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Switzerland and the USA: sister republics – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog
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href="/en/2021/01/switzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics/" aria-current="page" title="English" lang="en-GB" class="language nuxt-link-exact-active nuxt-link-active active" data-v-083a86ac><span data-v-083a86ac>en</span></a></span></div> <!----></nav> <!----> <article id="single" tabindex="-1" class="single" data-v-00263075><!----> <div class="blocks"><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_01" class="snm-title-fullbleed wide" data-v-84c812a2><figure data-v-84c812a2><div class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(10/4);" data-v-84c812a2><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-300x225.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-450x338.jpg 450w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-750x563.jpg 750w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-900x675.jpg 900w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-600x450.jpg 600w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa.jpg 1600w" src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-300x225.jpg" width="1600" height="1200" alt="The Constitution of the United States with its famous preamble ‘We the People’ (left), and an excerpt from the Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-84c812a2></img></div> <figcaption class="caption center" data-v-84c812a2><b data-v-84c812a2>The Constitution of the United States with its famous preamble ‘We the People’ (left), and an excerpt from the Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848.</b> <span data-v-84c812a2>Wikimedia / Swiss National Museum</span></figcaption> <a href="/en/" 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0-1.643.051-2.94.152-1.298.102-2.278.152-2.939.152-.637 0-1.578-.05-2.825-.152-1.246-.101-2.189-.152-2.824-.152-.993 0-1.667.152-2.024.456-.355.304-.533.874-.533 1.71 0 .102.037.469.113 1.102v1.672c0 .38-.019.963-.057 1.748a39.949 39.949 0 00-.057 1.748c0 1.672.76 2.508 2.279 2.508 1.672 0 2.508-.899 2.508-2.698 0-.456-.02-.785-.063-.988a5.1 5.1 0 01-.126-1.102c0-.861.515-1.292 1.544-1.292h3.282l-9.387 14.972c-.683 1.09-1.025 2.078-1.025 2.964z" data-v-7e6d6eb5></path></svg></a></figure> <div class="intro center" data-v-84c812a2><h1 class="title" data-v-84c812a2>Switzerland and the USA: sister republics</h1> <p class="lead" data-v-84c812a2>At first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. But a look back at their shared history springs a few surprises. It shows how closely the political systems of the two nations are related to one another.</p> <section class="snm-author-info" data-v-64f90143 data-v-84c812a2><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/reneroca-300x300.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/reneroca-150x150.jpg 150w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/reneroca-160x160.jpg 160w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/reneroca-320x320.jpg 320w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/reneroca.jpg 400w" alt="René Roca" class="image" data-v-64f90143> <h1 class="name" data-v-64f90143><a href="/en/author/rene-roca/" data-v-64f90143><span data-v-64f90143>René Roca</span> <svg fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-arrow-right" data-v-64f90143><path fill="#D44625" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M18.42 13H2v-2h16.42L14 6.374 15.312 5 22 12l-6.688 7L14 17.626 18.42 13z" clip-rule="evenodd" data-v-64f90143></path></svg></a></h1> <p class="description" data-v-64f90143>René Roca has a PhD in history and is a secondary school teacher and Director of the Research Institute for Direct Democracy <a class="link decoration" target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://fidd.ch/">fidd.ch</a>.</p> <div class="info" data-v-64f90143><!----> <!----></div></section></div></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_02" class="snm-text" data-v-195efe9f><span data-v-195efe9f>Ever since the Swiss Confederation started operating as a sovereign federation of states in 1648 and Great Britain established its colonies on the east coast of North America, figures from politics, business and culture on both sides of the Atlantic have been swapping ideas back and forth. If we take a look at these links from the 17th century to the present day and relate them specifically to philosophical and constitutional concepts, we can identify an ‘Atlantic cycle of modern conceptions of the state’. The famous Swiss constitutional historian and expert in constitutional law Alfred Kölz (1944-2003) coined this term, and it is astonishing how consistently the give and take between Switzerland and what would soon become the USA has been carried on. It is only in the past few decades that the relationship has cooled.</span></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_04" class="snm-image image-size-small has-caption" data-v-17adc581><figure data-v-17adc581><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/briefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-211x300.jpg 211w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/briefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-1082x1536.jpg 1082w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/briefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-317x450.jpg 317w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/briefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-528x750.jpg 528w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/briefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-634x900.jpg 634w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/briefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-423x600.jpg 423w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/briefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-1057x1500.jpg 1057w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/briefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-846x1200.jpg 846w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/briefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131.jpg 1200w" src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/briefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-211x300.jpg" width="1200" height="1703" alt="To mark the 700th anniversary of the Swiss Confederation in 1991, the US postal service and Swiss Post issued a joint postage stamp. The stamp depicts the Capitol in Washington and the federal parliament building, the Bundeshaus, in Bern." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-17adc581> <figcaption class="caption center" data-v-17adc581><b data-v-17adc581>To mark the 700th anniversary of the Swiss Confederation in 1991, the US postal service and Swiss Post issued a joint postage stamp. The stamp depicts the Capitol in Washington and the federal parliament building, the Bundeshaus, in Bern. </b> <span data-v-17adc581>Swiss National Museum</span></figcaption></figure> <!----></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_15" class="snm-title" data-v-47b097b1><h2 data-v-47b097b1>Scepticism towards Rousseau’s sovereignty of the people</h2></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_02" class="snm-text" data-v-195efe9f><span data-v-195efe9f>For the American intellectual elites in the 17th and 18th centuries English tradition, such as the idea of relative freedom and the parliamentary system, was the guiding principle. In addition to the English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) and the Frenchman Montesquieu (1689-1755), as political debates took shape other classic figures of the European Enlightenment and natural law gained in significance; this was especially true for representatives of francophone Switzerland’s school of natural law (‘École romande du droit naturel’) such as Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui (1694-1748) and Emer de Vattel (1714-1767). But the influence of the Genevan <a href="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/en/2018/08/national-identities/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> (1712-1778), with his concept of the sovereignty of the people, was limited. This scepticism towards the will of the people and too much equality later became apparent in the federal Constitution of the USA, with the introduction of the system of electors (panel of presidential electors) for the election of the president. The founding fathers were generally wary of ‘the people’. The system they envisaged therefore provided that the electors were able to overturn the results of a direct presidential election, in case the masses were carried away by their emotions and wanted to install the wrong president, such as a devious seducer of the people, on the presidential chair.</span></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_06" class="snm-image-slider" data-v-c48d8d8a><div class="slides" style="--current-slide:1;--slides-count:8;" data-v-c48d8d8a><figure class="slide active" data-v-c48d8d8a><div class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(1/1);" data-v-c48d8d8a><img src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john-locke-246x300.jpg" srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john-locke-246x300.jpg 246w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john-locke-369x450.jpg 369w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john-locke-615x750.jpg 615w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john-locke-738x900.jpg 738w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john-locke-492x600.jpg 492w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john-locke-984x1200.jpg 984w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john-locke.jpg 1200w" width="1200" height="1463" alt="John Locke, 1697." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:29.6%;" data-v-c48d8d8a></div> <figcaption class="caption center" data-v-c48d8d8a><b data-v-c48d8d8a>John Locke, 1697.</b> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" href="https://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/portal/hermitage/digital-collection/01.+Paintings/38692/?lng=en " class="link decoration" data-v-c48d8d8a>The State Hermitage Museum</a> <div class="counter" data-v-c48d8d8a> Image <b data-v-c48d8d8a>01</b> of <b data-v-c48d8d8a>08</b></div></figcaption></figure><figure class="slide next" data-v-c48d8d8a><div class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(1/1);" data-v-c48d8d8a><img src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/montesquieu-249x300.jpg" srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/montesquieu-249x300.jpg 249w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/montesquieu-374x450.jpg 374w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/montesquieu-623x750.jpg 623w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/montesquieu-747x900.jpg 747w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/montesquieu-498x600.jpg 498w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/montesquieu-997x1200.jpg 997w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/montesquieu.jpg 1200w" width="1200" height="1445" alt="Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, 1728." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:32.1%;" data-v-c48d8d8a></div> <figcaption class="caption center" data-v-c48d8d8a><b data-v-c48d8d8a>Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, 1728.</b> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" href="http://collections.chateauversailles.fr/#e8b6235b-c470-4cb4-b390-4f548900b4e5 " class="link decoration" data-v-c48d8d8a>Château de Versailles</a> <div class="counter" data-v-c48d8d8a> Image <b data-v-c48d8d8a>01</b> of <b data-v-c48d8d8a>08</b></div></figcaption></figure><figure class="slide" data-v-c48d8d8a><div class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(1/1);" data-v-c48d8d8a><img src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacquesburlamaqui-246x300.jpg" srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacquesburlamaqui-246x300.jpg 246w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacquesburlamaqui-369x450.jpg 369w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacquesburlamaqui-614x750.jpg 614w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacquesburlamaqui-737x900.jpg 737w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacquesburlamaqui-491x600.jpg 491w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacquesburlamaqui-983x1200.jpg 983w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacquesburlamaqui.jpg 1200w" width="1200" height="1465" alt="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, around 1799." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:40.2%;" data-v-c48d8d8a></div> <figcaption class="caption center" data-v-c48d8d8a><b data-v-c48d8d8a>Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, around 1799.</b> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" href="http://doi.org/10.7890/ethz-a-000511268 " class="link decoration" data-v-c48d8d8a>ETH Library Zurich</a> <div class="counter" data-v-c48d8d8a> Image <b data-v-c48d8d8a>01</b> of <b data-v-c48d8d8a>08</b></div></figcaption></figure><figure class="slide" data-v-c48d8d8a><div class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(1/1);" data-v-c48d8d8a><img src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/emer-de-vattel-265x300.jpg" srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/emer-de-vattel-265x300.jpg 265w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/emer-de-vattel-398x450.jpg 398w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/emer-de-vattel-664x750.jpg 664w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/emer-de-vattel-796x900.jpg 796w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/emer-de-vattel-531x600.jpg 531w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/emer-de-vattel-1062x1200.jpg 1062w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/emer-de-vattel.jpg 1200w" width="1200" height="1356" alt="Emer de Vattel, around 1760." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:25.5%;" data-v-c48d8d8a></div> <figcaption class="caption center" data-v-c48d8d8a><b data-v-c48d8d8a>Emer de Vattel, around 1760.</b> <span data-v-c48d8d8a>Bibliothèque publique et universitaire de Neuchâtel</span> <div class="counter" data-v-c48d8d8a> Image <b data-v-c48d8d8a>01</b> of <b data-v-c48d8d8a>08</b></div></figcaption></figure><figure class="slide" data-v-c48d8d8a><div class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(1/1);" data-v-c48d8d8a><img src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacques-rousseau-215x300.jpg" srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacques-rousseau-215x300.jpg 215w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacques-rousseau-1103x1536.jpg 1103w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacques-rousseau-323x450.jpg 323w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacques-rousseau-539x750.jpg 539w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacques-rousseau-646x900.jpg 646w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacques-rousseau-431x600.jpg 431w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacques-rousseau-1077x1500.jpg 1077w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacques-rousseau-862x1200.jpg 862w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/jean-jacques-rousseau.jpg 1200w" width="1200" height="1671" alt="Jean-Jacques Rousseau, around 1763." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:28%;" data-v-c48d8d8a></div> <figcaption class="caption center" data-v-c48d8d8a><b data-v-c48d8d8a>Jean-Jacques Rousseau, around 1763.</b> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" href="https://collections.geneve.ch/mah/oeuvre/portrait-de-jean-jacques-rousseau-1712-1778/1876-0009 " class="link decoration" data-v-c48d8d8a>Musée d’art et d’histoire Genève</a> <div class="counter" data-v-c48d8d8a> Image <b data-v-c48d8d8a>01</b> of <b data-v-c48d8d8a>08</b></div></figcaption></figure><figure class="slide" data-v-c48d8d8a><div class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(1/1);" data-v-c48d8d8a><img src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/thomas-jefferson-251x300.jpg" srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/thomas-jefferson-251x300.jpg 251w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/thomas-jefferson-377x450.jpg 377w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/thomas-jefferson-628x750.jpg 628w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/thomas-jefferson-754x900.jpg 754w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/thomas-jefferson-502x600.jpg 502w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/thomas-jefferson-1005x1200.jpg 1005w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/thomas-jefferson.jpg 1200w" width="1200" height="1433" alt="Thomas Jefferson, 1800." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:31.1%;" data-v-c48d8d8a></div> <figcaption class="caption center" data-v-c48d8d8a><b data-v-c48d8d8a>Thomas Jefferson, 1800.</b> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" href="https://www.whitehousehistory.org/bios/thomas-jefferson " class="link decoration" data-v-c48d8d8a>The White House Historical Association</a> <div class="counter" data-v-c48d8d8a> Image <b data-v-c48d8d8a>01</b> of <b data-v-c48d8d8a>08</b></div></figcaption></figure><figure class="slide" data-v-c48d8d8a><div class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(1/1);" data-v-c48d8d8a><img src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john_adams-240x300.jpg" srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john_adams-240x300.jpg 240w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john_adams-360x450.jpg 360w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john_adams-600x750.jpg 600w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john_adams-720x900.jpg 720w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john_adams-480x600.jpg 480w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john_adams-959x1200.jpg 959w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/john_adams.jpg 1200w" width="1200" height="1501" alt="John Adams, around 1792." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:42.2%;" data-v-c48d8d8a></div> <figcaption class="caption center" data-v-c48d8d8a><b data-v-c48d8d8a>John Adams, around 1792.</b> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" href="https://www.whitehousehistory.org/bios/john-adams " class="link decoration" data-v-c48d8d8a>The White House Historical Association</a> <div class="counter" data-v-c48d8d8a> Image <b data-v-c48d8d8a>01</b> of <b data-v-c48d8d8a>08</b></div></figcaption></figure><figure class="slide" data-v-c48d8d8a><div class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(1/1);" data-v-c48d8d8a><img src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/james_madison-247x300.jpg" srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/james_madison-247x300.jpg 247w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/james_madison-370x450.jpg 370w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/james_madison-616x750.jpg 616w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/james_madison-740x900.jpg 740w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/james_madison-493x600.jpg 493w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/james_madison-986x1200.jpg 986w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/james_madison.jpg 1200w" width="1200" height="1460" alt="James Madison, 1816." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:30.1%;" data-v-c48d8d8a></div> <figcaption class="caption center" data-v-c48d8d8a><b data-v-c48d8d8a>James Madison, 1816.</b> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" href="https://www.whitehousehistory.org/photos/james-madison" class="link decoration" data-v-c48d8d8a>The White House Historical Association</a> <div class="counter" data-v-c48d8d8a> Image <b data-v-c48d8d8a>01</b> of <b data-v-c48d8d8a>08</b></div></figcaption></figure></div> <nav mode="out-in" class="navigation" data-v-c48d8d8a><button class="button button-next" data-v-c48d8d8a><svg fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-arrow-right" data-v-c48d8d8a><path fill="#D44625" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M18.42 13H2v-2h16.42L14 6.374 15.312 5 22 12l-6.688 7L14 17.626 18.42 13z" clip-rule="evenodd" data-v-c48d8d8a></path></svg></button></nav></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_15" class="snm-title" data-v-47b097b1><h2 data-v-47b097b1>The American Revolution as the fruit of the Swiss Enlightenment</h2></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_02" class="snm-text" data-v-195efe9f><span data-v-195efe9f>The representatives of francophone Switzerland’s school of natural law were concerned primarily with the struggle for a modern form of natural law, a term which means in essence that every person has certain natural rights from birth. These ideas sowed the seeds of the Age of Enlightenment in Switzerland, and culminated in fundamental debates about human rights and civil rights, as well as a democratic basic order. The teachings of francophone Switzerland’s school of natural law played an important role in the North American independence movement and the American Revolution. The American constitutional fathers, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and John Adams, studied the works of representatives of the school and adopted modern principles of natural law, as well as what was known as the ‘personal idea of man’. This was expressed in the Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776:</span></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_08" class="snm-quote" data-v-a52824de><blockquote data-v-a52824de><p data-v-a52824de>We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.</p> <footer data-v-a52824de> Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776 </footer></blockquote></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_02" class="snm-text" data-v-195efe9f><span data-v-195efe9f>The reference to modern natural law and the personal idea of man also informed the world’s first written declaration of fundamental rights, the Virginia Bill of Rights of 12 June 1776. In the first section, it says: ‘That all men are by nature equally free and independent and have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.’ It was during the late 18th century, during its war of independence against the British, that the USA first spoke of ‘Sister Republics’ in relation to Switzerland. The USA was comparing its own war of independence against the British crown with the existence – at the time, admittedly, idealised – of a federal republic in an otherwise monarchical Europe.</span></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_04" class="snm-image image-size-regular has-caption" data-v-17adc581><figure data-v-17adc581><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/declaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-300x199.