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Board of Education, 1954 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brown_v._Board_of_Education,_1954-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emmett_Till's_murder,_1955" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emmett_Till's_murder,_1955"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Emmett Till's murder, 1955 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emmett_Till's_murder,_1955-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rosa_Parks_and_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott,_1955–1956" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rosa_Parks_and_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott,_1955–1956"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Rosa Parks and the Montgomery bus boycott, 1955–1956 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rosa_Parks_and_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott,_1955–1956-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Little_Rock_Nine,_1957" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Little_Rock_Nine,_1957"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Little Rock Nine, 1957 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Little_Rock_Nine,_1957-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Method_of_nonviolence_and_nonviolence_training" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Method_of_nonviolence_and_nonviolence_training"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Method of nonviolence and nonviolence training </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Method_of_nonviolence_and_nonviolence_training-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sit-ins,_1958–1960" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sit-ins,_1958–1960"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Sit-ins, 1958–1960 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sit-ins,_1958–1960-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freedom_Rides,_1961" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedom_Rides,_1961"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Freedom Rides, 1961 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedom_Rides,_1961-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voter_registration_organizing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voter_registration_organizing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Voter registration organizing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voter_registration_organizing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Integration_of_Mississippi_universities,_1956–1965" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Integration_of_Mississippi_universities,_1956–1965"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Integration of Mississippi universities, 1956–1965 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Integration_of_Mississippi_universities,_1956–1965-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Albany_Movement,_1961–1962" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Albany_Movement,_1961–1962"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10 Albany Movement, 1961–1962 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Albany_Movement,_1961–1962-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birmingham_campaign,_1963" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birmingham_campaign,_1963"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.11 Birmingham campaign, 1963 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birmingham_campaign,_1963-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Rising_tide_of_discontent"_and_Kennedy's_response,_1963" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Rising_tide_of_discontent"_and_Kennedy's_response,_1963"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.12 "Rising tide of discontent" and Kennedy's response, 1963 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Rising_tide_of_discontent"_and_Kennedy's_response,_1963-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-March_on_Washington,_1963" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#March_on_Washington,_1963"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.13 March on Washington, 1963 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-March_on_Washington,_1963-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-St._Augustine,_Florida,_1963–1964" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#St._Augustine,_Florida,_1963–1964"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.14 St. Augustine, Florida, 1963–1964 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-St._Augustine,_Florida,_1963–1964-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chester_school_protests,_Spring_1964" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chester_school_protests,_Spring_1964"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.15 Chester school protests, Spring 1964 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chester_school_protests,_Spring_1964-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freedom_Summer,_1964" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedom_Summer,_1964"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.16 Freedom Summer, 1964 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedom_Summer,_1964-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.17 Civil Rights Act of 1964 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party,_1964" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party,_1964"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.18 Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, 1964 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party,_1964-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selma_Voting_Rights_Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selma_Voting_Rights_Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.19 Selma Voting Rights Movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selma_Voting_Rights_Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.20 Voting Rights Act of 1965 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fair_housing_movements,_1966–1968" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fair_housing_movements,_1966–1968"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.21 Fair housing movements, 1966–1968 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fair_housing_movements,_1966–1968-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nationwide_riots_of_1967" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nationwide_riots_of_1967"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.22 Nationwide riots of 1967 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nationwide_riots_of_1967-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memphis,_King_assassination,_and_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memphis,_King_assassination,_and_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.23 Memphis, King assassination, and Civil Rights Act of 1968 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memphis,_King_assassination,_and_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.23.1 Civil Rights Act of 1968 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gates_v._Collier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gates_v._Collier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.24 Gates v. Collier </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gates_v._Collier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.25 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Characteristics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Characteristics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-African-American_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African-American_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 African-American women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African-American_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sexist_discrimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexist_discrimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Sexist discrimination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexist_discrimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avoiding_the_"Communist"_label" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avoiding_the_"Communist"_label"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Avoiding the "Communist" label </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avoiding_the_"Communist"_label-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grassroots_leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grassroots_leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Grassroots leadership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grassroots_leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tactics_and_nonviolence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tactics_and_nonviolence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Tactics and nonviolence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tactics_and_nonviolence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_support_for_the_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_support_for_the_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Jewish support for the movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_support_for_the_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Political responses </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_responses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Political responses subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Political_responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Truman_administration:_1945–1953" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Truman_administration:_1945–1953"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Truman administration: 1945–1953 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Truman_administration:_1945–1953-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eisenhower_administration:_1953–1961" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eisenhower_administration:_1953–1961"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Eisenhower administration: 1953–1961 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eisenhower_administration:_1953–1961-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kennedy_administration:_1961–1963" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kennedy_administration:_1961–1963"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Kennedy administration: 1961–1963 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kennedy_administration:_1961–1963-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Johnson_administration:_1963–1969" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Johnson_administration:_1963–1969"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Johnson administration: 1963–1969 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Johnson_administration:_1963–1969-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_political_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_political_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Foreign political reactions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_political_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.1 China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Popular_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popular_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Popular reactions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Popular_reactions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Popular reactions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Popular_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Malcolm_X's_relationship_with_the_movement,_1964–1965" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malcolm_X's_relationship_with_the_movement,_1964–1965"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Malcolm X's relationship with the movement, 1964–1965 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malcolm_X's_relationship_with_the_movement,_1964–1965-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Jews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Jews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 American Jews </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Jews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Public_profile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_profile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Public profile </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_profile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black_segregationists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_segregationists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Black segregationists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_segregationists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Black_Power"_militants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Black_Power"_militants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 "Black Power" militants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Black_Power"_militants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Native_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Native Americans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Native_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Northern Ireland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Soviet Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-White_moderates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#White_moderates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 White moderates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-White_moderates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-White_segregationists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#White_segregationists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.9 White segregationists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-White_segregationists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 In popular culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Activist_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Activist_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Activist organizations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Activist_organizations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Activist organizations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Activist_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-National/regional_civil_rights_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National/regional_civil_rights_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 National/regional civil rights organizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National/regional_civil_rights_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_economic_empowerment_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_economic_empowerment_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 National economic empowerment organizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_economic_empowerment_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_civil_rights_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_civil_rights_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Local civil rights organizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_civil_rights_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Individual_activists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individual_activists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Individual activists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individual_activists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle See also subsection </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_preservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_preservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 History preservation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_preservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post–civil_rights_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post–civil_rights_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Post–civil rights movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post–civil_rights_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Bibliography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Bibliography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography_and_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_and_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Historiography and memory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_and_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autobiographies_and_memoirs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autobiographies_and_memoirs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Autobiographies and memoirs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autobiographies_and_memoirs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Civil rights movement</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 57 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-57" aria-hidden="true" > 57 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حركة الحقوق المدنية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حركة الحقوق المدنية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movimientu_polos_derechos_civiles_n%27Estaos_Xun%C3%ADos" title="Movimientu polos derechos civiles n'Estaos Xuníos – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Movimientu polos derechos civiles n'Estaos Xuníos" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%85_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Рух за правы афраамерыканцаў – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рух за правы афраамерыканцаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moviment_afroameric%C3%A0_pels_drets_civils" title="Moviment afroamericà pels drets civils – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Moviment afroamericà pels drets civils" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroamerick%C3%A9_hnut%C3%AD_za_ob%C4%8Dansk%C3%A1_pr%C3%A1va" title="Afroamerické hnutí za občanská práva – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Afroamerické hnutí za občanská práva" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudiad_Hawliau_Sifil_America" title="Mudiad Hawliau Sifil America – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Mudiad Hawliau Sifil America" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borgerrettighedsbev%C3%A6gelsen" title="Borgerrettighedsbevægelsen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Borgerrettighedsbevægelsen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCrgerrechtsbewegung" title="Bürgerrechtsbewegung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bürgerrechtsbewegung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%AC%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Κίνημα δικαιωμάτων των πολιτών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κίνημα δικαιωμάτων των πολιτών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movimiento_por_los_derechos_civiles_en_Estados_Unidos" title="Movimiento por los derechos civiles en Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Movimiento por los derechos civiles en Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikusona_Civilrajta_Movado" title="Afrikusona Civilrajta Movado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Afrikusona Civilrajta Movado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-amerikarren_eskubide_zibilen_aldeko_mugimendua_(1955-1968)" title="Afro-amerikarren eskubide zibilen aldeko mugimendua (1955-1968) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Afro-amerikarren eskubide zibilen aldeko mugimendua (1955-1968)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B4_%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7_(%DB%B6%DB%B8%E2%80%93%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B5%DB%B5)" title="جنبش حقوق مدنی سیاه‌پوستان آمریکا (۶۸–۱۹۵۵) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنبش حقوق مدنی سیاه‌پوستان آمریکا (۶۸–۱۹۵۵)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouvement_am%C3%A9ricain_des_droits_civiques" title="Mouvement américain des droits civiques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mouvement américain des droits civiques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movemento_polos_dereitos_civ%C3%ADs_nos_Estados_Unidos" title="Movemento polos dereitos civís nos Estados Unidos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Movemento polos dereitos civís nos Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%ED%9D%91%EC%9D%B8_%EB%AF%BC%EA%B6%8C_%EC%9A%B4%EB%8F%99" title="미국의 흑인 민권 운동 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국의 흑인 민권 운동" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%98ungiyar_Kare_Ha%C6%99%C6%99in_%C6%8Aan_Adam" title="Ƙungiyar Kare Haƙƙin Ɗan Adam – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Ƙungiyar Kare Haƙƙin Ɗan Adam" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D6%87%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A9%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D6%84%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B5%D6%84%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Սևամորթների իրավունքների համար պայքար – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սևամորթների իրավունքների համար պայքար" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8_(1955%E2%80%931968)" title="अफ्रीकी-अमेरिकी नागरिक अधिकार आंदोलन (1955–1968) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अफ्रीकी-अमेरिकी नागरिक अधिकार आंदोलन (1955–1968)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokret_za_ljudska_prava_u_SAD-u" title="Pokret za ljudska prava u SAD-u – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pokret za ljudska prava u SAD-u" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikan-usana_Movemento_por_Civila_Yuri" title="Afrikan-usana Movemento por Civila Yuri – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Afrikan-usana Movemento por Civila Yuri" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerakan_Hak-Hak_Sipil_Afrika-Amerika_(1955-1968)" title="Gerakan Hak-Hak Sipil Afrika-Amerika (1955-1968) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gerakan Hak-Hak Sipil Afrika-Amerika (1955-1968)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannr%C3%A9ttindabar%C3%A1tta_bl%C3%B6kkumanna_%C3%AD_Bandar%C3%ADkjunum" title="Mannréttindabarátta blökkumanna í Bandaríkjunum – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Mannréttindabarátta blökkumanna í Bandaríkjunum" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movimento_per_i_diritti_civili_degli_afroamericani" title="Movimento per i diritti civili degli afroamericani – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Movimento per i diritti civili degli afroamericani" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95-%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%9C%D7%96%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%97" title="התנועה האפרו-אמריקאית לזכויות האזרח – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התנועה האפרו-אמריקאית לזכויות האזרח" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D-%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3_%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%B3%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B3%E0%B2%BF_(%E0%B3%A7%E0%B3%AF%E0%B3%AB%E0%B3%AB%E2%80%93%E0%B3%A7%E0%B3%AF%E0%B3%AC%E0%B3%AE)" title="ಆಫ್ರಿಕನ್-ಅಮೆರಿಕನ್ ನಾಗರಿಕ ಹಕ್ಕುಗಳ ಚಳವಳಿ (೧೯೫೫–೧೯೬೮) – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆಫ್ರಿಕನ್-ಅಮೆರಿಕನ್ ನಾಗರಿಕ ಹಕ್ಕುಗಳ ಚಳವಳಿ (೧೯೫೫–೧೯೬೮)" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D2%9B%D2%B1%D2%9B%D1%8B%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80_%D2%9B%D0%BE%D0%B7%D2%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Азаматтық құқықтар қозғалысы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Азаматтық құқықтар қозғалысы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouvman_di_s%C3%A9_drwa_sivik" title="Mouvman di sé drwa sivik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Mouvman di sé drwa sivik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tevgera_maf%C3%AAn_siv%C3%AEl" title="Tevgera mafên sivîl – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Tevgera mafên sivîl" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motus_iurum_civilium" title="Motus iurum civilium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Motus iurum civilium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroamerik%C4%81%C5%86u_pilsonisko_ties%C4%ABbu_kust%C4%ABba" title="Afroamerikāņu pilsonisko tiesību kustība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Afroamerikāņu pilsonisko tiesību kustība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroamerikai_polg%C3%A1rjogi_mozgalom" title="Afroamerikai polgárjogi mozgalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Afroamerikai polgárjogi mozgalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerakan_hak_awam_Amerika_Syarikat" title="Gerakan hak awam Amerika Syarikat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Gerakan hak awam Amerika Syarikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Amerikaanse_burgerrechtenbeweging" title="Afro-Amerikaanse burgerrechtenbeweging – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Afro-Amerikaanse burgerrechtenbeweging" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%95%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E7%B3%BB%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E4%BA%BA%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%A8%A9%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95" title="アフリカ系アメリカ人公民権運動 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アフリカ系アメリカ人公民権運動" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borgerrettsbevegelsen_i_USA_(1955%E2%80%931968)" title="Borgerrettsbevegelsen i USA (1955–1968) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Borgerrettsbevegelsen i USA (1955–1968)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borgarrettsr%C3%B8rsla_i_USA" title="Borgarrettsrørsla i USA – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Borgarrettsrørsla i USA" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movement_afroamerican_dels_dreches_civics" title="Movement afroamerican dels dreches civics – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Movement afroamerican dels dreches civics" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%80-%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%85%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%A8_(1954%E2%80%9368)" title="ਅਫ਼ਰੀਕੀ-ਅਮਰੀਕੀ ਨਾਗਰਿਕ ਅਧਿਕਾਰ ਅੰਦੋਲਨ (1954–68) – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਫ਼ਰੀਕੀ-ਅਮਰੀਕੀ ਨਾਗਰਿਕ ਅਧਿਕਾਰ ਅੰਦੋਲਨ (1954–68)" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%8C_%D9%86%DA%98%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%B4%DB%81%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9_(1955%E2%80%931968)" title="افریقی نژاد امریکی شہری حقوق دی تحریک (1955–1968) – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="افریقی نژاد امریکی شہری حقوق دی تحریک (1955–1968)" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%AE%D9%88%DA%81%DA%9A%D8%AA" title="د مدني حقونو خوځښت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د مدني حقونو خوځښت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibl_Rait_Muuvment" title="Sibl Rait Muuvment – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Sibl Rait Muuvment" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruch_praw_obywatelskich" title="Ruch praw obywatelskich – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ruch praw obywatelskich" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movimento_dos_direitos_civis_dos_negros_nos_Estados_Unidos" title="Movimento dos direitos civis dos negros nos Estados Unidos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Movimento dos direitos civis dos negros nos Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Движение за гражданские права чернокожих в США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Движение за гражданские права чернокожих в США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" title="Civil Rights Movement – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Civil Rights Movement" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokret_za_gra%C4%91anska_prava" title="Pokret za građanska prava – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Pokret za građanska prava" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokret_za_gra%C4%91anska_prava_(SAD)" title="Pokret za građanska prava (SAD) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pokret za građanska prava (SAD)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medborgarr%C3%A4ttsr%C3%B6relsen_i_USA_1955%E2%80%931968" title="Medborgarrättsrörelsen i USA 1955–1968 – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Medborgarrättsrörelsen i USA 1955–1968" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilusang_pangkarapatang_sibil" title="Kilusang pangkarapatang sibil – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kilusang pangkarapatang sibil" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="குடிசார் உரிமைகள் இயக்கம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="குடிசார் உரிமைகள் இயக்கம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroamerikan_sivil_haklar_hareketi" title="Afroamerikan sivil haklar hareketi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Afroamerikan sivil haklar hareketi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%85_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B2_%D1%83_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Рух за громадянські права афроамериканців у США – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Рух за громадянські права афроамериканців у США" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%8C_%D9%86%DA%98%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%B4%DB%81%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82_%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9_(1955%E2%80%931968)" title="افریقی نژاد امریکی شہری حقوق کی تحریک (1955–1968) – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="افریقی نژاد امریکی شہری حقوق کی تحریک (1955–1968)" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phong_tr%C3%A0o_d%C3%A2n_quy%E1%BB%81n_Hoa_K%E1%BB%B3" title="Phong trào dân quyền Hoa Kỳ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phong trào dân quyền Hoa Kỳ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cr%C3%ACnk%C3%A1nk%C3%A1n_%C3%A0w%E1%BB%8Dn_%E1%BA%B8%CC%80t%E1%BB%8D%CC%81_Ar%C3%A1%C3%A0l%C3%BA_%E1%BB%8Dm%E1%BB%8D_%C3%81fr%C3%ADk%C3%A0_Am%E1%BA%B9%CC%81r%C3%ADk%C3%A0_(1955%E2%80%931968)" title="Ìrìnkánkán àwọn Ẹ̀tọ́ Aráàlú ọmọ Áfríkà Amẹ́ríkà (1955–1968) – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìrìnkánkán àwọn Ẹ̀tọ́ Aráàlú ọmọ Áfríkà Amẹ́ríkà (1955–1968)" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E8%A3%94%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E6%AC%8A%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95" title="非裔美國人民權運動 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="非裔美國人民權運動" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> 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article is about the 1954–1968 movement in the United States. For earlier movements in the United States and others elsewhere, see <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Civil rights movement (disambiguation)">Civil rights movement (disambiguation)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movements" title="Civil rights movements">Civil rights movements</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Very_long plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-very_long" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_size" title="Wikipedia:Article size">too long</a> to read and navigate comfortably. When this tag was added, its <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:SIZERULE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:SIZERULE">readable prose size</a> was 21,000 words. Consider <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">splitting</a> content into sub-articles, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">condensing</a> it, or adding <a href="/wiki/Help:Section#Subsections" title="Help:Section">subheadings</a>. Please discuss this issue on the article's <a href="/wiki/Talk:Civil_rights_movement" title="Talk:Civil rights movement">talk page</a>. (August 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing: 2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Civil rights movement</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align: center; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; line-height: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington,_D.C._(Leaders_marching_from_the_Washington_Monument_to_the_Lincoln_Memorial)_-_NARA_-_542010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_marching_from_the_Washington_Monument_to_the_Lincoln_Memorial%29_-_NARA_-_542010.jpg/300px-Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_marching_from_the_Washington_Monument_to_the_Lincoln_Memorial%29_-_NARA_-_542010.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_marching_from_the_Washington_Monument_to_the_Lincoln_Memorial%29_-_NARA_-_542010.jpg/450px-Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_marching_from_the_Washington_Monument_to_the_Lincoln_Memorial%29_-_NARA_-_542010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_marching_from_the_Washington_Monument_to_the_Lincoln_Memorial%29_-_NARA_-_542010.jpg/600px-Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_marching_from_the_Washington_Monument_to_the_Lincoln_Memorial%29_-_NARA_-_542010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1968" data-file-height="1310" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">The 1963 <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a> participants and leaders marching from the <a href="/wiki/Washington_Monument" title="Washington Monument">Washington Monument</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Memorial" title="Lincoln Memorial">Lincoln Memorial</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">May 17, 1954 – April 11, 1968<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Location</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="display:inline;" class="location">United States</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Caused by</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">Racism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era">disenfranchisement</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">socioeconomic inequality</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Methods</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">nonviolent resistance</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">civil disobedience</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Resulted in</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li>Rulings by federal judiciary: <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a>" doctrine overturned by <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> (1954)</li> <li>Bus segregation ruled unconstitutional by <a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation laws</a> ruled unconstitutional by <a href="/wiki/McLaughlin_v._Florida" title="McLaughlin v. Florida">McLaughlin v. Florida</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interracial_marriage_in_the_United_States" title="Interracial marriage in the United States">Interracial marriages</a> legalized by <a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a> (1967)</li></ul></li> <li>Passage of federal laws: <div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fair_Housing_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Housing Act">Fair Housing Act</a>)</li></ul></div></li> <li>Ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24th Amendment to the US Constitution</a> (1964)</li> <li>Formation of federal agencies: <div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Civil_Rights_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division">US Department of Justice Civil Rights Division</a> (1957)</li><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Commission_on_Civil_Rights" title="United States Commission on Civil Rights">US Commission on Civil Rights</a> (1957)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a> (1965)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Fair_Housing_and_Equal_Opportunity" title="Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity">Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity</a> (1968)</li></ul></div></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_rights_movement" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;float:right; clear:right; margin:0.2em 0 0.2em 0.5em; width:300px; display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color: #CEE0F2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Civil_rights_movement" title="Template:Campaignbox Civil rights movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Civil_rights_movement" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Civil_rights_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil rights movement</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Prelude <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="Murder of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murder of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul> 1954–1959 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dockum_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Dockum Drug Store sit-in">Dockum Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul> 1960–1963 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tent_City_(Tennessee)" title="Tent City (Tennessee)">Tent City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_school_desegregation_crisis" title="New Orleans school desegregation crisis">New Orleans school desegregation crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Ole Miss riot of 1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Monday_(Danville)" title="Bloody Monday (Danville)">Bloody Monday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leesburg_Stockade" title="Leesburg Stockade">Leesburg Stockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protest" class="mw-redirect" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protest">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Christmas_boycott" title="Black Christmas boycott">Black Christmas boycott</a></li></ul> 1964–1968 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpenters_for_Christmas" title="Carpenters for Christmas">Carpenters for Christmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangeburg_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Orangeburg massacre">Orangeburg massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> The civil rights movement<a href="#cite_note-2">[b]</a> was a social movement and campaign in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> from 1954 to 1968 that aimed to abolish legalized <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial discrimination in the United States">discrimination</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement in the United States">disenfranchisement</a> in the country, which was most commonly employed against <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>. The movement had origins in the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> during the late 19th century, and had modern roots in the 1940s.