures of 110 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basic mechanical properties of PLA are between those of <a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">PET</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The melting temperature of PLLA can be increased by 40–50 °C and its heat deflection temperature can be increased from approximately 60 °C to up to 190 °C by physically blending the polymer with PDLA (poly-<small>D</small>-lactide). PDLA and PLLA form a highly regular stereocomplex with increased crystallinity. The temperature stability is maximised when a 1:1 blend is used, but even at lower concentrations of 3–10% of PDLA, there is still a substantial improvement. In the latter case, PDLA acts as a <a href="/wiki/Nucleating_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleating agent">nucleating agent</a>, thereby increasing the crystallization rate.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Biodegradation" title="Biodegradation">Biodegradation</a> of PDLA is slower than for PLA due to the higher crystallinity of PDLA<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="According to B. Gupta, N. Revagade, and J. Hilborn, Prog. Polym. Sci.,32, 4 (2007) PDLA is amorphous and PLLA is cristaline and material is fully amorphous with PDLA content above 20% (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. The flexural modulus of PLA is higher than polystyrene and PLA has good heat sealability. </p><p>Although PLA performs mechanically similar to PET for properties of <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elastic_modulus" title="Elastic modulus">elastic modulus</a>, the material is very brittle and results in less than 10% elongation at break.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, this limits PLA’s use in applications that require some level of <a href="/wiki/Plasticity_(physics)" title="Plasticity (physics)">plastic deformation</a> at high stress levels. An effort to increase the elongation at break for PLA has been underway, especially to bolster PLA’s presence as a commodity plastic and improve the bioplastics landscape. For example, PLLA biocomposites have been of interest to improve these mechanical properties. By mixing PLLA with poly (3-hydroxy butyrate) (PHB), cellulose nano crystal (CNC) and a <a href="/wiki/Plasticizer" title="Plasticizer">plasticizer</a> (TBC), a drastic improvement of mechanical properties were shown.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using <a href="/wiki/Polarized_Optical_Microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Polarized Optical Microscopy">polarized optical microscopy</a> (POM), the PLLA biocomposites had smaller <a href="/wiki/Spherulite_(polymer_physics)" title="Spherulite (polymer physics)">spherulites</a> compared to pure PLLA, indicating improved nucleation density and also contributing to an increase of elongation at break from 6% in pure PLLA to 140-190% in the biocomposites. Biocomposites such as these are of great interest for food packaging because of their improved strength and biodegradability. </p><p>Several technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">annealing</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> adding <a href="/wiki/Nucleation" title="Nucleation">nucleating</a> agents, forming composites with fibers or <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">nano-particles</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> chain extending<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and introducing crosslink structures have been used to enhance the mechanical properties of PLA polymers. Annealing has been shown to significantly increase the degree of crystallinity of PLA polymers. In one study, increasing the duration of annealing directly affected thermal conductivity, density, and the glass transition temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Structural changes from this treatment further improved characteristics such as compressive strength and rigidity by nearly 80%. Processes such as this may boost PLA’s presence in the plastics market, as improving the mechanical properties will be important to replace current petroleum-derived plastics. It has also been demonstrated that the addition of a PLA-based, cross-linked nucleating agent improved the degree of crystallinity of the final PLA material.<sup id="cite_ref-Simmons_2019_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simmons_2019-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alongside the use of the nucleating agent, annealing was shown to further improve the degree of crystallinity and, therefore, the toughness and <a href="/wiki/Flexural_modulus" title="Flexural modulus">flexural modulus</a> of the material. This example reveals the ability to utilize multiple of these processes to reinforce the mechanical properties of PLA. Polylactic acid can be processed like most thermoplastics into <a href="/wiki/Fiber" title="Fiber">fiber</a> (for example, using conventional <a href="/wiki/Melt_spinning" title="Melt spinning">melt spinning</a> processes) and film. PLA has similar mechanical properties to <a href="/wiki/PETE" class="mw-redirect" title="PETE">PETE</a> polymer, but has a significantly lower maximum continuous use temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Backbone architecture of PLA and its effect on crystallization kinetics has also been investigated, specifically to better understand the most suitable processing conditions for PLA. The molecular weight of polymer chains can play a significant role in the mechanical properties.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One method of increasing molecular weight is by introducing branches of the same polymer chain onto the backbone. Through characterization of a branched and linear grade PLA, branched PLA leads to faster crystallization.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the branched PLA experiences much longer relaxation times at low shear rates, contributing to higher viscosity than the linear grade. This is presumed to be from high molecular weight regions within the branched PLA. However, the branched PLA was observed to shear thin more strongly, leading to a much lower viscosity at high shear rates. Understanding properties such as these are crucial when determining optimal processing conditions for materials, and that simple changes to the structure can alter its behavior dramatically. </p><p>Racemic PLA and pure PLLA have low <a href="/wiki/Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">glass transition</a> temperatures, making them undesirable because of low strength and melting point. A stereocomplex of PDLA and PLLA has a higher glass transition temperature, lending it more mechanical strength.