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/declaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-1536x1017.jpg 1536w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/declaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-450x298.jpg 450w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/declaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-750x496.jpg 750w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/declaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-900x596.jpg 900w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/declaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-600x397.jpg 600w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/declaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-1500x993.jpg 1500w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/declaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-1200x794.jpg 1200w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/declaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull.jpg 1600w" src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/declaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-300x199.jpg" width="1600" height="1059" alt="The Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776, depicted in the painting by John Trumbull (1756-1843), 1819. The painting is 5.5 m wide and now hangs in the Capitol." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-17adc581> <figcaption class="caption center" data-v-17adc581><b data-v-17adc581>The Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776, depicted in the painting by John Trumbull (1756-1843), 1819. The painting is 5.5 m wide and now hangs in the Capitol. </b> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg " class="link decoration" data-v-17adc581>Wikimedia</a></figcaption></figure> <!----></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_15" class="snm-title" data-v-47b097b1><h2 data-v-47b097b1>The American Revolution as impetus for the French and Helvetic Revolutions</h2></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_02" class="snm-text" data-v-195efe9f><span data-v-195efe9f>The French Revolution took up the message of the American Constitution’s development with its ‘Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen’ of 6 August 1789. In Article 1, it declares modern natural law to be the foundation: ‘1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.’ In Article 6, the French constitutional fathers make reference to Rousseau’s concept of sovereignty of the people: ‘The Law is the expression of the general will (volonté générale). All citizens have the right to take part, personally or through their representatives, in its making.’ During the French Revolution, draft constitutions were submitted which included instruments of direct democracy and which became important points of reference for developments in Switzerland but not, for the time being, in the USA. Fuelled by the political practice of the American and French Revolutions, the brief period of the Helvetic Republic (1798-1803) laid the foundations for further democratic debates in Switzerland.</span></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_04" class="snm-image image-size-regular has-caption" data-v-17adc581><figure data-v-17adc581><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/cosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-300x199.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/cosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-450x298.jpg 450w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/cosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-750x496.jpg 750w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/cosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-900x596.jpg 900w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/cosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-600x397.jpg 600w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/cosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum.jpg 1200w" src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/cosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-300x199.jpg" width="1200" height="794" alt="The Swiss woman (standing on the rock and dressed in traditional costume) recommends the referendum to her sisters the USA, Germany, France and Great Britain (from left to right). Drawing in the magazine The Cosmopolitan, No XV/3 (July 1893)." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-17adc581> <figcaption class="caption center" data-v-17adc581><b data-v-17adc581>The Swiss woman (standing on the rock and dressed in traditional costume) recommends the referendum to her sisters the USA, Germany, France and Great Britain (from left to right). Drawing in the magazine The Cosmopolitan, No XV/3 (July 1893).</b> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015009215891?urlappend=%3Bseq=335 " class="link decoration" data-v-17adc581>HathiTrust</a></figcaption></figure> <!----></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_15" class="snm-title" data-v-47b097b1><h2 data-v-47b097b1>The US Constitution as a model for Switzerland’s Federal Constitution</h2></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_02" class="snm-text" data-v-195efe9f><span data-v-195efe9f>The Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848 went on to incorporate key elements of the US Federal Constitution of 1787/89. As in the USA (Bill of Rights), fundamental human rights were enshrined in the Swiss Federal Constitution. The Swiss Confederation also introduced the separation of powers in 1848. However, Switzerland chose not to vest extensive power in a single president; instead, <em>executive</em> power was distributed among seven liberal leaders. In the USA, the executive authority (the President) is still chosen indirectly by the people (and confirmed by the aforementioned electors); in Switzerland, the choice is made by the legislative authority. In terms of the composition of the Swiss Federal Council, the priority has always been integrating the various parts of the country and the different language regions. Subsequent development of the system broke through the liberals’ claim to sole representation, and brought conservative and social democrat politicians into the Executive as well. The apogee of this development was the ‘magic formula’ of 1959, which completed the Swiss concordance system and can be described as a model of success. As the legislative authority in Switzerland, the National Council and the Council of States are a copy of the US bicameral system. The real impetus for this concept came from the most important Swiss philosopher of the 19th century, Ignaz Paul Vital Troxler (1780-1866). When the Swiss Constitution was revised in 1848, Troxler took a decisive hand in the discussions on the federal institutions. He had long advocated the federal state concept with a bicameral system modelled on the USA. The paper he had written on the subject, ‘<a href="https://doi.org/10.3931/e-rara-29503" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Die Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten Nordamerikas als Musterbild der schweizerischen Bundesreform</a>’ (The Constitution of the United States of North America as a Model for Swiss Federal Reform), probably found its way into the deliberations of the relevant committee through one of his former students. The idea became reality, and Troxler thus left his mark on the Swiss federal state system based on the US model. With the introduction of proportional voting rights for the National Council, from 1919 onwards Switzerland strengthened the pluralism of the parties; in the USA this step has not yet been taken.</span></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_04" class="snm-image image-size-regular has-caption" data-v-17adc581><figure data-v-17adc581><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/majorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-300x197.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/majorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-1536x1010.jpg 1536w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/majorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-450x296.jpg 450w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/majorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-750x493.jpg 750w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/majorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-900x592.jpg 900w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/majorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-600x395.jpg 600w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/majorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-1500x986.jpg 1500w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/majorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-1200x789.jpg 1200w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/majorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938.jpg 1600w" src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/majorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-300x197.jpg" width="1600" height="1052" alt="Propaganda postcard for the introduction of the proportional representation system, around 1910." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-17adc581> <figcaption class="caption center" data-v-17adc581><b data-v-17adc581>Propaganda postcard for the introduction of the proportional representation system, around 1910. </b> <span data-v-17adc581>Swiss National Museum</span></figcaption></figure> <!----></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_02" class="snm-text" data-v-195efe9f><span data-v-195efe9f>The members of the US Supreme Court, that is, the <em>judiciary</em>, are appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate. Appointed for life, the members of the judiciary thus end up, time and again, little more than political pawns. Switzerland took a different approach, and lets the United Federal Assembly appoint the members of the Federal Supreme Court based on party proportional representation. As already noted, the American constitutional fathers were sceptical of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and rejected his concept of sovereignty of the people. For that reason, they were wary of any forms of further participation in decision-making by the population within the framework of the <em>principle of democracy</em>. Lockean liberalism thus gained greater significance in the USA, because it took up the English utilitarian tradition more directly. But in the late 19th century, Switzerland once again became an important source of ideas for the USA, namely in terms of direct democracy.</span></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_05" class="snm-image-column" data-v-1cf33836><figure class="left-column" data-v-1cf33836><div class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(4/3);" data-v-1cf33836><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-the-usa-en-300x225.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-the-usa-en-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-the-usa-en-450x338.jpg 450w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-the-usa-en-750x563.jpg 750w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-the-usa-en-900x675.jpg 900w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-the-usa-en-600x450.jpg 600w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-the-usa-en-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-the-usa-en-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-the-usa-en.jpg 1600w" src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-the-usa-en-300x225.jpg" width="1600" height="1200" alt="The political system of the USA (thin arrows indicate rights of confirmation or veto)." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-1cf33836></div> <figcaption class="caption" data-v-1cf33836><b data-v-1cf33836>The political system of the USA (thin arrows indicate rights of confirmation or veto).</b> <span data-v-1cf33836>Illustration: Swiss National Museum, according to Wikimedia/111Alleskönner</span></figcaption></figure> <figure class="right-column" data-v-1cf33836><div class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(4/3);" data-v-1cf33836><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-switzerland-en-300x225.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-switzerland-en-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-switzerland-en-450x338.jpg 450w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-switzerland-en-750x563.jpg 750w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-switzerland-en-900x675.jpg 900w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-switzerland-en-600x450.jpg 600w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-switzerland-en-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-switzerland-en-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-switzerland-en.jpg 1600w" src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/pol-system-of-switzerland-en-300x225.jpg" width="1600" height="1200" alt="Switzerland’s political system" class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-1cf33836></div> <figcaption class="caption" data-v-1cf33836><b data-v-1cf33836>Switzerland’s political system.</b> <span data-v-1cf33836>Illustration: Swiss National Museum, according to Wikimedia/WufiCH</span></figcaption></figure> <!----> <!----></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_15" class="snm-title" data-v-47b097b1><h2 data-v-47b097b1>The Populist Movement calls for a direct democracy as in Switzerland</h2></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_02" class="snm-text" data-v-195efe9f><span data-v-195efe9f>After Switzerland had also introduced the referendum (1874) and the constitutional initiative (1891) at federal level, this direct democratic model became the subject of intensive discussion in the USA as well. Towards the end of the 19th century, the Populist Movement in the USA highlighted the close constitutional development of Switzerland and the USA, and called for more direct democracy based on the Swiss model. The ‘populists’ in the USA at that time were mainly representatives of the predominantly agricultural Midwest, who sought to curb the increasing power of big business and banks. In 1892 a political party was established: the ‘People’s Party’. With its demands for greater political involvement and weakening of ‘big business’, the party’s policies aligned with the interests of many Americans. In the 1892 elections the party achieved considerable success, and threatened to dismantle the two-party system in the USA which was based on the majority voting right. However, when the party decided in 1896 to form a coalition with the Democrats, it quickly lost influence. As an important result of the debate about direct democracy in Switzerland, in the next few years nearly half of the 50 states of the USA introduced some form of the referendum and the initiative. However, the introduction of more direct democracy at federal level has still not been achieved.</span></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_04" class="snm-image image-size-small has-caption" data-v-17adc581><figure data-v-17adc581><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/loc-referendum-1972-california-227x300.jpg 227w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/loc-referendum-1972-california-1162x1536.jpg 1162w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/loc-referendum-1972-california-340x450.jpg 340w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/loc-referendum-1972-california-567x750.jpg 567w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/loc-referendum-1972-california-681x900.jpg 681w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/loc-referendum-1972-california-454x600.jpg 454w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/loc-referendum-1972-california-1135x1500.jpg 1135w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/loc-referendum-1972-california-908x1200.jpg 908w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/loc-referendum-1972-california.jpg 1200w" src="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/loc-referendum-1972-california-227x300.jpg" width="1200" height="1586" alt="Campaign poster for a California referendum on legalising cannabis, 1972." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-17adc581> <figcaption class="caption center" data-v-17adc581><b data-v-17adc581>Campaign poster for a California referendum on legalising cannabis, 1972.</b> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/2016648779/ " class="link decoration" data-v-17adc581>Library of Congress</a></figcaption></figure> <!----></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-module-name="ST_02" class="snm-text" data-v-195efe9f><span data-v-195efe9f>For the democratic culture of the USA it would make perfect sense to revive the old relationships with the country’s ‘Sister Republic’ of Switzerland, and to reinstate the mutually beneficial back and forth of ideas. The two republics owe each other a great deal, and the learning process is still ongoing.</span></section></div> <section data-aos="woosh" class="snm-footer-meta"><p><b>Published on:</b> 20.01.2021</p> <!----> <p class="printOnly"><b>URL:</b> https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/en/2021/01/switzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics/</p></section> <section data-aos="woosh" class="snm-category-quicklinks"><b class="more-of">More of: </b> <a href="/en/category/modern-age/" class="category"><span>Modern Age</span></a><a href="/en/category/politics/" class="category"><span>Politics</span></a><a href="/en/category/article/" class="category"><span>Article</span></a> <button title="All categories" class="button category">All categories</button></section> <!----><!----><!----> <section data-aos="woosh" class="snm-newsletter-subscription wide beige" data-v-bb9cf9fe><form data-aos="fade-up" novalidate="novalidate" class="newsletter-form" data-v-bb9cf9fe><h1 class="title" data-v-bb9cf9fe>Subscribe to the blog</h1> <p class="description" data-v-bb9cf9fe>We will inform you about new articles every two weeks.</p> <div class="input-container is-hidden" data-v-bb9cf9fe><label for="newsletter-name" class="visually-hidden" data-v-bb9cf9fe>Name</label> <input id="newsletter-name" type="text" data-v-bb9cf9fe></div> <div class="input-container" data-v-bb9cf9fe><label for="newsletter-email" class="visually-hidden" data-v-bb9cf9fe>Enter your email address</label> <input id="newsletter-email" autocomplete="email" placeholder="Enter your email address" type="email" required="required" value="" class="email" data-v-bb9cf9fe> <svg fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="is-disabled icon icon-arrow-right" data-v-bb9cf9fe data-v-bb9cf9fe><path fill="#D44625" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M18.42 13H2v-2h16.42L14 6.374 15.312 5 22 12l-6.688 7L14 17.626 18.42 13z" clip-rule="evenodd" data-v-bb9cf9fe data-v-bb9cf9fe></path></svg></div> <!----> <!----> <span data-v-bb9cf9fe></span> <!----></form></section> <section data-aos="woosh" data-fetch-key="SnmPostSuggestions:0" class="snm-post-suggestions"><h2 data-aos="woosh" class="title">Further posts</h2> <section data-aos="woosh" data-aos-delay="0" class="snm-post-teaser horizontal" data-v-d7720576><h2 class="title" data-v-d7720576><a href="/en/2024/07/war-crimes-ossola/" data-v-d7720576><span data-v-d7720576>War crimes on Switzerland’s doorstep</span> <svg fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-arrow-right" data-v-d7720576><path fill="#D44625" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M18.42 13H2v-2h16.42L14 6.374 15.312 5 22 12l-6.688 7L14 17.626 18.42 13z" clip-rule="evenodd" data-v-d7720576></path></svg></a></h2> <a href="/en/author/raphael-rues/" class="author" data-v-d7720576>Raphael Rues</a> <span class="date" data-v-d7720576>23.07.2024</span> <span class="excerpt" data-v-d7720576>The Ossola region at Switzerland’s southern border experienced escalating violence between 1943 and 1945. Many war crimes were committed resulting in hundreds of casualties. A look back at what caused this horror.</span> <figure class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(4/3);" data-v-d7720576><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/kriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-300x225.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/kriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/kriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-450x338.jpg 450w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/kriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-750x563.jpg 750w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/kriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-900x675.jpg 900w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/kriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-600x450.jpg 600w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/kriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/kriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/kriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel.jpg 1600w" src="/app/uploads/kriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-300x225.jpg" sizes="(max-width: 399px) 400px, (max-width: 799px) 800px, 500px" alt="A picture of 45 civilians in Verbania. They were shot on the same day, 20 June 1944, by SS-Polizei soldiers." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-d7720576></figure> <!----></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-aos-delay="0" class="snm-post-teaser horizontal" data-v-d7720576><h2 class="title" data-v-d7720576><a href="/en/2024/04/the-guillotine-maker/" data-v-d7720576><span data-v-d7720576>The guillotine maker</span> <svg fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-arrow-right" data-v-d7720576><path fill="#D44625" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M18.42 13H2v-2h16.42L14 6.374 15.312 5 22 12l-6.688 7L14 17.626 18.42 13z" clip-rule="evenodd" data-v-d7720576></path></svg></a></h2> <a href="/en/author/michael-van-orsouw/" class="author" data-v-d7720576>Michael van Orsouw</a> <span class="date" data-v-d7720576>05.04.2024</span> <span class="excerpt" data-v-d7720576>Johann Bücheler was a regular carpenter from Kloten. In 1836, he was commissioned by the canton of Zurich to build a guillotine. That proved the end of “normality” as he knew it.</span> <figure class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(4/3);" data-v-d7720576><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/guillotine-titel-300x225.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/guillotine-titel-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/guillotine-titel-450x338.jpg 450w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/guillotine-titel-750x563.jpg 750w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/guillotine-titel-900x675.jpg 900w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/guillotine-titel-600x450.jpg 600w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/guillotine-titel-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/guillotine-titel-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/guillotine-titel.jpg 1600w" src="/app/uploads/guillotine-titel-300x225.jpg" sizes="(max-width: 399px) 400px, (max-width: 799px) 800px, 500px" alt="The Zurich guillotine was tested on a sheep in 1836. Illustration by Marco Heer" class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-d7720576></figure> <!