<a href="#cite_note-3">[1]</a> After years of direct actions and grassroots protests, the movement made its largest <a href="/wiki/Legislative" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative">legislative</a> and judicial gains during the 1960s. The movement's major <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">nonviolent resistance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">civil disobedience</a> campaigns eventually secured new protections in <a href="/wiki/Federal_law" title="Federal law">federal law</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> of all Americans. After the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolition of slavery</a> in the southern states in 1865, the three <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a> to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> had granted emancipation and constitutional rights of citizenship to all African Americans, the majority of whom had recently been enslaved. For a short period of time, African-American men voted and held political office, but as time went on Blacks in the South were increasingly deprived of civil rights, often under racist <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a>, and were subjected to <a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrimination based on skin color">discrimination</a> and sustained violence by <a href="/wiki/White_supremacists" class="mw-redirect" title="White supremacists">White supremacists</a>. African Americans who moved to the North to enhance their prospects in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> also faced barriers in employment and housing. Over the following century, various efforts were made by African Americans to secure their legal and civil rights, such as the civil rights movements of <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">1865–1896</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">1896–1954</a>. The movement was characterized by <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonviolent">nonviolent</a> mass protests and <a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">civil disobedience</a> following highly publicized events such as the lynching of <a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a> in 1955. These included <a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">boycotts</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">sit-ins</a>" in <a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville</a>, a series of protests during the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham campaign</a>, and a march from <a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Atlantic-4">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[3]</a> The movement was led by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, and press coverage of police violence against protesters with fire hoses and dogs during the Birmingham campaign increased its public support. Discrimination was often supported by courts, including by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> in its 1896 decision <a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a>, which upheld the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>. At the culmination of a legal strategy pursued by African Americans, in 1954 the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> struck down the underpinnings of laws that allowed racial discrimination as unconstitutional in <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a> made further pro-civil rights rulings in cases such as <a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a> (1956) and <a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a> (1967), banning segregation <a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">in public schools</a> and public transport, and striking down <a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">all state laws against interracial marriage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[6]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a> in 1963, moderates in the movement worked with the <a href="/wiki/Congress_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Congress (United States)">United States Congress</a> to achieve the passage of several significant pieces of federal legislation that authorized oversight and enforcement of civil rights laws. The <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a><a href="#cite_note-cra64-9">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a> banned all discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin, including in schools, employment, and <a href="/wiki/Public_accommodations" class="mw-redirect" title="Public accommodations">public accommodations</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a> restored and protected voting rights for minorities and authorized oversight of registration and elections in areas with historic under-representation of minority voters. The <a href="/wiki/Fair_Housing_Act_of_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Housing Act of 1968">Fair Housing Act of 1968</a> forbade property owners from discriminating in the rental or sale of housing. African Americans re-entered politics in the South, and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Power_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power movement">Black Power movement</a> emerged, which criticized leaders of the existing movement for their cooperative attitude and adherence to <a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">legalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">nonviolence</a>. Black Power leaders, including within the <a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a>, demanded not only legal equality, but also economic self-sufficiency for the community. Support for Black Power came from African Americans who had seen little material improvement since the civil rights movement's peak in the mid-1960s, and still faced discrimination in jobs, housing, education and politics. A wave of riots and protests in Black communities in the 1960s, including in <a href="/wiki/Watts_riots" title="Watts riots">Los Angeles in 1965</a>, in <a href="/wiki/1967_Newark_riots" title="1967 Newark riots">Newark in 1967</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/1968_Chicago_riots" title="1968 Chicago riots">Chicago in 1968</a> following <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King's assassination</a> lessened support from the White middle class. By the early 21st century, though "<a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a>" programs had expanded opportunities for Black and other minorities, Black income levels and life expectancy remained lower than that of Whites. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African-American history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline of African-American history</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Civil_War_and_Reconstruction_era">American Civil War and Reconstruction era</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:13th_Amendment_Pg1of1_AC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/13th_Amendment_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/190px-13th_Amendment_Pg1of1_AC.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/13th_Amendment_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/285px-13th_Amendment_Pg1of1_AC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/13th_Amendment_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/380px-13th_Amendment_Pg1of1_AC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2672" data-file-height="3414" /></a><figcaption>13th Amendment in the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives</a>, bearing the signature of Abraham Lincoln</figcaption></figure> Before the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves">eight serving presidents had owned slaves</a>, almost four million black people remained <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">enslaved in the South</a>, generally only white men with property could vote, and the <a href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1790" title="Naturalization Act of 1790">Naturalization Act of 1790</a> limited U.S. citizenship to <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">whites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[11]</a> Following the Civil War, three constitutional amendments were passed, including the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment</a> (1865) that ended slavery; the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a> (1869) that gave black people citizenship, adding their total for <a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">Congressional apportionment</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15th Amendment</a> (1870) that gave black males the right to vote (only males could vote in the U.S. at the time).<a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a> From 1865 to 1877, the United States underwent a turbulent <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> during which the federal government tried to establish free labor and the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> of freedmen in the South after the end of slavery. Many whites resisted the social changes, leading to the formation of insurgent movements such as the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> (KKK), whose members attacked black and white <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a> in order to maintain <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>. In 1871, President <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>, the U.S. Army, and U.S. Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Amos_T._Akerman" title="Amos T. Akerman">Amos T. Akerman</a>, initiated a campaign to repress the KKK under the <a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a> Some states were reluctant to enforce the federal measures of the act. In addition, by the early 1870s, other white supremacist and insurgent <a href="/wiki/Paramilitary" title="Paramilitary">paramilitary</a> groups arose that violently opposed African-American legal equality and suffrage, intimidating and suppressing black voters, and assassinating Republican officeholders.<a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-States_afraid_to_take_action-17">[15]</a> However, if the states failed to implement the acts, the laws allowed the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Federal_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Federal Government">Federal Government</a> to get involved.<a href="#cite_note-States_afraid_to_take_action-17">[15]</a> Many Republican governors were afraid of sending black militia troops to fight the Klan for fear of war.<a href="#cite_note-States_afraid_to_take_action-17">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disenfranchisement_after_Reconstruction">Disenfranchisement after Reconstruction</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era">Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></div> After the <a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">disputed election</a> of 1876, which resulted in the end of Reconstruction and the withdrawal of federal troops, whites in the South regained political control of the region's state legislatures. They continued to intimidate and violently attack blacks before and during elections to suppress their voting, but the last African Americans were elected to Congress from the South before disenfranchisement of blacks by states throughout the region, as described below. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lynching-of-will-james.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Lynching-of-will-james.jpg/220px-Lynching-of-will-james.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Lynching-of-will-james.jpg/330px-Lynching-of-will-james.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Lynching-of-will-james.jpg/440px-Lynching-of-will-james.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1713" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>The mob-style <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynching</a> of <a href="/wiki/William_%22Froggie%22_James" title="William "Froggie" James">Will James</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cairo,_Illinois" title="Cairo, Illinois">Cairo, Illinois</a>, 1909</figcaption></figure> From 1890 to 1908, southern states passed new constitutions and laws to <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era">disenfranchise</a> African Americans and many <a href="/wiki/Poor_White" title="Poor White">Poor Whites</a> by creating barriers to voter registration; voting rolls were dramatically reduced as blacks and poor whites were forced out of electoral politics. After the landmark <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a> case of <a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Allwright" title="Smith v. Allwright">Smith v. Allwright</a> (1944), which prohibited <a href="/wiki/White_primaries" class="mw-redirect" title="White primaries">white primaries</a>, progress was made in increasing black political participation in the Rim South and <a href="/wiki/Acadiana" title="Acadiana">Acadiana</a> – although almost entirely in urban areas<a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a> and a few rural localities where most blacks worked outside plantations.<a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a> The status quo ante of excluding African Americans from the political system lasted in the remainder of the South, especially <a href="/wiki/North_Louisiana" title="North Louisiana">North Louisiana</a>, Mississippi and Alabama, until national civil rights legislation was passed in the mid-1960s to provide federal enforcement of constitutional voting rights. For more than sixty years, blacks in the South were essentially excluded from politics, unable to elect anyone to represent their interests in Congress or local government.<a href="#cite_note-States_afraid_to_take_action-17">[15]</a> Since they could not vote, they could not serve on local juries. During this period, the white-dominated <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> maintained political control of the South. With whites controlling all the seats representing the total population of the South, they had a powerful <a href="/wiki/Voting_bloc" title="Voting bloc">voting bloc</a> in Congress. The <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a>—the "party of Lincoln" and the party to which most blacks had belonged—shrank to insignificance except in remote <a href="/wiki/Southern_Unionist" title="Southern Unionist">Unionist</a> areas of <a href="/wiki/Appalachia" title="Appalachia">Appalachia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ozarks" title="Ozarks">Ozarks</a> as black voter registration was suppressed. The Republican <a href="/wiki/Lily-white_movement" title="Lily-white movement">lily-white movement</a> also gained strength by excluding blacks. Until 1965, the "<a href="/wiki/Solid_South" title="Solid South">Solid South</a>" was a one-party system under the white Democrats. Excepting the previously noted historic Unionist strongholds the Democratic Party nomination was tantamount to election for state and local office.<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a> In 1901, President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> invited <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee Institute">Tuskegee Institute</a>, to dine at the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a>, making him the first African American to attend an official dinner there. "The invitation was roundly criticized by southern politicians and newspapers."<a href="#cite_note-finkelman-21">[19]</a> Washington persuaded the president to appoint more blacks to federal posts in the South and to try to boost African-American leadership in state Republican organizations. However, these actions were resisted by both white Democrats and white Republicans as an unwanted federal intrusion into state politics.<a href="#cite_note-finkelman-21">[19]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg/220px-Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg/330px-Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg/440px-Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="825" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a> victim Will Brown, who was mutilated and burned during the <a href="/wiki/Omaha_race_riot_of_1919" title="Omaha race riot of 1919">Omaha, Nebraska race riot of 1919</a>. Postcards and photographs of lynchings were popular souvenirs in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a></figcaption></figure> During the same time as African Americans were being disenfranchised, white southerners imposed <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a> by law. Violence against blacks increased, with numerous <a href="/wiki/Lynchings" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynchings">lynchings</a> through the turn of the century. The system of <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> state-sanctioned racial discrimination and oppression that emerged from the post-Reconstruction South became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow">Jim Crow</a>" system. The United States Supreme Court made up almost entirely of Northerners, upheld the constitutionality of those state laws that required racial segregation in public facilities in its 1896 decision <a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a>, legitimizing them through the "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a> Segregation, which began with slavery, continued with Jim Crow laws, with signs used to show blacks where they could legally walk, talk, drink, rest, or eat.<a href="#cite_note-Leon_Litwack_2004-24">[22]</a> For those places that were racially mixed, non-whites had to wait until all white customers were served first.<a href="#cite_note-Leon_Litwack_2004-24">[22]</a> Elected in 1912, President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> gave in to demands by Southern members of his cabinet and ordered segregation of workplaces throughout the federal government.<a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> The early 20th century is a period often referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">nadir of American race relations</a>", when the number of lynchings was highest. While tensions and <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> violations were most intense in the South, social discrimination affected African Americans in other regions as well.<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a> At the national level, the Southern bloc controlled important committees in Congress, defeated passage of federal laws against lynching, and exercised considerable power beyond the number of whites in the South. Characteristics of the post-Reconstruction period: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a>. By law, public facilities and government services such as education were divided into separate "white" and "colored" domains.<a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a> Characteristically, those for colored were underfunded and of inferior quality.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era">Disenfranchisement</a>. When white Democrats regained power, they passed laws that made voter registration more restrictive, essentially forcing black voters off the voting rolls. The number of African-American voters dropped dramatically, and they were no longer able to elect representatives. From 1890 to 1908, Southern states of the former Confederacy created constitutions with provisions that disfranchised tens of thousands of African Americans, and U.S. states such as Alabama disenfranchised poor whites as well.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">Exploitation</a>. Increased economic oppression of blacks through the <a href="/wiki/Convict_lease" class="mw-redirect" title="Convict lease">convict lease</a> system, <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" title="Hispanic and Latino Americans">Latinos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Asian_Pacific_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Asian Pacific American">Asians</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] denial of economic opportunities, and widespread employment discrimination.</li> <li>Violence. Individual, police, paramilitary, organizational, and <a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">mob racial violence against blacks</a> (and Latinos in the <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwest</a>, and Asians in the <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a>).</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KKK_night_rally_in_Chicago_c1920_cph.3b12355.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/KKK_night_rally_in_Chicago_c1920_cph.3b12355.jpg/220px-KKK_night_rally_in_Chicago_c1920_cph.3b12355.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/KKK_night_rally_in_Chicago_c1920_cph.3b12355.jpg/330px-KKK_night_rally_in_Chicago_c1920_cph.3b12355.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/KKK_night_rally_in_Chicago_c1920_cph.3b12355.jpg/440px-KKK_night_rally_in_Chicago_c1920_cph.3b12355.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1450" data-file-height="1070" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">KKK</a> night rally near <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, in the 1920s</figcaption></figure> African Americans and other ethnic minorities rejected this regime. They resisted it in numerous ways and sought better opportunities through lawsuits, new organizations, political redress, and labor organizing (see the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a>). The <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP) was founded in 1909. It fought to end race discrimination through <a href="/wiki/Litigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Litigation">litigation</a>, education, and <a href="/wiki/Lobbying" title="Lobbying">lobbying</a> efforts. Its crowning achievement was its legal victory in the Supreme Court decision <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> (1954), when the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a> ruled that segregation of public schools in the US was unconstitutional and, by implication, overturned the "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" doctrine established in <a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> of 1896.<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-28">[26]</a> Following the unanimous Supreme Court ruling, many states began to gradually integrate their schools, but some areas of the South resisted by closing public schools altogether.<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-28">[26]</a> The integration of Southern public libraries followed demonstrations and protests that used techniques seen in other elements of the larger civil rights movement.<a href="#cite_note-Fultz,_M._2006-29">[27]</a> This included sit-ins, beatings, and white resistance.<a href="#cite_note-Fultz,_M._2006-29">[27]</a> For example, in 1963 in the city of <a href="/wiki/Anniston,_Alabama" title="Anniston, Alabama">Anniston, Alabama</a>, two black ministers were brutally beaten for attempting to integrate the public library.<a href="#cite_note-Fultz,_M._2006-29">[27]</a> Though there was resistance and violence, the integration of libraries was generally quicker than the integration of other public institutions.<a href="#cite_note-Fultz,_M._2006-29">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_issues">National issues</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ColoredSailersRoomWWINOLA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/ColoredSailersRoomWWINOLA.jpg/220px-ColoredSailersRoomWWINOLA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/ColoredSailersRoomWWINOLA.jpg/330px-ColoredSailersRoomWWINOLA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/ColoredSailersRoomWWINOLA.jpg/440px-ColoredSailersRoomWWINOLA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption>Colored Sailors room in World War I</figcaption></figure> The situation for blacks outside the South was somewhat better (in most states they could vote and have their children educated, though they still faced discrimination in housing and jobs). In 1900 Reverend Matthew Anderson, speaking at the annual <a href="/wiki/Hampton_Negro_Conference" title="Hampton Negro Conference">Hampton Negro Conference</a> in Virginia, said that "...the lines along most of the avenues of wage-earning are more rigidly drawn in the North than in the South. There seems to be an apparent effort throughout the North, especially in the cities to debar the colored worker from all the avenues of higher remunerative labor, which makes it more difficult to improve his economic condition even than in the South."<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> From 1910 to 1970, blacks sought better lives by migrating north and west out of the South. A total of nearly seven million blacks left the South in what was known as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a>, most during and after World War II. So many people migrated that the demographics of some previously black-majority states changed to a white majority (in combination with other developments). The rapid influx of blacks altered the demographics of Northern and Western cities; happening at a period of expanded European, Hispanic, and Asian immigration, it added to social competition and tensions, with the new migrants and immigrants battling for a place in jobs and housing. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chicago-race-riot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Chicago-race-riot.jpg/220px-Chicago-race-riot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Chicago-race-riot.jpg/330px-Chicago-race-riot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Chicago-race-riot.jpg/440px-Chicago-race-riot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption>A white gang looking for blacks during the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919" title="Chicago race riot of 1919">Chicago race riot of 1919</a></figcaption></figure> Reflecting social tensions after World War I, as veterans struggled to return to the workforce and labor unions were organizing, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer of 1919</a> was marked by hundreds of deaths and higher casualties across the U.S. as a result of white race riots against blacks that took place in more than three dozen cities, such as the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919" title="Chicago race riot of 1919">Chicago race riot of 1919</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Omaha_race_riot_of_1919" title="Omaha race riot of 1919">Omaha race riot of 1919</a>. Urban problems such as crime and disease were blamed on the large influx of Southern blacks to cities in the north and west, based on stereotypes of rural southern African-Americans. Overall, blacks in Northern and Western cities experienced <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">systemic discrimination</a> in a plethora of aspects of life. Within employment, economic opportunities for blacks were routed to the lowest status and restrictive in potential mobility. Within the housing market, stronger discriminatory measures were used in correlation to the influx, resulting in a mix of "targeted violence, <a href="/wiki/Restrictive_covenants" class="mw-redirect" title="Restrictive covenants">restrictive covenants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">redlining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">racial steering</a>".<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> The Great Migration resulted in many African Americans becoming urbanized, and they began to realign from the Republican to the Democratic Party, especially because of opportunities under the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> administration during the Great Depression in the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> Substantially under pressure from African-American supporters who began the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a>, President Roosevelt issued the first federal order banning discrimination and created the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Employment_Practice_Committee" title="Fair Employment Practice Committee">Fair Employment Practice Committee</a>. After both World Wars, black veterans of the military pressed for full civil rights and often led activist movements. In 1948, President <a href="/wiki/Harry_Truman" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Truman">Harry Truman</a> issued <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a>, which ended <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces">segregation in the military</a>.<a href="#cite_note-trumanlibrary-33">[31]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:We_want_white_tenants.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/We_want_white_tenants.jpg/220px-We_want_white_tenants.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/We_want_white_tenants.jpg/330px-We_want_white_tenants.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/We_want_white_tenants.jpg/440px-We_want_white_tenants.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5974" data-file-height="4753" /></a><figcaption>White tenants seeking to prevent blacks from moving into the <a href="/wiki/Public_housing_in_Detroit" title="Public housing in Detroit">housing project</a> erected this sign, <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>, 1942</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Housing_segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Housing segregation">Housing segregation</a> became a nationwide problem following the Great Migration of black people out of the South. <a href="/wiki/Covenant_(law)#Exclusionary_covenants" title="Covenant (law)">Racial covenants</a> were employed by many <a href="/wiki/Real_estate_development" title="Real estate development">real estate developers</a> to "protect" entire <a href="/wiki/Subdivision_(land)" title="Subdivision (land)">subdivisions</a>, with the primary intent to keep "<a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">white</a>" neighborhoods "white". Ninety percent of the housing projects built in the years following World War II were racially restricted by such covenants.<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> Cities known for their widespread use of racial covenants include <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milwaukee" title="Milwaukee">Milwaukee</a>,<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Said premises shall not be rented, leased, or conveyed to, or occupied by, any person other than of the white or Caucasian race.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Racial covenant for a home in Beverly Hills, California.<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a></cite></div></blockquote> While many whites defended their space with violence, intimidation, or legal tactics toward black people, many other whites migrated to more racially homogeneous <a href="/wiki/Suburban" class="mw-redirect" title="Suburban">suburban</a> or <a href="/wiki/Exurban" class="mw-redirect" title="Exurban">exurban</a> regions, a process known as <a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">white flight</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> From the 1930s to the 1960s, the National Association of Real Estate Boards (NAREB) issued guidelines that specified that a realtor "should never be instrumental in introducing to a neighborhood a character or property or occupancy, members of any race or nationality, or any individual whose presence will be clearly detrimental to property values in a neighborhood." The result was the development of all-black <a href="/wiki/Ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghettos">ghettos</a> in the North and West, where much housing was older, as well as South.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> The first <a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-miscegenation law">anti-miscegenation law</a> was passed by the <a href="/wiki/Maryland_General_Assembly" title="Maryland General Assembly">Maryland General Assembly</a> in 1691, criminalizing <a href="/wiki/Interracial_marriage" title="Interracial marriage">interracial marriage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Anti-miscegenation-40">[38]</a> In a speech in <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_Illinois" title="Charleston, Illinois">Charleston, Illinois</a> in 1858, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> stated, "I am not, nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people".<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a> By the late 1800s, 38 US states had anti-miscegenation statutes.<a href="#cite_note-Anti-miscegenation-40">[38]</a> By 1924, the ban on interracial marriage was still in force in 29 states.<a href="#cite_note-Anti-miscegenation-40">[38]</a> While interracial marriage had been legal in California since 1948, in 1957 actor <a href="/wiki/Sammy_Davis_Jr." title="Sammy Davis Jr.">Sammy Davis Jr.</a> faced a backlash for his involvement with white actress <a href="/wiki/Kim_Novak" title="Kim Novak">Kim Novak</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-42">[40]</a> Davis briefly married a black dancer in 1958 to protect himself from mob violence.<a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-42">[40]</a> In 1958, officers in <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> entered the home of <a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia#Plaintiffs" title="Loving v. Virginia">Mildred and Richard Loving</a> and dragged them out of bed for living together as an interracial couple, on the basis that "any white person intermarry with a colored person"— or vice versa—each party "shall be guilty of a felony" and face prison terms of five years.<a href="#cite_note-Anti-miscegenation-40">[38]</a> Invigorated by the victory of Brown and frustrated by the lack of immediate practical effect, private citizens increasingly rejected gradualist, legalistic approaches as the primary tool to bring about <a href="/wiki/Desegregation_in_the_United_States" title="Desegregation in the United States">desegregation</a>. They were faced with "<a href="/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">massive resistance</a>" in the South by proponents of racial segregation and <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement" title="Disfranchisement">voter suppression</a>. In defiance, African-American activists adopted a combined strategy of <a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">direct action</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">nonviolence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">nonviolent resistance</a>, and many events described as <a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">civil disobedience</a>, giving rise to the civil rights movement of 1954 to 1968. <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a> had planned a march on Washington, D.C., in 1941 to support demands for elimination of <a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">employment discrimination</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Defence_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Defence industry">defense industry</a>; he called off the march when the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a> administration met the demand by issuing <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_8802" title="Executive Order 8802">Executive Order 8802</a>, which barred racial discrimination and created an <a href="/wiki/Fair_Employment_Practice_Committee" title="Fair Employment Practice Committee">agency</a> to oversee compliance with the order.<a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protests_begin">Protests begin</h3></div> The strategy of public education, legislative lobbying, and litigation that had typified the civil rights movement during the first half of the 20th century broadened after Brown to a strategy that emphasized "<a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">direct action</a>": boycotts, <a href="/wiki/Sit-in" title="Sit-in">sit-ins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom Rides">Freedom Rides</a>, marches or walks, and similar tactics that relied on mass mobilization, nonviolent resistance, standing in line, and, at times, civil disobedience.<a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a> Churches, local grassroots organizations, fraternal societies, and black-owned businesses mobilized volunteers to participate in broad-based actions. This was a more direct and potentially more rapid means of creating change than the traditional approach of mounting court challenges used by the NAACP and others. In 1952, the <a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a> (RCNL), led by <a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a>, a black surgeon, entrepreneur, and planter organized a successful boycott of gas stations in Mississippi that refused to provide restrooms for blacks. Through the RCNL, Howard led campaigns to expose brutality by the Mississippi state highway patrol and to encourage blacks to make deposits in the black-owned Tri-State Bank of <a href="/wiki/Nashville" class="mw-redirect" title="Nashville">Nashville</a> which, in turn, gave loans to civil rights activists who were victims of a "credit squeeze" by the <a href="/wiki/White_Citizens%27_Councils" class="mw-redirect" title="White Citizens' Councils">White Citizens' Councils</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Beito_and_Beito-45">[43]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a> was arrested for not giving up her seat on a <a href="/wiki/Montgomery,_Alabama" title="Montgomery, Alabama">Montgomery, Alabama</a> bus in March 1955, a bus boycott was considered and rejected. But when <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a> was arrested in December, <a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Gibson Robinson</a> of the Montgomery Women's Political Council put the bus boycott protest in motion. Late that night, she, John Cannon (chairman of the Business Department at <a href="/wiki/Alabama_State_University" title="Alabama State University">Alabama State University</a>) and others mimeographed and distributed thousands of leaflets calling for a boycott.<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Robinson_1986-47">[45]</a> The eventual success of the boycott made its spokesman <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, a nationally known figure. It also inspired other bus boycotts, such as the successful <a href="/wiki/Tallahassee,_Florida" title="Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee, Florida</a> boycott of 1956–57.<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> This movement also sparked the <a href="/wiki/1956_Sugar_Bowl" title="1956 Sugar Bowl">1956 Sugar Bowl</a> riots in Atlanta which later became a major organizing center of the civil rights movement, with Martin Luther King Jr.<a href="#cite_note-fcflu-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-kruse-50">[48]</a> In 1957, King and <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a>, the leaders of the Montgomery Improvement Association, joined with other church leaders who had led similar boycott efforts, such as <a href="/wiki/C._K._Steele" class="mw-redirect" title="C. K. Steele">C. K. Steele</a> of Tallahassee and <a href="/wiki/T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a> of Baton Rouge, and other activists such as <a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a>, <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a>, to form the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> (SCLC). The SCLC, with its headquarters in <a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, did not attempt to create a network of chapters as the NAACP did. It offered training and leadership assistance for local efforts to fight segregation. The headquarters organization raised funds, mostly from Northern sources, to support such campaigns. It made nonviolence both its central tenet and its primary method of confronting racism. In 1959, <a href="/wiki/Septima_Clarke" class="mw-redirect" title="Septima Clarke">Septima Clarke</a>, Bernice Robinson, and <a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a>, with the help of <a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a>, began the first Citizenship Schools in <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Sea_Islands" title="Sea Islands">Sea Islands</a>. They taught literacy to enable blacks to pass voting tests. The program was an enormous success and tripled the number of black voters on <a href="/wiki/Johns_Island,_South_Carolina" title="Johns Island, South Carolina">Johns Island</a>. SCLC took over the program and duplicated its results elsewhere. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">History of civil rights in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">Timeline of the civil rights movement</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brown_v._Board_of_Education,_1954">Brown v. Board of Education, 1954</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></div> In the spring of 1951, black students in <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> protested their unequal status in the state's segregated educational system. Students at <a href="/wiki/R.R._Moton_High_School" class="mw-redirect" title="R.R. Moton High School">Moton High School</a> protested the overcrowded conditions and failing facility.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated55-51">[49]</a> Some local leaders of the NAACP had tried to persuade the students to back down from their protest against the Jim Crow laws of school segregation. When the students did not budge, the NAACP joined their battle against school segregation. The NAACP proceeded with five cases challenging the school systems; these were later combined under what is known today as Brown v. Board of Education.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated55-51">[49]</a> Under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers</a> donated $75,000 to help pay for the NAACP's efforts at the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg/220px-Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg/330px-Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg/440px-Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="613" /></a><figcaption>In 1954, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> under Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> ruled unanimously that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional.</figcaption></figure> On May 17, 1954, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> under Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> ruled unanimously in <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> of Topeka, Kansas, that mandating, or even permitting, <a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">public schools to be segregated</a> by race was <a href="/wiki/Constitutionality" title="Constitutionality">unconstitutional</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a> Warren wrote in the court majority opinion that<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-28">[26]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children. The impact is greater when it has the sanction of the law; for the policy of separating the races is usually interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the Negro group.