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The high surface energy of PLA results in good printability, making it widely used in 3D printing. The tensile strength for 3D printed PLA was previously determined.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solvents">Solvents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polylactic_acid&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Solvents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>PLA is soluble in a range of organic solvents.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ethyl_acetate" title="Ethyl acetate">Ethyl acetate</a> is widely used because of its ease of access and low risk. It is useful in 3D printers for cleaning the extruder heads and for removing PLA supports. </p><p>Other safe solvents include <a href="/wiki/Propylene_carbonate" title="Propylene carbonate">propylene carbonate</a>, which is safer than ethyl acetate but is difficult to purchase commercially. <a href="/wiki/Pyridine" title="Pyridine">Pyridine</a> can be used, but it has a distinct fish odor and is less safe than ethyl acetate. PLA is also soluble in hot <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrofuran" title="Tetrahydrofuran">tetrahydrofuran</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dioxane" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioxane">dioxane</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fabrication">Fabrication</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polylactic_acid&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fabrication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>PLA objects can be fabricated by 3D printing, casting, <a href="/wiki/Injection_moulding" title="Injection moulding">injection moulding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extrusion" title="Extrusion">extrusion</a>, machining, and solvent welding. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bobina_PLA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Bobina_PLA.jpg/200px-Bobina_PLA.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Bobina_PLA.jpg/300px-Bobina_PLA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Bobina_PLA.jpg/400px-Bobina_PLA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="449" /></a><figcaption>PLA filament for use in 3D printing</figcaption></figure> <p>PLA is used as a feedstock material in desktop <a href="/wiki/Fused_filament_fabrication" title="Fused filament fabrication">fused filament fabrication</a> by <a href="/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printers</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/RepRap" title="RepRap">RepRap</a> printers.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>PLA can be <a href="/wiki/Plastic_welding#Solvent_welding" title="Plastic welding">solvent welded</a> using <a href="/wiki/Dichloromethane" title="Dichloromethane">dichloromethane</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Acetone" title="Acetone">Acetone</a> also softens the surface of PLA, making it sticky without dissolving it, for welding to another PLA surface.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm/220px--Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="220" data-durationhint="35" data-mwtitle="Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c4/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c4/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="720" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c4/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1080" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9"" data-width="2160" data-height="2160" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c4/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="144" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c4/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="240" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c4/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="360" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c4/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm/Rotating_Corn_form_made_from_Corn-derivative_PLA_3D_printing_filament_ALANBUTLER_2024_CornCorn.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="360" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>A corn form 3D printed using corn-derivative PLA (polylactic acid).</figcaption></figure> <p>PLA-printed solids can be encased in plaster-like moulding materials, then burned out in a furnace, so that the resulting void can be filled with molten metal. This is known as "lost PLA casting", a type of <a href="/wiki/Investment_casting" title="Investment casting">investment casting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polylactic_acid&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>PLA is mainly used for short-lived and disposable <a href="/wiki/Packaging" title="Packaging">packaging</a>. In 2022, of the total PLA production, ca. 35 % was used for flexible packaging (e.g. films, bags, labels) and 30 % for rigid packaging (e.g. bottles, jars, containers).<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consumer_goods">Consumer goods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polylactic_acid&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Consumer goods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>PLA is used in a large variety of consumer products such as <a href="/wiki/Disposable_tableware" title="Disposable tableware">disposable tableware</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cutlery#Disposable_cutlery" title="Cutlery">cutlery</a>, housings for kitchen appliances and electronics such as laptops and handheld devices, and microwavable trays. (However, PLA is not suitable for microwavable containers because of its low glass transition temperature.) It is used for compost bags, food packaging and loose-fill packaging material that is cast, injection molded, or spun.