----></section><section data-aos="woosh" data-aos-delay="0" class="snm-post-teaser horizontal" data-v-d7720576><h2 class="title" data-v-d7720576><a href="/en/2019/04/women-as-mercenaries/" data-v-d7720576><span data-v-d7720576>Handsome men for ‘Frau Hauptmannin’</span> <svg fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-arrow-right" data-v-d7720576><path fill="#D44625" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M18.42 13H2v-2h16.42L14 6.374 15.312 5 22 12l-6.688 7L14 17.626 18.42 13z" clip-rule="evenodd" data-v-d7720576></path></svg></a></h2> <a href="/en/author/nathalie-buesser/" class="author" data-v-d7720576>Nathalie Büsser</a> <span class="date" data-v-d7720576>10.04.2019</span> <span class="excerpt" data-v-d7720576>Swiss mercenaries – think they were all men? Think again. People tend to forget that in family-run mercenary companies, it was the women who pulled the strings.</span> <figure class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(4/3);" data-v-d7720576><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/2019/04/Söldner_Titel-300x187.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/2019/04/Söldner_Titel-768x478.jpg 768w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/2019/04/Söldner_Titel-1024x637.jpg 1024w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/2019/04/Söldner_Titel-1500x934.jpg 1500w" src="/app/uploads/2019/04/S%C3%B6ldner_Titel-300x187.jpg" sizes="(max-width: 399px) 400px, (max-width: 799px) 800px, 500px" alt="" class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-d7720576></figure> <!----></section></section></article> <!----> <!----> <footer data-aos="woosh" class="footer" data-v-2d105d9d data-v-00263075><div class="center" data-v-2d105d9d><address data-aos="woosh" class="address" data-v-2d105d9d><h5 class="address-title" data-v-2d105d9d>Address & contact</h5> <div data-v-2d105d9d>Swiss National Museum</div> <div data-v-2d105d9d>Landesmuseum Zürich<br /> Museumstrasse 2<br /> P.O. Box<br /> 8021 Zurich<br /> <a href="mailto:info@nationalmuseum.ch">info@nationalmuseum.ch</a><br /> <a href="https://www.nationalmuseum.ch" target="_blank" rel="noopener">www.nationalmuseum.ch</a><br /> <br /> Design: <a href="https://www.dreipol.ch/">dreipol</a> | Realisation: <a href="http://whatwedo.ch">whatwedo</a></div></address> <div data-aos="woosh" class="description" data-v-2d105d9d><h5 data-aos-delay="100" class="description-title" data-v-2d105d9d>Swiss National Museum</h5> <p data-aos-delay="200" class="description-text" data-v-2d105d9d>Three museums – the <a href="https://www.landesmuseum.ch/en" target="_blank" rel="noopener">National Museum Zurich</a>, the <a href="https://www.chateaudeprangins.ch/en" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Château de Prangins</a> and the <a href="https://www.forumschwyz.ch/en" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Forum of Swiss History Schwyz</a> – as well as the <a href="https://www.sammlungszentrum.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Collection Centre</a> in Affoltern am Albis – are united under the umbrella of the Swiss National Museum (SNM).<br /> <br /> <a href="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/en/feed/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">RSS-Feed</a><br /> <br /> <a href="https://www.nationalmuseum.ch/privacy" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Privacy policy</a></p> <button class="categories-button" data-v-2d105d9d>Show all categories</button></div> <div data-aos="woosh" class="legal-links" data-v-2d105d9d></div> <div data-aos="woosh" data-aos-delay="400" class="copyright" data-v-2d105d9d>© 2024 Swiss National Museum</div></div></footer> <!----></div></div></div><script>window.__NUXT__=(function(a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,U,V,W,X,Y,Z,_,$,aa,ab,ac,ad,ae,af,ag,ah,ai,aj,ak,al,am,an,ao,ap,aq,ar,as,at,au,av,aw,ax,ay,az,aA,aB,aC,aD,aE,aF,aG,aH,aI,aJ,aK,aL,aM,aN,aO,aP,aQ,aR,aS,aT,aU,aV,aW,aX,aY,aZ,a_,a$,ba,bb,bc,bd,be,bf,bg,bh,bi,bj,bk,bl,bm,bn,bo,bp,bq,br,bs,bt,bu,bv,bw,bx,by,bz,bA,bB,bC,bD,bE,bF,bG,bH,bI,bJ,bK,bL,bM,bN,bO,bP,bQ,bR,bS,bT,bU,bV,bW,bX,bY,bZ,b_,b$,ca,cb,cc,cd,ce,cf,cg,ch,ci,cj,ck,cl,cm,cn,co,cp,cq,cr,cs,ct,cu,cv,cw,cx,cy,cz,cA,cB,cC,cD,cE,cF,cG,cH,cI,cJ,cK,cL,cM,cN,cO,cP,cQ,cR,cS,cT,cU,cV,cW,cX,cY,cZ,c_,c$,da,db,dc,dd,de,df,dg,dh,di,dj,dk,dl,dm,dn,do0,dp,dq,dr,ds,dt,du,dv,dw,dx,dy,dz,dA,dB,dC,dD,dE,dF,dG,dH,dI,dJ,dK,dL,dM,dN,dO,dP,dQ,dR,dS,dT,dU,dV,dW,dX,dY,dZ,d_,d$,ea,eb,ec,ed,ee,ef,eg,eh,ei,ej,ek,el,em,en,eo,ep,eq,er,es,et,eu,ev,ew,ex,ey,ez,eA,eB,eC,eD,eE,eF,eG,eH,eI,eJ,eK,eL,eM,eN,eO,eP,eQ,eR,eS,eT,eU,eV,eW,eX,eY,eZ,e_,e$,fa,fb,fc,fd,fe,ff,fg,fh,fi,fj,fk,fl,fm,fn,fo,fp,fq,fr,fs,ft,fu,fv,fw,fx,fy,fz,fA,fB,fC,fD,fE,fF,fG,fH,fI,fJ,fK,fL,fM,fN,fO,fP,fQ,fR,fS,fT,fU,fV,fW,fX,fY,fZ,f_,f$,ga,gb,gc,gd,ge,gf,gg,gh,gi,gj,gk,gl,gm,gn,go,gp,gq,gr,gs,gt,gu,gv,gw,gx){br.id=bs;br.date="2021-01-20T08:00:39";br.slug=bt;br.type=w;br.link=cZ;br.title={rendered:bu};br.content={rendered:"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",protected:n};br.excerpt={rendered:"\u003Cp\u003EAt first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. But a look back at their shared history springs a few surprises. It shows how closely the political systems of the two nations are related to one another.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n \u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca class=\"button\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F\"\u003Eread more\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",protected:n,rendered_internal:"\u003Cp\u003EAt first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. But a look back at their shared history springs a few surprises. 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It shows how closely the political systems of the two nations are related to one another.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Clink rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"de_DE\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Switzerland and the USA: sister republics\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:description\" content=\"At first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. But a look back at their shared history springs a few surprises. It shows how closely the political systems of the two nations are related to one another.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:publisher\" content=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.facebook.com\u002FLandesmuseumZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2021-01-20T07:00:39+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2021-01-19T12:25:21+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa.jpg\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"1600\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"1200\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:type\" content=\"image\u002Fjpeg\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"author\" content=\"René Roca\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:title\" content=\"Switzerland and the USA: sister republics\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:description\" content=\"At first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. But a look back at their shared history springs a few surprises. It shows how closely the political systems of the two nations are related to one another.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:image\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa.jpg\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:creator\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Verfasst von\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"René Roca\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\"application\u002Fld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\"\u003E{\"@context\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fschema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F\",\"name\":\"Switzerland and the USA: sister republics – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa.jpg\",\"datePublished\":\"2021-01-20T07:00:39+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2021-01-19T12:25:21+00:00\",\"author\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F579bdc55258119c12f3993428e67a43a\"},\"description\":\"At first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. 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If we take a look at these links from the 17th century to the present day and relate them specifically to philosophical and constitutional concepts, we can identify an ‘Atlantic cycle of modern conceptions of the state’. The famous Swiss constitutional historian and expert in constitutional law Alfred Kölz (1944-2003) coined this term, and it is astonishing how consistently the give and take between Switzerland and what would soon become the USA has been carried on. It is only in the past few decades that the relationship has cooled."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:60938,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131.jpg",alt:do0,title:do0,height:1703,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:aq,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-211x300.jpg 211w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-1082x1536.jpg 1082w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-317x450.jpg 317w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-528x750.jpg 528w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-634x900.jpg 634w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-423x600.jpg 423w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-1057x1500.jpg 1057w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-846x1200.jpg 846w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-211x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-320x320.jpg"},size:X,caption:"To mark the 700th anniversary of the Swiss Confederation in 1991, the US postal service and Swiss Post issued a joint postage stamp. The stamp depicts the Capitol in Washington and the federal parliament building, the Bundeshaus, in Bern. ",source:{title:aq,url:a}}},{blockName:ai,blockData:{title:"Scepticism towards Rousseau’s sovereignty of the people",size:aj}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"For the American intellectual elites in the 17th and 18th centuries English tradition, such as the idea of relative freedom and the parliamentary system, was the guiding principle. In addition to the English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) and the Frenchman Montesquieu (1689-1755), as political debates took shape other classic figures of the European Enlightenment and natural law gained in significance; this was especially true for representatives of francophone Switzerland’s school of natural law (‘École romande du droit naturel’) such as Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui (1694-1748) and Emer de Vattel (1714-1767). But the influence of the Genevan \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2018\u002F08\u002Fnational-identities\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003EJean-Jacques Rousseau\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (1712-1778), with his concept of the sovereignty of the people, was limited. This scepticism towards the will of the people and too much equality later became apparent in the federal Constitution of the USA, with the introduction of the system of electors (panel of presidential electors) for the election of the president. The founding fathers were generally wary of ‘the people’. The system they envisaged therefore provided that the electors were able to overturn the results of a direct presidential election, in case the masses were carried away by their emotions and wanted to install the wrong president, such as a devious seducer of the people, on the presidential chair."}},{blockName:"acf\u002Fimage-slider",blockData:{slider:[{image:{id:61013,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjohn-locke.jpg",alt:bw,title:bw,height:1463,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:"29.6"},source:{title:"The State Hermitage Museum",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.hermitagemuseum.org\u002Fwps\u002Fportal\u002Fhermitage\u002Fdigital-collection\u002F01.+Paintings\u002F38692\u002F?lng=en "},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjohn-locke-246x300.jpg 246w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjohn-locke-369x450.jpg 369w, 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https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjames_madison-986x1200.jpg 986w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjames_madison.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjames_madison-247x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjames_madison-320x320.jpg"},caption:bE}]}},{blockName:ai,blockData:{title:"The American Revolution as the fruit of the Swiss Enlightenment",size:aj}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"The representatives of francophone Switzerland’s school of natural law were concerned primarily with the struggle for a modern form of natural law, a term which means in essence that every person has certain natural rights from birth. These ideas sowed the seeds of the Age of Enlightenment in Switzerland, and culminated in fundamental debates about human rights and civil rights, as well as a democratic basic order. The teachings of francophone Switzerland’s school of natural law played an important role in the North American independence movement and the American Revolution. The American constitutional fathers, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and John Adams, studied the works of representatives of the school and adopted modern principles of natural law, as well as what was known as the ‘personal idea of man’. This was expressed in the Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776:"}},{blockName:"acf\u002Fquote",blockData:{quote:"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.",author:"Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776"}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"The reference to modern natural law and the personal idea of man also informed the world’s first written declaration of fundamental rights, the Virginia Bill of Rights of 12 June 1776. In the first section, it says: ‘That all men are by nature equally free and independent and have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.’\r\n\r\nIt was during the late 18th century, during its war of independence against the British, that the USA first spoke of ‘Sister Republics’ in relation to Switzerland. The USA was comparing its own war of independence against the British crown with the existence – at the time, admittedly, idealised – of a federal republic in an otherwise monarchical Europe."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:60944,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull.jpg",alt:dp,title:dp,height:1059,width:D,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:J,url:dq},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-300x199.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-1536x1017.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-450x298.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-750x496.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-900x596.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-600x397.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-1500x993.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-1200x794.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-300x199.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-320x320.jpg"},size:$,caption:"The Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776, depicted in the painting by John Trumbull (1756-1843), 1819. The painting is 5.5 m wide and now hangs in the Capitol. ",source:{title:J,url:dq}}},{blockName:ai,blockData:{title:"The American Revolution as impetus for the French and Helvetic Revolutions",size:aj}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"The French Revolution took up the message of the American Constitution’s development with its ‘Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen’ of 6 August 1789. In Article 1, it declares modern natural law to be the foundation: ‘1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.’ In Article 6, the French constitutional fathers make reference to Rousseau’s concept of sovereignty of the people: ‘The Law is the expression of the general will (volonté générale). All citizens have the right to take part, personally or through their representatives, in its making.’\r\n\r\nDuring the French Revolution, draft constitutions were submitted which included instruments of direct democracy and which became important points of reference for developments in Switzerland but not, for the time being, in the USA. Fuelled by the political practice of the American and French Revolutions, the brief period of the Helvetic Republic (1798-1803) laid the foundations for further democratic debates in Switzerland."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:60941,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum.jpg",alt:bF,title:bF,height:794,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:dr,url:ds},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-300x199.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-450x298.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-750x496.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-900x596.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-600x397.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-300x199.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-320x320.jpg"},size:$,caption:bF,source:{title:dr,url:ds}}},{blockName:ai,blockData:{title:"The US Constitution as a model for Switzerland’s Federal Constitution",size:aj}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"The Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848 went on to incorporate key elements of the US Federal Constitution of 1787\u002F89. As in the USA (Bill of Rights), fundamental human rights were enshrined in the Swiss Federal Constitution. The Swiss Confederation also introduced the separation of powers in 1848. However, Switzerland chose not to vest extensive power in a single president; instead, \u003Cem\u003Eexecutive\u003C\u002Fem\u003E power was distributed among seven liberal leaders. In the USA, the executive authority (the President) is still chosen indirectly by the people (and confirmed by the aforementioned electors); in Switzerland, the choice is made by the legislative authority. In terms of the composition of the Swiss Federal Council, the priority has always been integrating the various parts of the country and the different language regions. Subsequent development of the system broke through the liberals’ claim to sole representation, and brought conservative and social democrat politicians into the Executive as well. The apogee of this development was the ‘magic formula’ of 1959, which completed the Swiss concordance system and can be described as a model of success.\r\n\r\nAs the legislative authority in Switzerland, the National Council and the Council of States are a copy of the US bicameral system. The real impetus for this concept came from the most important Swiss philosopher of the 19th century, Ignaz Paul Vital Troxler (1780-1866). When the Swiss Constitution was revised in 1848, Troxler took a decisive hand in the discussions on the federal institutions. He had long advocated the federal state concept with a bicameral system modelled on the USA. The paper he had written on the subject, ‘\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3931\u002Fe-rara-29503\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003EDie Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten Nordamerikas als Musterbild der schweizerischen Bundesreform\u003C\u002Fa\u003E’ (The Constitution of the United States of North America as a Model for Swiss Federal Reform), probably found its way into the deliberations of the relevant committee through one of his former students. The idea became reality, and Troxler thus left his mark on the Swiss federal state system based on the US model. With the introduction of proportional voting rights for the National Council, from 1919 onwards Switzerland strengthened the pluralism of the parties; in the USA this step has not yet been taken."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:60950,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938.jpg",alt:dt,title:dt,height:1052,width:D,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:aq,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-300x197.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-1536x1010.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-450x296.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-750x493.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-900x592.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-600x395.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-1500x986.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-1200x789.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-300x197.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-320x320.jpg"},size:$,caption:"Propaganda postcard for the introduction of the proportional representation system, around 1910. ",source:{title:aq,url:a}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"The members of the US Supreme Court, that is, the \u003Cem\u003Ejudiciary\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, are appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate. Appointed for life, the members of the judiciary thus end up, time and again, little more than political pawns. Switzerland took a different approach, and lets the United Federal Assembly appoint the members of the Federal Supreme Court based on party proportional representation.\r\n\r\nAs already noted, the American constitutional fathers were sceptical of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and rejected his concept of sovereignty of the people. For that reason, they were wary of any forms of further participation in decision-making by the population within the framework of the \u003Cem\u003Eprinciple of democracy\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. Lockean liberalism thus gained greater significance in the USA, because it took up the English utilitarian tradition more directly. But in the late 19th century, Switzerland once again became an important source of ideas for the USA, namely in terms of direct democracy."}},{blockName:"acf\u002Fimage-column",blockData:{left:{image:{id:62129,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en.jpg",alt:bG,title:bG,height:q,width:D,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:"Illustration: Swiss National Museum, according to Wikimedia\u002F111Alleskönner",url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-450x338.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-750x563.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-900x675.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-600x450.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-300x225.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-320x320.jpg"},caption:bG},right:{image:{id:62120,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en.jpg",alt:du,title:du,height:q,width:D,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:"Illustration: Swiss National Museum, according to Wikimedia\u002FWufiCH",url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-450x338.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-750x563.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-900x675.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-600x450.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-300x225.