<a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a></blockquote> The lawyers from the NAACP had to gather plausible evidence in order to win the case of Brown vs. Board of Education. Their method of addressing the issue of school segregation was to enumerate several arguments. One pertained to having exposure to interracial contact in a school environment. It was argued that interracial contact would, in turn, help prepare children to live with the pressures that society exerts in regard to race and thereby afford them a better chance of living in a democracy. In addition, another argument emphasized how "'education' comprehends the entire process of developing and training the mental, physical and moral powers and capabilities of human beings".<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Risa_Goluboff" class="mw-redirect" title="Risa Goluboff">Risa Goluboff</a> wrote that the NAACP's intention was to show the Courts that African American children were the victims of school segregation and their futures were at risk. The Court ruled that both <a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> (1896), which had established the "separate but equal" standard in general, and <a href="/wiki/Cumming_v._Richmond_County_Board_of_Education" title="Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education">Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education</a> (1899), which had applied that standard to schools, was unconstitutional. The federal government filed a <a href="/wiki/Friend_of_the_court_brief" class="mw-redirect" title="Friend of the court brief">friend of the court brief</a> in the case urging the justices to consider the effect that segregation had on America's image in the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Dean_Acheson" title="Dean Acheson">Dean Acheson</a> was quoted in the brief stating that "The United States is under constant attack in the foreign press, over the foreign radio, and in such international bodies as the United Nations because of various practices of discrimination in this country."<a href="#cite_note-amphilsoc.org-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> The following year, in the case known as Brown II, the Court ordered segregation to be phased out over time, "with all deliberate speed".<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education_of_Topeka,_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas">Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas</a> (1954) did not overturn <a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> (1896). <a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> was segregation in transportation modes. <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> dealt with segregation in education. <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> did set in motion the future overturning of 'separate but equal'. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Integration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Integration.jpg/250px-Integration.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Integration.jpg/375px-Integration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Integration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="353" /></a><figcaption>School integration, Barnard School, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, 1955</figcaption></figure> On May 18, 1954, <a href="/wiki/Greensboro,_North_Carolina" title="Greensboro, North Carolina">Greensboro, North Carolina</a>, became the first city in the South to publicly announce that it would abide by the Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education ruling. "It is unthinkable,' remarked School Board Superintendent Benjamin Smith, 'that we will try to [override] the laws of the United States."<a href="#cite_note-deseg-58">[56]</a> This positive reception for Brown, together with the appointment of African American David Jones to the school board in 1953, convinced numerous white and black citizens that Greensboro was heading in a progressive direction. Integration in Greensboro occurred rather peacefully compared to the process in Southern states such as Alabama, <a href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a>, and Virginia where "<a href="/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">massive resistance</a>" was practiced by top officials and throughout the states. In Virginia, some counties closed their public schools rather than integrate, and many white <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> private schools were founded to accommodate students who used to go to public schools. Even in Greensboro, much local resistance to desegregation continued, and in 1969, the federal government found the city was not in compliance with the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Transition to a fully integrated school system did not begin until 1971.<a href="#cite_note-deseg-58">[56]</a> Many Northern cities also had <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#United_States" title="Racial segregation">de facto segregation</a> policies, which resulted in a vast gulf in educational resources between black and white communities. In <a href="/wiki/Harlem_(Manhattan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlem (Manhattan)">Harlem</a>, New York, for example, neither a single new school was built since the turn of the century, nor did a single nursery school exist – even as the <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a> was causing overcrowding. Existing schools tended to be dilapidated and staffed with inexperienced teachers. Brown helped stimulate activism among <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> parents like <a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a> who, with the support of the NAACP, initiated a successful lawsuit against the city and state on Brown's principles. Mallory and thousands of other parents bolstered the pressure of the lawsuit with a school boycott in 1959. During the boycott, some of the first <a href="/wiki/Freedom_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom schools">freedom schools</a> of the period were established. The city responded to the campaign by permitting more open transfers to high-quality, historically white schools. (New York's African-American community, and Northern desegregation activists generally, now found themselves contending with the problem of <a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">white flight</a>, however.)<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emmett_Till's_murder,_1955">Emmett Till's murder, 1955</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emmett_Till%27s_funeral_-_mourners.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Emmett_Till%27s_funeral_-_mourners.jpg/190px-Emmett_Till%27s_funeral_-_mourners.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Emmett_Till%27s_funeral_-_mourners.jpg/285px-Emmett_Till%27s_funeral_-_mourners.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Emmett_Till%27s_funeral_-_mourners.jpg/380px-Emmett_Till%27s_funeral_-_mourners.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2652" data-file-height="2651" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a>'s mother Mamie (middle) at her son's funeral in 1955. He was killed by white men after a white woman accused him of offending her in her family's grocery store.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a>, a 14-year-old African American from Chicago, visited his relatives in <a href="/wiki/Money,_Mississippi" title="Money, Mississippi">Money, Mississippi</a>, for the summer. He allegedly had an interaction with a white woman, Carolyn Bryant, in a small grocery store that violated the norms of Mississippi culture, and Bryant's husband Roy and his half-brother J. W. Milam brutally murdered young Emmett Till. They beat and mutilated him before shooting him in the head and sinking his body in the <a href="/wiki/Tallahatchie_River" title="Tallahatchie River">Tallahatchie River</a>. Three days later, Till's body was discovered and retrieved from the river. After Emmett's mother, <a href="/wiki/Mamie_Till" title="Mamie Till">Mamie Till</a>,<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> came to identify the remains of her son, she decided she wanted to "let the people see what I have seen".<a href="#cite_note-timephoto-62">[60]</a> Till's mother then had his body taken back to Chicago where she had it displayed in an open casket during the funeral services where many thousands of visitors arrived to show their respects.<a href="#cite_note-timephoto-62">[60]</a> A later publication of an image at the funeral in <a href="/wiki/Jet_(magazine)" title="Jet (magazine)">Jet</a> is credited as a crucial moment in the civil rights era for displaying in vivid detail the violent racism that was being directed at black people in America.<a href="#cite_note-Weller-63">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-timephoto-62">[60]</a> In a column for <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a>, Vann R. Newkirk wrote: "The trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Atlantic-4">[2]</a> The state of Mississippi tried two defendants, but they were speedily acquitted by an <a href="/wiki/All-white_jury" class="mw-redirect" title="All-white jury">all-white jury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> "Emmett's murder," historian Tim Tyson writes, "would never have become a watershed historical moment without Mamie finding the strength to make her private grief a public matter."<a href="#cite_note-USA_TODAY-65">[63]</a> The visceral response to his mother's decision to have an open-casket funeral mobilized the black community throughout the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-Atlantic-4">[2]</a> The murder and resulting trial ended up markedly impacting the views of several young black activists.<a href="#cite_note-USA_TODAY-65">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joyce_Ladner" title="Joyce Ladner">Joyce Ladner</a> referred to such activists as the "Emmett Till generation."<a href="#cite_note-USA_TODAY-65">[63]</a> One hundred days after Emmett Till's murder, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on the bus in Montgomery, Alabama.<a href="#cite_note-haas-66">[64]</a> Parks later informed Till's mother that her decision to stay in her seat was guided by the image she still vividly recalled of Till's brutalized remains.<a href="#cite_note-haas-66">[64]</a> The glass topped casket that was used for Till's Chicago funeral was found in a cemetery garage in 2009. Till had been reburied in a different casket after being exhumed in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> Till's family decided to donate the original casket to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American Culture and History, where it is now on display.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> In 2007, Bryant said that she had fabricated the most sensational part of her story in 1955.<a href="#cite_note-Weller-63">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-TysonNotes-69">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rosa_Parks_and_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott,_1955–1956">Rosa Parks and the Montgomery bus boycott, 1955–1956</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_on_February_22,_1956,_during_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_on_February_22%2C_1956%2C_during_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott.jpg/220px-Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_on_February_22%2C_1956%2C_during_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_on_February_22%2C_1956%2C_during_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott.jpg/330px-Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_on_February_22%2C_1956%2C_during_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_on_February_22%2C_1956%2C_during_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott.jpg/440px-Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_on_February_22%2C_1956%2C_during_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5748" data-file-height="4549" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a> being fingerprinted after being arrested for not giving up her seat on a bus to a white person.</figcaption></figure> On December 1, 1955, nine months after a 15-year-old high school student, <a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a>, refused to give up her seat to a white passenger on a public bus in Montgomery, Alabama, and was arrested, <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a> did the same thing. Parks soon became the symbol of the resulting Montgomery bus boycott and received national publicity. She was later hailed as the "mother of the civil rights movement".<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> Parks was secretary of the Montgomery NAACP chapter and had recently returned from a meeting at the <a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a> in Tennessee where nonviolence as a strategy was taught by <a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a> and others. After Parks' arrest, African Americans gathered and organized the Montgomery bus boycott to demand a bus system in which passengers would be treated equally.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-71">[69]</a> The organization was led by Jo Ann Robinson, a member of the Women's Political Council who had been waiting for the opportunity to boycott the bus system. Following Rosa Parks' arrest, Jo Ann Robinson mimeographed 52,500 leaflets calling for a boycott. They were distributed around the city and helped gather the attention of civil rights leaders. After the city rejected many of its suggested reforms, the NAACP, led by <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Nixon" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar Nixon">E. D. Nixon</a>, pushed for full desegregation of public buses. With the support of most of Montgomery's 50,000 African Americans, the boycott lasted for 381 days, until the local ordinance segregating African Americans and whites on public buses was repealed. Ninety percent of African Americans in Montgomery partook in the boycotts, which reduced bus revenue significantly, as they comprised the majority of the riders. This movement also sparked riots leading up to the <a href="/wiki/1956_Sugar_Bowl" title="1956 Sugar Bowl">1956 Sugar Bowl</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> In November 1956, the United States Supreme Court upheld a district court ruling in the case of <a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a> and ordered Montgomery's buses desegregated, ending the boycott.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-71">[69]</a> Local leaders established the Montgomery Improvement Association to focus their efforts. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> was elected President of this organization. The lengthy protest attracted national attention for him and the city. His eloquent appeals to Christian brotherhood and American idealism created a positive impression on people both inside and outside the South.<a href="#cite_note-Robinson_1986-47">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Little_Rock_Nine,_1957">Little Rock Nine, 1957</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Little_Rock_integration_protest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Little_Rock_integration_protest.jpg/220px-Little_Rock_integration_protest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Little_Rock_integration_protest.jpg/330px-Little_Rock_integration_protest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Little_Rock_integration_protest.jpg/440px-Little_Rock_integration_protest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="995" /></a><figcaption>White parents rally against integrating Little Rock's schools in August 1959.</figcaption></figure> The Little Rock Nine were a group of nine students who attended segregated black high schools in <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock,_Arkansas" title="Little Rock, Arkansas">Little Rock</a>, the capital of the state of Arkansas. They each volunteered when the NAACP and the national civil rights movement obtained federal court orders to integrate the prestigious <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Central_High_School" title="Little Rock Central High School">Little Rock Central High School</a> in September, 1957. The Nine faced intense harassment and threats of violence from white parents and students, as well as organized white supremacy groups. The enraged opposition emphasized miscegenation as the threat to white society. <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Arkansas" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor of Arkansas">Arkansas Governor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orval_Faubus" title="Orval Faubus">Orval Faubus</a>, claiming his only goal was to preserve the peace, deployed the Arkansas National Guard to prevent the black students from entering the school. Faubus defied federal court orders, whereupon President Dwight D. Eisenhower intervened. He federalized the Arkansas National Guard and sent them home. Then he sent in an elite Army unit to escort the students to school and protect them between classes during the 1957–58 school year. In class, however, the Nine were teased and ridiculed every day. In the city compromise efforts all failed and political tensions continued to fester. A year later in September 1958 the Supreme Court ruled that all the city's high schools had to be integrated immediately. Governor Faubus and the legislature responded by immediately shutting down all the public high schools in the city for the entire 1958–1959 school year, despite the harm it did to all the students. The decision to integrate the school was a landmark event in the civil rights movement, and the students' bravery and determination in the face of violent opposition is remembered as a key moment in American history. The city and state were entangled in very expensive legal disputes for decades, while suffering a reputation for hatred and obstruction.<a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Method_of_nonviolence_and_nonviolence_training">Method of nonviolence and nonviolence training</h3></div> During the time period considered to be the "African-American civil rights" era, the predominant use of protest was nonviolent, or peaceful.<a href="#cite_note-Erikson-75">[73]</a> Often referred to as pacifism, the method of nonviolence is considered to be an attempt to impact society positively. Although acts of racial discrimination have occurred historically throughout the United States, perhaps the most violent regions have been in the former Confederate states. During the 1950s and 1960s, the nonviolent protesting of the civil rights movement caused definite tension, which gained national attention. In order to prepare for protests physically and psychologically, demonstrators received training in nonviolence. According to former civil rights activist Bruce Hartford, there are two main components of nonviolence training. There is the philosophical method, which involves understanding the method of nonviolence and why it is considered useful, and there is the tactical method, which ultimately teaches demonstrators "how to be a protestor—how to sit-in, how to picket, how to defend yourself against attack, giving training on how to remain cool when people are screaming racist insults into your face and pouring stuff on you and hitting you" (Civil Rights Movement Archive). The philosophical basis of the practice of nonviolence in the American civil rights movement was largely inspired by <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement_(1919%E2%80%9322)" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-cooperation movement (1919–22)">"non-cooperation" policies</a> during his involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a>, which were intended to gain attention so that the public would either "intervene in advance" or "provide public pressure in support of the action to be taken" (Erikson, 415). As Hartford explains it, philosophical nonviolence training aims to "shape the individual person's attitude and mental response to crises and violence" (Civil Rights Movement Archive). Hartford and activists like him, who trained in tactical nonviolence, considered it necessary in order to ensure physical safety, instill discipline, teach demonstrators how to demonstrate, and form mutual confidence among demonstrators (Civil Rights Movement Archive).<a href="#cite_note-Erikson-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> For many, the concept of nonviolent protest was a way of life, a culture. However, not everyone agreed with this notion. James Forman, former <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">SNCC</a> (and later Black Panther) member, and nonviolence trainer was among those who did not. In his autobiography, The Making of Black Revolutionaries, Forman revealed his perspective on the method of nonviolence as "strictly a tactic, not a way of life without limitations." Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a>, who was also an active member of <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">SNCC</a>, felt that the method of nonviolence was practical. When interviewed by author Robert Penn Warren, Moses said "There's no question that he (<a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>) had a great deal of influence with the masses. But I don't think it's in the direction of love. It's in a practical direction … ." (Who Speaks for the Negro? Warren).<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> According to a 2020 study in the American Political Science Review, nonviolent civil rights protests boosted vote shares for the Democratic party in presidential elections in nearby counties, but violent protests substantially boosted white support for Republicans in counties near to the violent protests.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sit-ins,_1958–1960">Sit-ins, 1958–1960</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></div> In July 1958, the <a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">NAACP Youth Council</a> sponsored sit-ins at the lunch counter of a <a href="/wiki/Dockum_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Dockum Drug Store sit-in">Dockum Drug Store</a> in downtown <a href="/wiki/Wichita,_Kansas" title="Wichita, Kansas">Wichita, Kansas</a>. After three weeks, the movement successfully got the store to change its policy of segregated seating, and soon afterward all Dockum stores in Kansas were desegregated. This movement was quickly followed in the same year by a <a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">student sit-in at a Katz Drug Store</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City" title="Oklahoma City">Oklahoma City</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a>, which also was successful.<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Civil_Rights_protesters_and_Woolworth%27s_Sit-In,_Durham,_NC,_10_February_1960._From_the_N%26O_Negative_Collection,_State_Archives_of_North_Carolina,_Raleigh,_NC._Photos_taken_by_The_News_%26_(24495308926).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Civil_Rights_protesters_and_Woolworth%27s_Sit-In%2C_Durham%2C_NC%2C_10_February_1960._From_the_N%26O_Negative_Collection%2C_State_Archives_of_North_Carolina%2C_Raleigh%2C_NC._Photos_taken_by_The_News_%26_%2824495308926%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Civil_Rights_protesters_and_Woolworth%27s_Sit-In%2C_Durham%2C_NC%2C_10_February_1960._From_the_N%26O_Negative_Collection%2C_State_Archives_of_North_Carolina%2C_Raleigh%2C_NC._Photos_taken_by_The_News_%26_%2824495308926%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Civil_Rights_protesters_and_Woolworth%27s_Sit-In%2C_Durham%2C_NC%2C_10_February_1960._From_the_N%26O_Negative_Collection%2C_State_Archives_of_North_Carolina%2C_Raleigh%2C_NC._Photos_taken_by_The_News_%26_%2824495308926%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1187" data-file-height="740" /></a><figcaption>Student sit-in at Woolworth in <a href="/wiki/Durham,_North_Carolina" title="Durham, North Carolina">Durham, North Carolina</a> on February 10, 1960.</figcaption></figure> Mostly black students from area colleges led a sit-in at a <a href="/wiki/F._W._Woolworth_Company" title="F. W. Woolworth Company">Woolworth</a>'s store in <a href="/wiki/Greensboro,_North_Carolina" title="Greensboro, North Carolina">Greensboro, North Carolina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> On February 1, 1960, four students, <a href="/wiki/Ezell_A._Blair_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Ezell A. Blair Jr.">Ezell A. Blair Jr.</a>, David Richmond, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a> from <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Agricultural_and_Technical_State_University" class="mw-redirect" title="North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University">North Carolina Agricultural & Technical College</a>, an all-black college, sat down at the segregated lunch counter to protest Woolworth's policy of excluding African Americans from being served food there.<a href="#cite_note-chafe-82">[80]</a> The four students purchased small items in other parts of the store and kept their receipts, then sat down at the lunch counter and asked to be served. After being denied service, they produced their receipts and asked why their money was good everywhere else at the store, but not at the lunch counter.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> The protesters had been encouraged to dress professionally, to sit quietly, and to occupy every other stool so that potential white sympathizers could join in. The Greensboro sit-in was quickly followed by other sit-ins in <a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond, Virginia</a>;<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nashville,_Tennessee" title="Nashville, Tennessee">Nashville, Tennessee</a>; and Atlanta, Georgia.<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Atlanta_Sit-Ins-87">[85]</a> The most immediately effective of these was in Nashville, where hundreds of well organized and highly disciplined college students <a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">conducted sit-ins</a> in coordination with a boycott campaign.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> As students across the south began to "sit-in" at the lunch counters of local stores, police and other officials sometimes used brutal force to physically escort the demonstrators from the lunch facilities. The "sit-in" technique was not new—as far back as 1939, African-American attorney <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Wilbert_Tucker" title="Samuel Wilbert Tucker">Samuel Wilbert Tucker</a> organized a sit-in at the then-segregated <a href="/wiki/Alexandria,_Virginia" title="Alexandria, Virginia">Alexandria, Virginia</a>, library.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> In 1960 the technique succeeded in bringing national attention to the movement.<a href="#cite_note-davis-91">[89]</a> On March 9, 1960, an <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_University_Center" title="Atlanta University Center">Atlanta University Center</a> group of students released <a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a> as a full-page advertisement in newspapers, including the Atlanta Constitution, Atlanta Journal, and Atlanta Daily World.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> Known as the <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a> (COAHR), the group initiated the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a> and began to lead sit-ins starting on March 15, 1960.<a href="#cite_note-Atlanta_Sit-Ins-87">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> By the end of 1960, the process of sit-ins had spread to every southern and <a href="/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">border state</a>, and even to facilities in <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> that discriminated against blacks. Demonstrators focused not only on lunch counters but also on parks, beaches, libraries, theaters, museums, and other public facilities. In April 1960 activists who had led these sit-ins were invited by SCLC activist <a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a> to hold a conference at <a href="/wiki/Shaw_University" title="Shaw University">Shaw University</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_university" class="mw-redirect" title="Historically black university">historically black university</a> in <a href="/wiki/Raleigh,_North_Carolina" title="Raleigh, North Carolina">Raleigh, North Carolina</a>. This conference led to the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a> (SNCC).<a href="#cite_note-carson-94">[92]</a> SNCC took these tactics of nonviolent confrontation further, and organized the freedom rides. As the constitution protected interstate commerce, they decided to challenge segregation on interstate buses and in public bus facilities by putting interracial teams on them, to travel from the North through the segregated South.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freedom_Rides,_1961">Freedom Rides, 1961</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rider" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom Rider">Freedom Rider</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anniston_and_Birmingham_bus_attacks" title="Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks">Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks</a></div> Freedom Rides were journeys by civil rights activists on interstate buses into the segregated southern United States to test the United States Supreme Court decision <a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a> (1960), which ruled that segregation was unconstitutional for passengers engaged in interstate travel. Organized by <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">CORE</a>, the first Freedom Ride of the 1960s left Washington D.C. on May 4, 1961, and was scheduled to arrive in New Orleans on May 17.<a href="#cite_note-Freedom_Rides-96">[94]</a> During the first and subsequent Freedom Rides, activists traveled through the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a> to integrate seating patterns on buses and desegregate bus terminals, including restrooms and water fountains. That proved to be a dangerous mission. In <a href="/wiki/Anniston,_Alabama" title="Anniston, Alabama">Anniston, Alabama</a>, one bus <a href="/wiki/Anniston_and_Birmingham_bus_attacks" title="Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks">was firebombed</a>, forcing its passengers to flee for their lives.<a href="#cite_note-Arsenault-97">[95]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Freedom_Riders_attacked.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Freedom_Riders_attacked.jpg/220px-Freedom_Riders_attacked.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Freedom_Riders_attacked.jpg/330px-Freedom_Riders_attacked.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Freedom_Riders_attacked.jpg/440px-Freedom_Riders_attacked.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="754" /></a><figcaption>A mob beats Freedom Riders in Birmingham. This picture was reclaimed by the FBI from a local journalist who also was beaten and whose camera was smashed.</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Birmingham,_Alabama" title="Birmingham, Alabama">Birmingham, Alabama</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a> informant reported that Public Safety Commissioner <a href="/wiki/Eugene_%22Bull%22_Connor" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene "Bull" Connor">Eugene "Bull" Connor</a> gave Ku Klux Klan members fifteen minutes to attack an incoming group of freedom riders before having police "protect" them. The riders were severely beaten "until it looked like a bulldog had got a hold of them." <a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a>, a white activist, was beaten so badly that he required fifty stitches to his head.<a href="#cite_note-Arsenault-97">[95]</a> In a similar occurrence in Montgomery, Alabama, the Freedom Riders followed in the footsteps of Rosa Parks and rode an integrated Greyhound bus from Birmingham. Although they were protesting interstate bus segregation in peace, they were met with violence in Montgomery as a large, white mob attacked them for their activism. They caused an enormous, 2-hour long riot which resulted in 22 injuries, five of whom were hospitalized.<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> Mob violence in Anniston and Birmingham temporarily halted the rides. SNCC activists from Nashville brought in new riders to continue the journey from Birmingham to New Orleans. In Montgomery, Alabama, at the <a href="/wiki/Greyhound_Bus_Station_(Montgomery,_Alabama)" class="mw-redirect" title="Greyhound Bus Station (Montgomery, Alabama)">Greyhound Bus Station</a>, a mob charged another busload of riders, knocking <a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> unconscious with a crate and smashing <a href="/wiki/Life_(magazine)" title="Life (magazine)">Life</a> photographer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Don_Urbrock&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Don Urbrock (page does not exist)">Don Urbrock</a> in the face with his own camera. A dozen men surrounded <a href="/wiki/James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a>,<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> a white student from <a href="/wiki/Fisk_University" title="Fisk University">Fisk University</a>, and beat him in the face with a suitcase, knocking out his teeth.<a href="#cite_note-Arsenault-97">[95]</a> On May 24, 1961, the freedom riders continued their rides into <a href="/wiki/Jackson,_Mississippi" title="Jackson, Mississippi">Jackson, Mississippi</a>, where they were arrested for "breaching the peace" by using "white only" facilities. New Freedom Rides were organized by many different organizations and continued to flow into the South. As riders arrived in Jackson, they were arrested. By the end of summer, more than 300 had been jailed in Mississippi.<a href="#cite_note-Freedom_Rides-96">[94]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">… When the weary Riders arrive in Jackson and attempt to use "white only" restrooms and lunch counters they are immediately arrested for Breach of Peace and Refusal to Obey an Officer. Says Mississippi Governor <a href="/wiki/Ross_Barnett" title="Ross Barnett">Ross Barnett</a> in defense of segregation: "The Negro is different because God made him different to punish him." From lockup, the Riders announce "Jail No Bail"—they will not pay fines for unconstitutional arrests and illegal convictions—and by staying in jail they keep the issue alive. Each prisoner will remain in jail for 39 days, the maximum time they can serve without losing their right to appeal the unconstitutionality of their arrests, trials, and convictions. After 39 days, they file an appeal and post bond...<a href="#cite_note-westwind-101">[99]</a></blockquote> The jailed freedom riders were treated harshly, crammed into tiny, filthy cells and sporadically beaten. In Jackson, some male prisoners were forced to do hard labor in 100 °F (38 °C) heat. Others were transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_State_Penitentiary" title="Mississippi State Penitentiary">Mississippi State Penitentiary</a> at Parchman, where they were treated to harsh conditions. Sometimes the men were suspended by "wrist breakers" from the walls. Typically, the windows of their cells were shut tight on hot days, making it hard for them to breathe. Public sympathy and support for the freedom riders led <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>'s administration to order the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a> (ICC) to issue a new desegregation order. When the new ICC rule took effect on November 1, 1961, passengers were permitted to sit wherever they chose on the bus; "white" and "colored" signs came down in the terminals; separate drinking fountains, toilets, and waiting rooms were consolidated; and lunch counters began serving people regardless of skin color. The student movement involved such celebrated figures as John Lewis, a single-minded activist; <a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(American_activist)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Lawson (American activist)">James Lawson</a>,<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> the revered "guru" of nonviolent theory and tactics; <a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a>,<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> an articulate and intrepid public champion of justice; <a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a>, pioneer of voting registration in Mississippi; and <a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a>, a fiery preacher and charismatic organizer, strategist, and facilitator. Other prominent student activists included <a href="/wiki/Dion_Diamond" title="Dion Diamond">Dion Diamond</a>,<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a>,<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Jones_(activist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Jones (activist)">Charles Jones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lonnie_C._King_Jr." title="Lonnie C. King Jr.">Lonnie King</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a>,<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voter_registration_organizing">Voter registration organizing</h3></div> After the Freedom Rides, local black leaders in Mississippi such as <a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a>, and others asked SNCC to help register black voters and to build community organizations that could win a share of political power in the state. Since Mississippi ratified its new constitution in 1890 with provisions such as poll taxes, residency requirements, and literacy tests, it made registration more complicated and stripped blacks from voter rolls and voting. Also, violence at the time of elections had earlier suppressed black voting. By the mid-20th century, preventing blacks from voting had become an essential part of the culture of white supremacy. In June and July 1959, members of the black community in Fayette County, TN formed the <a href="/wiki/Fayette_County_Civic_and_Welfare_League" title="Fayette County Civic and Welfare League">Fayette County Civic and Welfare League</a> to spur voting. At the time, there were 16,927 blacks in the county, yet only 17 of them had voted in the previous seven years. Within a year, some 1,400 blacks had registered, and the white community responded with harsh economic reprisals. Using registration rolls, the White Citizens Council circulated a blacklist of all registered black voters, allowing banks, local stores, and gas stations to conspire to deny registered black voters essential services. What's more, sharecropping blacks who registered to vote were getting evicted from their homes. All in all, the number of evictions came to 257 families, many of whom were forced to live in a makeshift Tent City for well over a year. Finally, in December 1960, the Justice Department invoked its powers authorized by the Civil Rights Act of 1957 to file a suit against seventy parties accused of violating the civil rights of black Fayette County citizens.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> In the following year the first voter registration project in <a href="/wiki/McComb,_Mississippi" title="McComb, Mississippi">McComb</a> and the surrounding counties in the Southwest corner of the state. Their efforts were met with violent repression from state and local lawmen, the <a href="/wiki/White_Citizens%27_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="White Citizens' Council">White Citizens' Council</a>, and the Ku Klux Klan. Activists were beaten, there were hundreds of arrests of local citizens, and the voting activist Herbert Lee was murdered.<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> White opposition to black voter registration was so intense in Mississippi that Freedom Movement activists concluded that all of the state's civil rights organizations had to unite in a coordinated effort to have any chance of success. In February 1962, representatives of SNCC, CORE, and the NAACP formed the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a> (COFO). At a subsequent meeting in August, SCLC became part of COFO.<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> In the Spring of 1962, with funds from the <a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a>, SNCC/COFO began voter registration organizing in the Mississippi Delta area around <a href="/wiki/Greenwood,_Mississippi" title="Greenwood, Mississippi">Greenwood</a>, and the areas surrounding <a href="/wiki/Hattiesburg,_Mississippi" title="Hattiesburg, Mississippi">Hattiesburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laurel,_Mississippi" title="Laurel, Mississippi">Laurel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Holly_Springs,_Mississippi" title="Holly Springs, Mississippi">Holly Springs</a>. As in McComb, their efforts were met with fierce opposition—arrests, beatings, shootings, arson, and murder. Registrars used the <a href="/wiki/Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">literacy test</a> to keep blacks off the voting roles by creating standards that even highly educated people could not meet. In addition, employers fired blacks who tried to register, and landlords evicted them from their rental homes.