<sup id="cite_ref-auras_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auras-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the form of a film, it shrinks upon heating, allowing it to be used in <a href="/wiki/Shrink_tunnel" title="Shrink tunnel">shrink tunnels</a>. In the form of fibers, it is used for monofilament fishing line and netting. In the form of <a href="/wiki/Nonwoven_fabric" title="Nonwoven fabric">nonwoven fabrics</a>, it is used for <a href="/wiki/Upholstery" title="Upholstery">upholstery</a>, disposable garments, <a href="/wiki/Awning" title="Awning">awnings</a>, feminine hygiene products, and <a href="/wiki/Diapers" class="mw-redirect" title="Diapers">diapers</a>. </p><p>PLA has applications in engineering plastics, where the stereocomplex is blended with a rubber-like polymer such as <a href="/wiki/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene" title="Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene">ABS</a>. Such blends have good form stability and visual transparency, making them useful in low-end packaging applications. </p><p>PLA is used for automotive parts such as floor mats, panels, and covers. Its heat resistance and durability are inferior to the widely used <a href="/wiki/Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">polypropylene</a> (PP), but its properties are improved by means such as capping of the end groups to reduce hydrolysis.<sup id="cite_ref-auras_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auras-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agricultural">Agricultural</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polylactic_acid&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Agricultural"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the form of fibers, PLA is used for monofilament fishing line and netting for vegetation and weed prevention. It is used for sandbags, planting pots, binding tape and ropes .<sup id="cite_ref-auras_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auras-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical">Medical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polylactic_acid&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Medical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>PLA can degrade into innocuous lactic acid, making it suitable for use as medical implants in the form of anchors, screws, plates, pins, rods, and mesh.<sup id="cite_ref-auras_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auras-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the type used, it breaks down inside the body within 6 months to 2 years. This gradual degradation is desirable for a support structure, because it gradually transfers the load to the body (e.g., to the bone) as that area heals. The strength characteristics of PLA and PLLA implants are well documented.<sup id="cite_ref-ASTM_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASTM-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thanks to its bio-compatibility and biodegradability, PLA found interest as a polymeric scaffold for drug delivery purposes. </p><p>The composite blend of poly(<small>L</small>-lactide-<i>co</i>-<small>D</small>,<small>L</small>-lactide) (PLDLLA) with tricalcium phosphate (TCP) is used as PLDLLA/TCP scaffolds for bone engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Poly-<small>L</small>-lactic acid (PLLA) is the main ingredient in <a href="/wiki/Sculptra" title="Sculptra">Sculptra</a>, a facial volume enhancer used for treating <a href="/wiki/Lipoatrophy" title="Lipoatrophy">lipoatrophy</a> of the cheeks. </p><p>PLLA is used to stimulate collagen synthesis in fibroblasts via foreign body reaction in the presence of macrophages. Macrophages act as a stimulant in secretion of cytokines and mediators such as <a href="/wiki/Transforming_growth_factor_beta" title="Transforming growth factor beta">TGF-β</a>, which stimulate the fibroblast to secrete collagen into the surrounding tissue. Therefore, PLLA has potential applications in the dermatological studies.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid34296717_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid34296717-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid32722074_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32722074-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>PLLA is under investigation as a scaffold that can generate a small amount of <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Piezoelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Piezoelectric">piezoelectric</a> effect that stimulates the growth of mechanically robust <a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilage</a> in multiple animal models.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mulch_Film_made_of_PLA-Blend_Bio-Flex.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mulch film made of PLA-blend "bio-flex""><img alt="Mulch film made of PLA-blend "bio-flex"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Mulch_Film_made_of_PLA-Blend_Bio-Flex.jpg/200px-Mulch_Film_made_of_PLA-Blend_Bio-Flex.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Mulch_Film_made_of_PLA-Blend_Bio-Flex.jpg/300px-Mulch_Film_made_of_PLA-Blend_Bio-Flex.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Mulch_Film_made_of_PLA-Blend_Bio-Flex.jpg/400px-Mulch_Film_made_of_PLA-Blend_Bio-Flex.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Mulch" title="Mulch">Mulch film</a> made of PLA-blend "bio-flex"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cmglee_PLA_cups.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Biodegradable PLA cups"><img alt="Biodegradable PLA cups" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Cmglee_PLA_cups.jpg/200px-Cmglee_PLA_cups.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Cmglee_PLA_cups.jpg/300px-Cmglee_PLA_cups.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Cmglee_PLA_cups.jpg/400px-Cmglee_PLA_cups.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="3072" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Biodegradable PLA cups</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Teebeutel_Polylactid_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tea bags made of PLA. Peppermint tea is enclosed."><img alt="Tea bags made of PLA. Peppermint tea is enclosed." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Teebeutel_Polylactid_2009.jpg/200px-Teebeutel_Polylactid_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Teebeutel_Polylactid_2009.jpg/300px-Teebeutel_Polylactid_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Teebeutel_Polylactid_2009.jpg/400px-Teebeutel_Polylactid_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1822" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Tea_bag" title="Tea bag">Tea bags</a> made of PLA. Peppermint tea is enclosed.