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-320x320.jpg"},caption:"Switzerland’s political system."},joint:{caption:a,source:g}}},{blockName:ai,blockData:{title:"The Populist Movement calls for a direct democracy as in Switzerland",size:aj}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"After Switzerland had also introduced the referendum (1874) and the constitutional initiative (1891) at federal level, this direct democratic model became the subject of intensive discussion in the USA as well. Towards the end of the 19th century, the Populist Movement in the USA highlighted the close constitutional development of Switzerland and the USA, and called for more direct democracy based on the Swiss model. The ‘populists’ in the USA at that time were mainly representatives of the predominantly agricultural Midwest, who sought to curb the increasing power of big business and banks. In 1892 a political party was established: the ‘People’s Party’. With its demands for greater political involvement and weakening of ‘big business’, the party’s policies aligned with the interests of many Americans. In the 1892 elections the party achieved considerable success, and threatened to dismantle the two-party system in the USA which was based on the majority voting right. However, when the party decided in 1896 to form a coalition with the Democrats, it quickly lost influence. As an important result of the debate about direct democracy in Switzerland, in the next few years nearly half of the 50 states of the USA introduced some form of the referendum and the initiative. However, the introduction of more direct democracy at federal level has still not been achieved."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:60947,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california.jpg",alt:bH,title:bH,height:1586,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:dv,url:dw},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-227x300.jpg 227w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-1162x1536.jpg 1162w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-340x450.jpg 340w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-567x750.jpg 567w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-681x900.jpg 681w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-454x600.jpg 454w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-1135x1500.jpg 1135w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-908x1200.jpg 908w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-227x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-320x320.jpg"},size:X,caption:bH,source:{title:dv,url:dw}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"For the democratic culture of the USA it would make perfect sense to revive the old relationships with the country’s ‘Sister Republic’ of Switzerland, and to reinstate the mutually beneficial back and forth of ideas. The two republics owe each other a great deal, and the learning process is still ongoing."}}];br.snm_model={categories:[{parent:g,order:ae,id:d,name:ak,description:a,slug:al,taxonomy:f,permalink:ar},{parent:g,order:K,id:e,name:L,description:a,slug:M,taxonomy:f,permalink:P},{parent:g,order:aw,id:b,name:ax,description:a,slug:ay,taxonomy:f,permalink:aK}],primaryCategory:e,comments:[],coordinates:g,id:bs,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:a,link:de,portrait:{id:df,url:dg,alt:a,title:dh,height:E,width:E,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:di,poster:dj,square:dk},id:dl,name:dm,description:dn},language:B,availableLanguages:dx,slug:bt,title:bu,excerpt:bv,postType:w,permalink:cZ,thumbnail:{id:c_,url:c$,alt:aJ,title:aJ,height:q,width:D,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:da,url:a},srcset:db,poster:dc,square:dd},date:1611129639,readableDate:"20.01.2021",modifiedDate:1611062721,readableModifiedDate:a,seoTitle:a,seoDescription:bv};dx.de={single:"schweiz-und-usa-schwesterrepubliken"};dx.fr={single:"la-suisse-et-les-etats-unis-des-republiques-soeurs"};dy.id=az;dy.date="2024-11-26T08:00:00";dy.slug=bI;dy.type=w;dy.link=aT;dy.title={rendered:aL};dy.content={rendered:"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",protected:n};dy.excerpt={rendered:"\u003Cp\u003EThe rise of Geneva, the home of Calvinism, owed much to the Turrettini family. Arriving there from Tuscany in the 16th century with ready money and access to an international network, they played no small part in buoying the city’s economy.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n \u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca class=\"button\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fgenevas-italian-side\u002F\"\u003Eread more\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",protected:n,rendered_internal:"\u003Cp\u003EThe rise of Geneva, the home of Calvinism, owed much to the Turrettini family. Arriving there from Tuscany in the 16th century with ready money and access to an international network, they played no small part in buoying the city’s economy.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"};dy.yoast_head="\u003C!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v23.6 (Yoast SEO v23.6) - https:\u002F\u002Fyoast.com\u002Fwordpress\u002Fplugins\u002Fseo\u002F --\u003E\n\u003Ctitle\u003EGeneva’s Italian side – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"description\" content=\"The rise of Geneva, the home of Calvinism, owed much to the Turrettini family. Arriving there from Tuscany in the 16th century with ready money and access to an international network, they played no small part in buoying the city’s economy.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Clink rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fgenevas-italian-side\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"de_DE\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Geneva’s Italian side\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:description\" content=\"The rise of Geneva, the home of Calvinism, owed much to the Turrettini family. Arriving there from Tuscany in the 16th century with ready money and access to an international network, they played no small part in buoying the city’s economy.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fgenevas-italian-side\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:publisher\" content=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.facebook.com\u002FLandesmuseumZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2024-11-26T07:00:00+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2024-11-18T09:43:18+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395.jpg\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"1600\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"1168\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:type\" content=\"image\u002Fjpeg\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"author\" content=\"Christophe Vuilleumier\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:creator\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Verfasst von\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"Christophe Vuilleumier\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:label2\" content=\"Geschätzte Lesezeit\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:data2\" content=\"7 Minuten\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\"application\u002Fld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\"\u003E{\"@context\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fschema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fgenevas-italian-side\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fgenevas-italian-side\u002F\",\"name\":\"Geneva’s Italian side – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fgenevas-italian-side\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fgenevas-italian-side\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395.jpg\",\"datePublished\":\"2024-11-26T07:00:00+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2024-11-18T09:43:18+00:00\",\"author\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F2530f622d4cff9e6fb1709265d94348f\"},\"description\":\"The rise of Geneva, the home of Calvinism, owed much to the Turrettini family. Arriving there from Tuscany in the 16th century with ready money and access to an international network, they played no small part in buoying the city’s economy.\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"ReadAction\",\"target\":[\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fgenevas-italian-side\u002F\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fgenevas-italian-side\u002F#primaryimage\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395.jpg\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395.jpg\",\"width\":1600,\"height\":1168,\"caption\":\"The Turrettini family’s influence is evident wherever you look in Geneva. View over the Quai Turrettini, circa 1940.\"},{\"@type\":\"WebSite\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F\",\"name\":\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"description\":\"Background and stories about the collection and exhibition\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"SearchAction\",\"target\":{\"@type\":\"EntryPoint\",\"urlTemplate\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F?s={search_term_string}\"},\"query-input\":{\"@type\":\"PropertyValueSpecification\",\"valueRequired\":true,\"valueName\":\"search_term_string\"}}],\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\"},{\"@type\":\"Person\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F2530f622d4cff9e6fb1709265d94348f\",\"name\":\"Christophe Vuilleumier\",\"image\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002Fimage\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Fa2a76777c493d294228e5e55795c1be1?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Fa2a76777c493d294228e5e55795c1be1?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"caption\":\"Christophe Vuilleumier\"},\"description\":\"Christophe Vuilleumier ist Historiker und Vorstandsmitglied der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Geschichte. Er hat verschiedene Beiträge zur Schweizer Geschichte des 17. und 20. Jahrhunderts publiziert.\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Fchristophe-vuilleumier\u002F\"}]}\u003C\u002Fscript\u003E\n\u003C!-- \u002F Yoast SEO Premium plugin. --\u003E";dy.lang=B;dy.translations={en:az,de:155534,fr:157167};dy.snm_blocks=[{blockName:aI,blockData:{image:{id:bJ,url:bK,alt:as,title:as,height:bL,width:D,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:aM,url:bM},srcset:bN,poster:bO,square:bP},video:g,videoMobile:g,title:aL,caption:as,lead:bQ,author:{title:g,mail:g,website:g,link:bR,portrait:{id:bS,url:aA,alt:a,title:bT,height:E,width:E,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:bU,poster:bV,square:aA},id:I,name:bW,description:bX}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"The Turrettinis, originally natives of Lucca in Tuscany, moved to Geneva four centuries ago and have been one of the most influential families in the city ever since. Their wealth and international trading network were a boon for the 16th century stronghold of Calvinism. Unsurprisingly, the family itself also flourished.\r\n\r\nFrancesco Turrettini (1547-1628), a Protestant, was forced to flee Lucca and the Inquisition in 1574. He made his way to Geneva via Lyon and several other cities in Germany, Belgium and Switzerland, finally deciding to settle there permanently in 1592. The Italian silk merchant continued to run his business from this new base, amassing a considerable fortune in just a few years. By 1628 Turrettini had even became a member of the Council of Two Hundred, Geneva’s supreme legislative authority at the time. In other words, he played a prominent role in the city’s political life, a sign that he was now fully integrated in his adopted home town.\r\n\r\nHis son Jean had the imposing \u003Cem\u003EChâteau des Bois\u003C\u002Fem\u003E built just outside Geneva in 1631. From that point on, the manor house formed the centre of the Turrettin seigneury, an area in which the family held the power to administer high, middle and low justice until 1794."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:155559,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fzeichnung-chateau-des-bois.jpg",alt:dz,title:dz,height:729,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:aM,url:dA},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fzeichnung-chateau-des-bois-300x182.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fzeichnung-chateau-des-bois-450x273.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fzeichnung-chateau-des-bois-750x456.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fzeichnung-chateau-des-bois-900x547.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fzeichnung-chateau-des-bois-600x365.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fzeichnung-chateau-des-bois.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fzeichnung-chateau-des-bois-300x182.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fzeichnung-chateau-des-bois-320x320.jpg"},size:$,caption:"The\u003Cem\u003E Château des Bois\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, owned by the Turrettini family. 1877 lithograph.",source:{title:aM,url:dA}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"Bankers, notaries, textile merchants, theologians, scientists, statesmen – members of each successive generation of the Turrettini family rose to the highest offices in the Republic of Geneva, gaining respect, prestige and riches in the process. And then, at the beginning of the 18th century, Françoise Turrettini entered the scene. The cousin of renowned theologian Jean-Alphonse Turrettini (1671-1737), known throughout Europe for his enlightened brand of Protestantism, she quickly became one of the most influential women in Geneva.\r\n\r\nIn 1715, at the age of 22, Françoise Turrettini married David Vasserot (1690-1727), a prosperous Dutch banker who had settled in Geneva. The scion of a rich and influential Huguenot family, Vasserot acquired a piece of land not far from the city in 1719. At that time, the estate, known as the Domaine de la Bâtie-Beauregard, fell under the rule of the Kingdom of France. The original de la Bâtie castle, built in 1278, had passed into the ownership of the House of Savoy in 1353 and been turned into a castellany. A little under 200 years later, the Savoyards were forced to yield the area to advancing Bernese troops, who elevated it to the status of a barony. Following several changes of ownership, the estate finally became part of French territory at the beginning of the 17th century, before passing into the hands of the Turrettini family just over a century later. As David Vasserot spent much of his time away on business, his wife Françoise became the de facto owner and lady of the manor, whose lands stretched from the villages of Collex and Bossy to the hamlet of Bellevue and covered a large area outside the gates of the city."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:155579,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgemalde-francoise-turrettini.jpg",alt:bY,title:bY,height:1580,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:dB,url:dC},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgemalde-francoise-turrettini-228x300.jpg 228w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgemalde-francoise-turrettini-1167x1536.jpg 1167w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgemalde-francoise-turrettini-342x450.jpg 342w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgemalde-francoise-turrettini-570x750.jpg 570w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgemalde-francoise-turrettini-684x900.jpg 684w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgemalde-francoise-turrettini-456x600.jpg 456w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgemalde-francoise-turrettini-1139x1500.jpg 1139w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgemalde-francoise-turrettini-911x1200.jpg 911w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgemalde-francoise-turrettini.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgemalde-francoise-turrettini-228x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgemalde-francoise-turrettini-320x320.jpg"},size:X,caption:bY,source:{title:dB,url:dC}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"In 1724, David Vasserot also purchased the fief of Vincy in the Gilly district of the canton of Vaud, where the couple built another castle. When the banker passed away three years later, Baroness Françoise Turrettini became the undisputed mistress of all she surveyed. The widow devoted herself to the upkeep of the estate, throwing herself into the task with determination and tenacity, and did not shy away from standing up to powerful men if need be. Men like architect David Jeanrenaud, who thought he could reroute a path without first seeking permission from Françoise Turrettini. But he had seriously misjudged the Baroness!\r\n\r\nIn 1747, Françoise Turrettini married for a second time. Her new husband was Baron Auguste Maurice de Donop, Minister of State and Foreign Affairs of Hesse-Kassel and knight of the Swedish Royal Order of the Seraphim. He knew Geneva well thanks to the religious links between the city and the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel, which had been Calvinist since the end of the 16th century. Auguste Maurice de Donop and Prince Frederick II of Hesse-Kassel had received a very warm welcome from Geneva’s clergymen in 1735, for which the two Germans were especially grateful to Jean-Alphonse Turrettini, the cousin of the Baroness. Françoise Turrettini’s subsequent marriage to the German nobleman was thus more of a political than an emotional alliance: it was intended to establish even closer ties between Geneva and Hesse-Kassel."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:155601,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fauguste-maurcie-de-donop-gemalde.jpg",alt:bZ,title:bZ,height:1572,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:dD,url:dE},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fauguste-maurcie-de-donop-gemalde-229x300.jpg 229w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fauguste-maurcie-de-donop-gemalde-1173x1536.jpg 1173w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fauguste-maurcie-de-donop-gemalde-344x450.jpg 344w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fauguste-maurcie-de-donop-gemalde-573x750.jpg 573w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fauguste-maurcie-de-donop-gemalde-687x900.jpg 687w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fauguste-maurcie-de-donop-gemalde-458x600.jpg 458w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fauguste-maurcie-de-donop-gemalde-1145x1500.jpg 1145w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fauguste-maurcie-de-donop-gemalde-916x1200.jpg 916w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fauguste-maurcie-de-donop-gemalde.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fauguste-maurcie-de-donop-gemalde-229x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fauguste-maurcie-de-donop-gemalde-320x320.jpg"},size:X,caption:bZ,source:{title:dD,url:dE}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"Françoise Turrettini was henceforth also known as ‘Madame la Générale de Donop’. And this name somehow suited her, for she did not mellow with age. Having been accustomed to doing things all her own way for decades, the Baroness had no intention of suddenly changing. Not even for a friend of the family, who was famous throughout Europe and also happened to enjoy a close relationship with her son Horace-Jean Vasserot: Voltaire.\r\n\r\nFor eight whole years, from 1760 to 1768, Françoise Turrettini argued with the poet over the delicate subject of money. The Baroness had gifted Voltaire a piece of land near Collex, but he refused to pay the taxes on it. Unfortunately, we do not know how the disagreement was resolved. But it is safe to assume that ‘Madame la Générale de Donop’ stood her ground.\r\n\r\nThe Baroness died in 1771 at the age of 78. She had run a vast estate for more than 50 years and been welcomed at Europe’s royal courts. Françoise Turrettini played as prominent a role in Geneva’s development as her male relations and, like other members of this exalted family, left her mark on the city associated with Calvin."}}];dy.snm_model={categories:[{parent:g,order:ae,id:d,name:ak,description:a,slug:al,taxonomy:f,permalink:ar},{parent:g,order:Q,id:h,name:R,description:a,slug:S,taxonomy:f,permalink:V},{parent:g,order:K,id:e,name:L,description:a,slug:M,taxonomy:f,permalink:P}],primaryCategory:d,comments:[],coordinates:{latitude:b_,longitude:b$},id:az,author:{title:g,mail:g,website:g,link:bR,portrait:{id:bS,url:aA,alt:a,title:bT,height:E,width:E,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:bU,poster:bV,square:aA},id:I,name:bW,description:bX},language:B,availableLanguages:{de:{single:dF},fr:{single:dG}},slug:bI,title:aL,excerpt:bQ,postType:w,permalink:aT,thumbnail:{id:bJ,url:bK,alt:as,title:as,height:bL,width:D,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:aM,url:bM},srcset:bN,poster:bO,square:bP},date:dH,readableDate:dI,modifiedDate:dJ,readableModifiedDate:a,seoTitle:a,seoDescription:a};dK.id=ca;dK.date="2024-07-23T08:00:00";dK.slug=dL;dK.type=w;dK.link=dM;dK.title={rendered:cb};dK.content={rendered:"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",protected:n};dK.excerpt={rendered:"\u003Cp\u003EThe Ossola region at Switzerland’s southern border experienced escalating violence between 1943 and 1945. Many war crimes were committed resulting in hundreds of casualties. A look back at what caused this horror.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n \u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca class=\"button\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F07\u002Fwar-crimes-ossola\u002F\"\u003Eread more\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",protected:n,rendered_internal:"\u003Cp\u003EThe Ossola region at Switzerland’s southern border experienced escalating violence between 1943 and 1945. Many war crimes were committed resulting in hundreds of casualties. A look back at what caused this horror.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"};dK.yoast_head="\u003C!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v23.6 (Yoast SEO v23.6) - https:\u002F\u002Fyoast.com\u002Fwordpress\u002Fplugins\u002Fseo\u002F --\u003E\n\u003Ctitle\u003EWar crimes on Switzerland’s doorstep – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"description\" content=\"The Ossola region at Switzerland’s southern border experienced escalating violence between 1943 and 1945. Many war crimes were committed resulting in hundreds of casualties. A look back at what caused this horror.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Clink rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F07\u002Fwar-crimes-ossola\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"de_DE\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:title\" content=\"War crimes on Switzerland’s doorstep\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:description\" content=\"The Ossola region at Switzerland’s southern border experienced escalating violence between 1943 and 1945. Many war crimes were committed resulting in hundreds of casualties. A look back at what caused this horror.