<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a> Despite these actions, over the following years, the black voter registration campaign spread across the state. Similar voter registration campaigns—with similar responses—were begun by SNCC, CORE, and SCLC in <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, southwest <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>. By 1963, voter registration campaigns in the South were as integral to the Freedom Movement as desegregation efforts. After the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>,<a href="#cite_note-cra64-9">[7]</a> protecting and facilitating voter registration despite state barriers became the main effort of the movement. It resulted in the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting Rights Act">Voting Rights Act</a> of 1965, which had provisions to enforce the constitutional right to vote for all citizens. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Integration_of_Mississippi_universities,_1956–1965">Integration of Mississippi universities, 1956–1965</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Ole Miss riot of 1962</a></div> Beginning in 1956, <a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a>, a black <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>-veteran, wanted to enroll at Mississippi Southern College (now the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Southern_Mississippi" title="University of Southern Mississippi">University of Southern Mississippi</a>) at <a href="/wiki/Hattiesburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Hattiesburg">Hattiesburg</a> under the <a href="/wiki/G.I._Bill" title="G.I. Bill">G.I. Bill</a>. <a href="/wiki/William_David_McCain" title="William David McCain">William David McCain</a>, the college president, used the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_State_Sovereignty_Commission" title="Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission">Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission</a>, in order to prevent his enrollment by appealing to local black leaders and the segregationist state political establishment.<a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a> The state-funded organization tried to counter the civil rights movement by positively portraying segregationist policies. More significantly, it collected data on activists, harassed them legally, and used economic boycotts against them by threatening their jobs (or causing them to lose their jobs) to try to suppress their work. Kennard was twice arrested on trumped-up charges, and eventually convicted and sentenced to seven years in the state prison.<a href="#cite_note-Kennard-112">[110]</a> After three years at <a href="/wiki/Hard_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard labor">hard labor</a>, Kennard was paroled by <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Mississippi" title="Governor of Mississippi">Mississippi Governor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ross_Barnett" title="Ross Barnett">Ross Barnett</a>. Journalists had investigated his case and publicized the state's mistreatment of his <a href="/wiki/Colon_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Colon cancer">colon cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kennard-112">[110]</a> McCain's role in Kennard's arrests and convictions is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-Funding-113">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Confederacy-114">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-report-115">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Evers-116">[114]</a> While trying to prevent Kennard's enrollment, McCain made a speech in Chicago, with his travel sponsored by the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission. He described the blacks' seeking to desegregate Southern schools as "imports" from the North. (Kennard was a native and resident of Hattiesburg.) McCain said: <blockquote>We insist that educationally and socially, we maintain a <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">segregated</a> society...In all fairness, I admit that we are not encouraging Negro voting...The Negroes prefer that control of the government remain in the white man's hands.<a href="#cite_note-Funding-113">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-report-115">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Evers-116">[114]</a></blockquote> Note: Mississippi had passed a new constitution in 1890 that effectively <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era">disfranchised</a> most blacks by changing electoral and voter registration requirements; although it deprived them of constitutional rights authorized under post-Civil War amendments, it survived <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> challenges at the time. It was not until after the passage of the 1965 <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting Rights Act">Voting Rights Act</a> that most blacks in Mississippi and other southern states gained federal protection to enforce the constitutional right of citizens to vote. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Meredith_OleMiss.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/James_Meredith_OleMiss.jpg/220px-James_Meredith_OleMiss.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/James_Meredith_OleMiss.jpg/330px-James_Meredith_OleMiss.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/James_Meredith_OleMiss.jpg/440px-James_Meredith_OleMiss.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5008" data-file-height="3340" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a> walking to class accompanied by a U.S. Marshal and a Justice Department official.</figcaption></figure> In September 1962, <a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a> won a lawsuit to secure admission to the previously segregated <a href="/wiki/University_of_Mississippi" title="University of Mississippi">University of Mississippi</a>. He attempted to enter campus on September 20, on September 25, and again on September 26. He was blocked by Governor Ross Barnett, who said, "[N]o school will be integrated in Mississippi while I am your Governor." The <a href="/wiki/Fifth_U.S._Circuit_Court_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals">Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals</a> held Barnett and Lieutenant Governor <a href="/wiki/Paul_B._Johnson_Jr." title="Paul B. Johnson Jr.">Paul B. Johnson Jr.</a> in <a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_court" title="Contempt of court">contempt</a>, ordering them arrested and fined more than $10,000 for each day they refused to allow Meredith to enroll. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Marshals_at_Ole_Miss_October_1962_cph.3c35522.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/US_Marshals_at_Ole_Miss_October_1962_cph.3c35522.jpg/220px-US_Marshals_at_Ole_Miss_October_1962_cph.3c35522.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/US_Marshals_at_Ole_Miss_October_1962_cph.3c35522.jpg/330px-US_Marshals_at_Ole_Miss_October_1962_cph.3c35522.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/US_Marshals_at_Ole_Miss_October_1962_cph.3c35522.jpg/440px-US_Marshals_at_Ole_Miss_October_1962_cph.3c35522.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4684" data-file-height="3340" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">U.S. Army</a> trucks loaded with Federal law enforcement personnel on the University of Mississippi campus, 1962.</figcaption></figure> Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a> sent in a force of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">U.S. Marshals</a> and deputized <a href="/wiki/United_States_Border_Patrol" title="United States Border Patrol">U.S. Border Patrol</a> agents and <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Prisons" title="Federal Bureau of Prisons">Federal Bureau of Prisons</a> officers. On September 30, 1962, Meredith entered the campus under their escort. Students and other whites began rioting that evening, throwing rocks and firing on the federal agents guarding Meredith at Lyceum Hall. Rioters ended up killing two civilians, including a French journalist; 28 federal agents suffered gunshot wounds, and 160 others were injured. President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> sent <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">U.S. Army</a> and federalized <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_National_Guard" title="Mississippi National Guard">Mississippi National Guard</a> forces to the campus to quell the riot. Meredith began classes the day after the troops arrived.<a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a> Kennard and other activists continued to work on public university desegregation. In 1965 <a href="/wiki/Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong</a> became the first African-American students to attend the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Southern_Mississippi" title="University of Southern Mississippi">University of Southern Mississippi</a>. By that time, McCain helped ensure they had a peaceful entry.<a href="#cite_note-sketch-118">[116]</a> In 2006, Judge Robert Helfrich ruled that Kennard was factually innocent of all charges for which he had been convicted in the 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-Kennard-112">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Albany_Movement,_1961–1962">Albany Movement, 1961–1962</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></div> The SCLC, which had been criticized by some student activists for its failure to participate more fully in the freedom rides, committed much of its prestige and resources to a desegregation campaign in <a href="/wiki/Albany,_Georgia" title="Albany, Georgia">Albany, Georgia</a>, in November 1961. King, who had been criticized personally by some SNCC activists for his distance from the dangers that local organizers faced—and given the derisive nickname "De Lawd" as a result—intervened personally to assist the campaign led by both SNCC organizers and local leaders. The campaign was a failure because of the canny tactics of <a href="/wiki/Laurie_Pritchett" title="Laurie Pritchett">Laurie Pritchett</a>, the local police chief, and divisions within the black community. The goals may not have been specific enough. Pritchett contained the marchers without violent attacks on demonstrators that inflamed national opinion. He also arranged for arrested demonstrators to be taken to jails in surrounding communities, allowing plenty of room to remain in his jail. Pritchett also foresaw King's presence as a danger and forced his release to avoid King's rallying the black community. King left in 1962 without having achieved any dramatic victories. The local movement, however, continued the struggle, and it obtained significant gains in the next few years.<a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birmingham_campaign,_1963">Birmingham campaign, 1963</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham campaign</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade (1963)</a></div> The Albany movement was shown to be an important education for the SCLC, however, when it undertook the Birmingham campaign in 1963. Executive Director <a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a> carefully planned the early strategy and tactics for the campaign. It focused on one goal—the desegregation of Birmingham's downtown merchants, rather than total desegregation, as in Albany. The movement's efforts were helped by the brutal response of local authorities, in particular <a href="/wiki/Bull_Connor" title="Bull Connor">Eugene "Bull" Connor</a>, the Commissioner of Public Safety. He had long held much political power but had lost a recent election for mayor to a less rabidly segregationist candidate. Refusing to accept the new mayor's authority, Connor intended to stay in office. The campaign used a variety of nonviolent methods of confrontation, including sit-ins, kneel-ins at local churches, and a march to the county building to mark the beginning of a drive to register voters. The city, however, obtained an <a href="/wiki/Injunction" title="Injunction">injunction</a> barring all such protests. Convinced that the order was unconstitutional, the campaign defied it and prepared for <a href="/wiki/Mass_arrest" title="Mass arrest">mass arrests</a> of its supporters. King elected to be among those arrested on April 12, 1963.<a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Recreation_of_Martin_Luther_King%27s_Cell_in_Birmingham_Jail_-_National_Civil_Rights_Museum_-_Downtown_Memphis_-_Tennessee_-_USA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Recreation_of_Martin_Luther_King%27s_Cell_in_Birmingham_Jail_-_National_Civil_Rights_Museum_-_Downtown_Memphis_-_Tennessee_-_USA.jpg/220px-Recreation_of_Martin_Luther_King%27s_Cell_in_Birmingham_Jail_-_National_Civil_Rights_Museum_-_Downtown_Memphis_-_Tennessee_-_USA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Recreation_of_Martin_Luther_King%27s_Cell_in_Birmingham_Jail_-_National_Civil_Rights_Museum_-_Downtown_Memphis_-_Tennessee_-_USA.jpg/330px-Recreation_of_Martin_Luther_King%27s_Cell_in_Birmingham_Jail_-_National_Civil_Rights_Museum_-_Downtown_Memphis_-_Tennessee_-_USA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Recreation_of_Martin_Luther_King%27s_Cell_in_Birmingham_Jail_-_National_Civil_Rights_Museum_-_Downtown_Memphis_-_Tennessee_-_USA.jpg/440px-Recreation_of_Martin_Luther_King%27s_Cell_in_Birmingham_Jail_-_National_Civil_Rights_Museum_-_Downtown_Memphis_-_Tennessee_-_USA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Recreation of Martin Luther King Jr.'s cell in Birmingham Jail at the <a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></figcaption></figure> While in jail, King wrote his famous "<a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a>"<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> on the margins of a newspaper, since he had not been allowed any writing paper while held in solitary confinement.<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> Supporters appealed to the Kennedy administration, which intervened to obtain King's release. <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers</a>, arranged for $160,000 to bail out King and his fellow protestors.<a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a> King was allowed to call his wife, who was recuperating at home after the birth of their fourth child and was released early on April 19. The campaign, however, faltered as it ran out of demonstrators willing to risk arrest. <a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a>, SCLC's Director of Direct Action and Director of Nonviolent Education, then came up with a bold and controversial alternative: to train high school students to take part in the demonstrations. As a result, in what would be called the <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a>, more than one thousand students skipped school on May 2 to meet at the 16th Street Baptist Church to join the demonstrations. More than six hundred marched out of the church fifty at a time in an attempt to walk to City Hall to speak to Birmingham's mayor about segregation. They were arrested and put into jail. In this first encounter, the police acted with restraint. On the next day, however, another one thousand students gathered at the church. When Bevel started them marching fifty at a time, Bull Connor finally unleashed police dogs on them and then turned the city's fire hoses water streams on the children. National television networks broadcast the scenes of the dogs attacking demonstrators and the water from the fire hoses knocking down the schoolchildren.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> Widespread public outrage led the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidency of John F. Kennedy">Kennedy administration</a> to intervene more forcefully in negotiations between the white business community and the SCLC. On May 10, the parties announced an agreement to desegregate the lunch counters and other public accommodations downtown, to create a committee to eliminate discriminatory hiring practices, to arrange for the release of jailed protesters, and to establish regular means of communication between black and white leaders. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bomb_wreckage_near_Gaston_Motel_(14_May_1963).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of a building in ruins next to an intact wall" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Bomb_wreckage_near_Gaston_Motel_%2814_May_1963%29.JPG/220px-Bomb_wreckage_near_Gaston_Motel_%2814_May_1963%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Bomb_wreckage_near_Gaston_Motel_%2814_May_1963%29.JPG/330px-Bomb_wreckage_near_Gaston_Motel_%2814_May_1963%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Bomb_wreckage_near_Gaston_Motel_%2814_May_1963%29.JPG/440px-Bomb_wreckage_near_Gaston_Motel_%2814_May_1963%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="836" data-file-height="553" /></a><figcaption>Wreckage at the Gaston Motel following the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham crisis">bomb explosion</a> on May 11, 1963</figcaption></figure> Not everyone in the black community approved of the agreement—<a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a> was particularly critical, since he was skeptical about the good faith of Birmingham's power structure from his experience in dealing with them. Parts of the white community reacted violently. They <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963#Gaston_Motel" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">bombed the Gaston Motel</a>, which housed the SCLC's unofficial headquarters, and the home of King's brother, the Reverend A. D. King. In response, <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham crisis">thousands of blacks rioted</a>, burning numerous buildings and one of them stabbed and wounded a police officer.<a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wallace_at_University_of_Alabama_edit2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Wallace_at_University_of_Alabama_edit2.jpg/220px-Wallace_at_University_of_Alabama_edit2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Wallace_at_University_of_Alabama_edit2.jpg/330px-Wallace_at_University_of_Alabama_edit2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Wallace_at_University_of_Alabama_edit2.jpg/440px-Wallace_at_University_of_Alabama_edit2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4046" data-file-height="2897" /></a><figcaption>Alabama governor <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a> <a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">tried to block desegregation</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama" title="University of Alabama">University of Alabama</a> and is confronted by U.S. Deputy Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Katzenbach" title="Nicholas Katzenbach">Nicholas Katzenbach</a> in 1963.</figcaption></figure> Kennedy prepared to federalize the <a href="/wiki/Alabama_National_Guard" title="Alabama National Guard">Alabama National Guard</a> if the need arose. Four months later, on September 15, a conspiracy of Ku Klux Klan members <a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">bombed the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church</a> in Birmingham, killing four young girls. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Rising_tide_of_discontent"_and_Kennedy's_response,_1963">"Rising tide of discontent" and Kennedy's response, 1963</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Address">Civil Rights Address</a></div> Birmingham was only one of over a hundred cities rocked by the chaotic protest that spring and summer, some of them in the North but mainly in the South. During the March on Washington, Martin Luther King Jr. would refer to such protests as "the whirlwinds of revolt." In Chicago, blacks rioted through the South Side in late May after a white police officer shot a fourteen-year-old black boy who was fleeing the scene of a robbery.<a href="#cite_note-Nicholas_Andrew_Bryant_2006_pg._2-126">[124]</a> Violent clashes between black activists and white workers took place in both Philadelphia and Harlem in successful efforts to integrate state construction projects.<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a> On June 6, over a thousand whites attacked a sit-in in Lexington, North Carolina; blacks fought back and one white man was killed.<a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a> Edwin C. Berry of the National Urban League warned of a complete breakdown in race relations: "My message from the beer gardens and the barbershops all indicate the fact that the Negro is ready for war."<a href="#cite_note-Nicholas_Andrew_Bryant_2006_pg._2-126">[124]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Maryland" title="Cambridge, Maryland">Cambridge, Maryland</a>, a working‐class city on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Shore_of_Maryland" title="Eastern Shore of Maryland">Eastern Shore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a> of SNCC led a movement that pressed for desegregation but also demanded low‐rent public housing, job‐training, public and private jobs, and an end to police brutality.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson167-131">[129]</a> On June 11, struggles between blacks and whites <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_riot_of_1963" title="Cambridge riot of 1963">escalated into violent rioting</a>, leading Maryland Governor <a href="/wiki/J._Millard_Tawes" title="J. Millard Tawes">J. Millard Tawes</a> to declare <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a>. When negotiations between Richardson and Maryland officials faltered, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy directly intervened to negotiate a desegregation agreement.<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> Richardson felt that the increasing participation of poor and working-class blacks was expanding both the power and parameters of the movement, asserting that "the people as a whole really do have more intelligence than a few of their leaders.ʺ<a href="#cite_note-Jackson167-131">[129]</a> In their deliberations during this wave of protests, the Kennedy administration privately felt that militant demonstrations were ʺbad for the countryʺ and that "Negroes are going to push this thing too far."<a href="#cite_note-web1.millercenter.org-133">[131]</a> On May 24, Robert Kennedy had a <a href="/wiki/Baldwin-Kennedy_meeting" class="mw-redirect" title="Baldwin-Kennedy meeting">meeting with prominent black intellectuals</a> to discuss the racial situation. The black delegation criticized Kennedy harshly for vacillating on civil rights and said that the African-American community's thoughts were increasingly turning to violence. The meeting ended with ill will on all sides.<a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schlesinger333-136">[134]</a> Nonetheless, the Kennedys ultimately decided that new legislation for equal public accommodations was essential to drive activists "into the courts and out of the streets."<a href="#cite_note-web1.millercenter.org-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:March_on_Washington_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/March_on_Washington_edit.jpg/220px-March_on_Washington_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/March_on_Washington_edit.jpg/330px-March_on_Washington_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/March_on_Washington_edit.jpg/440px-March_on_Washington_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1271" data-file-height="1902" /></a><figcaption>The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom at the <a href="/wiki/National_Mall" title="National Mall">National Mall</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington,_D.C._(Leaders_of_the_march_posing_in_front_of_the_statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln..._-_NARA_-_542063_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_of_the_march_posing_in_front_of_the_statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln..._-_NARA_-_542063_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_of_the_march_posing_in_front_of_the_statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln..._-_NARA_-_542063_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_of_the_march_posing_in_front_of_the_statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln..._-_NARA_-_542063_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_of_the_march_posing_in_front_of_the_statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln..._-_NARA_-_542063_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_of_the_march_posing_in_front_of_the_statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln..._-_NARA_-_542063_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_of_the_march_posing_in_front_of_the_statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln..._-_NARA_-_542063_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1963" data-file-height="1429" /></a><figcaption>Leaders of the March on Washington posing before the Lincoln Memorial on August 28, 1963</figcaption></figure> On June 11, 1963, <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a>, Governor of Alabama, tried <a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">to block</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> the integration of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama" title="University of Alabama">University of Alabama</a>. President John F. Kennedy sent a military force to make Governor Wallace step aside, allowing the enrollment of <a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone Jones</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a>. That evening, President Kennedy addressed the nation on TV and radio with his historic <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Address">civil rights speech</a>, where he lamented "a rising tide of discontent that threatens the public safety." He called on Congress to pass new civil rights legislation, and urged the country to embrace civil rights as "a moral issue...in our daily lives."<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> In the early hours of June 12, <a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a>, field secretary of the Mississippi NAACP, was assassinated by a member of the Klan.<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> The next week, as promised, on June 19, 1963, President Kennedy submitted his Civil Rights bill to Congress.<a href="#cite_note-abbeville-142">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="March_on_Washington,_1963">March on Washington, 1963</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg/220px-Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg/330px-Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg/440px-Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2050" data-file-height="2625" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Robinson" title="Cleveland Robinson">Cleveland Robinson</a> (right), organizers of the March, on August 7, 1963</figcaption></figure>Randolph and <a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a> were the chief planners of the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a>, which they proposed in 1962. In 1963, the Kennedy administration initially opposed the march out of concern it would negatively impact the drive for passage of civil rights legislation. However, Randolph and King were firm that the march would proceed.<a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> With the march going forward, the Kennedys decided it was important to work to ensure its success. Concerned about the turnout, President Kennedy enlisted the aid of white church leaders and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/United_Automobile_Workers" class="mw-redirect" title="United Automobile Workers">UAW</a>, to help mobilize white supporters for the march.<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> The march was held on August 28, 1963. Unlike the planned 1941 march, for which Randolph included only black-led organizations in the planning, the 1963 march was a collaborative effort of all of the major civil rights organizations, the more progressive wing of the labor movement, and other liberal organizations. The march had six official goals: <ul><li>meaningful civil rights laws</li> <li>a massive federal works program</li> <li>full and fair employment</li> <li>decent housing</li> <li>the right to vote</li> <li>adequate integrated education.</li></ul> Of these, the march's major focus was on passage of the civil rights law that the Kennedy administration had proposed after the upheavals in Birmingham. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington,_D.C._(Dr._Martin_Luther_King,_Jr._and_Mathew_Ahmann_in_a_crowd.)_-_NARA_-_542015_-_Restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Dr._Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._and_Mathew_Ahmann_in_a_crowd.%29_-_NARA_-_542015_-_Restoration.jpg/220px-Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Dr._Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._and_Mathew_Ahmann_in_a_crowd.%29_-_NARA_-_542015_-_Restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Dr._Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._and_Mathew_Ahmann_in_a_crowd.%29_-_NARA_-_542015_-_Restoration.jpg/330px-Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Dr._Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._and_Mathew_Ahmann_in_a_crowd.%29_-_NARA_-_542015_-_Restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Dr._Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._and_Mathew_Ahmann_in_a_crowd.%29_-_NARA_-_542015_-_Restoration.jpg/440px-Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Dr._Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._and_Mathew_Ahmann_in_a_crowd.%29_-_NARA_-_542015_-_Restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1974" data-file-height="1565" /></a><figcaption>Martin Luther King Jr. at a civil rights march on Washington, D.C.</figcaption></figure> National media attention also greatly contributed to the march's national exposure and probable impact. In the essay "The March on Washington and Television News",<a href="#cite_note-southernspaces.org-146">[144]</a> historian William Thomas notes: "Over five hundred cameramen, technicians, and correspondents from the major networks were set to cover the event. More cameras would be set up than had filmed the last presidential inauguration. One camera was positioned high in the Washington Monument, to give dramatic vistas of the marchers". By carrying the organizers' speeches and offering their own commentary, television stations framed the way their local audiences saw and understood the event.<a href="#cite_note-southernspaces.org-146">[144]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:I_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg" title="File:I Have A Dream sample.ogg">"I Have a Dream"</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="30" data-mwtitle="I_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg" data-mwprovider="local"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/61/I_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/transcoded/6/61/I_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg/I_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=bg&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="bg" label="български ‪(bg)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=bn&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="bn" label="বাংলা ‪(bn)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=ca&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ca" label="català ‪(ca)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=cs&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="cs" label="čeština ‪(cs)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=de&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="de" label="Deutsch ‪(de)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=en-gb&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en-GB" label="British English ‪(en-gb)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=es&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=hr&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="hr" label="hrvatski ‪(hr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=it&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="it" label="italiano ‪(it)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=ja&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ja" label="日本語 ‪(ja)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=pl&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pl" label="polski ‪(pl)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=pt&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt" label="português ‪(pt)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=ru&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ru" label="русский ‪(ru)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=sh&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="sh" label="srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ‪(sh)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=sr&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="sr" label="српски / srpski ‪(sr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg&lang=uk&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="uk" label="українська ‪(uk)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">30-second sample from "<a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">I Have a Dream</a>" speech by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> The march was a success, although not without controversy. An estimated 200,000 to 300,000 demonstrators gathered in front of the <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Memorial" title="Lincoln Memorial">Lincoln Memorial</a>, where King delivered his famous "<a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">I Have a Dream</a>" speech. While many speakers applauded the Kennedy administration for the efforts it had made toward obtaining new, more effective civil rights legislation protecting the right to vote and outlawing segregation, <a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">SNCC</a> took the administration to task for not doing more to protect southern blacks and civil rights workers under attack in the Deep South. After the march, King and other civil rights leaders met with President Kennedy at the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a>. While the Kennedy administration appeared sincerely committed to passing the bill, it was not clear that it had enough votes in Congress to do so. However, when <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_assassination" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Kennedy assassination">President Kennedy was assassinated</a> on November 22, 1963,<a href="#cite_note-abbeville-142">[140]</a> the new President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon Johnson</a> decided to use his influence in <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> to bring about much of Kennedy's legislative agenda. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="St._Augustine,_Florida,_1963–1964">St. Augustine, Florida, 1963–1964</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protest" class="mw-redirect" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protest">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protest</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WhiteTradeOnlyLancasterOhio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/WhiteTradeOnlyLancasterOhio.jpg/220px-WhiteTradeOnlyLancasterOhio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/WhiteTradeOnlyLancasterOhio.jpg/330px-WhiteTradeOnlyLancasterOhio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/WhiteTradeOnlyLancasterOhio.jpg/440px-WhiteTradeOnlyLancasterOhio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3565" data-file-height="2747" /></a><figcaption>"We Cater to White Trade Only" sign on a restaurant window in <a href="/wiki/Lancaster,_Ohio" title="Lancaster, Ohio">Lancaster, Ohio</a>, in 1938. In 1964, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> was arrested and spent a night in jail for attempting to eat at a white-only restaurant in <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine,_Florida" title="St. Augustine, Florida">St. Augustine, Florida</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine,_Florida" title="St. Augustine, Florida">St. Augustine</a> was famous as the "Nation's Oldest City", founded by the Spanish in 1565. It became the stage for a great drama leading up to the passage of the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964. A local movement, led by Robert B. Hayling, a black dentist and Air Force veteran affiliated with the NAACP, had been picketing segregated local institutions since 1963. In the fall of 1964, Hayling and three companions were brutally beaten at a Ku Klux Klan rally. Nightriders shot into black homes, and teenagers Audrey Nell Edwards, JoeAnn Anderson, Samuel White, and Willie Carl Singleton (who came to be known as "The St. Augustine Four") sat in at a local Woolworth's lunch counter, seeking to get served. They were arrested and convicted of trespassing, and sentenced to six months in jail and reform school. It took a special act of the governor and cabinet of Florida to release them after national protests by the <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_Courier" title="Pittsburgh Courier">Pittsburgh Courier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a>, and others. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rc17739_04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Black and white photograph of segregationists fighting on a beach" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Rc17739_04.jpg/170px-Rc17739_04.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Rc17739_04.jpg/255px-Rc17739_04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Rc17739_04.jpg/340px-Rc17739_04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="727" /></a><figcaption>White segregationists (foreground) trying to prevent black people from swimming at a "White only" beach in St. Augustine, Florida during the <a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></figcaption></figure> In response to the repression, the St. Augustine movement practiced armed self-defense in addition to nonviolent direct action. In June 1963, Hayling publicly stated that "I and the others have armed. We will shoot first and answer questions later. We are not going to die like Medgar Evers." The comment made national headlines.<a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a> When Klan nightriders terrorized black neighborhoods in St. Augustine, Hayling's NAACP members often drove them off with gunfire. In October 1963, a Klansman was killed.<a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a> In 1964, Hayling and other activists urged the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> to come to St. Augustine. Four prominent Massachusetts women—Mary Parkman Peabody, Esther Burgess, Hester Campbell (all of whose husbands were Episcopal bishops), and Florence Rowe (whose husband was vice president of an insurance company)—also came to lend their support. The arrest of Peabody, the 72-year-old mother of the governor of Massachusetts, for attempting to eat at the segregated Ponce de Leon Motor Lodge in an integrated group, made front-page news across the country and brought the movement in St. Augustine to the attention of the world.<a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a> Widely publicized activities continued in the ensuing months. When King was arrested, he sent a "Letter from the St. Augustine Jail" to a northern supporter, <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a> <a href="/wiki/Israel_S._Dresner" title="Israel S. Dresner">Israel S. Dresner</a>. A week later, in the largest mass arrest of rabbis in American history took place, while they were conducting a pray-in at the segregated Monson Motel. A well-known photograph taken in St. Augustine shows <a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">the manager of the Monson Motel</a> pouring <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> in the swimming pool while blacks and whites are swimming in it. As he did so he yelled that he was "cleaning the pool", a presumed reference to it now being, in his eyes, racially contaminated.<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> The photograph was run on the front page of a Washington newspaper the day the Senate was to vote on passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chester_school_protests,_Spring_1964">Chester school protests, Spring 1964</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></div> From November 1963 through April 1964, the <a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a> were a series of civil rights protests led by <a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a> of the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_Persons" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored Persons">National Association for the Advancement of Colored Persons</a> (NAACP) and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a> of the Committee for Freedom Now (CFFN) that made <a href="/wiki/Chester,_Pennsylvania" title="Chester, Pennsylvania">Chester, Pennsylvania</a> one of the key battlegrounds of the civil rights movement. <a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a>, the national director of the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality</a> called Chester "the Birmingham of the North".<a href="#cite_note-Mele-151">[149]</a> In 1962, Branche and the CFFN focused on improving conditions at the predominantly black Franklin Elementary school in Chester. Although the school was built to house 500 students, it had become overcrowded with 1,200 students. The school's average class size was 39, twice the number of nearby all-white schools.