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm/200px--3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" height="113" data-durationhint="44" data-mwtitle="3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1d/3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm/3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1d/3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm/3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1d/3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm/3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1d/3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm/3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1d/3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm/3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1d/3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm/3D_printing_of_PLA-CNT_microcoil.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">3D printing of a <a href="/wiki/Microcoil" title="Microcoil">microcoil</a> using a conductive mixture of polylactide and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:3D_Printed_Macrognathism.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="3D printed human skull with data from computed tomography. Transparent PLA."><img alt="3D printed human skull with data from computed tomography. Transparent PLA." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/3D_Printed_Macrognathism.jpg/147px-3D_Printed_Macrognathism.jpg" decoding="async" width="147" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/3D_Printed_Macrognathism.jpg/221px-3D_Printed_Macrognathism.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/3D_Printed_Macrognathism.jpg/295px-3D_Printed_Macrognathism.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="610" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">3D printed human skull with data from <a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed tomography">computed tomography</a>. Transparent PLA.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Degradation">Degradation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polylactic_acid&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Degradation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>PLA is generally considered to be compostable in <a href="/wiki/Industrial_composting" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial composting">industrial composting</a> conditions but not in home compost, based off of the results of tests done using <a href="/wiki/EN_13432" class="mw-redirect" title="EN 13432">EN 13432</a> and <a href="/wiki/ASTM_D6400" class="mw-redirect" title="ASTM D6400">ASTM D6400</a> standards. However, certain isomers of PLA such as PLLA or PDLA have been shown to have varying rates of degradation.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>PLA is degraded abiotically by three mechanisms:<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">Hydrolysis</a>: The ester groups of the main chain are cleaved, thus reducing molecular weight.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_decomposition" title="Thermal decomposition">Thermal decomposition</a>: A complex phenomenon leading to the appearance of different compounds such as lighter molecules and linear and cyclic oligomers with different <i>Mw</i>, and lactide.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodegradation" title="Photodegradation">Photodegradation</a>: UV radiation induces degradation. This is a factor mainly where PLA is exposed to sunlight in its applications in <a href="/wiki/Plasticulture" title="Plasticulture">plasticulture</a>, packaging containers and films.</li></ol> <p>The hydrolytic reaction is: </p> <dl><dd>-COO- + H<sub>2</sub>O → -COOH + -OH</dd></dl> <p>The degradation rate is very slow in ambient temperatures. A 2017 study found that at 25 °C (77 °F) in seawater, PLA showed no loss of mass over a year, but the study did not measure breakdown of the polymer chains or water absorption.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, it degrades poorly in <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfills</a> and household composts, but is effectively digested in hotter industrial composts, usually degrading best at temperatures of over 60 °C (140 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pure PLA foams are selectively hydrolysed in <a href="/wiki/Eagle%27s_minimal_essential_medium" title="Eagle's minimal essential medium">Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium</a> (DMEM) supplemented with <a href="/wiki/Fetal_bovine_serum" title="Fetal bovine serum">fetal bovine serum</a> (FBS) (a solution mimicking body fluid). After 30 days of submersion in DMEM+FBS, a PLLA scaffold lost about 20% of its weight.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>PLA samples of various molecular weights were degraded into <a href="/wiki/Methyl_lactate" title="Methyl lactate">methyl lactate</a> (a green solvent) by using a metal complex catalyst.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Román-Ramírez_acs.iecr.0c01122_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Román-Ramírez_acs.iecr.0c01122-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>PLA can also be degraded by some bacteria, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Amycolatopsis" title="Amycolatopsis">Amycolatopsis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharothrix_coeruleoviolacea" class="mw-redirect" title="Saccharothrix coeruleoviolacea">Saccharothrix</a></i>. A purified protease from <i><a href="/wiki/Amycolatopsis" title="Amycolatopsis">Amycolatopsis</a></i> sp., <a href="/w/index.php?title=PLA_depolymerase&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PLA depolymerase (page does not exist)">PLA depolymerase</a>, can also degrade PLA. Enzymes such as <a href="/wiki/Pronase" title="Pronase">pronase</a> and most effectively <a href="/wiki/Proteinase_K" title="Proteinase K">proteinase K</a> from <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritirachium_album&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tritirachium album (page does not exist)">Tritirachium album</a></i> degrade PLA.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="End_of_life">End of life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polylactic_acid&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: End of life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_Resin_Code_7.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Symbol_Resin_Code_7.svg/100px-Symbol_Resin_Code_7.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Symbol_Resin_Code_7.svg/150px-Symbol_Resin_Code_7.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Symbol_Resin_Code_7.svg/200px-Symbol_Resin_Code_7.