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F07\u002Fwar-crimes-ossola\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:publisher\" content=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.facebook.com\u002FLandesmuseumZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2024-07-23T06:00:00+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2024-08-28T13:29:51+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel.jpg\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"1600\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"1200\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:type\" content=\"image\u002Fjpeg\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"author\" content=\"Raphael Rues\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:creator\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Verfasst von\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"Raphael Rues\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:label2\" content=\"Geschätzte Lesezeit\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:data2\" content=\"9 Minuten\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\"application\u002Fld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\"\u003E{\"@context\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fschema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F07\u002Fwar-crimes-ossola\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F07\u002Fwar-crimes-ossola\u002F\",\"name\":\"War crimes on Switzerland’s doorstep – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F07\u002Fwar-crimes-ossola\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F07\u002Fwar-crimes-ossola\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel.jpg\",\"datePublished\":\"2024-07-23T06:00:00+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2024-08-28T13:29:51+00:00\",\"author\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F76b35a47c43bbc820467677ef40c7929\"},\"description\":\"The Ossola region at Switzerland’s southern border experienced escalating violence between 1943 and 1945. Many war crimes were committed resulting in hundreds of casualties. A look back at what caused this horror.\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"ReadAction\",\"target\":[\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F07\u002Fwar-crimes-ossola\u002F\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F07\u002Fwar-crimes-ossola\u002F#primaryimage\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel.jpg\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel.jpg\",\"width\":1600,\"height\":1200,\"caption\":\"A picture of 45 civilians in Verbania. They were shot on the same day, 20 June 1944, by SS-Polizei soldiers.\"},{\"@type\":\"WebSite\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F\",\"name\":\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"description\":\"Background and stories about the collection and exhibition\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"SearchAction\",\"target\":{\"@type\":\"EntryPoint\",\"urlTemplate\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F?s={search_term_string}\"},\"query-input\":{\"@type\":\"PropertyValueSpecification\",\"valueRequired\":true,\"valueName\":\"search_term_string\"}}],\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\"},{\"@type\":\"Person\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F76b35a47c43bbc820467677ef40c7929\",\"name\":\"Raphael Rues\",\"image\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002Fimage\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002F78b516732ba27f5269fda5ea84b4f47f?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002F78b516732ba27f5269fda5ea84b4f47f?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"caption\":\"Raphael Rues\"},\"description\":\"Raphael Rues ist Historiker und spezialisiert auf das Tessin und die deutsch-faschistische Präsenz in Norditalien.\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Fraphael-rues\u002F\"}]}\u003C\u002Fscript\u003E\n\u003C!-- \u002F Yoast SEO Premium plugin. --\u003E";dK.lang=B;dK.translations={en:ca,de:150420,fr:151301};dK.snm_blocks=[{blockName:aI,blockData:{image:{id:dN,url:dO,alt:aV,title:aV,height:q,width:D,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:dP,url:a},srcset:dQ,poster:dR,square:dS},video:g,videoMobile:g,title:cb,caption:"A picture of 45 civilians in Verbania. They were shot on the same day, 20 June 1944, by \u003Cem\u003ESS police\u003C\u002Fem\u003E soldiers.",lead:dT,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:g,link:dU,portrait:{id:dV,url:dW,alt:aW,title:dX,height:E,width:E,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:a,url:a},srcset:dY,poster:dZ,square:d_},id:A,name:aW,description:d$}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"The spiralling violence that took place around the border between the Ossola Valley and the cantons of Valais and Ticino between 1943 and 1945 was the culmination of the emergence of fascism in Italy. The march on Rome at the end of October 1922 and the ensuing nomination of Benito Mussolini as Prime Minister by King Viktor Emanuel III triggered a cycle of violence. At its core was the total repression of social-democratic and moderate political circles. Those who were imprisoned were the lucky ones, many were exiled to France and Switzerland."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:150446,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmussolini-und-der-konig.jpg",alt:cc,title:cc,height:796,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:J,url:ea},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmussolini-und-der-konig-300x199.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmussolini-und-der-konig-450x299.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmussolini-und-der-konig-750x498.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmussolini-und-der-konig-900x597.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmussolini-und-der-konig-600x398.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmussolini-und-der-konig.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmussolini-und-der-konig-300x199.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmussolini-und-der-konig-320x320.jpg"},size:X,caption:cc,source:{title:J,url:ea}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"Everything changed in the region when Benito Mussolini was deposed on 25 July 1943 by the \u003Cem\u003EOrdine Grandi\u003C\u002Fem\u003E motion issued by senator Dino Grandi. Incidentally, it was also Dino Grandi who accompanied Mussolini on his last visit to Switzerland to attend the final part of the Locarno peace conference in the old port of Brissago in November 1925. He was a young deputy at the time who was involved in foreign affairs.\r\n\r\nThe deposition of Mussolini and the fascists in the summer of 1943 near the Swiss border barely caused a ripple. There were no violent incidents or confrontations with the fascists. However, that changed on 8 September 1943 with the announcement of a ceasefire by General Pietro Badoglio’s military government. This poorly planned ceasefire led to total chaos. About 600,000 soldiers from the Italian army were arrested in the space of a few weeks and the Germans, who considered the ceasefire high treason, immediately deported them to the Reich."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:150464,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwaffenstillstand-1943.jpg",alt:cd,title:cd,height:1711,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:J,url:eb},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwaffenstillstand-1943-210x300.jpg 210w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwaffenstillstand-1943-1077x1536.jpg 1077w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwaffenstillstand-1943-316x450.jpg 316w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwaffenstillstand-1943-526x750.jpg 526w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwaffenstillstand-1943-631x900.jpg 631w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwaffenstillstand-1943-421x600.jpg 421w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwaffenstillstand-1943-1052x1500.jpg 1052w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwaffenstillstand-1943-842x1200.jpg 842w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwaffenstillstand-1943.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwaffenstillstand-1943-210x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwaffenstillstand-1943-320x320.jpg"},size:X,caption:cd,source:{title:J,url:eb}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"The situation then changed abruptly, including at the Swiss border. Reprisals and war crimes were committed. First in the firing line were the wealthy Jewish families who had fled to the shores of Lake Maggiore. The first German unit to commit war crimes in the area was a battalion from the \u003Cem\u003ESS Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler\u003C\u002Fem\u003E panzer division. Operationally the unit was brought to the region between Arona-Meina-Intra to regroup. The battalion had incurred heavy losses on the eastern front in the Kharkiv region (now in Ukraine) during the well-known \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FOperation_Citadel\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003EOperation Citadel\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\r\n\r\nSome officers in the battalion, including Sepp Dietrich, an erstwhile companion of Adolf Hitler, quickly realised that the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F01\u002Fa-story-of-resistance-and-escape\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003EJews at Lake Maggiore\u003C\u002Fa\u003E had a lot of money and went straight into action, killing at least 57 Jews within a few weeks. The bodies were burned in schoolyards (Intra) or thrown into Lake Maggiore. However, this unit’s behaviour soon became common knowledge and the battalion was sent back to the eastern front where the situation was deteriorating."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:150549,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fsepp-dietrich.jpg",alt:ce,title:ce,height:856,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:J,url:ec},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fsepp-dietrich-300x214.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fsepp-dietrich-450x321.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fsepp-dietrich-750x535.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fsepp-dietrich-900x642.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fsepp-dietrich-600x428.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fsepp-dietrich.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fsepp-dietrich-300x214.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fsepp-dietrich-320x320.jpg"},size:$,caption:ce,source:{title:J,url:ec}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"After the Germans pulled out, attacks by partisans in the Ossola region increased quickly. Between November 1943 and April 1945, the situation in the region was akin to civil war, claiming many victims.\r\n\r\nThe Germans initially occupied the region with the old custom border guards \u003Cem\u003E‘Zollgrenzschutztruppe’\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. However, they quickly realised that a better armed unit was needed to take on the partisans. Hence the deployment for the first time of the \u003Cem\u003ESS police\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in January 1944. They were no strangers to savagery having already killed civilians, Jews and, to a lesser extent, Soviet partisans on the eastern front.\r\n\r\nOn 11 February 1944, the \u003Cem\u003ESS police\u003C\u002Fem\u003E conducted their first major raid against partisan captain Filippo Beltrami in Megolo (Toce valley). Throughout the spring of 1944 there were several operations against partisans, which always followed the same pattern: killing partisans and rounding up defenceless people and sending the mainly male civilians to the Reich. Even young civilians from the age of 15 were sent to labour camps in Germany."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:150560,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffilippo-beltrami.jpg",alt:cf,title:cf,height:1024,width:728,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:J,url:ed},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffilippo-beltrami-213x300.jpg 213w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffilippo-beltrami-320x450.jpg 320w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffilippo-beltrami-533x750.jpg 533w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffilippo-beltrami-640x900.jpg 640w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffilippo-beltrami-427x600.jpg 427w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffilippo-beltrami.jpg 728w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffilippo-beltrami-213x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffilippo-beltrami-320x320.jpg"},size:X,caption:cf,source:{title:J,url:ed}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"In June 1944, the violence spiralled further in the Ossola region with the liberation of Rome and Allied landing in Normandy. To the north of Intra, in Val Grande, 200 partisans and civilians were killed between 10 and 22 June. The perpetrators of these crimes were mainly \u003Cem\u003ESS police\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. No-one was ever convicted for these crimes. Italian investigations by the military prosecutor’s office were immediately put on ice after the war and subsequently lost in the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FPalazzo_Cesi-Gaddi_war_crimes_archive\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003EPalazzo Cesi-Gaddi war crimes archive\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. Economic ties between Italy and Germany were presumably too big to jeopardise.\r\n\r\nThe Germans continued to commit crimes in August. Villages were burned down, people executed in retaliation and even old people were deported to labour camps in Germany."}},{blockName:ai,blockData:{title:cg,size:aj}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"The founding of the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2017\u002F09\u002Fthe-ossola-republic\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003EPartisan Republic of Ossola\u003C\u002Fa\u003E in September 1944 brought a brief spell of freedom for 80,000 people and 32 communes. The partisans managed to free the area from Simplon almost as far as Lake Maggiore for 40 days and form a government. One of the first democratic acts in fascist Italy. 300 fascists were imprisoned in Druogno (Vigezzo Valley), but none were killed.\r\n\r\nHowever, the republic was short-lived. On 10 October 1944, the Germans began to reclaim the Free Zone of Ossola. The partisans were attacked on two sides and lost 200 men within a few days and about 400 were deported to Germany. The Germans, supported by Italian fascists, were brutal and didn’t stop at the Swiss border. There were some controversial incidents. For example in Bagni di Craveggia, on the border with the Onsernone Valley, two partisans who were already on Swiss soil were fatally wounded by fascists."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:150568,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPartisanen-Flucht-in-die-Schweiz.jpg",alt:ch,title:ch,height:1169,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:ee,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPartisanen-Flucht-in-die-Schweiz-300x292.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPartisanen-Flucht-in-die-Schweiz-450x438.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPartisanen-Flucht-in-die-Schweiz-750x731.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPartisanen-Flucht-in-die-Schweiz-900x877.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPartisanen-Flucht-in-die-Schweiz-600x585.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPartisanen-Flucht-in-die-Schweiz.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPartisanen-Flucht-in-die-Schweiz-300x292.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPartisanen-Flucht-in-die-Schweiz-320x320.jpg"},size:X,caption:ch,source:{title:ee,url:a}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"The repression by the occupying forces increased massively after the Partisan Republic of Ossola ended. Retaliatory acts like the one in the locality of Trarego, where nine partisans were executed in February 1945 were not unusual. Most of these acts were committed by the \u003Cem\u003EBlack Brigades\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, an extreme paramilitary organisation of the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.britannica.com\u002Fplace\u002FItaly\u002FThe-republic-of-Salo-the-Italian-Social-Republic-and-the-German-occupation\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003EItalian Social Republic\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. No-one was spared, whether women, civilians or even priests like Giuseppe Rossi from the remote village of Calasca Castiglione.\r\n\r\nThe Germans behaved differently. They had long since realised the end was coming and tended to stay enclosed in their garrisons in the last months of the war."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:150529,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbrigate-nere.jpg",alt:ef,title:ef,height:eg,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:J,url:eh},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbrigate-nere-300x270.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbrigate-nere-450x404.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbrigate-nere-750x674.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbrigate-nere-900x809.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbrigate-nere-600x539.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbrigate-nere.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbrigate-nere-300x270.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbrigate-nere-320x320.jpg"},size:X,caption:"Alessandro Pavolini (centre), founder of the \u003Cem\u003EBlack Brigades\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, at an inspection in Milan in 1944.",source:{title:J,url:eh}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"It wasn’t just the occupying forces that committed war crimes in this “civil war” in the Ossola region. The partisans also played their part. For example, against fascist military units or civilians. In July 1944, partisans attacked a train going to Domodossola. They killed 17 young men who were not involved in the conflict. Towards the end of the Second World War, the number of revenge attacks against members of the Black Brigades also increased.\r\n\r\nThe Ossola-Lake Maggiore regional conflict lasted about 20 months and took a tragic toll: 1,200 dead partisans, 300 murdered civilians and at least 400 deported people. 300 of them returned after the end of the Second World War, usually in very poor physical and mental health. The fascists incurred about 400 casualties. Most of them died towards the end of the Second World War in retaliatory attacks. The number of Germans killed in Ossola is very low according to various archives, amounting to a maximum of 100 soldiers.\r\n\r\nThe Germans never paid any financial compensation. There were two trials involving Hitler’s bodyguard units \u003Cem\u003ELeibstandarte\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in Germany and Austria, which ended in acquittals for the accused officers and soldiers."}}];dK.snm_model={categories:[{parent:g,order:aa,id:c,name:ab,description:a,slug:ac,taxonomy:f,permalink:af},{parent:{parent:g,order:K,id:e,name:L,description:a,slug:M,taxonomy:f,permalink:P},order:y,id:k,name:aX,description:a,slug:aY,taxonomy:f,permalink:aZ},{parent:g,order:aw,id:b,name:ax,description:a,slug:ay,taxonomy:f,permalink:aK},{parent:{parent:g,order:aN,id:aB,name:aO,description:a,slug:at,taxonomy:f,permalink:a_},order:y,id:ag,name:ei,description:ej,slug:ek,taxonomy:f,permalink:el}],primaryCategory:ag,comments:[],coordinates:{latitude:a,longitude:a},id:ca,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:g,link:dU,portrait:{id:dV,url:dW,alt:aW,title:dX,height:E,width:E,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:a,url:a},srcset:dY,poster:dZ,square:d_},id:A,name:aW,description:d$},language:B,availableLanguages:{de:{single:"kriegsverbrechen-vor-den-toren-der-schweiz"},fr:{single:"des-crimes-de-guerre-aux-portes-de-la-suisse"}},slug:dL,title:cb,excerpt:dT,postType:w,permalink:dM,thumbnail:{id:dN,url:dO,alt:aV,title:aV,height:q,width:D,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:dP,url:a},srcset:dQ,poster:dR,square:dS},date:1721721600,readableDate:"23.07.2024",modifiedDate:1724858991,readableModifiedDate:"28.08.2024",seoTitle:a,seoDescription:a};em.id=ci;em.date="2024-04-05T08:00:00";em.slug=en;em.type=w;em.link=eo;em.title={rendered:cj};em.content={rendered:"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",protected:n};em.excerpt={rendered:"\u003Cp\u003EJohann Bücheler was a regular carpenter from Kloten. In 1836, he was commissioned by the canton of Zurich to build a guillotine. That proved the end of “normality” as he knew it.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n \u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca class=\"button\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F04\u002Fthe-guillotine-maker\u002F\"\u003Eread more\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",protected:n,rendered_internal:"\u003Cp\u003EJohann Bücheler was a regular carpenter from Kloten. In 1836, he was commissioned by the canton of Zurich to build a guillotine. That proved the end of “normality” as he knew it.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"};em.yoast_head="\u003C!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v23.6 (Yoast SEO v23.6) - https:\u002F\u002Fyoast.com\u002Fwordpress\u002Fplugins\u002Fseo\u002F --\u003E\n\u003Ctitle\u003EThe guillotine maker – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"description\" content=\"Johann Bücheler was a regular carpenter from Kloten. In 1836, he was commissioned by the canton of Zurich to build a guillotine. That proved the end of “normality” as he knew it.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Clink rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F04\u002Fthe-guillotine-maker\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"de_DE\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:title\" content=\"The guillotine maker\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Johann Bücheler was a regular carpenter from Kloten. In 1836, he was commissioned by the canton of Zurich to build a guillotine. That proved the end of “normality” as he knew it.