<a href="#cite_note-Phoenix-152">[150]</a> The school was built in 1910 and had never been updated. Only two bathrooms were available for the entire school.<a href="#cite_note-nvdbase-153">[151]</a> In November 1963, CFFN protesters blocked the entrance to Franklin Elementary school and the Chester Municipal Building resulting in the arrest of 240 protesters. Following public attention to the protests stoked by media coverage of the mass arrests, the mayor and school board negotiated with the CFFN and NAACP.<a href="#cite_note-Mele-151">[149]</a> The Chester Board of Education agreed to <a href="/wiki/Class-size_reduction" title="Class-size reduction">reduce class sizes</a> at Franklin school, remove unsanitary toilet facilities, relocate classes held in the boiler room and coal bin and repair school grounds.<a href="#cite_note-nvdbase-153">[151]</a> Emboldened by the success of the Franklin Elementary school demonstrations, the CFFN recruited new members, sponsored voter registration drives and planned a citywide boycott of Chester schools. Branche built close ties with students at nearby <a href="/wiki/Swarthmore_College" title="Swarthmore College">Swarthmore College</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Military_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania Military College">Pennsylvania Military College</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cheyney_State_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheyney State College">Cheyney State College</a> in order to ensure large turnouts at demonstrations and protests.<a href="#cite_note-Mele-151">[149]</a> Branche invited <a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a> to Chester to participate in the "Freedom Now Conference"<a href="#cite_note-McLarnon-154">[152]</a> and other national civil rights leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a> came to Chester in support of the demonstrations.<a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a> In 1964, a series of almost nightly protests brought chaos to Chester as protestors argued that the Chester School Board had <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">segregation</a> <a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">of schools</a>. The mayor of Chester, <a href="/wiki/James_Gorbey" class="mw-redirect" title="James Gorbey">James Gorbey</a>, issued "The Police Position to Preserve the Public Peace", a ten-point statement promising an immediate return to law and order. The city deputized firemen and trash collectors to help handle demonstrators.<a href="#cite_note-Mele-151">[149]</a> The State of Pennsylvania deployed 50 state troopers to assist the 77-member Chester police force.<a href="#cite_note-nvdbase-153">[151]</a> The demonstrations were marked by violence and charges of police brutality.<a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a> Over six hundred people were arrested over a two-month period of civil rights rallies, marches, pickets, boycotts and sit-ins.<a href="#cite_note-Mele-151">[149]</a> Pennsylvania Governor <a href="/wiki/William_Scranton" title="William Scranton">William Scranton</a> became involved in the negotiations and convinced Branche to obey a court-ordered moratorium on demonstrations.<a href="#cite_note-McLarnon-154">[152]</a> Scranton created the Pennsylvania Human Relations Commission to conduct hearings on the de facto segregation of public schools. All protests were discontinued while the commission held hearings during the summer of 1964.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMele201796-157">[155]</a> In November 1964, the Pennsylvania Human Relations Commission concluded that the Chester School Board had violated the law and ordered the Chester School District to desegregate the city's six predominantly African-American schools. The city appealed the ruling, which delayed implementation.<a href="#cite_note-nvdbase-153">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freedom_Summer,_1964">Freedom Summer, 1964</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></div> In the summer of 1964, <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">COFO</a> brought nearly 1,000 activists to Mississippi—most of them white college students from the North and West—to join with local black activists to register voters, teach in "Freedom Schools", and organize the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a> (MFDP).<a href="#cite_note-crmvet.org-158">[156]</a> Many of Mississippi's white residents deeply resented the outsiders and attempts to change their society. State and local governments, police, the <a href="/wiki/White_Citizens%27_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="White Citizens' Council">White Citizens' Council</a> and the Ku Klux Klan used arrests, beatings, arson, murder, spying, firing, evictions, and other forms of intimidation and harassment to oppose the project and prevent blacks from registering to vote or achieving social equality.<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FBI_Poster_of_Missing_Civil_Rights_Workers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/FBI_Poster_of_Missing_Civil_Rights_Workers.jpg/220px-FBI_Poster_of_Missing_Civil_Rights_Workers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/FBI_Poster_of_Missing_Civil_Rights_Workers.jpg/330px-FBI_Poster_of_Missing_Civil_Rights_Workers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/FBI_Poster_of_Missing_Civil_Rights_Workers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="618" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Missing_persons" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing persons">Missing persons</a> poster created by the <a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a> in 1964 <a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">shows the photographs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></figcaption></figure> On June 21, 1964, <a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">three civil rights workers disappeared</a>: <a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a>, a young black Mississippian and plasterer's apprentice; and two <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> activists, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Queens_College,_City_University_of_New_York" title="Queens College, City University of New York">Queens College</a> anthropology student; and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">CORE</a> organizer from <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Lower_East_Side" title="Lower East Side">Lower East Side</a>. They were found weeks later, murdered by conspirators who turned out to be local members of the Klan, some of the members of the <a href="/wiki/Neshoba_County,_Mississippi" title="Neshoba County, Mississippi">Neshoba County</a> sheriff's department. This outraged the public, leading the U.S. Justice Department along with the FBI (the latter which had previously avoided dealing with the issue of segregation and persecution of blacks) to take action. The outrage over these murders helped lead to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. From June to August, Freedom Summer activists worked in 38 local projects scattered across the state, with the largest number concentrated in the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Delta" title="Mississippi Delta">Mississippi Delta</a> region. At least 30 Freedom Schools, with close to 3,500 students, were established, and 28 community centers were set up.<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> Over the course of the Summer Project, some 17,000 Mississippi blacks attempted to become registered voters in defiance of the red tape and forces of <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a> arrayed against them—only 1,600 (less than 10%) succeeded. But more than 80,000 joined the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a> (MFDP), founded as an alternative political organization, showing their desire to vote and participate in politics.<a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a> Though <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> failed to register many voters, it had a significant effect on the course of the civil rights movement. It helped break down the decades of people's isolation and repression that were the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a> system. Before Freedom Summer, the national news media had paid little attention to the persecution of black voters in the Deep South and the dangers endured by black civil rights workers. The progression of events throughout the South increased media attention to Mississippi.<a href="#cite_note-crmvet1-162">[160]</a> The deaths of affluent northern white students and threats to non-Southerners attracted the full attention of the media spotlight to the state. Many black activists became embittered, believing the media valued the lives of whites and blacks differently. Perhaps the most significant effect of Freedom Summer was on the volunteers, almost all of whom—black and white—still consider it to have been one of the defining periods of their lives.<a href="#cite_note-crmvet1-162">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></div> Although President Kennedy had <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Address">proposed civil rights legislation</a> and it had support from Northern Congressmen and Senators of both parties, Southern Senators blocked the bill by threatening <a href="/wiki/Filibuster" title="Filibuster">filibusters</a>. After considerable parliamentary maneuvering and 54 days of filibuster on the floor of the United States Senate, President Johnson got a bill through the Congress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReeves1993521–524-163">[161]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act,_July_2,_1964.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg/220px-Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg/330px-Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg/440px-Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7000" data-file-height="4687" /></a><figcaption>Lyndon B. Johnson signs the historic <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></figcaption></figure> On July 2, 1964, Johnson signed the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>,<a href="#cite_note-cra64-9">[7]</a> which banned discrimination based on "race, color, religion, sex or national origin" in employment practices and public accommodations. The bill authorized the Attorney General to file lawsuits to enforce the new law. The law also nullified state and local laws that required such discrimination. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party,_1964">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, 1964</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></div> Blacks in Mississippi had been <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement" title="Disfranchisement">disfranchised</a> by statutory and constitutional changes since the late 19th century. In 1963 COFO held a <a href="/wiki/1963_Freedom_Ballot" class="mw-redirect" title="1963 Freedom Ballot">Freedom Ballot</a> in Mississippi to demonstrate the desire of black Mississippians to vote. More than 80,000 people registered and voted in the mock election, which pitted an integrated slate of candidates from the "Freedom Party" against the official state Democratic Party candidates.<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lyndon_Johnson_meeting_with_civil_rights_leaders.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Lyndon_Johnson_meeting_with_civil_rights_leaders.jpg/300px-Lyndon_Johnson_meeting_with_civil_rights_leaders.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Lyndon_Johnson_meeting_with_civil_rights_leaders.jpg/450px-Lyndon_Johnson_meeting_with_civil_rights_leaders.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Lyndon_Johnson_meeting_with_civil_rights_leaders.jpg/600px-Lyndon_Johnson_meeting_with_civil_rights_leaders.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3904" data-file-height="2633" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (center) meets with civil rights leaders <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_L._Farmer_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="James L. Farmer Jr.">James Farmer</a>, January 1964</figcaption></figure> In 1964, organizers launched the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) to challenge the all-white official party. When Mississippi voting registrars refused to recognize their candidates, they held their own primary. They selected <a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Devine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray</a> to run for <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>, and a slate of delegates to represent Mississippi at the 1964 Democratic National Convention.<a href="#cite_note-crmvet.org-158">[156]</a> The presence of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party in <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_City,_New_Jersey" title="Atlantic City, New Jersey">Atlantic City, New Jersey</a>, was inconvenient, however, for the convention organizers. They had planned a triumphant celebration of the Johnson administration's achievements in civil rights, rather than a fight over racism within the Democratic Party. All-white delegations from other Southern states threatened to walk out if the official slate from Mississippi was not seated. Johnson was worried about the inroads that Republican <a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Barry Goldwater</a>'s campaign was making in what previously had been the white Democratic stronghold of the "Solid South", as well as support that <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a> had received in the North during the Democratic primaries. Johnson could not, however, prevent the MFDP from taking its case to the Credentials Committee. There <a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a> testified eloquently about the beatings that she and others endured and the threats they faced for trying to register to vote. Turning to the television cameras, Hamer asked, "Is this America?" Johnson offered the MFDP a "compromise" under which it would receive two non-voting, at-large seats, while the white delegation sent by the official Democratic Party would retain its seats. The MFDP angrily rejected the "compromise." The MFDP kept up its agitation at the convention after it was denied official recognition. When all but three of the "regular" Mississippi delegates left because they refused to pledge allegiance to the party, the MFDP delegates borrowed passes from sympathetic delegates and took the seats vacated by the official Mississippi delegates. National party organizers removed them. When they returned the next day, they found convention organizers had removed the empty seats that had been there the day before. They stayed and sang "freedom songs". The 1964 Democratic Party convention disillusioned many within the MFDP and the civil rights movement, but it did not destroy the MFDP. The MFDP became more radical after Atlantic City. It invited <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a> to speak at one of its conventions and opposed the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">war in Vietnam</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selma_Voting_Rights_Movement">Selma Voting Rights Movement</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting Rights Act">Voting Rights Act</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">SNCC</a> had undertaken an ambitious voter registration program in <a href="/wiki/Selma,_Alabama" title="Selma, Alabama">Selma, Alabama</a>, in 1963, but by 1965 little headway had been made in the face of opposition from Selma's sheriff, Jim Clark. After local residents asked the SCLC for assistance, King came to Selma to lead several marches, at which he was arrested along with 250 other demonstrators. The marchers continued to meet violent resistance from the police. <a href="/wiki/Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" class="mw-redirect" title="Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a>, a resident of nearby Marion, was killed by police at a later march on February 17, 1965. Jackson's death prompted <a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a>, director of the Selma Movement, to initiate and organize a plan to march from Selma to <a href="/wiki/Montgomery,_Alabama" title="Montgomery, Alabama">Montgomery</a>, the state capital. On March 7, 1965, acting on Bevel's plan, <a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a> of the SCLC and John Lewis of SNCC led a march of 600 people to walk the 54 miles (87 km) from Selma to the state capital in Montgomery. Six blocks into the march, at the <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a> where the marchers left the city and moved into the county, state troopers, and local county law enforcement, some mounted on horseback, attacked the peaceful demonstrators with billy clubs, <a href="/wiki/Tear_gas" title="Tear gas">tear gas</a>, rubber tubes wrapped in barbed wire, and bullwhips. They drove the marchers back into Selma. Lewis was knocked unconscious and dragged to safety. At least 16 other marchers were hospitalized. Among those gassed and beaten was <a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton Robinson</a>, who was at the center of civil rights activity at the time. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bloody_Sunday-Alabama_police_attack.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Bloody_Sunday-Alabama_police_attack.jpeg/220px-Bloody_Sunday-Alabama_police_attack.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Bloody_Sunday-Alabama_police_attack.jpeg/330px-Bloody_Sunday-Alabama_police_attack.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Bloody_Sunday-Alabama_police_attack.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="274" /></a><figcaption>Police attack non-violent marchers on "Bloody Sunday", the first day of the <a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a>.</figcaption></figure> Photographs and television footage depicting the events of Bloody Sunday rapidly captured national attention, prompting Americans to confront the widespread violence and racism within their borders. This reaction drew new supporters to the cause. In light of this surge in backing, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and other leaders organized a second attempt to march. On March 9, 1965, they conducted a symbolic march to the <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a> but were ultimately turned back once again by state troopers and law enforcement. Consequently, the group returned to <a href="/wiki/Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma,_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a>, opting not to risk another day of violence. This act of nonviolent resistance was a strategic choice aimed at garnering further support for the movement. However, this decision displeased many demonstrators, particularly those who were critical of King's nonviolent approach, such as <a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams.</a> That night, local Whites attacked <a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a>, a voting rights supporter. He died of his injuries in a Birmingham hospital on March 11. Due to the national outcry at a White minister being murdered so brazenly (as well as the subsequent civil disobedience led by Gorman and other SNCC leaders all over the country, especially in Montgomery and at the White House), the marchers were able to lift the injunction and obtain protection from federal troops, permitting them to make the march across Alabama without incident two weeks later; during the march, Gorman, Williams, and other more militant protesters carried bricks and sticks of their own. Four Klansmen shot and killed <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a> homemaker <a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a> as she drove marchers back to Selma that night. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_(August_6,_1965)_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv" title="File:Remarks on the Signing of the Voting Rights Act (August 6, 1965) Lyndon Baines Johnson.ogv">'Remarks on the Signing of the Voting Rights Act'</a></div> <div><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_%28August_6%2C_1965%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv/232px--Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_%28August_6%2C_1965%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" height="174" data-durationhint="1240" data-mwtitle="Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_(August_6,_1965)_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9a/Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_%28August_6%2C_1965%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv/Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_%28August_6%2C_1965%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_%28August_6%2C_1965%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9a/Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_%28August_6%2C_1965%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv/Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_%28August_6%2C_1965%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9a/Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_%28August_6%2C_1965%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv/Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_%28August_6%2C_1965%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9a/Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_%28August_6%2C_1965%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv/Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_%28August_6%2C_1965%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></div> <div class="description">Statement before the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> by Johnson on August 6, 1965, about the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting Rights Act">Voting Rights Act</a></div></div><hr /><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_(August_6,_1965)_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogg" title="File:Remarks on the Signing of the Voting Rights Act (August 6, 1965) Lyndon Baines Johnson.ogg">"Remarks on the Signing of the Voting Rights Act"</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="1263" data-mwtitle="Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_(August_6,_1965)_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_%28August_6%2C_1965%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dc/Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_%28August_6%2C_1965%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogg/Remarks_on_the_Signing_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_%28August_6%2C_1965%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">audio only</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing these files? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> Eight days after the first march, but before the final march, President Johnson delivered a televised address to support the voting rights bill he had sent to Congress. In it he stated: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Their cause must be our cause too. Because it is not just Negroes, but really it is all of us, who must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and injustice. And we shall overcome.</blockquote> On May 26, the Senate passed S. 1564, the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act</a>, by a vote of 77–19, with only Southern Senators opposing the bill.<a href="#cite_note-Bending-165">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> On July 9, the House of Representatives passed H.R. 6400, the House version of the bill, by a vote of 333-85.<a href="#cite_note-Bending-165">[163]</a>: 163–165 <a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> On August 3–4, the two houses of Congress reconciled the two bill, and on August 6, President Johnson signed the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>. The bill suspended literacy tests and other subjective voter registration tests. It authorized Federal supervision of voter registration in states and individual voting districts where such tests were being used and where African Americans were historically under-represented in voting rolls compared to the eligible population. African Americans who had been barred from registering to vote finally had an alternative to taking suits to local or state courts, which had seldom prosecuted their cases to success. If discrimination in voter registration occurred, the 1965 act authorized the <a href="/wiki/Attorney_General_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Attorney General of the United States">Attorney General of the United States</a> to send Federal examiners to replace local registrars. Within months of the bill's passage, 250,000 new black voters had been registered, one-third of them by federal examiners. Within four years, voter registration in the South had more than doubled. In 1965, Mississippi had the highest black voter turnout at 74% and led the nation in the number of black public officials elected. In 1969, Tennessee had a 92% turnout among black voters; Arkansas, 78%; and Texas, 73%. Several whites who had opposed the Voting Rights Act paid a quick price. In 1966 <a href="/wiki/Jim_Clark_(sheriff)" title="Jim Clark (sheriff)">Sheriff Jim Clark</a> of Selma, Alabama, infamous for using <a href="/wiki/Cattle_prod" title="Cattle prod">cattle prods</a> against civil rights marchers, was up for reelection. Although he took off the notorious "Never" pin on his uniform, he was defeated. At the election, Clark lost as blacks voted to get him out of office. Blacks' regaining the power to vote changed the political landscape of the South. When Congress passed the Voting Rights Act, only about 100 African Americans held elective office, all in northern states. By 1989, there were more than 7,200 African Americans in office, including more than 4,800 in the South. Nearly every county where populations were majority black in Alabama had a black sheriff. Southern blacks held top positions in city, county, and state governments. Atlanta elected a black mayor in 1982, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a>, as did <a href="/wiki/Jackson,_Mississippi" title="Jackson, Mississippi">Jackson, Mississippi</a> in 1997, with <a href="/wiki/Harvey_Johnson_Jr." title="Harvey Johnson Jr.">Harvey Johnson Jr.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> in 1978, with <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Nathan_Morial" title="Ernest Nathan Morial">Ernest Morial</a>. Black politicians on the national level included <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a>, elected as a Representative from Texas in Congress in 1973, and President Jimmy Carter appointed Andrew Young as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_the_United_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to the United Nations">United States Ambassador to the United Nations</a>. <a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a> was elected to the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_General_Assembly" title="Georgia General Assembly">Georgia State Legislature</a> in 1965, although political reaction to his public <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_U.S._involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War">opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War</a> prevented him from taking his seat until 1967. <a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a> was first elected in 1986 to represent <a href="/wiki/Georgia%27s_5th_congressional_district" title="Georgia's 5th congressional district">Georgia's 5th congressional district</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a>, where he served from 1987 until his death in 2020. There were only two <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">Black members of Congress</a> from the states of the former Confederacy <a href="/wiki/1980_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1980 United States House of Representatives elections">elected in 1980</a>, and four <a href="/wiki/1990_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1990 United States House of Representatives elections">elected in 1990</a>, but this rose to 16 <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="2000 United States House of Representatives elections">in 2000</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fair_housing_movements,_1966–1968">Fair housing movements, 1966–1968</h3></div> The first major blow against housing segregation in the era, the <a href="/wiki/Rumford_Fair_Housing_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Rumford Fair Housing Act">Rumford Fair Housing Act</a>, was passed in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> in 1963. It was overturned by white California voters and real estate lobbyists the following year with <a href="/wiki/California_Proposition_14_(1964)" class="mw-redirect" title="California Proposition 14 (1964)">Proposition 14</a>, a move which helped precipitate the <a href="/wiki/Watts_riots" title="Watts riots">Watts riots</a>.<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a> In 1966, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_California" title="Supreme Court of California">California Supreme Court</a> invalidated Proposition 14 and reinstated the Rumford Fair Housing Act.<a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a> Working and organizing for <a href="/wiki/Fair_housing" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair housing">fair housing</a> laws became a major project of the movement over the next two years, with Martin Luther King Jr., James Bevel, and <a href="/wiki/Al_Raby" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Raby">Al Raby</a> leading the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a> around the issue in 1966. In the following year, Father <a href="/wiki/James_Groppi" title="James Groppi">James Groppi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">NAACP Youth Council</a> also attracted national attention with a fair housing campaign in Milwaukee.<a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> Both movements faced violent resistance from white homeowners and legal opposition from conservative politicians. The Fair Housing Bill was the most contentious civil rights legislation of the era. Senator <a href="/wiki/Walter_Mondale" title="Walter Mondale">Walter Mondale</a>, who advocated for the bill, noted that over successive years, it was the most <a href="/wiki/Filibuster" title="Filibuster">filibustered</a> legislation in U.S. history. It was opposed by most Northern and Southern senators, as well as the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Real_Estate_Boards" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association of Real Estate Boards">National Association of Real Estate Boards</a>. A proposed "Civil Rights Act of 1966" had collapsed completely because of its fair housing provision.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> Mondale commented that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A lot of civil rights [legislation] was about making the South behave and taking the teeth from George Wallace, [but] this came right to the neighborhoods across the country. This was civil rights getting personal.<a href="#cite_note-propublica.org-174">[172]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nationwide_riots_of_1967">Nationwide riots of 1967</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Long_Hot_Summer_of_1967" class="mw-redirect" title="Long Hot Summer of 1967">Long Hot Summer of 1967</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Detroit_Riot_of_1967" class="mw-redirect" title="Detroit Riot of 1967">Detroit Riot of 1967</a>, <a href="/wiki/1967_Newark_riots" title="1967 Newark riots">1967 Newark riots</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1967_Plainfield_riots" title="1967 Plainfield riots">1967 Plainfield riots</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_3" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm/220px--Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="161" data-durationhint="165" data-mwtitle="Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/da/Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm/Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="654" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="654" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/da/Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm/Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="196" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/da/Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm/Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="328" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/da/Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm/Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="490" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/da/Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm/Excerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="490" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AExcerpt-_MP886_Detroit_Riots.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>Film on the riots created by the White House Naval Photographic Unit</figcaption></figure> In 1967 riots broke out in black neighborhoods in more than 100 U.S. cities, including Detroit, Newark, Cincinnati, Cleveland, and Washington, D.C.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> The largest of these was the <a href="/wiki/1967_Detroit_riot" title="1967 Detroit riot">1967 Detroit riot</a>. In Detroit, a large <a href="/wiki/Black_middle_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Black middle class">black middle class</a> had begun to develop among those African Americans who worked at unionized jobs in the automotive industry. These workers complained of persisting racist practices, limiting the jobs they could have and opportunities for promotion. The <a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers</a> channeled these complaints into bureaucratic and ineffective grievance procedures.<a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a> Violent white mobs enforced the segregation of housing up through the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-pbs.org-177">[175]</a> Blacks who were not upwardly mobile were living in substandard conditions, subject to the same problems as poor African Americans in Watts and Harlem. When white <a href="/wiki/Detroit_Police_Department" title="Detroit Police Department">Detroit Police Department</a> (DPD) officers shut down an illegal bar and arrested a large group of patrons during the hot summer, furious black residents rioted. Rioters looted and destroyed property while snipers engaged in firefights from rooftops and windows, undermining the DPD's ability to curtail the disorder. In response, the <a href="/wiki/Michigan_Army_National_Guard" title="Michigan Army National Guard">Michigan Army National Guard</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">U.S. Army</a> <a href="/wiki/Paratrooper" title="Paratrooper">paratroopers</a> were deployed to reinforce the DPD and protect <a href="/wiki/Detroit_Fire_Department" title="Detroit Fire Department">Detroit Fire Department</a> (DFD) firefighters from attacks while putting out fires. Residents reported that police officers and National Guardsmen shot at black civilians and suspects indiscriminately. After five days, 43 people had been killed, hundreds injured, and thousands left homeless; $40 million to $45 million worth of damage was caused.<a href="#cite_note-pbs.org-177">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a> State and local governments responded to the riot with a dramatic increase in minority hiring.<a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a> In the aftermath of the turmoil, the Greater Detroit Board of Commerce also launched a campaign to find jobs for ten thousand "previously unemployable" persons, a preponderant number of whom were black.<a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> Governor <a href="/wiki/George_Romney_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Romney (politician)">George Romney</a> immediately responded to the riot of 1967 with a special session of the Michigan legislature where he forwarded sweeping housing proposals that included not only <a href="/wiki/Fair_housing" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair housing">fair housing</a>, but "important relocation, <a href="/wiki/Tenant_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenant rights">tenants' rights</a> and code enforcement legislation." Romney had supported such proposals in 1965 but abandoned them in the face of organized opposition. The laws passed both houses of the legislature. Historian Sidney Fine wrote that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The Michigan Fair Housing Act, which took effect on November 15, 1968, was stronger than the federal fair housing law...It is probably more than a coincidence that the state that had experienced the most severe racial disorder of the 1960s also adopted one of the strongest state fair housing acts.<a href="#cite_note-law.msu.edu-181">[179]</a></blockquote> President Johnson created the <a href="/wiki/Kerner_Commission" title="Kerner Commission">National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders</a> in response to a nationwide wave of riots. The commission's final report called for major reforms in employment and public policy in black communities. It warned that the United States was moving toward separate white and black societies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memphis,_King_assassination,_and_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968">Memphis, King assassination, and Civil Rights Act of 1968</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">King assassination riots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orangeburg_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Orangeburg massacre">Orangeburg massacre</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Resurrection_City_Washington_D.C._1968.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Resurrection_City_Washington_D.C._1968.jpg/240px-Resurrection_City_Washington_D.C._1968.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Resurrection_City_Washington_D.C._1968.jpg/360px-Resurrection_City_Washington_D.C._1968.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Resurrection_City_Washington_D.C._1968.jpg/480px-Resurrection_City_Washington_D.C._1968.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1136" data-file-height="758" /></a><figcaption>A 3,000-person shantytown called <a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign#Resurrection_City" title="Poor People's Campaign">Resurrection City</a> was established in 1968 on the <a href="/wiki/National_Mall" title="National Mall">National Mall</a> as part of the Poor People's Campaign.</figcaption></figure> As 1968 began, the fair housing bill was being <a href="/wiki/Filibustered" class="mw-redirect" title="Filibustered">filibustered</a> once again, but two developments revived it.<a href="#cite_note-propublica.org-174">[172]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kerner_Commission" title="Kerner Commission">Kerner Commission</a> report on the <a href="/wiki/Long_hot_summer_of_1967" class="mw-redirect" title="Long hot summer of 1967">1967 ghetto riots</a> was delivered to Congress on March 1, and it strongly recommended "a comprehensive and enforceable federal open housing law" as a remedy to the civil disturbances. The Senate was moved to end their filibuster that week.<a href="#cite_note-huduser.org-182">[180]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(American_activist)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Lawson (American activist)">James Lawson</a> invited King to <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis, Tennessee</a>, in March 1968 to support a <a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">sanitation workers' strike</a>. These workers launched a campaign for <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">union</a> representation after two workers were accidentally killed on the job; they were seeking fair wages and improved working conditions. King considered their struggle to be a vital part of the <a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a> he was planning. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:I%27ve_Been_To_The_Mountaintop.ogg" title="File:I've Been To The Mountaintop.ogg">"I've Been to the Mountaintop"</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_4" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="30" data-mwtitle="I've_Been_To_The_Mountaintop.ogg" data-mwprovider="local"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ea/I%27ve_Been_To_The_Mountaintop.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/transcoded/e/ea/I%27ve_Been_To_The_Mountaintop.ogg/I%27ve_Been_To_The_Mountaintop.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AI%27ve_Been_To_The_Mountaintop.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">Final 30 seconds of "<a href="/wiki/I%27ve_Been_to_the_Mountaintop" title="I've Been to the Mountaintop">I've Been to the Mountaintop</a>" speech by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> These are the final words from his final public speech.