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>PLA has <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Plastics_Industry" title="Society of the Plastics Industry">SPI</a> <a href="/wiki/Resin_identification_code" title="Resin identification code">resin ID code</a> 7</figcaption></figure><p>Four possible end-of-life scenarios are the most common: </p><ol><li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which can be either chemical or mechanical. Currently, the SPI <a href="/wiki/Resin_identification_code" title="Resin identification code">resin identification code</a> 7 ("others") is applicable for PLA. In Belgium, Galactic started the first pilot unit to chemically recycle PLA (Loopla).<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike mechanical recycling, waste material can hold various contaminants. Polylactic acid can be chemically recycled to monomer by thermal depolymerization or hydrolysis. When purified, the monomer can be used for the manufacturing of virgin PLA with no loss of original properties<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Cradle-to-cradle_design" title="Cradle-to-cradle design">cradle-to-cradle recycling</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (June 2015)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Polylactic_acid#Dubious" title="Talk:Polylactic acid">discuss</a></i>]</sup> End-of-life PLA can be chemically recycled to <a href="/wiki/Methyl_lactate" title="Methyl lactate">methyl lactate</a> by <a href="/wiki/Transesterification" title="Transesterification">transesterification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Román-Ramírez_acs.iecr.0c01122_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Román-Ramírez_acs.iecr.0c01122-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compost" title="Compost">Composting</a>: PLA is biodegradable under industrial composting conditions, starting with chemical hydrolysis process, followed by microbial digestion, to ultimately degrade the PLA. Under <a href="/wiki/Industrial_composting" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial composting">industrial composting</a> conditions (58 °C (136 °F)), PLA can partly (about half) decompose into water and carbon dioxide in 60 days, after which the remainder decomposes much more slowly,<sup id="cite_ref-Iovino2008_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iovino2008-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the rate depending on the material's degree of crystallinity.<sup id="cite_ref-Pantini2013_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pantini2013-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Environments without the necessary conditions will see very slow decomposition akin to that of non-bioplastics, not fully decomposing for hundreds or thousands of years.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incineration" title="Incineration">Incineration</a>: PLA can be <a href="/wiki/Plastic#Incineration_of_plastics" title="Plastic">incinerated</a> without producing chlorine-containing chemicals or heavy metals because it contains only <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> atoms. Since it does not contain chlorine it does not produce <a href="/wiki/Dioxins_and_dioxin-like_compounds" title="Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds">dioxins</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> during incineration.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PLA can be combusted with no remaining residue. This and other results suggest that incineration is an environmentally friendly disposal of waste PLA.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon being incinerated, PLA can release carbon dioxide.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a>: the least preferable option is landfilling because PLA degrades very slowly in ambient temperatures, often as slowly as other plastics.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polylactic_acid&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene" title="Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene">Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene</a> (ABS) - also used for 3D printing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellophane" title="Cellophane">Cellophane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyglycolide" title="Polyglycolide">polyglycolide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plastarch_material" title="Plastarch material">plastarch material</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate">poly-3-hydroxybutyrate</a> – biologically derived polymers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polilactofate" title="Polilactofate">Polilactofate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycaprolactone" title="Polycaprolactone">Polycaprolactone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zein" title="Zein">Zein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shellac" title="Shellac">shellac</a> – biologically derived coating materials</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poly(methyl_methacrylate)" title="Poly(methyl methacrylate)">Poly(methyl methacrylate)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polylactic_acid&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-MATBASE-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MATBASE_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MATBASE_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120210194852/http://www.matbase.com/material/polymers/agrobased/polylactic-acid-pla/properties">"Material Properties of Polylactic Acid (PLA), Agro Based Polymers"</a>. <i>Matbase - 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=End+of+Life+Options+for+Bioplastics+%E2%80%93+Recycling%2C+Energy%2C+Composting%2C+Landfill+-+Bioplastics+Guide+%7C+Bioplastics+Guide&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bioplastics.guide%2Fref%2Fbioplastics%2Fend-of-life-options&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolylactic+acid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChienLiangLiuYang2010" class="citation journal cs1">Chien YC, Liang C, Liu SH, Yang SH (July 2010). "Combustion kinetics and emission characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from polylactic acid combustion". <i>Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association</i>. <b>60</b> (7): 849–855. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010JAWMA..60..849C">2010JAWMA..60..849C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3155%2F1047-3289.60.7.849">10.3155/1047-3289.60.7.849</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20681432">20681432</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34100178">34100178</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Air+%26+Waste+Management+Association&rft.atitle=Combustion+kinetics+and+emission+characteristics+of+polycyclic+aromatic+hydrocarbons+from+polylactic+acid+combustion&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=849-855&rft.date=2010-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3155%2F1047-3289.60.7.849&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34100178%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20681432&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010JAWMA..60..849C&rft.aulast=Chien&rft.aufirst=YC&rft.au=Liang%2C+C&rft.au=Liu%2C+SH&rft.au=Yang%2C+SH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolylactic+acid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSunWeiTanHuang2022" class="citation journal cs1">Sun C, Wei S, Tan H, Huang Y, Zhang Y (October 2022). 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title="Cross-linked polyethylene">Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX, XLPE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylene-vinyl_acetate" title="Ethylene-vinyl acetate">Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poly(methyl_methacrylate)" title="Poly(methyl methacrylate)">Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poly(ethyl_methacrylate)" title="Poly(ethyl methacrylate)">Poly(ethyl methacrylate) (PEMA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyacrylic_acid" title="Polyacrylic acid">Polyacrylic acid (PAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyamide" title="Polyamide">Polyamide (PA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybutylene" title="Polybutylene">Polybutylene (PB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybutylene_terephthalate" title="Polybutylene terephthalate">Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">Polycarbonate (PC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PEEK" class="mw-redirect" title="PEEK">Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)</a></li> <li><a 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data-file-height="1769" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mechanical <br />types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">Thermoplastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermosetting_polymer" title="Thermosetting polymer">Thermosetting polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibre-reinforced_plastic" title="Fibre-reinforced plastic">Fibre-reinforced plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrugated_plastic" title="Corrugated plastic">Corrugated plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymeric_foam" title="Polymeric foam">Polymeric foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_plastics" title="High-performance plastics">High-performance plastics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Additives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Additives" title="Plastic">Polymer additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_colorant" title="Plastic colorant">Colorants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasticizer" title="Plasticizer">Plasticizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_stabilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymer stabilizers">Polymer stabilizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_additives" title="Biodegradable additives">Biodegradable additives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filler_(materials)" title="Filler (materials)">Filler (materials)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plastics <br />processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Injection_moulding" title="Injection moulding">Injection moulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_extrusion" title="Plastic extrusion">Plastic extrusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blow_molding" title="Blow molding">Blow molding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoforming" title="Thermoforming">Thermoforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compression_molding" title="Compression molding">Compression molding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calendering_(textiles)" title="Calendering (textiles)">Calendering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_molding" title="Transfer molding">Transfer molding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamination" title="Lamination">Laminating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiberglass_molding" title="Fiberglass molding">Fiberglass molding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pultrusion" title="Pultrusion">Pultrusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_welding" title="Plastic welding">Plastic welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filament_winding" title="Filament winding">Filament winding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solvent_bonding" title="Solvent bonding">Solvent bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_forming" title="Vacuum forming">Vacuum forming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotational_molding" title="Rotational molding">Rotational molding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plastics_industry" title="Plastics industry">Plastics industry</a> segments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_plastics" title="Commodity plastics">Commodity plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastics_in_the_construction_industry" title="Plastics in the construction industry">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_plastic" title="Engineering plastic">Engineering plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynthetics" title="Geosynthetics">Geosynthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_plastics" title="High-performance plastics">High-performance plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurdle_(bead)" title="Nurdle (bead)">Nurdle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Plastics_applications" title="Category:Plastics applications">Category:Plastics applications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasticulture" title="Plasticulture">Plasticulture</a> (Agriculture)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific goods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blister_pack" title="Blister pack">Blister