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F04\u002Fthe-guillotine-maker\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:publisher\" content=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.facebook.com\u002FLandesmuseumZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2024-04-05T06:00:00+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2024-04-19T12:36:50+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel.jpg\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"1600\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"1200\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:type\" content=\"image\u002Fjpeg\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"author\" content=\"Michael van Orsouw\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:creator\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Verfasst von\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"Michael van Orsouw\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\"application\u002Fld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\"\u003E{\"@context\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fschema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F04\u002Fthe-guillotine-maker\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F04\u002Fthe-guillotine-maker\u002F\",\"name\":\"The guillotine maker – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F04\u002Fthe-guillotine-maker\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F04\u002Fthe-guillotine-maker\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel.jpg\",\"datePublished\":\"2024-04-05T06:00:00+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2024-04-19T12:36:50+00:00\",\"author\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F5b203bb24bab003f641bad27c120a0cc\"},\"description\":\"Johann Bücheler was a regular carpenter from Kloten. In 1836, he was commissioned by the canton of Zurich to build a guillotine. That proved the end of “normality” as he knew it.\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"ReadAction\",\"target\":[\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F04\u002Fthe-guillotine-maker\u002F\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F04\u002Fthe-guillotine-maker\u002F#primaryimage\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel.jpg\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel.jpg\",\"width\":1600,\"height\":1200,\"caption\":\"The Zurich guillotine was tested on a sheep in 1836. Illustration by Marco Heer\"},{\"@type\":\"WebSite\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F\",\"name\":\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"description\":\"Background and stories about the collection and exhibition\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"SearchAction\",\"target\":{\"@type\":\"EntryPoint\",\"urlTemplate\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F?s={search_term_string}\"},\"query-input\":{\"@type\":\"PropertyValueSpecification\",\"valueRequired\":true,\"valueName\":\"search_term_string\"}}],\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\"},{\"@type\":\"Person\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F5b203bb24bab003f641bad27c120a0cc\",\"name\":\"Michael van Orsouw\",\"image\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002Fimage\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002F69c457aab5aaea645881df4db764ce52?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002F69c457aab5aaea645881df4db764ce52?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"caption\":\"Michael van Orsouw\"},\"description\":\"Michael van Orsouw ist promovierter Historiker, Bühnenpoet und Schriftsteller. Er veröffentlicht regelmässig historische Bücher.\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Fmichael-van-orsouw\u002F\"}]}\u003C\u002Fscript\u003E\n\u003C!-- \u002F Yoast SEO Premium plugin. --\u003E";em.lang=B;em.translations={en:ci,de:140755,fr:142570};em.snm_blocks=[{blockName:aI,blockData:{image:{id:ep,url:eq,alt:a$,title:a$,height:q,width:D,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:er,poster:es,square:et},video:g,videoMobile:g,title:cj,caption:"The Zurich Guillotine was tested on a sheep in 1836. Illustration by Marco Heer",lead:eu,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:{title:ck,url:cl,target:cm},link:cn,portrait:{id:co,url:aC,alt:a,title:cp,height:ah,width:ah,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:cq,poster:cr,square:aC},id:u,name:cs,description:ct}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"Johann Bücheler made chairs, tables and wardrobes in his wood workshop – until he received a sensitive order from the canton of Zurich police chief. He was to go to Geneva to study Switzerland’s first guillotine. The Liberal-Radicals had not long been in power in the canton of Zurich and they wanted to end the gruesome spectacle of manual beheadings. Professional beheading is hard to do and it didn’t always work. Zurich decided to opt for a more clinical, efficient method in the form of the French guillotine. Mechanised execution by blade was recognised as a proven procedure following the French Revolution and Zurich was ready to adopt it."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:141165,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-franz-revolution.jpg",alt:cu,title:cu,height:1597,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:J,url:ev},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-franz-revolution-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-franz-revolution-1154x1536.jpg 1154w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-franz-revolution-338x450.jpg 338w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-franz-revolution-564x750.jpg 564w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-franz-revolution-676x900.jpg 676w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-franz-revolution-451x600.jpg 451w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-franz-revolution-1127x1500.jpg 1127w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-franz-revolution-902x1200.jpg 902w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-franz-revolution.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-franz-revolution-225x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-franz-revolution-320x320.jpg"},size:X,caption:cu,source:{title:J,url:ev}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"That’s how Johann Bücheler found himself going to Geneva by stagecoach on 28 January 1836 – as Melinda Nadj Abonji and Michael Marti researched in 1996 and published in \u003Cem\u003EDas Magazin\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. However, Bücheler was not the first choice: another carpenter called Danner had already been to Geneva, but he was afflicted by “such severe depression”, that he had to pull out, as recorded in the archives. Danner didn’t want to sacrifice his “previously positive disposition” to this delicate undertaking. Johann Bücheler had no such qualms, he inspected the Genevan killing machine closely, had its workings explained to him and measured its constituent parts with his assistants, which enabled them to start replicating the guillotine. Bücheler the “mechanicus” stayed in the \u003Cem\u003EHotel Lion d’Or\u003C\u002Fem\u003E where he ate and drank well and paid generous bonuses to his assistants.\r\n\r\nThe upright frame within which the blade was dropped and raised was made of oak. Bücheler used a rope to initiate the drop mechanism. It worked and the device was completed in six weeks: 3.93 metres high, 74 centimetres wide and 2.12 metres long. The assistants dismantled the guillotine, packed it in wooden boxes and Bücheler took it back to Zurich."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:141082,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGuillotine_©MUSEUM-LUZERN.jpg",alt:cv,title:cv,height:1823,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:ba,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGuillotine_©MUSEUM-LUZERN-197x300.jpg 197w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGuillotine_©MUSEUM-LUZERN-1011x1536.jpg 1011w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGuillotine_©MUSEUM-LUZERN-296x450.jpg 296w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGuillotine_©MUSEUM-LUZERN-494x750.jpg 494w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGuillotine_©MUSEUM-LUZERN-592x900.jpg 592w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGuillotine_©MUSEUM-LUZERN-395x600.jpg 395w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGuillotine_©MUSEUM-LUZERN-987x1500.jpg 987w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGuillotine_©MUSEUM-LUZERN-1185x1800.jpg 1185w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGuillotine_©MUSEUM-LUZERN-790x1200.jpg 790w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGuillotine_©MUSEUM-LUZERN.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGuillotine_©MUSEUM-LUZERN-197x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGuillotine_©MUSEUM-LUZERN-320x320.jpg"},size:X,caption:cv,source:{title:ba,url:a}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"In the \u003Cem\u003EOetenbach Prison\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, the inmates assembled the killing machine in March 1836. The police chief watched the first trial run with interest. The authorities chose a sheep as the guinea pig. The experiment worked, the animal was neatly beheaded and the machine proved it was fit for purpose. Bücheler received 160 Swiss francs for his work. The guillotine cost the canton of Zurich a total of 1,555 Swiss francs including all salaries, costs, material and accommodation. As it was so large, the execution device was dismantled again and stored in boxes, which were kept in the loft of the Zurich prison."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:141151,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fstrafanstalt-oetenbach.jpg",alt:ew,title:ew,height:849,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:J,url:ex},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fstrafanstalt-oetenbach-300x212.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fstrafanstalt-oetenbach-450x318.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fstrafanstalt-oetenbach-750x531.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fstrafanstalt-oetenbach-900x637.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fstrafanstalt-oetenbach-600x425.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fstrafanstalt-oetenbach.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fstrafanstalt-oetenbach-300x212.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fstrafanstalt-oetenbach-320x320.jpg"},size:$,caption:"The \u003Cem\u003EOetenbach Prison\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in Zurich on a painting from 1900.",source:{title:J,url:ex}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"When Lucerne decided to follow the example of Zurich and abandon manual beheadings by sword or blade, Bücheler approached the canton of Lucerne and offered them his construction. In September 1836, the carpenter took his inconspicuous wooden boxes to Lucerne – and sold a new guillotine. As a test run, they tied a ram down beneath the blade; the axe fell, but it was “not a clean drop” and it failed to behead the animal completely. Two manual workers examined the device. They realised that the groove in which the blade was placed needed to be free of oil paint, instead “molybdenum and soap” were to make the blade fall faster. That helped and Bücheler returned to Zurich satisfied."}},{blockName:ai,blockData:{title:"No-one likes an executioner",size:aj}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"Bücheler’s work on the guillotine made him something of an outcast, as people saw him as the new executioner. When he went looking for work in the mechanical workshops of \u003Cem\u003EEscher Wyss & Comp.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, he was turned down in spite of his experience. The orders soon dried up altogether as he was shunned in the same way as executioners before him had been. The device, he wrote to the chief of police, had brought him into “an unfortunate situation”, he was unable to “get any more work”, although he had a wife and child to feed. The police chief recommended a position in the prison, however the governor was unable to offer him anything: he said a guillotine maker did not qualify as a public servant. The carpenter signed his despairing letters \u003Cem\u003E“Bücheler der Unglückliche”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (“Bücheler the unfortunate”).\r\n\r\nHis fortunes didn’t change either: following the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2017\u002F09\u002Fzueriputsch-en\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003EZüriputsch\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E of 1839, the wind of political change blew through the canton of Zurich. The conservatives came to power and turned the clock back. Execution by guillotine was abolished and the executioner’s sword came into favour again. Bücheler’s apparatus stayed where it was: in storage somewhere."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:140764,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fenthauptung-uster.jpg",alt:ey,title:ey,height:eg,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:ez,url:eA},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fenthauptung-uster-300x270.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fenthauptung-uster-450x404.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fenthauptung-uster-750x674.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fenthauptung-uster-900x809.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fenthauptung-uster-600x539.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fenthauptung-uster.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fenthauptung-uster-300x270.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fenthauptung-uster-320x320.jpg"},size:$,caption:"During the Old Zürich War, 62 men were beheaded in Greifensee in 1444. Following the Züriputsch”, the Zurich authorities revived this execution method.",source:{title:ez,url:eA}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"Bücheler developed existential concerns. So, he built a new guillotine in his workshop in 1840, it was just 150 centimetres high and 60 centimetres wide – a fully functional display model. Bücheler won over the cantons of Thurgau and St.Gallen with his new model and they hired his services. Prior to that, he had been displaying the bonsai version to an interested public, first on the street from Zurich to Kloten, then in the restaurant \u003Cem\u003ELöwen \u003C\u002Fem\u003Ein Kloten. He used celery sticks for his demonstrations and the audience gave him some coins in return."}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:54099,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine.jpg",alt:cw,title:cw,height:1183,width:q,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:ba,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-300x296.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-450x444.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-750x739.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-900x887.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-600x592.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-300x296.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-320x320.jpg"},size:X,caption:cw,source:{title:ba,url:a}}},{blockName:x,blockData:{text:"Bücheler’s machine, the full-size version, was eventually used in Zurich as the political wind changed course yet again. The two robbers and murderers Jakob Lattmann and Heinrich Sennhauser were sentenced to death and Bücheler’s killing machine was unpacked, assembled and refitted. On 15 July 1845, the guillotine blade dropped twice. Bücheler had offered to perform the executions himself, but professional executioners from Rheinfelden and Geneva were preferred. So, Bücheler was merely one of the many spectators in Zurich’s old \u003Cem\u003E“Schanzengebiet”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E.\r\n\r\nNot much is known about the rest of Bücheler’s life. He moved to Basel-Landschaft, and shortly after that the rumour in Kloten was that Bücheler had gone to France. In any case his family ended up living on social welfare – a sad ending to an unfortunate story."}}];em.snm_model={categories:[{parent:g,order:ae,id:d,name:ak,description:a,slug:al,taxonomy:f,permalink:ar},{parent:{parent:g,order:Q,id:h,name:R,description:a,slug:S,taxonomy:f,permalink:V},order:y,id:o,name:cx,description:a,slug:cy,taxonomy:f,permalink:cz},{parent:g,order:K,id:e,name:L,description:a,slug:M,taxonomy:f,permalink:P},{parent:g,order:aw,id:b,name:ax,description:a,slug:ay,taxonomy:f,permalink:aK}],primaryCategory:o,comments:[],coordinates:{latitude:a,longitude:a},id:ci,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:{title:ck,url:cl,target:cm},link:cn,portrait:{id:co,url:aC,alt:a,title:cp,height:ah,width:ah,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:cq,poster:cr,square:aC},id:u,name:cs,description:ct},language:B,availableLanguages:{de:{single:"guillotinenbauer"},fr:{single:"le-fabricant-de-guillotines"}},slug:en,title:cj,excerpt:eu,postType:w,permalink:eo,thumbnail:{id:ep,url:eq,alt:a$,title:a$,height:q,width:D,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:er,poster:es,square:et},date:1712304000,readableDate:"05.04.2024",modifiedDate:1713537410,readableModifiedDate:"19.04.2024",seoTitle:a,seoDescription:a};eB.id=cA;eB.date="2019-04-10T08:00:09";eB.slug=eC;eB.type=w;eB.link=eD;eB.title={rendered:cB};eB.content={rendered:"\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThey had to be ‘handsome’, the men for Maria Jakobea Zurlauben (1658-1716). Tall guys of robust build. ‘Des beaux hommes’, as her brother Beat Heinrich Josef (1663-1706) used to say. They came from everywhere: Central Switzerland, the area now called the Aargau, March, Zürcher Landschaft and Eastern Switzerland, southern Germany and even Bohemia. They didn’t stay long. Their board and lodging at the ‘Löwen’ inn in Zug was too expensive. As soon as ‘Frau Hauptmannin’ Zurlauben had gathered together a dozen men who had committed to mercenary service by accepting prest money, she immediately dispatched the recruits on the march westwards to France, with an escort of armed soldiers.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EAt the French royal court, the Zurlaubens owned a half company of guards, which they had managed for generations. It was the centrepiece of the family’s mercenary business, allowing them exclusive access to court society. As part of the Swiss Guards, the company belonged to the monarch’s external bodyguard. The company guarded the royal residences, accompanied the king when he travelled, and fought in campaigns. Anyone who was that close to the king had to make something of it. So Beat Heinrich Josef Zurlauben, owner and captain of the guard company, only took perfectly proportioned recruits – the ‘handsome ones’. The less ‘handsome’ men that his sister sent him from Zug he allocated to the family’s other companies of mercenaries in France.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EWOMEN IN THE MERCENARY BUSINESS\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EIn the old Swiss Confederacy, the fact that a woman like Maria Jakobea Zurlauben, a member of a wealthy Zug family involved in the mercenary business and magistrate activities, organised the recruitment of mercenaries was actually the rule rather than the exception. But in the historiography, women like her were and still are invisible. They are little more than supernumeraries. Historians – most of them men – tell the story of the pre-modern mercenary business families just as they were recounted, in their glorious family chronicles, coats of arms and family trees, by the 17th and 18th century protagonists whom those historians research: as a succession of great men. As an account of war heroes who went into battle, earned aristocratic titles and bequeathed their companies to their sons as separate inheritances.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003ENot infrequently, that was purely wishful thinking, because women were generally entitled to equal shares in an inheritance and were sometimes co-owners or even sole owners of military companies. In many such companies female relatives invested their own money, whether as inheritance or as a loan. And many women worked in the family mercenary business. These services were not given purely out of family devotion. The mercenary business was a family enterprise in which virtually all relatives were required to participate, but they also profited – some more than others – from the resulting benefits: the financial returns, the social prestige, the access to the courtly society and training positions for their boys.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EMaria Jakobea Zurlauben, for example, ran the family’s operations in Zug for many years and acted as a link to her brothers outside the country. It was a busy position, especially in times of war which, during the reign of King Louis XIV (1638-1715), were plentiful. Those volunteering for service reported directly to the ‘Frau Hauptmannin’, the lady captain. She also coordinated a network of subscription agents who systematically targeted men for recruitment. The peak activity period was in winter. The company headcounts had to be topped up in good time for medical examinations in the spring. To keep each other informed, the siblings often sent several letters each week: How many recruits did the companies need? How many had deserted en route, or had had to be left behind in infirmaries? How much cash was left to pay the hostelry bills, prest money, wages for the recruitment agents, guides and messengers, and to buy tobacco, clothes and new shoes for the recruits? Incidentally, the soldiers had to pay back most of this money to the company owner after their arrival in France.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\n\n\u003Cp style=\"text-align: center;\" class=\"migrated-caption\"\u003ELetter from Beat Heinrich Josef Zurlauben to Maria Jakobea Zurlauben, married name Andermatt, living in Zug.\u003Cbr\u003E\nKantonsbibliothek Aarau (Aarau Cantonal Library)\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\n\n\u003Cp style=\"text-align: center;\" class=\"migrated-caption\"\u003EIt was not uncommon for whole families to be involved in the mercenary business, as the Zurlaubens were. The Pfyffer family of Lucerne were also heavily involved in this line of work. While Franz Pfyffer was in France serving as the commander of the Swiss Guards, his wife, Maria Magdalena, was at home taking care of the ‘back office’.\u003Cbr\u003E\nSwiss National Museum\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\n\n\u003Cp style=\"text-align: center;\" class=\"migrated-caption\"\u003EThe mercenaries were also recruited using advertising letters. Here, a call to enter the Swiss regiment in French service, dating from 1783.\u003Cbr\u003E\nSwiss National Museum\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"migrated-caption\" style=\"text-align: center;\"\u003EIn Zug the mercenary soldiers were recruited for the French royal house. Print of the city from the 17th century.\u003Cbr \u002F\u003ESwiss National Museum\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EMaria Jakobea’s sister, ‘Frau Landammännin’ Maria Barbara Zurlauben (1660-1724), also recruited soldiers in Zug. Surviving documents show that she was also entrusted with the actual management of the company: she took receipt of the monthly accounts and reports sent in by the officers in France, and corresponded with them about current problems. The women were not simply stand-ins for absent men. Maria Jakobea Zurlauben paid for advertising from her own resources. After the death of Beat Heinrich Josef, she travelled to Paris to sift through his estate and claim her money. She also participated in the financial profits of the mercenary business, and her husband was given an officer’s post in his brother-in-law’s company. In return, Maria Jakobea had to take their aged mother into her household and look after her.