</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> A day after delivering his stirring "<a href="/wiki/I%27ve_Been_to_the_Mountaintop" title="I've Been to the Mountaintop">I've Been to the Mountaintop</a>" sermon, which has become famous for his vision of American society, King was assassinated on April 4, 1968, at the <a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Motel" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorraine Motel">Lorraine Motel</a> in Memphis. <a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">Riots broke out</a> in black neighborhoods in more than 110 cities across the United States in the days that followed, notably <a href="/wiki/1968_Chicago_riots" title="1968 Chicago riots">in Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baltimore_riot_of_1968" title="Baltimore riot of 1968">Baltimore</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1968_Washington,_D.C.,_riots" title="1968 Washington, D.C., riots">Washington, D.C.</a> The day before <a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">King's funeral</a>, April 8, a completely silent march with <a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">SCLC</a>, and UAW president <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a> attracted approximately 42,000 participants.<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> Armed National Guardsmen lined the streets, sitting on <a href="/wiki/M-48_tanks" class="mw-redirect" title="M-48 tanks">M-48 tanks</a>, to protect the marchers, and helicopters circled overhead. On April 9, Mrs. King led another 150,000 people in a funeral procession through the streets of Atlanta.<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a> Her dignity revived courage and hope in many of the Movement's members, confirming her place as the new leader in the struggle for racial equality. Coretta Scott King said,<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> gave his life for the poor of the world, the garbage workers of Memphis and the peasants of Vietnam. The day that Negro people and others in bondage are truly free, on the day want is abolished, on the day wars are no more, on that day I know my husband will rest in a long-deserved peace.</blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leffler_-_1968_Washington,_D.C._Martin_Luther_King,_Jr._riots.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Leffler_-_1968_Washington%2C_D.C._Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._riots.jpg/220px-Leffler_-_1968_Washington%2C_D.C._Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._riots.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Leffler_-_1968_Washington%2C_D.C._Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._riots.jpg/330px-Leffler_-_1968_Washington%2C_D.C._Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._riots.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Leffler_-_1968_Washington%2C_D.C._Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._riots.jpg/440px-Leffler_-_1968_Washington%2C_D.C._Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._riots.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4946" data-file-height="3227" /></a><figcaption>Aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">King assassination riots</a> in Washington, D.C.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a> succeeded King as the head of the SCLC and attempted to carry forth King's plan for a Poor People's March. It was to unite blacks and whites to campaign for fundamental changes in American society and economic structure. The march went forward under Abernathy's plainspoken leadership but did not achieve its goals. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">U.S. House of Representatives</a> had been deliberating its Fair Housing Act in early April, before King's assassination and the aforementioned <a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">wave of unrest</a> that followed, the largest since the Civil War.<a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a> Senator <a href="/wiki/Charles_Mathias" title="Charles Mathias">Charles Mathias</a> wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[S]ome Senators and Representatives publicly stated they would not be intimidated or rushed into legislating because of the disturbances. Nevertheless, the news coverage of the riots and the underlying disparities in income, jobs, housing, and education, between White and Black Americans helped educate citizens and Congress about the stark reality of an enormous social problem. Members of Congress knew they had to act to redress these imbalances in American life to fulfill the dream that King had so eloquently preached.<a href="#cite_note-huduser.org-182">[180]</a></blockquote> The House passed the legislation on April 10, less than a week after King was murdered, and President Johnson signed it the next day. The <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a> prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, and national origin. It also made it a federal crime to "by force or by the threat of force, injure, intimidate, or interfere with anyone...by reason of their race, color, religion, or national origin."<a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gates_v._Collier">Gates v. Collier</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MississippiStatePen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/MississippiStatePen.jpg/220px-MississippiStatePen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/MississippiStatePen.jpg/330px-MississippiStatePen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/MississippiStatePen.jpg/440px-MississippiStatePen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_State_Penitentiary" title="Mississippi State Penitentiary">Mississippi State Penitentiary</a></figcaption></figure> Conditions at the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_State_Penitentiary" title="Mississippi State Penitentiary">Mississippi State Penitentiary</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_State_Penitentiary" title="Mississippi State Penitentiary">Parchman</a>, then known as Parchman Farm, became part of the public discussion of civil rights after <a href="/wiki/Activism" title="Activism">activists</a> were imprisoned there. In the spring of 1961, Freedom Riders came to the South to test the <a href="/wiki/Desegregation_in_the_United_States" title="Desegregation in the United States">desegregation</a> of public facilities. By the end of June 1963, Freedom Riders had been convicted in <a href="/wiki/Jackson,_Mississippi" title="Jackson, Mississippi">Jackson, Mississippi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a> Many were jailed in Mississippi State Penitentiary at Parchman. Mississippi employed the <a href="/wiki/Trusty_system_(prison)" title="Trusty system (prison)">trusty system</a>, a hierarchical order of inmates that used some inmates to control and enforce punishment of other inmates.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a> In 1970 the civil rights lawyer Roy Haber began taking statements from inmates. He collected 50 pages of details of murders, rapes, beatings and other abuses suffered by the inmates from 1969 to 1971 at Mississippi State Penitentiary. In a <a href="/wiki/Landmark_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Landmark case">landmark case</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Gates_v._Collier" title="Gates v. Collier">Gates v. Collier</a> (1972), four inmates represented by Haber sued the superintendent of Parchman Farm for violating their rights under the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>. Federal Judge <a href="/wiki/William_C._Keady" class="mw-redirect" title="William C. Keady">William C. Keady</a> found in favor of the inmates, writing that Parchman Farm violated the civil rights of the inmates by inflicting <a href="/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment" title="Cruel and unusual punishment">cruel and unusual punishment</a>. He ordered an immediate end to all unconstitutional conditions and practices. Racial segregation of inmates was abolished, as was the trusty system, which allowed certain inmates to have power and control over others.<a href="#cite_note-hnet-191">[189]</a> The prison was renovated in 1972 after the scathing ruling by Keady, who wrote that the prison was an affront to "modern standards of decency." Among other reforms, the accommodations were made fit for human habitation. The system of trusties was abolished. (The prison had armed <a href="/wiki/Life_imprisonment" title="Life imprisonment">lifers</a> with rifles and given them authority to oversee and guard other inmates, which led to many cases of abuse and murders.)<a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a> In integrated correctional facilities in northern and western states, blacks represented a disproportionate number of prisoners, in excess of their proportion of the general population. They were often treated as second-class citizens by white correctional officers. Blacks also represented a disproportionately high number of <a href="/wiki/Death_row" title="Death row">death row</a> inmates. <a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a>'s book <a href="/wiki/Soul_on_Ice_(book)" title="Soul on Ice (book)">Soul on Ice</a> was written from his experiences in the California correctional system; it contributed to black militancy.<a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legacy">Legacy</h3></div> Civil rights protest activity had an observable impact on white American's views on race and politics over time.<a href="#cite_note-mazumdar-194">[192]</a> White people who live in counties in which civil rights protests of historical significance occurred have been found to have lower levels of racial resentment against blacks, are more likely to identify with the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> as well as more likely to support <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mazumdar-194">[192]</a> One study found that non-violent activism of the era tended to produce favorable media coverage and changes in public opinion focusing on the issues organizers were raising, but violent protests tended to generate unfavorable media coverage that generated public desire to restore law and order.<a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a> The 1964 Act was passed to end <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> in various fields based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in the areas of employment and public accommodation.<a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> The 1964 Act did not prohibit sex discrimination against persons employed at educational institutions. A parallel law, Title VI, had also been enacted in 1964 to prohibit discrimination in federally funded private and public entities. It covered race, color, and national origin but excluded sex. Feminists during the early 1970s lobbied Congress to add sex as a protected class category. In 1972, <a href="/wiki/Title_IX" title="Title IX">Title IX</a> was enacted to fill this gap and prohibit discrimination in all federally funded education programs. Title IX, or the <a href="/wiki/Education_Amendments_of_1972" title="Education Amendments of 1972">Education Amendments of 1972</a> was later renamed the <a href="/wiki/Patsy_T._Mink" class="mw-redirect" title="Patsy T. Mink">Patsy T. Mink</a> Equal Opportunity in Education Act following Mink's death in 2002.<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fannie_Lou_Hamer_1964-08-22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Fannie_Lou_Hamer_1964-08-22.jpg/170px-Fannie_Lou_Hamer_1964-08-22.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Fannie_Lou_Hamer_1964-08-22.jpg/255px-Fannie_Lou_Hamer_1964-08-22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Fannie_Lou_Hamer_1964-08-22.jpg/340px-Fannie_Lou_Hamer_1964-08-22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3044" data-file-height="4579" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a> (and other Mississippi-based organizations) is an example of local grassroots leadership in the movement.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African-American_women">African-American women</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the civil rights movement</a></div> <a href="/wiki/African-American" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American">African-American</a> women in the civil rights movement were pivotal to its success.<a href="#cite_note-gyant-199">[197]</a> They volunteered as activists, advocates, educators, clerics, writers, spiritual guides, caretakers and politicians for the civil rights movement; leading and participating in organizations that contributed to the cause of civil rights.<a href="#cite_note-gyant-199">[197]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a>'s refusal to sit at the back of a <a href="/wiki/Public_bus" class="mw-redirect" title="Public bus">public bus</a> resulted in the year-long <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a>,<a href="#cite_note-gyant-199">[197]</a> and the eventual <a href="/wiki/Desegregation_in_the_United_States" title="Desegregation in the United States">desegregation</a> of interstate travel in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> Women were members of the NAACP because they believed it could help them contribute to the cause of civil rights.<a href="#cite_note-gyant-199">[197]</a> Some of those involved with the Black Panthers were nationally recognized as leaders, and still others did editorial work on the Black Panther newspaper spurring internal discussions about gender issues.<a href="#cite_note-Greene-201">[199]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">SNCC</a> and was a prominent figure in the civil rights movement.<a href="#cite_note-urban-202">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> Female students involved with the SNCC helped to organize sit-ins and the Freedom Rides.<a href="#cite_note-urban-202">[200]</a> At the same time many elderly black women in towns across the Southern US cared for the organization's volunteers at their homes, providing the students food, a bed, healing aid and motherly love.<a href="#cite_note-urban-202">[200]</a> Other women involved also formed church groups, bridge clubs, and professional organizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a>, to help achieve freedom for themselves and their race.<a href="#cite_note-Greene-201">[199]</a> Several who participated in these organizations lost their jobs because of their involvement.<a href="#cite_note-Greene-201">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sexist_discrimination">Sexist discrimination</h4></div> Many women who participated in the movement experienced <a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">gender discrimination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">sexual harassment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a> In the SCLC, <a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a>'s input was discouraged in spite of her being the oldest and most experienced person on the staff.<a href="#cite_note-205">[203]</a> There are many other accounts and examples.<a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avoiding_the_"Communist"_label">Avoiding the "Communist" label</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA_and_African_Americans" title="Communist Party USA and African Americans">Communist Party USA and African Americans</a></div> On December 17, 1951, the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party</a>–affiliated <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Congress" title="Civil Rights Congress">Civil Rights Congress</a> delivered the petition <a href="/wiki/We_Charge_Genocide" title="We Charge Genocide">We Charge Genocide</a>: The Crime of Government Against the Negro People to the United Nations, arguing that the U.S. federal government, by its failure to act against <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynching in the United States</a>, was guilty of <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> under Article II of the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prevention_and_Punishment_of_the_Crime_of_Genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide">UN Genocide Convention</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a>).<a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a> The petition was presented to the United Nations at two separate venues: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a>, a concert singer and activist, presented it to a UN official in New York City, while <a href="/wiki/William_L._Patterson" title="William L. Patterson">William L. Patterson</a>, executive director of the CRC, delivered copies of the drafted petition to a UN delegation in Paris.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1981-211">[209]</a> Patterson, the editor of the petition, was a leader of the Communist Party USA and head of the <a href="/wiki/International_Labor_Defense" title="International Labor Defense">International Labor Defense</a>, a group that offered legal representation to communists, trade unionists, and African Americans who were involved in cases that involved issues of political or racial persecution. The ILD was known for leading the defense of the <a href="/wiki/Scottsboro_Boys" title="Scottsboro Boys">Scottsboro Boys</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> in 1931, where the Communist Party had a considerable amount of influence among African Americans in the 1930s. This influence had largely declined by the late 1950s, although it could command international attention. As earlier civil rights figures such as Robeson, Du Bois and Patterson became more politically radical (and therefore targets of Cold War <a href="/wiki/Anti-Communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Communism">anti-Communism</a> by the U.S. Government), they lost favor with mainstream Black America as well as with the NAACP.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1981-211">[209]</a> In order to secure a place in the political mainstream and gain the broadest base of support, the new generation of civil rights activists believed that it had to openly distance itself from anything and anyone associated with the Communist party. According to <a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a>, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference added the word "Christian" to its name in order to deter charges that it was associated with <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a>, the FBI had been concerned about communism since the early 20th century, and it kept civil rights activists under close surveillance and labeled some of them "Communist" or "subversive", a practice that continued during the civil rights movement. In the early 1960s, the practice of distancing the civil rights movement from "Reds" was challenged by the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a> which adopted a policy of accepting assistance and participation from anyone who supported the SNCC's political program and was willing to "put their body on the line, regardless of political affiliation." At times the SNCC's policy of political openness put it at odds with the NAACP.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1981-211">[209]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grassroots_leadership">Grassroots leadership</h3></div> While most popular representations of the movement are centered on the leadership and philosophy of Martin Luther King Jr., some scholars note that the movement was too diverse to be credited to one person, organization, or strategy. Sociologist <a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a> has stated that, "in King's case, it would be inaccurate to say that he was the leader of the modern civil rights movement...but more importantly, there was no singular civil rights movement. The movement was, in fact, a coalition of thousands of local efforts nationwide, spanning several decades, hundreds of discrete groups, and all manner of strategies and tactics—legal, illegal, institutional, non-institutional, violent, non-violent. Without discounting King's importance, it would be sheer fiction to call him the leader of what was fundamentally an amorphous, fluid, dispersed movement."<a href="#cite_note-bostonreview.net-213">[211]</a> Decentralized grassroots leadership has been a major focus of movement scholarship in recent decades through the work of historians <a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles Payne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Ransby" title="Barbara Ransby">Barbara Ransby</a>, and others. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tactics_and_nonviolence">Tactics and nonviolence</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:White_men_and_Robeson_County_indians_(Lumbee_Indians)_in_crowd_with_a_car_and_guns_(State%27s_Exhibit_No.5)._Photo_taken_by_Bill_Shaw,_Fayetteville_Observer_newspaper_photographer._Photo_used_as_state%27s_(8223346871).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/White_men_and_Robeson_County_indians_%28Lumbee_Indians%29_in_crowd_with_a_car_and_guns_%28State%27s_Exhibit_No.5%29._Photo_taken_by_Bill_Shaw%2C_Fayetteville_Observer_newspaper_photographer._Photo_used_as_state%27s_%288223346871%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/White_men_and_Robeson_County_indians_%28Lumbee_Indians%29_in_crowd_with_a_car_and_guns_%28State%27s_Exhibit_No.5%29._Photo_taken_by_Bill_Shaw%2C_Fayetteville_Observer_newspaper_photographer._Photo_used_as_state%27s_%288223346871%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/White_men_and_Robeson_County_indians_%28Lumbee_Indians%29_in_crowd_with_a_car_and_guns_%28State%27s_Exhibit_No.5%29._Photo_taken_by_Bill_Shaw%2C_Fayetteville_Observer_newspaper_photographer._Photo_used_as_state%27s_%288223346871%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="831" /></a><figcaption>Armed Lumbee Indians aggressively confronting Klansmen in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hayes_Pond" title="Battle of Hayes Pond">Battle of Hayes Pond</a></figcaption></figure> The Jim Crow system employed "terror as a means of social control,"<a href="#cite_note-214">[212]</a> with the most organized manifestations being the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> and their collaborators in local police departments. This violence played a key role in blocking the progress of the civil rights movement in the late 1950s. Some black organizations in the South began practicing armed self-defense. The first to do so openly was the Monroe, North Carolina, chapter of the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a>. Williams had rebuilt the chapter after its membership was terrorized out of public life by the Klan. He did so by encouraging a new, more working-class membership to arm itself thoroughly and defend against attack.<a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a> When Klan nightriders attacked the home of NAACP member Albert Perry in October 1957, Williams' militia exchanged gunfire with the stunned Klansmen, who quickly retreated. The following day, the city council held an emergency session and passed an ordinance banning KKK motorcades.<a href="#cite_note-216">[214]</a> One year later, Lumbee Indians in North Carolina would have a similarly successful armed stand-off with the Klan (known as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hayes_Pond" title="Battle of Hayes Pond">Battle of Hayes Pond</a>) which resulted in KKK leader James W. "Catfish" Cole being convicted of incitement to riot.<a href="#cite_note-217">[215]</a> After the acquittal of several white men charged with sexually assaulting black women in Monroe, Williams announced to United Press International reporters that he would "meet violence with violence" as a policy. Williams' declaration was quoted on the front page of The New York Times, and The Carolina Times considered it "the biggest civil rights story of 1959".<a href="#cite_note-218">[216]</a> NAACP National chairman Roy Wilkins immediately suspended Williams from his position, but the Monroe organizer won support from numerous NAACP chapters across the country. Ultimately, Wilkins resorted to bribing influential organizer Daisy Bates to campaign against Williams at the NAACP national convention and the suspension was upheld. The convention nonetheless passed a resolution which stated: "We do not deny, but reaffirm the right of individual and collective self-defense against unlawful assaults."<a href="#cite_note-219">[217]</a> Martin Luther King Jr. argued for Williams' removal,<a href="#cite_note-220">[218]</a> but <a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[219]</a> and <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">WEB Dubois</a><a href="#cite_note-history.msu.edu-222">[220]</a> both publicly praised the Monroe leader's position. Williams—along with his wife, Mabel Williams—continued to play a leadership role in the Monroe movement, and to some degree, in the national movement. The Williamses published The Crusader, a nationally circulated newsletter, beginning in 1960, and the influential book Negroes With Guns in 1962. Williams did not call for full militarization in this period, but "flexibility in the freedom struggle."<a href="#cite_note-223">[221]</a> Williams was well-versed in legal tactics and publicity, which he had used successfully in the internationally known "<a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a>" of 1958, as well as nonviolent methods, which he used at <a href="/wiki/Lunch_counter" title="Lunch counter">lunch counter</a> sit-ins in Monroe—all with armed self-defense as a complementary tactic. Williams led the Monroe movement in another armed stand-off with white supremacists during an August 1961 Freedom Ride; he had been invited to participate in the campaign by <a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a> of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). The incident (along with his campaigns for peace with Cuba) resulted in him being targeted by the FBI and prosecuted for kidnapping; he was cleared of all charges in 1976.<a href="#cite_note-Tyson_1998-224">[222]</a> Meanwhile, armed self-defense continued discreetly in the Southern movement with such figures as SNCC's <a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Tyson_1998-224">[222]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a>,<a href="#cite_note-225">[223]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a> all willing to use arms to defend their lives from nightrides. Taking refuge from the FBI in Cuba, the Willamses broadcast the radio show <a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Dixie" title="Radio Free Dixie">Radio Free Dixie</a> throughout the eastern United States via Radio Progresso beginning in 1962. In this period, Williams advocated guerilla warfare against racist institutions and saw the large ghetto riots of the era as a manifestation of his strategy. <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_at_Chapel_Hill" title="University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill">University of North Carolina</a> historian Walter Rucker has written that "the emergence of Robert F Williams contributed to the marked decline in anti-black racial violence in the U.S....After centuries of anti-black violence, African Americans across the country began to defend their communities aggressively—employing overt force when necessary. This in turn evoked in whites real fear of black vengeance..." This opened up space for African Americans to use nonviolent demonstrations with less fear of deadly reprisal.<a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a> Of the many civil rights activists who share this view, the most prominent was Rosa Parks. Parks gave the eulogy at Williams' funeral in 1996, praising him for "his courage and for his commitment to freedom," and concluding that "The sacrifices he made, and what he did, should go down in history and never be forgotten."<a href="#cite_note-228">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_support_for_the_movement">Jewish support for the movement</h3></div> Jewish Americans played an active role supporting the Civil Rights Movement and were actively involved in establishing and supporting a number of the most important civil rights organizations, including the NAACP, the Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). These organizations played pivotal roles in the civil rights movement, advocating for racial equality and justice.<a href="#cite_note-229">[227]</a> Despite representing less than 2% of the US population, Jews made up roughly half of all civil rights lawyers in the South during the 1960s and half of the white northern volunteers involved in the 1964 Mississippi Freedom Summer project.<a href="#cite_note-230">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_responses">Political responses</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Truman_administration:_1945–1953">Truman administration: 1945–1953</h3></div> Partly in response to the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a> under Truman's predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Employment_Practices_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Employment Practices Committee">Fair Employment Practices Committee</a> was created to address racial discrimination in employment,<a href="#cite_note-231">[229]</a> and in 1946, Truman created the <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Committee_on_Civil_Rights" title="President's Committee on Civil Rights">President's Committee on Civil Rights</a>. On June 29, 1947, Truman became the first president to address the demands of the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP). The speech took place at the <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Memorial" title="Lincoln Memorial">Lincoln Memorial</a> during the NAACP convention and was carried nationally on radio. In that speech, Truman laid out his agreement on the need to end discrimination, which would be advanced by the first comprehensive, presidentially proposed civil rights legislation. Truman on "civil rights and human freedom" declared:<a href="#cite_note-232">[230]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">… Our immediate task is to remove the last remnants of the barriers which stand between millions of our citizens and their birthright. There is no justifiable reason for discrimination because of ancestry, or religion, or race, or color. We must not tolerate such limitations on the freedom of any of our people and on their enjoyment of basic rights which every citizen in a truly democratic society must possess.</blockquote> In February 1948, Truman delivered a formal message to Congress requesting adoption of his 10-point program to secure civil rights, including anti-lynching, voter rights, and elimination of segregation. "No political act since the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a>," argued biographer <a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a>, "so profoundly influenced race relations; in a sense it was a repeal of 1877."<a href="#cite_note-Mikas-233">[231]</a> Truman was opposed by the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_coalition" title="Conservative coalition">conservative coalition</a> in congress, so instead issued Executive Orders 9980 and 9981 ending discrimination in federal employment and in the armed forces.<a href="#cite_note-Mikas-233">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eisenhower_administration:_1953–1961">Eisenhower administration: 1953–1961</h3></div> While not a key focus of his administration, President Eisenhower made several conservative strides toward making America a racially integrated country. The year he was elected, Eisenhower desegregated Washington D.C. after hearing a story about an African American man who was unable to rent a hotel room, buy a meal, access drinking water, and attend a movie.<a href="#cite_note-auto-234">[232]</a> Shortly after this act, Eisenhower utilized Hollywood personalities to pressure movie theatres into desegregating as well.<a href="#cite_note-235">[233]</a> Under the previous administration, President Truman signed <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981 to desegregate the military</a>. However, Truman's executive order had hardly been enforced. President Eisenhower made it a point to enforce the executive order. By October 30, 1954, there were no segregated combat units in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-auto-234">[232]</a> Not only this, but Eisenhower also desegregated the Veterans Administration and military bases in the South, including federal schools for military dependents. Expanding his work beyond the military, Eisenhower formed two non-discrimination committees, one to broker nondiscrimination agreements with government contractors, and a second to end discrimination within government departments and agencies.<a href="#cite_note-auto-234">[232]</a> The first major piece of civil rights legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was also passed under the Eisenhower administration. President Eisenhower proposed, championed, and signed the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a>. The legislation established the Civil Rights Commission and the Justice Department's Civil Rights Division and banned intimidating, coercing, and other means of interfering with a citizen's right to vote. Eisenhower's work in desegregating the judicial system is also notable. The judges he appointed were liberal when it came to the subject of civil rights / desegregation, and he actively avoided placing segregationists in federal courts.<a href="#cite_note-auto-234">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kennedy_administration:_1961–1963">Kennedy administration: 1961–1963</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Kennedy_speaking_before_a_crowd,_June_14,_1963.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Robert_Kennedy_speaking_before_a_crowd%2C_June_14%2C_1963.jpg/220px-Robert_Kennedy_speaking_before_a_crowd%2C_June_14%2C_1963.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Robert_Kennedy_speaking_before_a_crowd%2C_June_14%2C_1963.jpg/330px-Robert_Kennedy_speaking_before_a_crowd%2C_June_14%2C_1963.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Robert_Kennedy_speaking_before_a_crowd%2C_June_14%2C_1963.jpg/440px-Robert_Kennedy_speaking_before_a_crowd%2C_June_14%2C_1963.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3165" data-file-height="4806" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a> speaking before a hostile Civil Rights crowd protesting low <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">minority hiring</a> in his <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Justice Department</a> June 14, 1963<a href="#cite_note-Risen_2014_76-236">[234]</a></figcaption></figure> For the first two years of the Kennedy administration, civil rights activists had mixed opinions of both the president and his younger brother, <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a>. Historian <a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a> wrote that the race question was for a long time a minor ethnic political issue in <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> where the Kennedy brothers came from, and had they been from another part of the country, "they might have been more immediately sensitive to the complexities and depth of black feelings."<a href="#cite_note-237">[235]</a> A well of historical skepticism toward liberal politics had left African Americans with a sense of uneasy disdain for any white politician who claimed to share their concerns for freedom, particularly ones connected to the historically pro-segregationist Democratic Party. Still, many were encouraged by the discreet support Kennedy gave to King, and the administration's willingness, after dramatic pressure from civil disobedience, to bring forth racially egalitarian initiatives. Many of the initiatives resulted from Robert Kennedy's passion. The younger Kennedy gained a rapid education in the realities of racism through events such as the <a href="/wiki/Baldwin-Kennedy_meeting" class="mw-redirect" title="Baldwin-Kennedy meeting">Baldwin-Kennedy meeting</a>. The president came to share his brother's sense of urgency on the matter, resulting in the landmark <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Address">Civil Rights Address</a> of June 1963 and the introduction of the first major civil rights act of the decade.<a href="#cite_note-238">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-239">[237]</a> Robert Kennedy expressed the administration's commitment to civil rights during a May 6, 1961 <a href="/wiki/Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">speech</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_Law_School" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Georgia Law School">University of Georgia Law School</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Our position is quite clear. We are upholding the law. The federal government would not be running the schools in <a href="/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">Prince Edward County</a> any more than it is running the University of Georgia or the schools in my home state of <a href="/wiki/Boston_desegregation_busing_crisis#Racial_Imbalance_Act" title="Boston desegregation busing crisis">Massachusetts</a>. In this case, in all cases, I say to you today that if the orders of the court are circumvented, the Department of Justice will act. We will not stand by or be aloof—we will move. I happen to believe that <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">the 1954 decision</a> was right. But my belief does not matter. It is now the law. Some of you may believe the decision was wrong. That does not matter. It is the law.<a href="#cite_note-240">[238]</a></blockquote> That same month, during the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom Rides">Freedom Rides</a>, Robert Kennedy became concerned with the issue when photographs of the burning bus and savage beatings in <a href="/wiki/Anniston,_Alabama" title="Anniston, Alabama">Anniston</a> and Birmingham were broadcast around the world. They came at an especially embarrassing time, as President Kennedy was about to have a <a href="/wiki/Vienna_summit" title="Vienna summit">summit with the Soviet premier</a> in Vienna. The White House was concerned with its image among the populations of newly independent nations in Africa and Asia, and Robert Kennedy responded with an address for <a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a> stating that great progress had been made on the issue of race relations. Meanwhile, behind the scenes, the administration worked to resolve the crisis with a minimum of violence and prevent the Freedom Riders from generating a fresh crop of headlines that might divert attention from the President's international agenda. The <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_(film)" title="Freedom Riders (film)">Freedom Riders</a> documentary notes that, "The back burner issue of civil rights had collided with the urgent demands of Cold War <a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">realpolitik</a>."<a href="#cite_note-241">[239]</a> On May 21, when a white mob attacked and burned the First Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, where King was holding out with protesters, Robert Kennedy telephoned King to ask him to stay in the building until the U.S. Marshals and National Guard could secure the area. King proceeded to berate Kennedy for "allowing the situation to continue". King later publicly thanked Kennedy for deploying the force to break up an attack that might otherwise have ended King's life. With a very small majority in Congress, the president's ability to press ahead with legislation relied considerably on a balancing game with the Senators and Congressmen of the South. Without the support of Vice-president Johnson, a former Senator who had years of experience in Congress and longstanding relations there, many of the Attorney-General's programs would not have progressed. By late 1962, frustration at the slow pace of political change was balanced by the movement's strong support for legislative initiatives, including administrative representation across all U.S. Government departments and greater access to the ballot box. From squaring off against Governor <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a>, to "tearing into" Vice-president Johnson (for failing to desegregate areas of the administration), to threatening corrupt white Southern judges with disbarment, to desegregating interstate transport, Robert Kennedy came to be consumed by the civil rights movement. He continued to work on these social justice issues in his bid for the presidency in 1968. On the night of Governor Wallace's capitulation to African-American enrollment at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama" title="University of Alabama">University of Alabama</a>, President Kennedy gave an <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Address">address</a> to the nation, which marked the changing tide, an address that was to become a landmark for the ensuing change in political policy as to civil rights. In 1966, Robert Kennedy visited South Africa and voiced his objections to <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a>, the first time a major US politician had done so: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">At the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Natal" title="University of Natal">University of Natal</a> in Durban, I was told the church to which most of the white population belongs teaches apartheid as a moral necessity. A questioner declared that few churches allow black Africans to pray with the white because the Bible says that is the way it should be, because God created Negroes to serve. "But suppose God is black", I replied. "What if we go to Heaven and we, all our lives, have treated the Negro as an inferior, and God is there, and we look up and He is not white? What then is our response?" There was no answer. Only silence.