pack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monobloc_(chair)" title="Monobloc (chair)">Chairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_film" title="Plastic film">Packaging film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_bottle" title="Plastic bottle">Bottles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_bag" title="Plastic bag">Bags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_cutlery" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic cutlery">Cutlery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_shopping_bag" title="Plastic shopping bag">Shopping bags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food containers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Environment <br />and health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Health_issues_of_plastics_and_polyhalogenated_compounds_(PHCs)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Health_issues_of_plastics" title="Template:Health issues of plastics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Health_issues_of_plastics" title="Template talk:Health issues of plastics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Health_issues_of_plastics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Health issues of plastics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Health_issues_of_plastics_and_polyhalogenated_compounds_(PHCs)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Health issues of <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polyhalogenated_compound" title="Polyhalogenated compound">polyhalogenated compounds</a> (PHCs)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plasticizer" title="Plasticizer">Plasticizers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Phthalate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phthalate">Phthalates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diisobutyl_phthalate" title="Diisobutyl phthalate">DIBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibutyl_phthalate" title="Dibutyl phthalate">DBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzyl_butyl_phthalate" title="Benzyl butyl phthalate">BBP</a> (BBzP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diisoheptyl_phthalate" title="Diisoheptyl phthalate">DIHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bis(2-ethylhexyl)_phthalate" title="Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate">DEHP</a> (DOP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diisodecyl_phthalate" title="Diisodecyl phthalate">DIDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diisononyl_phthalate" title="Diisononyl phthalate">DINP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous plasticizers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate">Organophosphates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adipic_acid" title="Adipic acid">Adipates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bis(2-ethylhexyl)_adipate" title="Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate">DEHA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioctyl_adipate" title="Dioctyl adipate">DOA</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bisphenol_A" title="Bisphenol A">Bisphenol A</a> (BPA, in <a href="/wiki/Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">Polycarbonates</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinyl_chloride" title="Vinyl chloride">Vinyl chloride</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">PVC</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous additives incl. PHCs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polybrominated_diphenyl_ethers" title="Polybrominated diphenyl ethers">PBDEs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">PCBs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotin" class="mw-redirect" title="Organotin">Organotins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfluorinated_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfluorinated compounds">PFCs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perfluorooctanoic_acid" title="Perfluorooctanoic acid">Perfluorooctanoic acid</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Toxicity" title="Plastic">Health issues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teratogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Teratogen">Teratogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">Carcinogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor" title="Endocrine disruptor">Endocrine disruptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_fume_fever" title="Polymer fume fever">Polymer fume fever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pollution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_pollution" title="Rubber pollution">Rubber pollution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins" title="Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins">Dioxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_health_hazards" class="mw-redirect" title="List of environmental health hazards">List of environmental health hazards</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1986_California_Proposition_65" title="1986 California Proposition 65">California Proposition 65</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Registration,_Evaluation,_Authorisation_and_Restriction_of_Chemicals" title="Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals">European REACH regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashinhou" title="Kashinhou">Japan Toxic Substances Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_Substances_Control_Act_of_1976" title="Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976">Toxic Substances Control Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Waste</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbage_patch" title="Garbage patch">Garbage patch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioxins">Dioxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_health_hazards" class="mw-redirect" title="List of environmental health hazards">List of environmental health hazards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_recycling" title="Plastic recycling">Plastic recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_plastic" title="Biodegradable plastic">Biodegradable plastic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/wiki/Resin_identification_code" title="Resin identification code">Identification codes</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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