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EThe portraits of highly decorated mercenary leaders, their ostentatious stately homes, heroic tales and genealogies extending centuries back into the past provide a glamorous backdrop for the seductively simple story of a dynastically organised mercenary business: within individual dynastic houses, companies of mercenaries were passed on, down the generations, to the eldest son, who as the new head of the family called the shots and demanded obedience from other relatives. However, a glance at the womenfolk shows that the story is more complicated. The mercenary business was in fact a type of collectively owned enterprise, embedded in a convoluted network of multi-faceted relationships and claims of numerous relatives amongst whom a balance had constantly to be struck.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\n\n\u003Cp style=\"text-align: center;\" class=\"migrated-caption\"\u003EA regiment of the Swiss Guards at the court of Louis XVI. 18th century print.\u003Cbr\u003E\nSwiss National Museum\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n",protected:n};eB.excerpt={rendered:"\u003Cp\u003ESwiss mercenaries – think they were all men? Think again. People tend to forget that in family-run mercenary companies, it was the women who pulled the strings.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n \u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca class=\"button\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2019\u002F04\u002Fwomen-as-mercenaries\u002F\"\u003Eread more\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",protected:n,rendered_internal:"\u003Cp\u003ESwiss mercenaries – think they were all men? Think again. People tend to forget that in family-run mercenary companies, it was the women who pulled the strings.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"};eB.yoast_head="\u003C!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v23.6 (Yoast SEO v23.6) - https:\u002F\u002Fyoast.com\u002Fwordpress\u002Fplugins\u002Fseo\u002F --\u003E\n\u003Ctitle\u003ESwiss history – Women as Swiss mercenaries\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"description\" content=\"Swiss mercenaries – think they were all men? Think again. 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People tend to forget that in family-run mercenary companies, it was the women who pulled the strings.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:image\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FSöldner_Titel.jpg\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:creator\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Verfasst von\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"Nathalie Büsser\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:label2\" content=\"Geschätzte Lesezeit\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:data2\" content=\"6 Minuten\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\"application\u002Fld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\"\u003E{\"@context\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fschema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2019\u002F04\u002Fwomen-as-mercenaries\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2019\u002F04\u002Fwomen-as-mercenaries\u002F\",\"name\":\"Swiss history – Women as Swiss mercenaries\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2019\u002F04\u002Fwomen-as-mercenaries\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2019\u002F04\u002Fwomen-as-mercenaries\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FSöldner_Titel.jpg\",\"datePublished\":\"2019-04-10T06:00:09+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2022-07-15T15:46:05+00:00\",\"author\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F1247c608932e374dd444c71d722e5c4c\"},\"description\":\"Swiss mercenaries – think they were all men? 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Sie arbeitet als wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiterin und Dozentin am Historischen Seminar der Universität Zürich.\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Fnathalie-buesser\u002F\"}]}\u003C\u002Fscript\u003E\n\u003C!-- \u002F Yoast SEO Premium plugin. --\u003E";eB.lang=B;eB.translations={en:cA,de:24299,fr:24910};eB.snm_blocks=[{blockName:aI,blockData:{image:{id:eE,url:bb,alt:a,title:a,height:eF,width:eG,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:eH,poster:eI,square:bb},video:g,videoMobile:g,title:cB,caption:"Swiss mercenaries in front of a tavern. This coloured etching was created in the late 18th century.\u003Cbr\u003E\nSwiss National Museum",lead:"The history of Swiss foreign military service is a story of men – but they’re only half the story. Mothers, daughters, sisters, wives, aunts and cousins all worked in the family-run mercenary soldiers business, invested their own money, were co-owners and had inheritance claims.",author:{title:g,mail:g,website:g,link:eJ,portrait:{id:eK,url:bc,alt:a,title:bd,height:E,width:E,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:eL,poster:eM,square:bc},id:eN,name:bd,description:eO}}},{blockName:aD,blockData:{content:"\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThey had to be ‘handsome’, the men for Maria Jakobea Zurlauben (1658-1716). Tall guys of robust build. ‘Des beaux hommes’, as her brother Beat Heinrich Josef (1663-1706) used to say. They came from everywhere: Central Switzerland, the area now called the Aargau, March, Zürcher Landschaft and Eastern Switzerland, southern Germany and even Bohemia. They didn’t stay long. Their board and lodging at the ‘Löwen’ inn in Zug was too expensive. As soon as ‘Frau Hauptmannin’ Zurlauben had gathered together a dozen men who had committed to mercenary service by accepting prest money, she immediately dispatched the recruits on the march westwards to France, with an escort of armed soldiers.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EAt the French royal court, the Zurlaubens owned a half company of guards, which they had managed for generations. It was the centrepiece of the family’s mercenary business, allowing them exclusive access to court society. As part of the Swiss Guards, the company belonged to the monarch’s external bodyguard. The company guarded the royal residences, accompanied the king when he travelled, and fought in campaigns. Anyone who was that close to the king had to make something of it. So Beat Heinrich Josef Zurlauben, owner and captain of the guard company, only took perfectly proportioned recruits – the ‘handsome ones’. The less ‘handsome’ men that his sister sent him from Zug he allocated to the family’s other companies of mercenaries in France.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EWOMEN IN THE MERCENARY BUSINESS\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EIn the old Swiss Confederacy, the fact that a woman like Maria Jakobea Zurlauben, a member of a wealthy Zug family involved in the mercenary business and magistrate activities, organised the recruitment of mercenaries was actually the rule rather than the exception. But in the historiography, women like her were and still are invisible. They are little more than supernumeraries. Historians – most of them men – tell the story of the pre-modern mercenary business families just as they were recounted, in their glorious family chronicles, coats of arms and family trees, by the 17th and 18th century protagonists whom those historians research: as a succession of great men. As an account of war heroes who went into battle, earned aristocratic titles and bequeathed their companies to their sons as separate inheritances.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003ENot infrequently, that was purely wishful thinking, because women were generally entitled to equal shares in an inheritance and were sometimes co-owners or even sole owners of military companies. In many such companies female relatives invested their own money, whether as inheritance or as a loan. And many women worked in the family mercenary business. These services were not given purely out of family devotion. The mercenary business was a family enterprise in which virtually all relatives were required to participate, but they also profited – some more than others – from the resulting benefits: the financial returns, the social prestige, the access to the courtly society and training positions for their boys.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EMaria Jakobea Zurlauben, for example, ran the family’s operations in Zug for many years and acted as a link to her brothers outside the country. It was a busy position, especially in times of war which, during the reign of King Louis XIV (1638-1715), were plentiful. Those volunteering for service reported directly to the ‘Frau Hauptmannin’, the lady captain. She also coordinated a network of subscription agents who systematically targeted men for recruitment. The peak activity period was in winter. The company headcounts had to be topped up in good time for medical examinations in the spring. To keep each other informed, the siblings often sent several letters each week: How many recruits did the companies need? How many had deserted en route, or had had to be left behind in infirmaries? How much cash was left to pay the hostelry bills, prest money, wages for the recruitment agents, guides and messengers, and to buy tobacco, clothes and new shoes for the recruits? Incidentally, the soldiers had to pay back most of this money to the company owner after their arrival in France.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n"}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:24562,url:eP,alt:a,title:a,height:620,width:cC,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FBrief_Zurlauben_2-300x233.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FBrief_Zurlauben_2-768x595.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FBrief_Zurlauben_2.jpg 800w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FBrief_Zurlauben_2-300x233.jpg",square:eP},size:$,caption:a,source:[n]}},{blockName:aD,blockData:{content:"\n\n\u003Cp style=\"text-align: center;\" class=\"migrated-caption\"\u003ELetter from Beat Heinrich Josef Zurlauben to Maria Jakobea Zurlauben, married name Andermatt, living in Zug.\u003Cbr\u003E\nKantonsbibliothek Aarau (Aarau Cantonal Library)\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n"}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:24605,url:eQ,alt:a,title:a,height:1272,width:be,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FPfyffer_Frau-236x300.jpg 236w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FPfyffer_Frau-768x977.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FPfyffer_Frau-805x1024.jpg 805w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FPfyffer_Frau.jpg 1000w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FPfyffer_Frau-236x300.jpg",square:eQ},size:X,caption:a,source:[n]}},{blockName:aD,blockData:{content:"\n\n\u003Cp style=\"text-align: center;\" class=\"migrated-caption\"\u003EIt was not uncommon for whole families to be involved in the mercenary business, as the Zurlaubens were. The Pfyffer family of Lucerne were also heavily involved in this line of work. While Franz Pfyffer was in France serving as the commander of the Swiss Guards, his wife, Maria Magdalena, was at home taking care of the ‘back office’.\u003Cbr\u003E\nSwiss National Museum\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n"}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:24372,url:eR,alt:a,title:a,height:618,width:cC,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FAnwerbung-Söldner-300x232.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FAnwerbung-Söldner-768x593.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FAnwerbung-Söldner.jpg 800w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FAnwerbung-Söldner-300x232.jpg",square:eR},size:$,caption:a,source:[n]}},{blockName:aD,blockData:{content:"\n\n\u003Cp style=\"text-align: center;\" class=\"migrated-caption\"\u003EThe mercenaries were also recruited using advertising letters. Here, a call to enter the Swiss regiment in French service, dating from 1783.\u003Cbr\u003E\nSwiss National Museum\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n"}},{blockName:C,blockData:{image:{id:24333,url:eS,alt:a,title:a,height:524,width:cC,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FStadt-Zug-300x197.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FStadt-Zug-768x503.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FStadt-Zug.jpg 800w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FStadt-Zug-300x197.jpg",square:eS},size:$,caption:a,source:[n]}},{blockName:aD,blockData:{content:"\n\n\u003Cp class=\"migrated-caption\" style=\"text-align: center;\"\u003EIn Zug the mercenary soldiers were recruited for the French royal house. Print of the city from the 17th century.\u003Cbr \u002F\u003ESwiss National Museum\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EMaria Jakobea’s sister, ‘Frau Landammännin’ Maria Barbara Zurlauben (1660-1724), also recruited soldiers in Zug. Surviving documents show that she was also entrusted with the actual management of the company: she took receipt of the monthly accounts and reports sent in by the officers in France, and corresponded with them about current problems. The women were not simply stand-ins for absent men. Maria Jakobea Zurlauben paid for advertising from her own resources. After the death of Beat Heinrich Josef, she travelled to Paris to sift through his estate and claim her money. She also participated in the financial profits of the mercenary business, and her husband was given an officer’s post in his brother-in-law’s company. In return, Maria Jakobea had to take their aged mother into her household and look after her.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EThe portraits of highly decorated mercenary leaders, their ostentatious stately homes, heroic tales and genealogies extending centuries back into the past provide a glamorous backdrop for the seductively simple story of a dynastically organised mercenary business: within individual dynastic houses, companies of mercenaries were passed on, down the generations, to the eldest son, who as the new head of the family called the shots and demanded obedience from other relatives. However, a glance at the womenfolk shows that the story is more complicated. 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Juli 2020",time:"20:55",author:"Vince Rockston",note:"Darf ich bitte das Bild Brief_Zurlauben_2.jpg als Illustration auf meiner Website verwenden?\r\nBesten Dank,\r\nVince Rockston",replies:[{id:"5186",date:"10. Juli 2020",time:"06:43",author:cD,note:"Sehr geehrter Herr Rockston\n\nDie Rechte des angefragten Bildes liegen bei der Kantonsbibliothek Aargau. Bitte kontaktieren Sie die Verantwortlichen direkt:\n\nhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.ag.ch\u002Fde\u002Fbks\u002Fkultur\u002Farchiv_bibliothek\u002Fkantonsbibliothek\u002Fkantonsbibliothek.jsp\n\nMit freundlichen Grüssen\nAndrej Abplanalp\nSchweizerisches Nationalmuseum",replies:[]}]}],coordinates:{latitude:a,longitude:a},id:cA,author:{title:g,mail:g,website:g,link:eJ,portrait:{id:eK,url:bc,alt:a,title:bd,height:E,width:E,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:eL,poster:eM,square:bc},id:eN,name:bd,description:eO},language:B,availableLanguages:{de:{single:"frauen-im-soeldnerwesen"},fr:{single:"les-femmes-et-le-mercenariat-suisse"}},slug:eC,title:cB,excerpt:eU,postType:w,permalink:eD,thumbnail:{id:eE,url:bb,alt:a,title:a,height:eF,width:eG,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:eH,poster:eI,square:bb},date:1554883209,readableDate:"10.04.2019",modifiedDate:1657907165,readableModifiedDate:"15.07.2022",seoTitle:"Swiss history – Women as Swiss mercenaries",seoDescription:eU};return {layout:"default",data:[{post:br}],fetch:{"data-v-24996fd6:0":{latestPost:dy,lazyIsVisible:aU},"SnmPostSuggestions:0":{posts:[dK,em,eB]}},error:g,state:{options:{general:{isBlogBanner:aU,algoliaIndex:"prod_snm_blog"},pages:{landing:{id:cE,date:"2018-10-30T10:14:09",slug:eV,type:bg,link:eW,title:{rendered:eX},content:{rendered:"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",protected:n},excerpt:{rendered:a,protected:n},yoast_head:"\u003C!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v23.6 (Yoast SEO v23.6) - https:\u002F\u002Fyoast.com\u002Fwordpress\u002Fplugins\u002Fseo\u002F --\u003E\n\u003Ctitle\u003ESwiss history blog - Swiss national museum\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"description\" content=\"The Swiss National Museum’s blog provides information about historical events, presents objects from the past or places topical news in a historical context. 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Wishing I knew more about my ancestry. Time to get busy and find out!",replies:[]},{id:"1080",date:"5. Juli 2018",time:"10:01",author:"George Smith",note:"So little of this extremely interesting article was known to me, aged 7 at the time one finds in later years the horrors of pan European 2nd world war history.",replies:[]},{id:"134",date:"11. 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While the Christian church sought to extend its influence into private bedchambers, ‘lascivious’ attitudes and practices stood in the way of its ambitions.",postType:w,permalink:gj,thumbnail:{id:148614,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fblog-titelbild-5.jpg",alt:gm,title:gm,height:q,width:D,focus:{x:i,y:i},source:{title:J,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FFile:The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_by_Bosch_High_Resolution.jpg?uselang=en"},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fblog-titelbild-5-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fblog-titelbild-5-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fblog-titelbild-5-450x338.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fblog-titelbild-5-750x563.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fblog-titelbild-5-900x675.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fblog-titelbild-5-600x450.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fblog-titelbild-5-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fblog-titelbild-5-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fblog-titelbild-5.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fblog-titelbild-5-300x225.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fblog-titelbild-5-320x320.jpg"},date:1718262000,readableDate:"13.06.2024",modifiedDate:1718384729,readableModifiedDate:"14.06.2024",seoTitle:a,seoDescription:a}},{id:cP,type:w,link:gn,snm_model:{categories:[{parent:g,order:aa,id:c,name:ab,description:a,slug:ac,taxonomy:f,permalink:af},{parent:g,order:K,id:e,name:L,description:a,slug:M,taxonomy:f,permalink:P},{parent:{parent:g,order:K,id:e,name:L,description:a,slug:M,taxonomy:f,permalink:P},order:y,id:k,name:aX,description:a,slug:aY,taxonomy:f,permalink:aZ},{parent:{parent:g,order:aE,id:m,name:aP,description:a,slug:aQ,taxonomy:f,permalink:bf},order:y,id:Y,name:"Crime",description:a,slug:"crime",taxonomy:f,permalink:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fsociety\u002Fcrime\u002F"}],primaryCategory:Y,comments:[{id:"7877",date:"24. Oktober 2024",time:"11:45",author:"Dora Bruder",note:"Spannende Geschichte, danke, Nationalmuseum!\r\n\r\nDer Film ... na ja, Schweizer Schauspieler, die bringen es einfach nicht. Schade. Aber immerhin ein toller Blogbeitrag! :)",replies:[]}],coordinates:{latitude:fQ,longitude:fP},id:cP,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:a,link:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Fernst-ziegler\u002F",portrait:{id:154883,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fernst-ziegler.jpg",alt:cV,title:cV,height:go,width:go,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fernst-ziegler-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fernst-ziegler-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fernst-ziegler-160x160.jpg 160w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fernst-ziegler-320x320.jpg 320w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fernst-ziegler.jpg 334w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fernst-ziegler-300x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fernst-ziegler-320x320.jpg"},id:253,name:cV,description:"Dr Ernst Ziegler was municipal archivist of St. Gallen from 1971 to 2003 and taught legal history at the universities of Zurich and St. Gallen."},language:B,availableLanguages:{fr:{single:"lexecution-dernst-s"},de:{single:"die-erschiessung-des-ernst-s"}},slug:"the-execution-of-ernst-s",title:fO,excerpt:"During the Second World War, Ernst Schrämli from St. Gallen was sentenced to death for spying and executed on 10 November 1942 in a small wood in eastern Switzerland. Schrämli had relayed military secrets and information to a German agent. 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Box\u003Cbr \u002F\u003E\r\n8021 Zurich\u003Cbr \u002F\u003E\r\n\u003Ca href=\"mailto:info@nationalmuseum.ch\"\u003Einfo@nationalmuseum.ch\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Cbr \u002F\u003E\r\n\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nationalmuseum.ch\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003Ewww.nationalmuseum.ch\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Cbr \u002F\u003E\r\n\u003Cbr \u002F\u003E\r\nDesign: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.dreipol.ch\u002F\"\u003Edreipol\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | Realisation: \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwhatwedo.ch\"\u003Ewhatwedo\u003C\u002Fa\u003E",description:"Three museums – the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.landesmuseum.ch\u002Fen\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ENational Museum Zurich\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.chateaudeprangins.ch\u002Fen\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003EChâteau de Prangins\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.forumschwyz.ch\u002Fen\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003EForum of Swiss History Schwyz\u003C\u002Fa\u003E – as well as the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.sammlungszentrum.ch\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ECollection Centre\u003C\u002Fa\u003E in Affoltern am Albis – are united under the umbrella of the Swiss National Museum (SNM).