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>LOOK Magazine<a href="#cite_note-242">[240]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Robert Kennedy's relationship with the movement was not always positive. As attorney general, he was called to account by activists—who booed him at a June 1963 speech—for the Justice Department's own poor record of hiring blacks.<a href="#cite_note-Risen_2014_76-236">[234]</a> He also presided over <a href="/wiki/Director_of_the_Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI Director</a> <a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a> and his <a href="/wiki/COINTELPRO" title="COINTELPRO">COINTELPRO</a> program. This program ordered FBI agents to "expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize" the activities of Communist front groups, a category in which the paranoid Hoover included most civil rights organizations.<a href="#cite_note-WRH-243">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-pbsco-244">[242]</a> Kennedy personally authorized some of the programs.<a href="#cite_note-245">[243]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Tim_Weiner" title="Tim Weiner">Tim Weiner</a>, "RFK knew much more about this surveillance than he ever admitted." Although Kennedy only gave approval for limited wiretapping of King's phones "on a trial basis, for a month or so." Hoover extended the clearance so his men were "unshackled" to look for evidence in any areas of the black leader's life they deemed important; they then used this information to harass King.<a href="#cite_note-246">[244]</a> Kennedy directly ordered surveillance on <a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a> after their antagonistic racial summit in 1963.<a href="#cite_note-247">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[246]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Johnson_administration:_1963–1969">Johnson administration: 1963–1969</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, <a href="/wiki/War_on_Poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="War on Poverty">War on Poverty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a></div> Lyndon Johnson made civil rights one of his highest priorities, coupling it with a "<a href="/wiki/War_on_poverty" title="War on poverty">war on poverty</a>." However, the increasing opposition to the Vietnam War, coupled with the cost of the war, undercut support for his domestic programs.<a href="#cite_note-249">[247]</a> Under Kennedy, major civil rights legislation had been stalled in Congress. His assassination changed everything. On one hand, President Lyndon Johnson was a much more skillful negotiator than Kennedy, but he had behind him a powerful national momentum demanding immediate action on moral and emotional grounds. Demands for immediate action originated from unexpected directions, especially white Protestant church groups. The Justice Department, led by Robert Kennedy, moved from a posture of defending Kennedy from the quagmire minefield of racial politics to acting to fulfill his legacy. The violent death and public reaction dramatically moved the conservative Republicans, led by Senator <a href="/wiki/Everett_McKinley_Dirksen" class="mw-redirect" title="Everett McKinley Dirksen">Everett McKinley Dirksen</a>, whose support was the margin of victory for the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>. The act immediately ended de jure (legal) segregation and the era of Jim Crow.<a href="#cite_note-250">[248]</a> With the civil rights movement at full blast, Lyndon Johnson coupled black entrepreneurship with his war on poverty, setting up special programs in the Small Business Administration, the Office of Economic Opportunity, and other agencies.<a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a> This time there was money for loans designed to boost minority business ownership. Richard Nixon greatly expanded the program, setting up the Office of Minority Business Enterprise (OMBE) in the expectation that black entrepreneurs would help defuse racial tensions and possibly support his reelection.<a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_political_reactions">Foreign political reactions</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4></div> In China, <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> in August 1963 expressed support for the U.S. civil rights movement, stating that the "fascist atrocities" committed against black people in the U.S. demonstrated the link between reactionary domestic U.S. policies and its policies of aggression abroad.<a href="#cite_note-:Minami-253">[251]</a>: 34  In 1968, a mass rally in China condemned the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.<a href="#cite_note-:Reinders-254">[252]</a>: 91  Mao stated that racial discrimination in the U.S. resulted from its colonial system and that the struggle of Black people in the U.S. was an <a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">anti-imperialist</a> struggle.<a href="#cite_note-:Minami-253">[251]</a>: 34  The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> echoed this view of the civil rights movement.<a href="#cite_note-:Reinders-254">[252]</a>: 91  During the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Daily" title="People's Daily">People's Daily</a> repeated cited the example that King advocated nonviolence, but was violently killed, as an example of its view that violent struggle was necessary for the oppressed masses of the world to free themselves.<a href="#cite_note-:Gao-255">[253]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a> influenced some components of the Black liberation movement, including the Black Panther Party and black self-defense advocate <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:Minami-253">[251]</a>: 34  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Popular_reactions">Popular reactions</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Malcolm_X's_relationship_with_the_movement,_1964–1965">Malcolm X's relationship with the movement, 1964–1965</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Nationalism">Black Nationalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Ballot_or_the_Bullet" title="The Ballot or the Bullet">The Ballot or the Bullet</a></div> In March 1964, <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a> (el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz), national representative of the <a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a>, formally broke with that organization, and made a public offer to collaborate with any civil rights organization that accepted the right to self-defense and the philosophy of Black nationalism (which Malcolm said no longer required <a href="/wiki/Black_separatism" title="Black separatism">Black separatism</a>). <a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a>, head of the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Maryland" title="Cambridge, Maryland">Cambridge, Maryland</a>, chapter of <a href="/wiki/SNCC" class="mw-redirect" title="SNCC">SNCC</a>, and leader of the Cambridge rebellion,<a href="#cite_note-256">[254]</a> an honored guest at The March on Washington, immediately embraced Malcolm's offer. Mrs. Richardson, "the nation's most prominent woman [civil rights] leader,"<a href="#cite_note-BAA-257">[255]</a> told <a href="/wiki/The_Baltimore_Afro-American" class="mw-redirect" title="The Baltimore Afro-American">The Baltimore Afro-American</a> that "Malcolm is being very practical...The federal government has moved into conflict situations only when matters approach the level of insurrection. Self-defense may force Washington to intervene sooner."<a href="#cite_note-BAA-257">[255]</a> Earlier, in May 1963, writer and activist <a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a> had stated publicly that "the Black Muslim movement is the only one in the country we can call <a href="/wiki/Grassroots" title="Grassroots">grassroots</a>, I hate to say it...Malcolm articulates for Negroes, their suffering...he corroborates their reality..."<a href="#cite_note-258">[256]</a> On the local level, Malcolm and the NOI had been allied with the Harlem chapter of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) since at least 1962.<a href="#cite_note-259">[257]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. speak to each other thoughtfully as others look on." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg/220px-MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg/330px-MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg/440px-MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2183" data-file-height="2392" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a> meets with <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, March 26, 1964</figcaption></figure> On March 26, 1964, as the Civil Rights Act was facing stiff opposition in Congress, Malcolm had a public meeting with Martin Luther King Jr. at the Capitol. Malcolm had tried to begin a dialog with King as early as 1957, but King had rebuffed him. Malcolm had responded by calling King an "<a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom" title="Uncle Tom">Uncle Tom</a>", saying he had turned his back on black militancy in order to appease the white power structure. But the two men were on good terms at their face-to-face meeting.<a href="#cite_note-260">[258]</a> There is evidence that King was preparing to support Malcolm's plan to formally bring the U.S. government before the United Nations on charges of human rights violations against African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-261">[259]</a> Malcolm now encouraged Black nationalists to get involved in voter registration drives and other forms of community organizing to redefine and expand the movement.<a href="#cite_note-262">[260]</a> Civil rights activists became increasingly combative in the 1963 to 1964 period, seeking to defy such events as the thwarting of the Albany campaign, police repression and <a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">Ku Klux Klan terrorism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham</a>, and the assassination of <a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a>. The latter's brother Charles Evers, who took over as Mississippi NAACP Field Director, told a public NAACP conference on February 15, 1964, that "non-violence won't work in Mississippi...we made up our minds...that if a white man shoots at a Negro in Mississippi, we will shoot back."<a href="#cite_note-263">[261]</a> The repression of sit-ins in <a href="/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida" title="Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville, Florida</a>, provoked a riot in which black youth threw <a href="/wiki/Molotov_cocktail" title="Molotov cocktail">Molotov cocktails</a> at police on March 24, 1964.<a href="#cite_note-264">[262]</a> Malcolm X gave numerous speeches in this period warning that such militant activity would escalate further if African Americans' rights were not fully recognized. In his landmark April 1964 speech "<a href="/wiki/The_Ballot_or_the_Bullet" title="The Ballot or the Bullet">The Ballot or the Bullet</a>", Malcolm presented an ultimatum to white America: "There's new strategy coming in. It'll be Molotov cocktails this month, hand grenades next month, and something else next month. It'll be ballots, or it'll be bullets."<a href="#cite_note-265">[263]</a> As noted in the PBS documentary <a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a>, "Malcolm X had a far-reaching effect on the civil rights movement. In the South, there had been a long tradition of self-reliance. Malcolm X's ideas now touched that tradition".<a href="#cite_note-266">[264]</a> Self-reliance was becoming paramount in light of the <a href="/wiki/1964_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1964 Democratic National Convention">1964 Democratic National Convention</a>'s decision to refuse seating to the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a> (MFDP) and instead to seat the regular state delegation, which had been elected in violation of the party's own rules, and by <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow law">Jim Crow law</a> instead.<a href="#cite_note-267">[265]</a> SNCC moved in an increasingly militant direction and worked with Malcolm X on two Harlem MFDP fundraisers in December 1964. When <a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a> spoke to Harlemites about the Jim Crow violence that she'd suffered in Mississippi, she linked it directly to the Northern police brutality against blacks that Malcolm protested against;<a href="#cite_note-268">[266]</a> When Malcolm asserted that African Americans should emulate the <a href="/wiki/Kenya_Land_and_Freedom_Army" title="Kenya Land and Freedom Army">Mau Mau army</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> in efforts to gain their independence, many in SNCC applauded.<a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma campaign</a> for voting rights in 1965, Malcolm made it known that he'd heard reports of increased threats of lynching around Selma. In late January he sent an open telegram to <a href="/wiki/George_Lincoln_Rockwell" title="George Lincoln Rockwell">George Lincoln Rockwell</a>, the head of the <a href="/wiki/American_Nazi_Party" title="American Nazi Party">American Nazi Party</a>, stating: <blockquote>"if your present racist agitation against our people there in Alabama causes physical harm to Reverend King or any other black Americans...you and your KKK friends will be met with maximum physical retaliation from those of us who are not handcuffed by the disarming philosophy of nonviolence."<a href="#cite_note-270">[268]</a></blockquote>The following month, the Selma chapter of SNCC invited Malcolm to speak to a mass meeting there. On the day of Malcolm's appearance, President Johnson made his first public statement in support of the Selma campaign.<a href="#cite_note-271">[269]</a> Paul Ryan Haygood, a co-director of the <a href="/wiki/NAACP_Legal_Defense_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="NAACP Legal Defense Fund">NAACP Legal Defense Fund</a>, credits Malcolm with a role in gaining support by the federal government. Haygood noted that "shortly after Malcolm's visit to Selma, a federal judge, responding to a suit brought by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Department of Justice</a>, required <a href="/wiki/Dallas_County,_Alabama" title="Dallas County, Alabama">Dallas County, Alabama</a>, registrars to process at least 100 Black applications each day their offices were open."<a href="#cite_note-272">[270]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Jews">American Jews</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/African_American%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="African American–Jewish relations">African American–Jewish relations</a>; <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_teachers%27_strike_of_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="New York City teachers' strike of 1968">New York City teachers' strike of 1968</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Brownsville,_Brooklyn" title="Brownsville, Brooklyn">Brownsville, Brooklyn</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:March_on_washington_Aug_28_1963.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/March_on_washington_Aug_28_1963.jpg/250px-March_on_washington_Aug_28_1963.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/March_on_washington_Aug_28_1963.jpg/375px-March_on_washington_Aug_28_1963.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/March_on_washington_Aug_28_1963.jpg/500px-March_on_washington_Aug_28_1963.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1978" data-file-height="1567" /></a><figcaption>Jewish civil rights activist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Rauh_Jr." title="Joseph L. Rauh Jr.">Joseph L. Rauh Jr.</a> marching with <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> in 1963</figcaption></figure> Many in the <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">Jewish</a> community supported the civil rights movement. In fact, statistically, Jews were one of the most actively involved non-black groups in the Movement. Many Jewish students worked in concert with African Americans for CORE, SCLC, and SNCC as full-time organizers and summer volunteers during the Civil Rights era. Jews made up roughly half of the white northern and western volunteers involved in the 1964 Mississippi <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> project and approximately half of the civil rights attorneys active in the South during the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-273">[271]</a> Jewish leaders were arrested while heeding a call from Martin Luther King Jr. in <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine,_Florida" title="St. Augustine, Florida">St. Augustine, Florida</a>, in June 1964, where the largest mass arrest of rabbis in American history took place at the Monson Motor Lodge. <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Joshua_Heschel" title="Abraham Joshua Heschel">Abraham Joshua Heschel</a>, a writer, rabbi, and professor of theology at the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Theological_Seminary_of_America" title="Jewish Theological Seminary of America">Jewish Theological Seminary of America</a> in New York, was outspoken on the subject of civil rights. He marched arm-in-arm with King in the 1965 <a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches#The_march_to_Montgomery" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery march</a>. In the 1964 <a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner</a>, the two white activists killed, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a>, were both Jewish. <a href="/wiki/Brandeis_University" title="Brandeis University">Brandeis University</a>, the only nonsectarian Jewish-sponsored college university in the world, created the Transitional Year Program (TYP) in 1968, in part response to the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a> The faculty created it to renew the university's commitment to social justice. Recognizing Brandeis as a university with a commitment to academic excellence, these faculty members created a chance for disadvantaged students to participate in an empowering educational experience. The <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Committee" title="American Jewish Committee">American Jewish Committee</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Congress" title="American Jewish Congress">American Jewish Congress</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">Anti-Defamation League</a> (ADL) actively promoted civil rights. While Jews were very active in the civil rights movement in the South, in the North, many had experienced a more strained relationship with African Americans. It has been argued that with Black militancy and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power">Black Power</a> movements on the rise, "Black Anti-Semitism" increased leading to strained relations between Blacks and Jews in Northern communities. In New York City, most notably, there was a major socio-economic class difference in the perception of African Americans by Jews.<a href="#cite_note-274">[272]</a> Jews from better educated Upper-Middle-Class backgrounds were often very supportive of African American civil rights activities while the Jews in poorer urban communities that became increasingly minority were often less supportive largely in part due to more negative and violent interactions between the two groups. According to political scientist <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rogin" title="Michael Rogin">Michael Rogin</a>, Jewish-Black hostility was a two-way street extending to earlier decades. In the post-World War II era, Jews were granted <a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white privilege</a> and most moved into the middle-class while Blacks were left behind in the ghetto.<a href="#cite_note-275">[273]</a> Urban Jews engaged in the same sort of conflicts with Blacks—over <a href="/wiki/Integration_busing" class="mw-redirect" title="Integration busing">integration busing</a>, local control of schools, housing, crime, communal identity, and class divides—that other <a href="/wiki/White_ethnics" class="mw-redirect" title="White ethnics">white ethnics</a> did, leading to Jews participating in <a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">white flight</a>. The culmination of this was the <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_teachers%27_strike_of_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="New York City teachers' strike of 1968">1968 New York City teachers' strike</a>, pitting largely Jewish schoolteachers against predominantly Black parents in <a href="/wiki/Brownsville,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Brownsville, New York">Brownsville, New York</a>.<a href="#cite_note-276">[274]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Public_profile">Public profile</h4></div> Many Jews in the Southern states who supported civil rights for African Americans tended to keep a low profile on "the race issue", in order to avoid attracting the attention of the anti-Black and antisemitic Ku Klux Klan.<a href="#cite_note-My_Jewish_Learning-277">[275]</a> However, Klan groups exploited the issue of African-American integration and Jewish involvement in the struggle in order to commit violently antisemitic <a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">hate crimes</a>. As an example of this hatred, in one year alone, from November 1957 to October 1958, temples and other Jewish communal gatherings were bombed and desecrated in <a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nashville" class="mw-redirect" title="Nashville">Nashville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida" title="Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dynamite" title="Dynamite">dynamite</a> was found under <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogues</a> in <a href="/wiki/Birmingham,_Alabama" title="Birmingham, Alabama">Birmingham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charlotte,_North_Carolina" title="Charlotte, North Carolina">Charlotte</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gastonia,_North_Carolina" title="Gastonia, North Carolina">Gastonia, North Carolina</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbis</a> received <a href="/wiki/Death_threat" title="Death threat">death threats</a>, but there were no injuries following these outbursts of <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-My_Jewish_Learning-277">[275]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_segregationists">Black segregationists</h3></div> Despite the common notion that the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power">Black Power</a> only conflicted with each other and were the only ideologies of the civil rights movement, there were other sentiments felt by many blacks. Fearing the events during the movement was occurring too quickly, there were some blacks who felt that leaders should take their activism at an incremental pace. Others had reservations on how focused blacks were on the movement and felt that such attention was better spent on reforming issues within the black community. While Conservatives, in general, supported integration, some defended incrementally phased out segregation as a backstop against assimilation. Based on her interpretation of a 1966 study made by Donald Matthews and James Prothro detailing the relative percentage of blacks for integration, against it or feeling something else, Lauren Winner asserts that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Black defenders of segregation look, at first blush, very much like black nationalists, especially in their preference for all-black institutions; but black defenders of segregation differ from nationalists in two key ways. First, while both groups criticize <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>-style integration, nationalists articulate a third alternative to integration and <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow">Jim Crow</a>, while segregationists preferred to stick with the status quo. Second, absent from black defenders of segregation's political vocabulary was the demand for <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a>. They called for all-black institutions, but not autonomous all-black institutions; indeed, some defenders of segregation asserted that black people needed white paternalism and oversight in order to thrive.<a href="#cite_note-278">[276]</a></blockquote> Oftentimes, African-American community leaders would be staunch defenders of segregation. Church ministers, businessmen, and educators were among those who wished to keep segregation and segregationist ideals in order to retain the privileges they gained from patronage from whites, such as monetary gains. In addition, they relied on segregation to keep their jobs and economies in their communities thriving. It was feared that if integration became widespread in the South, black-owned businesses and other establishments would lose a large chunk of their customer base to white-owned businesses, and many blacks would lose opportunities for jobs that were presently exclusive to their interests.<a href="#cite_note-279">[277]</a> On the other hand, there were the everyday, average black people who criticized integration as well. For them, they took issue with different parts of the civil rights movement and the potential for blacks to exercise consumerism and economic liberty without hindrance from whites.<a href="#cite_note-280">[278]</a> For Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X and other leading activists and groups during the movement, these opposing viewpoints acted as an obstacle against their ideas. These different views made such leaders' work much harder to accomplish, but they were nonetheless important in the overall scope of the movement. For the most part, the black individuals who had reservations on various aspects of the movement and ideologies of the activists were not able to make a game-changing dent in their efforts, but the existence of these alternate ideas gave some blacks an outlet to express their concerns about the changing social structure. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Black_Power"_militants">"Black Power" militants</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Black_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power">Black Power</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black_Power_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power movement">Black Power movement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Carlos,_Tommie_Smith,_Peter_Norman_1968cr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/John_Carlos%2C_Tommie_Smith%2C_Peter_Norman_1968cr.jpg/220px-John_Carlos%2C_Tommie_Smith%2C_Peter_Norman_1968cr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/John_Carlos%2C_Tommie_Smith%2C_Peter_Norman_1968cr.jpg/330px-John_Carlos%2C_Tommie_Smith%2C_Peter_Norman_1968cr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/John_Carlos%2C_Tommie_Smith%2C_Peter_Norman_1968cr.jpg/440px-John_Carlos%2C_Tommie_Smith%2C_Peter_Norman_1968cr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="896" /></a><figcaption>Gold medalist <a href="/wiki/Tommie_Smith" title="Tommie Smith">Tommie Smith</a> (center) and bronze medalist <a href="/wiki/John_Carlos" title="John Carlos">John Carlos</a> (right) showing the <a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">raised fist on the podium</a> after the 200 m race at the <a href="/wiki/1968_Summer_Olympics" title="1968 Summer Olympics">1968 Summer Olympics</a>; both wear <a href="/wiki/Olympic_Project_for_Human_Rights" title="Olympic Project for Human Rights">Olympic Project for Human Rights</a> badges. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Norman" title="Peter Norman">Peter Norman</a> (silver medalist, left) from Australia also wears an OPHR badge in solidarity with Smith and Carlos.</figcaption></figure> During the Freedom Summer campaign of 1964, numerous tensions within the civil rights movement came to the forefront. Many blacks in <a href="/wiki/SNCC" class="mw-redirect" title="SNCC">SNCC</a> developed concerns that white activists from the North and West were taking over the movement. The participation by numerous white students was not reducing the amount of violence that SNCC suffered, but seemed to exacerbate it. Additionally, there was profound disillusionment at Lyndon Johnson's denial of voting status for the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party at the Democratic National Convention.<a href="#cite_note-281">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-282">[280]</a> Meanwhile, during <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">CORE</a>'s work in Louisiana that summer, that group found the federal government would not respond to requests to enforce the provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, or to protect the lives of activists who challenged segregation. The Louisiana campaign survived by relying on a local African-American militia called the <a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a>, who used arms to repel white supremacist violence and police repression. CORE's collaboration with the Deacons was effective in disrupting Jim Crow in numerous Louisiana areas.<a href="#cite_note-283">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[282]</a> In 1965, SNCC helped organize an independent political party, the <a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a> (LCFO), in the heart of the Alabama Black Belt, also Klan territory. It permitted its black leaders to openly promote the use of armed self-defense. Meanwhile, the Deacons for Defense and Justice expanded into Mississippi and assisted <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a>' NAACP chapter with a successful campaign in <a href="/wiki/Natchez,_Mississippi" title="Natchez, Mississippi">Natchez</a>. Charles had taken the lead after his brother <a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a> was assassinated in 1963.<a href="#cite_note-285">[283]</a> The same year, the 1965 <a href="/wiki/Watts_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Watts Rebellion">Watts Rebellion</a> took place in Los Angeles. Many black youths were committed to the use of violence to protest inequality and oppression.<a href="#cite_note-286">[284]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a> in 1966, initiated by <a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a>, SNCC and CORE fully embraced the slogan of "black power" to describe these trends towards militancy and self-reliance. In Mississippi, Stokely Carmichael declared, "I'm not going to beg the white man for anything that I deserve, I'm going to take it. We need power."<a href="#cite_note-287">[285]</a> Some people engaging in the Black Power movement claimed a growing sense of black pride and identity. In gaining more of a sense of a cultural identity, blacks demanded that whites no longer refer to them as "Negroes" but as "Afro-Americans," similar to other ethnic groups, such as Irish Americans and Italian Americans. Until the mid-1960s, blacks had dressed similarly to whites and often <a href="/wiki/Hair_straightening" title="Hair straightening">straightened their hair</a>. As a part of affirming their identity, blacks started to wear African-based <a href="/wiki/Dashiki" title="Dashiki">dashikis</a> and grow their hair out as a natural <a href="/wiki/Afro" title="Afro">afro</a>. The afro, sometimes nicknamed the "'fro," remained a popular black hairstyle until the late 1970s. Other variations of traditional African styles have become popular, often featuring braids, extensions, and dreadlocks. The <a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a> (BPP), which was founded by <a href="/wiki/Huey_Newton" class="mw-redirect" title="Huey Newton">Huey Newton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oakland,_California" title="Oakland, California">Oakland, California</a>, in 1966, gained the most attention for Black Power nationally. The group began following the revolutionary pan-Africanism of late-period <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a>, using a "by-any-means necessary" approach to stopping racial inequality. They sought to rid African-American neighborhoods of <a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">police brutality</a> and to establish <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> <a href="/wiki/Dual_power" title="Dual power">community control</a> in the ghettos. While they conducted armed confrontation with police, they also set up free breakfast and healthcare programs for children.<a href="#cite_note-288">[286]</a> Between 1968 and 1971, the BPP was one of the most important black organizations in the country and had support from the NAACP, SCLC, <a href="/wiki/Peace_and_Freedom_Party" title="Peace and Freedom Party">Peace and Freedom Party</a>, and others.<a href="#cite_note-289">[287]</a> Black Power was taken to another level inside prison walls. In 1966, <a href="/wiki/George_Jackson_(Black_Panther)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Jackson (Black Panther)">George Jackson</a> formed the <a href="/wiki/Black_Guerrilla_Family" title="Black Guerrilla Family">Black Guerrilla Family</a> in the California <a href="/wiki/San_Quentin_State_Prison" class="mw-redirect" title="San Quentin State Prison">San Quentin State Prison</a>. The goal of this group was to overthrow the white-run government in America and the prison system. In 1970, this group displayed their dedication after a white prison guard was found not guilty of shooting and killing three black prisoners from the prison tower. They retaliated by killing a white prison guard. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-left listen noprint listen-left"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Say_It_Loud_(I%27m_Black_and_I%27m_Proud)_sample.ogg" class="mw-redirect" title="File:Say It Loud (I'm Black and I'm Proud) sample.ogg">"Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud"</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_5" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="16" data-mwtitle="Say_It_Loud_(I'm_Black_and_I'm_Proud)_(James_Brown_song_-_sample).ogg" data-mwprovider="local"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/3e/Say_It_Loud_%28I%27m_Black_and_I%27m_Proud%29_%28James_Brown_song_-_sample%29.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/transcoded/3/3e/Say_It_Loud_%28I%27m_Black_and_I%27m_Proud%29_%28James_Brown_song_-_sample%29.ogg/Say_It_Loud_%28I%27m_Black_and_I%27m_Proud%29_%28James_Brown_song_-_sample%29.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description"><a href="/wiki/James_Brown" title="James Brown">James Brown</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Say_It_Loud_%E2%80%93_I%27m_Black_and_I%27m_Proud" title="Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud">Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud</a>" (1968)</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> Numerous popular cultural expressions associated with black power appeared at this time. Released in August 1968, the number one <a href="/wiki/Hot_R%26B/Hip-Hop_Songs" title="Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs">Rhythm & Blues single</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Billboard_Year-End" title="Billboard Year-End">Billboard Year-End</a> list was <a href="/wiki/James_Brown" title="James Brown">James Brown</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Say_It_Loud_%E2%80%93_I%27m_Black_and_I%27m_Proud" title="Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud">Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud</a>".<a href="#cite_note-290">[288]</a> In October 1968, <a href="/wiki/Tommie_Smith" title="Tommie Smith">Tommie Smith</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Carlos" title="John Carlos">John Carlos</a>, while being awarded the gold and bronze medals, respectively, at the <a href="/wiki/1968_Summer_Olympics" title="1968 Summer Olympics">1968 Summer Olympics</a>, donned human rights badges and each raised a black-gloved Black Power salute during their podium ceremony. King was not comfortable with the "Black Power" slogan, which sounded too much like <a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">black nationalism</a> to him. When King was assassinated in 1968, Stokely Carmichael said that whites had murdered the one person who would prevent rampant rioting and that blacks would burn every major city to the ground. Riots broke out in more than 100 cities across the country. Some cities did not recover from the damage for more than a generation; other city neighborhoods never recovered. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Native_Americans">Native Americans</h3></div> King and the civil rights movement inspired the <a href="/wiki/Native_American_rights_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American rights movement">Native American rights movement</a> of the 1960s and many of its leaders.<a href="#cite_note-Natives_King-291">[289]</a> Native Americans had been <a href="/wiki/Dehumanized" class="mw-redirect" title="Dehumanized">dehumanized</a> as "merciless Indian savages" in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a>,<a href="#cite_note-292">[290]</a> and in King's 1964 book <a href="/wiki/Why_We_Can%27t_Wait" title="Why We Can't Wait">Why We Can't Wait</a> he wrote: "Our nation was born in genocide when it embraced the doctrine that the original American, the Indian, was an inferior race."<a href="#cite_note-293">[291]</a> John Echohawk, a member of the <a href="/wiki/Pawnee_people" title="Pawnee people">Pawnee tribe</a> and the executive director and one of the founders of the <a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a>, stated: "Inspired by Dr. King, who was advancing the civil rights agenda of equality under the laws of this country, we thought that we could also use the laws to advance our Indianship, to live as tribes in our territories governed by our own laws under the principles of tribal sovereignty that had been with us ever since 1831. We believed that we could fight for a policy of self-determination that was consistent with U.S. law and that we could govern our own affairs, define our own ways and continue to survive in this society".<a href="#cite_note-294">[292]</a> Native Americans were also active supporters of King's movement throughout the 1960s, which included a sizable Native American contingent at the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.<a href="#cite_note-Natives_King-291">[289]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northern_Ireland">Northern Ireland</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_civil_rights_movement" title="Northern Ireland civil rights movement">Northern Ireland civil rights movement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malcolm_X_Ireland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Malcolm_X_Ireland.jpg/220px-Malcolm_X_Ireland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Malcolm_X_Ireland.jpg/330px-Malcolm_X_Ireland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Malcolm_X_Ireland.jpg/440px-Malcolm_X_Ireland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="802" /></a><figcaption>Mural of <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a> in <a href="/wiki/Belfast" title="Belfast">Belfast</a></figcaption></figure> Due to policies of <a href="/wiki/Segregation_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Segregation in Northern Ireland">segregation</a> and disenfranchisement present in Northern Ireland many Irish activists took inspiration from American civil rights activists. <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democracy_(Ireland)" title="People's Democracy (Ireland)">People's Democracy</a> had organized a <a href="/wiki/Burntollet_Bridge_incident" title="Burntollet Bridge incident">"Long March" from Belfast to Derry</a> which was inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-kingireland-295">[293]</a> During the civil rights movement in Northern Ireland protesters often sang the American protest song <a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">We Shall Overcome</a> and sometimes referred to themselves as the "negroes of Northern Ireland".<a href="#cite_note-civilrightsireland-296">[294]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_Union">Soviet Union</h3></div> There was an international context for the actions of the U.S. federal government during these years. The Soviet media frequently covered <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racial discrimination in the U.S.</a><a href="#cite_note-297">[295]</a> Deeming American criticism of <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">its own human rights abuses</a> hypocritical, the Soviet government would respond by stating "<a href="/wiki/And_you_are_lynching_Negroes" title="And you are lynching Negroes">And you are lynching Negroes</a>".<a href="#cite_note-298">[296]</a> In his 1934 book Russia Today: What Can We Learn from It?, <a href="/wiki/Sherwood_Eddy" title="Sherwood Eddy">Sherwood Eddy</a> wrote: "In the most remote villages of Russia today Americans are frequently asked what they are going to do to the <a href="/wiki/Scottsboro_boys" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottsboro boys">Scottsboro Negro boys</a> and why they lynch Negroes."