\u003Cbr \u002F\u003E\r\n\u003Cbr \u002F\u003E\r\n\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Ffeed\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ERSS-Feed\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Cbr \u002F\u003E\r\n\u003Cbr \u002F\u003E\r\n\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fprivacy\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003EPrivacy policy\u003C\u002Fa\u003E",links:[]},series:{seriesOverviewPage:{slug:at},excludedSeriesCategory:{slug:at}},translations:{latestPosts:"Latest posts",allPosts:"All posts",morePosts:"More posts",furtherPosts:"Further posts",popularPosts:"Popular posts",postsBy:"Posts by",teaserMore:"to the article",readMoreExcerpt:"read more",bannerNewestPost:"New post:",comments:"Comments",moreComments:"Load more comments",sendComment:"Send comment",addComment:"Add a comment",addAnswer:"Add your answer",emailAddress:"Email address",commentatorName:"Name",answer:"answer",abort:"abort",commentThankYou:"Thank you, your comment will be reviewed by us and then activated.",close:"Close",home:"Homepage",searchButton:gx,search:gx,searchBlog:"Search blog",skipLink:"Skip to content",loadingText:"Content is loading",contentLoadedText:"was loaded",postsFound:"found for the term %",moreOf:"More of",allCategories:"All categories",showAllCategories:"Show all categories",addressTitle:"Address & contact",name:aq,more:"More",less:"Less",publishedAt:"Published on:",modifiedAt:"Modified on:",websiteLabel:"Website:",emailLabel:"E-mail:",newsletterTitle:fK,newsletterText:fL,newsletterPlaceholder:fM,wantsMuseumNewsletter:"I would also like to receive the museum newsletter with information on exhibitions and events.",subscribe:"Subscribe",newsletterEmailErrorMessage:"Please enter a valid email address to continue.",newsletterListSelection:"Please select the museum for which you would like to receive information.",newsletterThankYou:"Thank you! In order to complete your subscription, please click on the confirmation link in the e-mail that we have just sent to you.",newsletterLMZ:"National Museum Zurich (german)",newsletterFSGS:"Forum Schweizer Geschichte Schwyz (german)",newsletterCDP:"Château de Prangins (french)",newsletterExhibitions:a,newsletterEventsAndTours:a,newsletterGarden:a,newsletterBoutique:a,newsletterEmailVerificationLinkSent:"An e-mail with a verification link has already been sent to this e-mail address.",newsletterEmailAlreadySubscribed:"This email address is already registered. To also receive the blog newsletter, click on «Adjust settings» in the newsletter of the Swiss National Museum, which you received at this address.",previewNotFoundTitle:"Preview not found",previewNotFoundText:"The preview has expired or could not be found",imageOf:"Image % of",backButton:"Back",sliderLeft:"To the left",sliderRight:"To the right",mapSearch:"Search location",mapBackgroundTitle:"Select background",mapBackgroundBasis:"Classic map",mapBackgroundSatellite:"Satellite image",mapBackgroundHistory:"Historic map",mapFilterTitle:"mapFilterTitle",mapFilterAll:"mapFilterAll"}},menu:{visible:n},adminBar:{visible:n},banner:{visible:aU},nonce:"0838a8cc93",i18nTransition:n,author:{authors:[]},category:{categories:[]},comment:{comments:[]},post:{post:br,posts:[br,dy,dK,em,eB]},route:{name:"single___en",path:cX,hash:a,query:{},params:{year:"2021",month:"01",single:bt},fullPath:cX,meta:{},from:{name:g,path:cY,hash:a,query:{},params:{},fullPath:cY,meta:{}}},i18n:{routeParams:dx}},serverRendered:aU,routePath:cX,config:{algoliaApiKey:"QAQEHLLWP9",algoliaApplicationId:"94b5ff7e52342d74d0962965962016e1",_app:{basePath:cY,assetsPath:"\u002F_nuxt\u002F",cdnURL:g}}}}("",799,85,62,105,"category",null,80,"50",50,117,798,132,false,486,75,1200,110,59,10866,94,0,"post","acf\u002Ftext","0",39551,97,"en","acf\u002Fimage",1600,400,120,89,134,82,"Wikimedia","13","Politics","politics",38183,128,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fpolitics\u002F","12","Economy","economy",84,123,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Feconomy\u002F","raw","small",42425,40622,57,"regular","5","20th \u002F 21st century","20-21-century",38674,"4","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002F20-21-century\u002F",42809,600,"acf\u002Ftitle","h2","Modern Age","modern-age",143,33376,114,53,"Swiss National Museum","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fmodern-age\u002F","The Turrettini family’s influence is evident wherever you look in Geneva. View over the Quai Turrettini, circa 1940.","series",42250,39239,"21","Article","article",157109,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F01\u002FChristophe_Vuilleumier.jpg",139,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F07\u002Fvan-orsouw-autor.jpg","snm\u002Fclassic","14",40263,41213,40465,"acf\u002Ftitle-fullbleed","The Constitution of the United States with its famous preamble ‘We the People’ (left), and an excerpt from the Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848.","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Farticle\u002F","Geneva’s Italian side","Bibliothèque de Genève","22","Series","Society","society","15",35740,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fgenevas-italian-side\u002F",true,"A picture of 45 civilians in Verbania. They were shot on the same day, 20 June 1944, by SS-Polizei soldiers.","Raphael Rues","War\u002Fbattle","war-battle","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fpolitics\u002Fwar-battle\u002F","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fseries\u002F","The Zurich guillotine was tested on a sheep in 1836. Illustration by Marco Heer","© MUSEUM LUZERN \u002F photo: Theres Bütler","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FSöldner_Titel.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F03\u002FBuesser.jpg","Nathalie Büsser",1000,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fsociety\u002F","page","Culture","culture",645,"11","Religion","religion-en",32953,37286,156,1397,{},62110,"switzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics","Switzerland and the USA: sister republics","At first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. But a look back at their shared history springs a few surprises. It shows how closely the political systems of the two nations are related to one another.","John Locke, 1697.","Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, 1728.","Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, around 1799.","Emer de Vattel, around 1760.","Jean-Jacques Rousseau, around 1763.","Thomas Jefferson, 1800.","The White House Historical Association","John Adams, around 1792.","James Madison, 1816.","The Swiss woman (standing on the rock and dressed in traditional costume) recommends the referendum to her sisters the USA, Germany, France and Great Britain (from left to right). Drawing in the magazine The Cosmopolitan, No XV\u002F3 (July 1893).","The political system of the USA (thin arrows indicate rights of confirmation or veto).","Campaign poster for a California referendum on legalising cannabis, 1972.","genevas-italian-side",155662,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395.jpg",1168,"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.bge-geneve.ch\u002Ficonographie\u002Foeuvre\u002Fvg-n13x18-03472","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395-300x219.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395-1536x1121.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395-450x329.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395-750x548.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395-900x657.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395-600x438.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395-1500x1095.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395-1200x876.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395.jpg 1600w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395-300x219.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffoto-des-quai-turrettini-in-genf-1940-e1729611554395-320x320.jpg","The rise of Geneva, the home of Calvinism, owed much to the Turrettini family. Arriving there from Tuscany in the 16th century with ready money and access to an international network, they played no small part in buoying the city’s economy.","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Fchristophe-vuilleumier\u002F",22784,"Christophe_Vuilleumier","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F01\u002FChristophe_Vuilleumier-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F01\u002FChristophe_Vuilleumier-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F01\u002FChristophe_Vuilleumier.jpg 400w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F01\u002FChristophe_Vuilleumier-300x300.jpg","Christophe Vuilleumier","Christophe Vuilleumier is a historian and board member of the Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Geschichte (Swiss Historical Society). He has published a number of articles on 17th and 20th century Swiss history.","Portrait of Baroness Françoise Turrettini, painted by Nicolas de Largillière, 1721.","The new husband: Baron Auguste Maurice de Donop, painted in the studio of Louis Tocqué, circa 1748.","46.20538982183319","6.140600749264616",151299,"War crimes on Switzerland’s doorstep","King Viktor Emanuel III (centre) and Benito Mussolini (right) in Rome in 1923.","Signing the ceasefire in 1943 in Cassibile, Sicily.","Sepp Dietrich (third from right) at the eastern front in 1943.","Partisan leader Filippo Beltrami, taken before 1944.","The Ossola Republic","Partisans who had fled from Ossola arrive in Spruga on 19 October 1944.",142523,"The guillotine maker","geschichte-texte.ch","https:\u002F\u002Fgeschichte-texte.ch\u002F","_blank","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Fmichael-van-orsouw\u002F",28467,"van-orsouw-autor","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F07\u002Fvan-orsouw-autor-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F07\u002Fvan-orsouw-autor-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F07\u002Fvan-orsouw-autor.jpg 600w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F07\u002Fvan-orsouw-autor-300x300.jpg","Michael van Orsouw","Michael van Orsouw has a PhD in history and is a performance poet and author. He regularly publishes historical books.","Following the French Revolution, the guillotine became a common execution method all over Europe.","The Lucerne Guillotine.","Model of the Lucerne Guillotine.","Technology","technology","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Feconomy\u002Ftechnology\u002F",24920,"Handsome men for ‘Frau Hauptmannin’",800,"Andrej Abplanalp",21881,148538,"Tourism","tourism","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Feconomy\u002Ftourism\u002F","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fculture\u002F",87425,"Alexander Rechsteiner",5780,156124,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Freligion-en\u002F",155689,155075,89986,42122,42116,"3","Ernst Ziegler",53170,"\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F","\u002F","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F",60962,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa.jpg","Wikimedia \u002F Swiss National Museum","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-450x338.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-750x563.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-900x675.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-600x450.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa.jpg 1600w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-300x225.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-320x320.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Frene-roca\u002F",121060,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca.jpg","ReneRoca","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca-160x160.jpg 160w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca-320x320.jpg 320w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca.jpg 400w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca-300x300.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca-320x320.jpg",37,"René Roca","René Roca has a PhD in history and is a secondary school teacher and Director of the Research Institute for Direct Democracy \u003Ca class=\"link decoration\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Ffidd.ch\u002F\"\u003Efidd.ch\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.","To mark the 700th anniversary of the Swiss Confederation in 1991, the US postal service and Swiss Post issued a joint postage stamp. The stamp depicts the Capitol in Washington and the federal parliament building, the Bundeshaus, in Bern.","The Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776, depicted in the painting by John Trumbull (1756-1843), 1819. The painting is 5.5 m wide and now hangs in the Capitol.","https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FFile:Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg ","HathiTrust","https:\u002F\u002Fhdl.handle.net\u002F2027\u002Fmdp.39015009215891?urlappend=%3Bseq=335 ","Propaganda postcard for the introduction of the proportional representation system, around 1910.","Switzerland’s political system","Library of Congress","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.loc.gov\u002Fitem\u002F2016648779\u002F ",{},{},"The Château des Bois, owned by the Turrettini family. 1877 lithograph.","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.bge-geneve.ch\u002Ficonographie\u002Foeuvre\u002Fvg-2515-04","Wikimédia \u002F MAH Geneva","https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FFile:Nicolas_de_largilliere,_ritratto_di_francesca_turrettini_come_diana,_1721.JPG","MAH Museum of Art and History, Geneva","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.mahmah.ch\u002Fcollection\u002Foeuvres\u002Fportrait-du-baron-auguste-maurice-de-donop-portant-lordre-royal-suedois-des","turrettini","la-facette-italienne-de-geneve",1732608000,"26.11.2024",1731926598,{},"war-crimes-ossola","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F07\u002Fwar-crimes-ossola\u002F",150543,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel.jpg","Casa della Resistenza Fondotoce \u002F Ester Bucchi","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-450x338.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-750x563.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-900x675.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-600x450.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel.jpg 1600w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-300x225.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkriegsverbrechen-im-ossola-titel-320x320.jpg","The Ossola region at Switzerland’s southern border experienced escalating violence between 1943 and 1945. Many war crimes were committed resulting in hundreds of casualties. A look back at what caused this horror.","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Fraphael-rues\u002F",61598,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FRaphaelRues.jpg","RaphaelRues","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FRaphaelRues-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FRaphaelRues-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FRaphaelRues-160x160.jpg 160w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FRaphaelRues-320x320.jpg 320w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FRaphaelRues.jpg 400w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FRaphaelRues-300x300.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FRaphaelRues-320x320.jpg","Raphael Rues is a historian and specialises in Ticino and the German-fascist presence in Northern Italy.","https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FFile:Enrico_De_Nicola,_il_re_e_Mussolini_all%27uscita_di_Montecitorio,_Roma_1923.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fit.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FFile:Il_generale_Castellano_firma_l%27armistizio_per_conto_di_Badoglio.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FFile:Narada_polowa_oficer%C3%B3w_Wehrmachtu_i_Waffen-SS_w_okolicach_Borys%C3%B3wki_(2-720).jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FFile:Filippo_Beltrami.jpg","Archive Tullio Bernasconi","Alessandro Pavolini (centre), founder of the Black Brigades, at an inspection in Milan in 1944.",1078,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FFile:Alessandro_Pavolini_e_Vincenzo_Costa_passano_in_rassegna_gli_squadristi_delle_Brigate_bere_della_Resega_estate_1944.jpg","Ossola","The Ossola region during the Second World War.","ossola","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fseries\u002Fossola\u002F",{},"the-guillotine-maker","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F04\u002Fthe-guillotine-maker\u002F",141579,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel-450x338.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel-750x563.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel-900x675.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel-600x450.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel.jpg 1600w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel-300x225.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fguillotine-titel-320x320.jpg","Johann Bücheler was a regular carpenter from Kloten. In 1836, he was commissioned by the canton of Zurich to build a guillotine. That proved the end of “normality” as he knew it.","https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FFile:Image_janinet_jean-francois_machine_proposee_a_lassemblee_nationale_pour_le_supplice_des_criminelles_par_m_353672_(cropped).jpg","The Oetenbach Prison in Zurich on a painting from 1900.","https:\u002F\u002Fde.m.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FDatei:Oetenbach_Strafanstalt_1900.jpg","During the Old Zürich War, 62 men were beheaded in Greifensee in 1444. Following the “Züriputsch”, the Zurich authorities revived this execution method.","e-rara","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.e-rara.ch\u002Fzuz\u002Fcontent\u002Ftitleinfo\u002F11550006",{},"women-as-mercenaries","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2019\u002F04\u002Fwomen-as-mercenaries\u002F",24369,1556,2500,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FSöldner_Titel-300x187.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FSöldner_Titel-768x478.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FSöldner_Titel-1024x637.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FSöldner_Titel-1500x934.jpg 1500w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FSöldner_Titel-300x187.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Fnathalie-buesser\u002F",24379,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F03\u002FBuesser-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F03\u002FBuesser-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F03\u002FBuesser.jpg 400w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F03\u002FBuesser-300x300.jpg",87,"Nathalie Büsser is a historian. She works as a research associate and lecturer in the Department of History at the University of Zurich.","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FBrief_Zurlauben_2.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FPfyffer_Frau.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FAnwerbung-Söldner.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002FStadt-Zug.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F04\u002Fgardes_suisses_2.jpg","Swiss mercenaries – think they were all men? Think again. People tend to forget that in family-run mercenary companies, it was the women who pulled the strings.","home","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F","Swiss National Museum History Blog","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F06\u002Feuropes-highest-open-air-lift\u002F","47.00173974619526","8.39631784146008","Europe’s highest open-air lift","The Bürgenstock: an idyllic ensemble with hotels, mountains, lake and lift. Postcard from 1928.","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F12\u002Fswitzerlands-first-motorway\u002F","Transportation","transportation","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Feconomy\u002Ftransportation\u002F","47.03375","8.29503","Switzerland’s first motorway","Switzerland's first motorway ran from Lucerne to Ennethorw. Illustration by Marco Heer.","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2017\u002F09\u002Fthe-ossola-republic\u002F","46.11545110852343","8.291156542791294","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F12\u002FAndrej.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2017\u002F09\u002FPartisanen_im_Kampf.jpg","Im Oktober 1944 kam es im Val Formazza nahe der Schweizer Grenze zu einem Kampf zwischen den sich zurückziehenden Partisanen und den deutschen und faschistischen Truppen. Einige Widerstandskämpfer konnten in die Schweiz flüchten.","09.09.2024",157206,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fcocoa-in-ghana-how-it-all-began\u002F","Colonialism","colonialism","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fpolitics\u002Fcolonialism\u002F","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2017\u002F03\u002Ficon-1.jpg","Pascale Meyer","Local workers and a supervisor dressed in ‘colonial whites’ at a cocoa drying area run by the Basel Mission Trading Company in Accra in what is now Ghana (1904\u002F1905).","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fthe-genesis-of-modern-mountain-rescue\u002F","46.615927946921076","8.195679213316776","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F12\u002FKatrin-Brunner.jpg","Katrin Brunner",500,"The birth of aerial mountain rescue","With their feet, the stranded passengers wrote the French word “fini” (meaning “finish”) in the snow to stop the dangerous air drops of supplies.","19.11.2024",156563,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fthe-american-revolutionary-war-through-the-eyes-of-a-swiss-immigrant\u002F","John Zubly merged religion with politics and compared parts of Swiss history to the American resistance against Great Britain. Illustration by Marco Heer","Subscribe to the blog","We will inform you about new articles every two weeks.","Enter your email address","beige","The execution of Ernst S.","9.113310","47.423985","Visiting the Rigi used to make people ill, why?","8.485467561045732","47.056767897967035","Escape to Switzerland",96,"Emperor Haile Selassie, God of the Rastafarians","7.509459851780047","47.04796350886161",102,153,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F10\u002Fvisiting-the-rigi-used-to-make-people-ill-why\u002F","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F01\u002Femperor-haile-selassie-god-of-the-rastafarians\u002F","Exhibitions","exhibitions","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fexhibitions\u002F","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2018\u002F04\u002Fmurielle-schlup.jpg",521,"Emperor Haile Selassie (1892-1975), who was crowned ‘King of Kings’ in Addis Ababa in 1930, was believed in Ethiopia to have been chosen by God. The Rastafarians in Jamaica even ‘recognised’ him as their Messiah and God. A look at the dual ‘careers’ of a 20th-century figure who was as remarkable as he was controversial.","Haile Selassie I in his limousine during his state visit to Bern on 25 November 1954. His headdress is decorated with a lion’s mane.",149095,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F06\u002Fsexuality-in-the-middle-ages\u002F","Middle Ages","middle-ages","Detail from The Garden of Earthly Delights by Hieronymus Bosch, 1490-1500.","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F10\u002Fthe-execution-of-ernst-s\u002F",334,"Ernst Schrämli in uniform and in civilian attire at his arrest in January 1942.","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2018\u002F04\u002FS.jpg","article-not-found","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Farticle-not-found\u002F","Article not found","1","2",92,"Search"));</script><script src="/_nuxt/3fbaa83.js" defer></script><script src="/_nuxt/7825846.js" defer></script><script src="/_nuxt/6b9286a.js" defer></script><script src="/_nuxt/b94f6da.js" defer></script><script src="/_nuxt/1cd886d.js" defer></script><script src="/_nuxt/a3fb2e5.js" defer></script><script data-n-head="ssr" src="https://api3.geo.admin.ch/loader.js?version=4.4.2" data-body="true"></script> </body> </html>