<a href="#cite_note-sherwoodeddy-299">[297]</a> In Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy, the historian <a href="/wiki/Mary_L._Dudziak" title="Mary L. Dudziak">Mary L. Dudziak</a> wrote that Communists who were critical of the United States accused it of practicing hypocrisy when it portrayed itself as the "leader of the free world," while so many of its citizens were being subjected to severe racial discrimination and violence; she argued that this was a major factor in moving the government to support civil rights legislation.<a href="#cite_note-300">[298]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="White_moderates">White moderates</h3></div> A majority of <a href="/wiki/White_Southerners" title="White Southerners">White Southerners</a> have been estimated to have neither supported nor resisted the civil rights movement.<a href="#cite_note-NPRprof-301">[299]</a> Many did not enjoy the idea of expanding civil rights but were uncomfortable with the language and often violent tactics used by those who resisted the civil rights movement as part of the <a href="/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">Massive resistance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-302">[300]</a> Many only reacted to the movement once forced to by their changing environment, and when they did their response was usually whatever they felt would disturb their daily life the least. Most of their personal reactions, whether eventually in support or resistance were not in extreme.<a href="#cite_note-NPRprof-301">[299]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="White_segregationists">White segregationists</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism#United_States" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism § United States</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rc17739_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Rc17739_03.jpg/250px-Rc17739_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Rc17739_03.jpg/375px-Rc17739_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Rc17739_03.jpg/500px-Rc17739_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="481" /></a><figcaption>Ku Klux Klan demonstration in St. Augustine, Florida in 1964</figcaption></figure> King reached the height of popular acclaim during his life in 1964, when he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a>. After that point, his career was filled with frustrating challenges. The <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> coalition that had gained passage of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a> began to fray. King was becoming more estranged from the Johnson administration. In 1965 he broke with it by calling for peace negotiations and a halt to the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Rolling_Thunder" title="Operation Rolling Thunder">bombing of Vietnam</a>. He moved further <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">left</a> in the following years, speaking about the need for economic justice and thoroughgoing changes in American society. He believed that change was needed beyond the civil rights which had been gained by the movement. However, King's attempts to broaden the scope of the civil rights movement were halting and largely unsuccessful. In 1965 King made several attempts to take the Movement north in order to address <a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">housing discrimination</a>. The SCLC's campaign in Chicago publicly failed, because Chicago's Mayor <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Daley" title="Richard J. Daley">Richard J. Daley</a> marginalized the SCLC's campaign by promising to "study" the city's problems. In 1966, white demonstrators in notoriously racist <a href="/wiki/Cicero,_Illinois" title="Cicero, Illinois">Cicero</a>, a suburb of Chicago, held "white power" signs and threw stones at marchers who were demonstrating against <a href="/wiki/Housing_segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Housing segregation">housing segregation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Urgency_7-303">[301]</a> Politicians and journalists quickly blamed this white <a href="/wiki/Backlash_(sociology)" title="Backlash (sociology)">backlash</a> on the movement's shift towards Black Power in the mid-1960s; today most scholars believe the backlash was a phenomenon that was already developing in the mid-1950s, and it was embodied in the "<a href="/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">massive resistance</a>" movement in the South where even the few moderate white leaders (including <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a>, who had once been endorsed by the NAACP) shifted to openly racist positions.<a href="#cite_note-304">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[303]</a> Northern and Western racists opposed the southerners on a regional and cultural basis, but also held segregationist attitudes which became more pronounced as the civil rights movement headed north and west. For instance, prior to the Watts riot, California whites had already mobilized to <a href="/wiki/California_Proposition_14_(1964)" class="mw-redirect" title="California Proposition 14 (1964)">repeal the state's 1963 fair housing law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Urgency_7-303">[301]</a> Even so, the backlash which occurred at the time was not able to roll back the major civil rights victories which had been achieved or swing the country into reaction. Social historians Matthew Lassiter and <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Ehrenreich" title="Barbara Ehrenreich">Barbara Ehrenreich</a> note that the backlash's primary constituency was <a href="/wiki/Suburban" class="mw-redirect" title="Suburban">suburban</a> and middle-class, not working-class whites: "among the white electorate, one half of blue-collar voters…cast their ballot for [the liberal presidential candidate] <a href="/wiki/38th_Vice_President_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="38th Vice President of the United States">Hubert Humphrey</a> in 1968…only in the South did <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a> draw substantially more blue-collar than white-collar support."<a href="#cite_note-306">[304]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">Civil rights movement in popular culture</a></div> The 1954 to 1968 civil rights movement contributed strong cultural threads to American and international theater, song, film, television, and art. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Activist_organizations">Activist organizations</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National/regional_civil_rights_organizations">National/regional civil rights organizations</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality</a> (CORE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Leadership Conference on Civil Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil Rights</a> (LCCR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Committee_for_Human_Rights" title="Medical Committee for Human Rights">Medical Committee for Human Rights</a> (MCHR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a> (NCNW)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Afro-American_Unity" title="Organization of Afro-American Unity">Organization of Afro-American Unity</a> (OAAU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> (SCLC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a> (SNCC)</li> <li>Southern Conference Educational Fund (SCEF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Student_Organizing_Committee" title="Southern Student Organizing Committee">Southern Student Organizing Committee</a> (SSOC)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_economic_empowerment_organizations">National economic empowerment organizations</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban League">Urban League</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_civil_rights_organizations">Local civil rights organizations</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a> (Albany, Georgia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a> (Mississippi)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a> (Montgomery, Alabama)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a> (Nashville, Tennessee)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a> (Mississippi)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a> (Montgomery, Alabama)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Individual_activists">Individual activists</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Austin" title="Louis Austin">Louis Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(civil_rights_activist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Daisy Bates (civil rights activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Braden" title="Anne Braden">Anne Braden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Braden" title="Carl Braden">Carl Braden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Fair_Burks" title="Mary Fair Burks">Mary Fair Burks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Poinsette Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Cleage" title="Albert Cleage">Albert Cleage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Conyers" title="John Conyers">John Conyers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Cooke" title="Sam Cooke">Sam Cooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossie_Davis" title="Ossie Davis">Ossie Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Dee" title="Ruby Dee">Ruby Dee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Devine" class="mw-redirect" title="Annie Devine">Annie Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doris_Derby" title="Doris Derby">Doris Derby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_Wright_Edelman" title="Marian Wright Edelman">Marian Wright Edelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James L. Farmer Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter E. Fauntroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Fleming" title="Karl Fleming">Karl Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Mae_Flemming" title="Sarah Mae Flemming">Sarah Mae Flemming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankie_Muse_Freeman" title="Frankie Muse Freeman">Frankie Muse Freeman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Greenberg_(lawyer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jack Greenberg (lawyer)">Jack Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Hansberry" title="Lorraine Hansberry">Lorraine Hansberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hayling" title="Robert Hayling">Robert Hayling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libby_Holman" title="Libby Holman">Libby Holman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winson_Hudson" title="Winson Hudson">Winson Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" class="mw-redirect" title="Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahalia_Jackson" title="Mahalia Jackson">Mahalia Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence B. Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(American_activist)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Lawson (American activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audre_Lorde" title="Audre Lorde">Audre Lorde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autherine_Lucy" title="Autherine Lucy">Autherine Lucy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loren_Miller_(judge)" class="mw-redirect" title="Loren Miller (judge)">Loren Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Moody" title="Anne Moody">Anne Moody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Frederic_Morrow" title="E. Frederic Morrow">E. Frederic Morrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">Bill Moyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denise_Nicholas" title="Denise Nicholas">Denise Nicholas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">E. D. Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Nolan_(American_author)" title="David Nolan (American author)">David Nolan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nan_Grogan_Orrock" class="mw-redirect" title="Nan Grogan Orrock">Nan Grogan Orrock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutledge_Pearson" title="Rutledge Pearson">Rutledge Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Johnson-Powell" title="Gloria Johnson-Powell">Gloria Johnson-Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nina_Simone" title="Nina Simone">Nina Simone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Stein" title="Annie Stein">Annie Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dempsey_Travis" title="Dempsey Travis">Dempsey Travis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_American_movement" title="Asian American movement">Asian American movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicano_Movement" title="Chicano Movement">Chicano Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">History of civil rights in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lay_that_Trumpet_in_Our_Hands" title="Lay that Trumpet in Our Hands">Lay that Trumpet in Our Hands</a> (2002) fiction novel</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civil_rights_leaders" title="List of civil rights leaders">List of civil rights leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kentucky_women_in_the_civil_rights_era" title="List of Kentucky women in the civil rights era">List of Kentucky women in the civil rights era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">List of photographers of the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">Timeline of the civil rights movement</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">We Shall Overcome</a>," the unofficial anthem of the movement</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_preservation">History preservation</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Read%27s_Drug_Store" title="Read's Drug Store">Read's Drug Store</a> (Baltimore), the site of a 1955 desegregation sit-in</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seattle_Civil_Rights_and_Labor_History_Project" title="Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project">Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_News_of_the_Civil_Rights_Era_1950%E2%80%931970" title="Television News of the Civil Rights Era 1950–1970">Television News of the Civil Rights Era 1950–1970</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post–civil_rights_movement">Post–civil rights movement</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era in African-American history</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> Informational notes <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Various other dates have been proposed as the date on which the civil rights movement began or ended. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> The social movement has also been called the 1960s civil rights movement, the African-American civil rights movement, the Afro-American civil rights movement, the American civil rights movement, the American freedom movement, the Black civil rights movement, the Black revolution, the Black rights movement, the civil rights revolution, the civil rights struggle, the modern civil rights movement, the Negro American revolution, the Negro freedom movement, the Negro movement, the Negro revolt, the Negro revolution, the Second Emancipation, the Second Reconstruction, the Southern freedom movement, and the United States civil rights movement. <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_struggles" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Civil rights struggles">Civil rights struggles</a> can denote this or other <a href="/wiki/Social_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="Social movements">social movements</a> that occurred in the United States during the same period. The social movement's span of time is called the civil rights era. </li> </ol></div></div> Citations <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Williams, Heather Andrea (2014) American Slavery: A Very Short Introduction. 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Polity. p. x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-2936-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-2936-0"><bdi>978-0-7456-2936-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Direct+Action+and+Democracy+Today&rft.pages=x&rft.pub=Polity&rft.date=2005-01-14&rft.isbn=978-0-7456-2936-0&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=April&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOqJMHf438OEC%26q%3Ddirect%2Baction%2Bin%2Bunited%2Bstates%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beito_and_Beito-45"><a href="#cite_ref-Beito_and_Beito_45-0">^</a> David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito, Black Maverick: T.R.M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009, pp. 81, 99–100. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/robinson-jo-ann-gibson">"Robinson, Jo Ann Gibson"</a>. The Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute. Stanford University. June 22, 2017. 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(foreword by Coretta Scott King) The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It (1986) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-75623-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-75623-1">0-394-75623-1</a> Knoxville, University of Tennessee Press </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tallahassee.com/special/boycott/reader-smith.html">"The Tallahassee Bus Boycott—Fifty Years Later</a>," The Tallahassee Democrat, May 21, 2006 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071210094329/http://www.tallahassee.com/special/boycott/reader-smith.html">Archived</a> December 10, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-fcflu-49"><a href="#cite_ref-fcflu_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSell1955" class="citation news cs1">Sell, Jack (December 30, 1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Cs9RAAAAIBAJ&pg=4796%2C5131560">"Panthers defeat flu; face Ga. 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Cornell University Press. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-1327-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-1327-9"><bdi>978-1-5017-1327-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+UAW+and+the+Heyday+of+American+Liberalism%2C+1945%E2%80%931968&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-5017-1327-9&rft.aulast=Boyle&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmt4ZDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160325194202/http://www.civilrights.org/education/brown/brown.html">"Brown v. 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Goluboff, The Lost Promise of Civil Rights, Harvard University Press, MA: Cambridge, 2007, pp. 249–251 </li> <li id="cite_note-amphilsoc.org-55"><a href="#cite_ref-amphilsoc.org_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150501080744/http://www.amphilsoc.org/sites/default/files/proceedings/480405.pdf">"Antonly Lester, "Brown v. Board of Education Overseas" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Vol. 148, No. 4, December 2004"</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved July 3, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=100+Photographs+%7C+The+Most+Influential+Images+of+All+Time&rft.atitle=How+The+Horrific+Photograph+Of+Emmett+Till+Helped+Energize+The+Civil+Rights+Movement&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F100photos.time.com%2Fphotos%2Femmett-till-david-jackson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weller-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weller_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weller_63-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeller2017" class="citation magazine cs1">Weller, Sheila (January 26, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vanityfair.com/news/2017/01/how-author-timothy-tyson-found-the-woman-at-the-center-of-the-emmett-till-case">"How Author Timothy Tyson Found the Woman at the Center of the Emmett Till Case"</a>. 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Retrieved May 18, 2015 – via Vimeo.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bruce+Hartford+%28full+interview%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvimeo.com%2F17532881&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForman1972" class="citation book cs1">Forman, James (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingofblackrev00form">The Making of Black Revolutionaries</a>. New York: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-940880-10-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-940880-10-8"><bdi>978-0-940880-10-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Black+Revolutionaries&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-940880-10-8&rft.aulast=Forman&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmakingofblackrev00form&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWasow2020" class="citation journal cs1">Wasow, Omar (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS000305542000009X">"Agenda Seeding: How 1960s Black Protests Moved Elites, Public Opinion and Voting"</a>. American Political Science Review. 114 (3): 638–659. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS000305542000009X">10.1017/S000305542000009X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0554">0003-0554</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Political+Science+Review&rft.atitle=Agenda+Seeding%3A+How+1960s+Black+Protests+Moved+Elites%2C+Public+Opinion+and+Voting&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=638-659&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS000305542000009X&rft.issn=0003-0554&rft.aulast=Wasow&rft.aufirst=Omar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS000305542000009X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6355095">"Kansas Sit-In Gets Its Due at Last"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180421030703/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6355095">Archived</a> April 21, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; NPR; October 21, 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis60.htm#1960greensboro">First Southern Sit-in, Greensboro NC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070306200430/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis60.htm#1960greensboro">Archived</a> March 6, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-chafe-82"><a href="#cite_ref-chafe_82-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChafe1980" class="citation book cs1">Chafe, William Henry (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/civilitiescivilr00chaf">Civilities and civil rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black struggle for freedom</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/civilitiescivilr00chaf/page/81">81</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502625-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502625-2"><bdi>978-0-19-502625-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civilities+and+civil+rights%3A+Greensboro%2C+North+Carolina%2C+and+the+Black+struggle+for+freedom&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-19-502625-2&rft.aulast=Chafe&rft.aufirst=William+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcivilitiescivilr00chaf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140630033454/http://library.uncg.edu/dp/crg/topicalessays/busdesegsitins.aspx">"Civil Rights Greensboro"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.uncg.edu/dp/crg/topicalessays/busdesegsitins.aspx">the original</a> on June 30, 2014. Retrieved July 29, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Civil+Rights+Greensboro&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.uncg.edu%2Fdp%2Fcrg%2Ftopicalessays%2Fbusdesegsitins.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.richmond.com/from-the-archives/years-ago-the-richmond-were-arrested-during-a-sit-in/collection_6680a266-17e4-5c38-b6e9-5efb6aa69852.html">"60 years ago, the Richmond 34 were arrested during a sit-in at the Thalhimers lunch counter"</a>. Richmond Times-Dispatch. Retrieved February 20, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Richmond+Times-Dispatch&rft.atitle=60+years+ago%2C+the+Richmond+34+were+arrested+during+a+sit-in+at+the+Thalhimers+lunch+counter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.richmond.com%2Ffrom-the-archives%2Fyears-ago-the-richmond-were-arrested-during-a-sit-in%2Fcollection_6680a266-17e4-5c38-b6e9-5efb6aa69852.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStations2008" class="citation journal cs1">Stations, Community Ideas (January 1, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://southernspaces.org/2008/rising">"Rising Up"</a>. Southern Spaces. 2008. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18737%2FM7HP4M">10.18737/M7HP4M</a>. Retrieved July 29, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southern+Spaces&rft.atitle=Rising+Up&rft.volume=2008&rft.date=2008-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18737%2FM7HP4M&rft.aulast=Stations&rft.aufirst=Community+Ideas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsouthernspaces.org%2F2008%2Frising&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis60.htm#1960atlanta">Atlanta Sit-ins</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070306200430/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis60.htm#1960atlanta">Archived</a> March 6, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-Atlanta_Sit-Ins-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Atlanta_Sit-Ins_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Atlanta_Sit-Ins_87-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-3615">"Atlanta Sit-Ins"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130117053611/http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-3615">Archived</a> January 17, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The New Georgia Encyclopedia </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouston2012" class="citation book cs1">Houston, Benjamin (2012). The Nashville Way: Racial Etiquette and the Struggle for Social Justice in a Southern City. Athens: University of Georgia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-4326-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-4326-6"><bdi>978-0-8203-4326-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nashville+Way%3A+Racial+Etiquette+and+the+Struggle+for+Social+Justice+in+a+Southern+City&rft.place=Athens&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8203-4326-6&rft.aulast=Houston&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis60.htm#1960nsm">Nashville Student Movement</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070306200430/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis60.htm#1960nsm">Archived</a> March 6, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100528015924/http://oha.alexandriava.gov/bhrc/lessons/bh-lesson2_reading2.html">"America's First Sit-Down Strike: The 1939 Alexandria Library Sit-In"</a>. City of Alexandria. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oha.alexandriava.gov/bhrc/lessons/bh-lesson2_reading2.html">the original</a> on May 28, 2010. Retrieved February 11, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=America%27s+First+Sit-Down+Strike%3A+The+1939+Alexandria+Library+Sit-In&rft.pub=City+of+Alexandria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foha.alexandriava.gov%2Fbhrc%2Flessons%2Fbh-lesson2_reading2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-davis-91"><a href="#cite_ref-davis_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1998" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Townsend (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wearyfeetresteds00town">Weary Feet, Rested Souls: A Guided History of the Civil Rights Movement</a>. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wearyfeetresteds00town/page/311">311</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-04592-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-04592-5"><bdi>978-0-393-04592-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weary+Feet%2C+Rested+Souls%3A+A+Guided+History+of+the+Civil+Rights+Movement&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-393-04592-5&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Townsend&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwearyfeetresteds00town&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130117053611/http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-3615">"Atlanta Sit-ins"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-3615">the original</a> on January 17, 2013. Retrieved July 29, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Atlanta+Sit-ins&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.georgiaencyclopedia.org%2Fnge%2FArticle.jsp%3Fid%3Dh-3615&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atlantahighered.org/civilrights/essay_detail.asp?phase=3">Students Begin to Lead</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160113134157/http://www.atlantahighered.org/civilrights/essay_detail.asp?phase=3">Archived</a> January 13, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – The New Georgia Encyclopedia – Atlanta Sit-Ins </li> <li id="cite_note-carson-94"><a href="#cite_ref-carson_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarson1981" class="citation book cs1">Carson, Clayborne (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fm9v7KKj_UQC">In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s</a>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 311. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-44727-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-44727-1"><bdi>978-0-674-44727-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Struggle%3A+SNCC+and+the+Black+Awakening+of+the+1960s&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-674-44727-1&rft.aulast=Carson&rft.aufirst=Clayborne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFm9v7KKj_UQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis60.htm#1960sncc">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Founded</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070306200430/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis60.htm#1960sncc">Archived</a> March 6, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-Freedom_Rides-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Freedom_Rides_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freedom_Rides_96-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis61.htm#1961frides">Freedom Rides</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100707051408/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis61.htm#1961frides">Archived</a> July 7, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-Arsenault-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arsenault_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arsenault_97-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arsenault_97-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArsenault2006" class="citation book cs1">Arsenault, Raymond (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/freedomriders1960000arse">Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice</a>. Oxford Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+Riders%3A+1961+and+the+Struggle+for+Racial+Justice&rft.pub=Oxford+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Arsenault&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffreedomriders1960000arse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Black Protest (1961) </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-15-tx3513w36f">American Experience; Freedom Riders; Interview with John Lewis, 1 of 3</a>, retrieved June 10, 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Experience%3B+Freedom+Riders%3B+Interview+with+John+Lewis%2C+1+of+3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famericanarchive.org%2Fcatalog%2Fcpb-aacip-15-tx3513w36f&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-15-x639z91k99">American Experience; Freedom Riders; Interview with Jim Zwerg, 1 of 4</a>, retrieved June 10, 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Experience%3B+Freedom+Riders%3B+Interview+with+Jim+Zwerg%2C+1+of+4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famericanarchive.org%2Fcatalog%2Fcpb-aacip-15-x639z91k99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-westwind-101"><a href="#cite_ref-westwind_101-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartford" class="citation web cs1">Hartford, Bruce Hartford. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis61.htm">"Arrests in Jackson MS"</a>. The Civil Rights Movement Archive. Retrieved October 21, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Civil+Rights+Movement+Archive&rft.atitle=Arrests+in+Jackson+MS&rft.aulast=Hartford&rft.aufirst=Bruce+Hartford&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crmvet.org%2Ftim%2Ftimhis61.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-15-4746q1tc99">American Experience; Freedom Riders; Interview with James Lawson, 1 of 4</a>, retrieved June 10, 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Experience%3B+Freedom+Riders%3B+Interview+with+James+Lawson%2C+1+of+4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famericanarchive.org%2Fcatalog%2Fcpb-aacip-15-4746q1tc99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-15-2f7jq0tn9b">American Experience; Freedom Riders; Interview with Diane Nash, 1 of 3</a>, retrieved June 10, 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Experience%3B+Freedom+Riders%3B+Interview+with+Diane+Nash%2C+1+of+3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famericanarchive.org%2Fcatalog%2Fcpb-aacip-15-2f7jq0tn9b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-15-4b2x34nj5n">American Experience; Freedom Riders; Interview with Dion Diamond, 1 of 2</a>, retrieved June 10, 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Experience%3B+Freedom+Riders%3B+Interview+with+Dion+Diamond%2C+1+of+2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famericanarchive.org%2Fcatalog%2Fcpb-aacip-15-4b2x34nj5n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-15-dn3zs2m89m">American Experience; Freedom Riders; Interview with Bernard Lafayette, Jr., 1 of 3</a>, retrieved June 10, 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Experience%3B+Freedom+Riders%3B+Interview+with+Bernard+Lafayette%2C+Jr.%2C+1+of+3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famericanarchive.org%2Fcatalog%2Fcpb-aacip-15-dn3zs2m89m&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-15-0000000v8c">American Experience; Freedom Riders; Interview with Julian Bond, 1 of 2</a>, retrieved June 10, 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Experience%3B+Freedom+Riders%3B+Interview+with+Julian+Bond%2C+1+of+2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famericanarchive.org%2Fcatalog%2Fcpb-aacip-15-0000000v8c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Our Portion of Hell: Fayette County, Tennessee, an Oral History of the Struggle For Civil Rights by Robert Hamburger (New York; Links Books, 1973) </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis61.htm#1961mccomb">Voter Registration & Direct-action in McComb MS</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100707051408/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis61.htm#1961mccomb">Archived</a> July 7, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis62.htm#1962cofo">Council of Federated Organizations Formed in Mississippi</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061004011259/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis62.htm#1962cofo">Archived</a> October 4, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis62.htm">Mississippi Voter Registration – Greenwood</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061004011259/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis62.htm">Archived</a> October 4, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFhandeyside2014" class="citation web cs1">handeyside, Hugh (February 13, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/blog/speakeasy/what-have-we-learned-spies-mississippi">"What Have We Learned from the Spies of Mississippi?"</a>. American Civil Liberty Union. ACLU National Security Project. Retrieved May 6, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Civil+Liberty+Union&rft.atitle=What+Have+We+Learned+from+the+Spies+of+Mississippi%3F&rft.date=2014-02-13&rft.aulast=handeyside&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Fblog%2Fspeakeasy%2Fwhat-have-we-learned-spies-mississippi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennard-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kennard_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennard_112-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennard_112-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www6.district125.k12.il.us/~bbradfor/kennardmission.html">"Carrying the burden: the story of Clyde Kennard"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071009153750/http://www6.district125.k12.il.us/~bbradfor/kennardmission.html">Archived</a> October 9, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, District 125, Mississippi. Retrieved November 5, 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-Funding-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Funding_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Funding_113-1">b</a> William H. Tucker, The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund, University of Illinois Press (May 30, 2007), pp 165–66. </li> <li id="cite_note-Confederacy-114"><a href="#cite_ref-Confederacy_114-0">^</a> Neo-Confederacy: A Critical Introduction, Edited by Euan Hague, Heidi Beirich, Edward H. Sebesta, University of Texas Press (2008) pp. 284–285 [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-report-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-report_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-report_115-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=135">"A House Divided"</a>. Southern Poverty Law Center. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100202111430/http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=135">Archived</a> from the original on February 2, 2010. Retrieved October 30, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+House+Divided&rft.pub=Southern+Poverty+Law+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.splcenter.org%2Fintel%2Fintelreport%2Farticle.jsp%3Faid%3D135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Evers-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Evers_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Evers_116-1">b</a> Jennie Brown, Medgar Evers, Holloway House Publishing, 1994, pp. 128–132 </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis62.htm#1962olmiss">"James Meredith Integrates Ole Miss"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061004011259/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis62.htm#1962olmiss">Archived</a> October 4, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-sketch-118"><a href="#cite_ref-sketch_118-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.lib.usm.edu/~archives/m393.htm?m393text.htm~mainFrameBiographical/Historical">[1]</a>, University of Southern Mississippi Library <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090917124123/http://www.lib.usm.edu/~archives/m393.htm?m393text.htm~mainFrameBiographical%2FHistorical">Archived</a> September 17, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis61.htm#1961albany">Albany GA, Movement</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100707051408/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis61.htm#1961albany">Archived</a> July 7, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis63.htm#1963bham">The Birmingham Campaign</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090615060449/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis63.htm#1963bham">Archived</a> June 15, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/group/King//popular_requests/frequentdocs/birmingham.pdf">Letter from a Birmingham Jail</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080407103314/http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/popular_requests/frequentdocs/birmingham.pdf">Archived</a> April 7, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> ~ King Research & Education Institute at Stanford Univ. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Bass, S. Jonathan (2001) Blessed Are The Peacemakers: Martin Luther King Jr., Eight White Religious Leaders, and the "Letter from Birmingham Jail". Baton Rouge: LSU Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8071-2655-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8071-2655-1">0-8071-2655-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hoover.org/research/great-society-new-history-amity-shlaes-0">"The Great Society: A New History with Amity Shlaes"</a>. Hoover Institution. Retrieved April 29, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hoover+Institution&rft.atitle=The+Great+Society%3A+A+New+History+with+Amity+Shlaes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hoover.org%2Fresearch%2Fgreat-society-new-history-amity-shlaes-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2018/02/20/children-have-changed-america-before-braving-fire-hoses-and-police-dogs-for-civil-rights/">"Children have changed America before, braving fire hoses and police dogs for civil rights"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. March 23, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Children+have+changed+America+before%2C+braving+fire+hoses+and+police+dogs+for+civil+rights&rft.date=2018-03-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fretropolis%2Fwp%2F2018%2F02%2F20%2Fchildren-have-changed-america-before-braving-fire-hoses-and-police-dogs-for-civil-rights%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cgi.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1996/analysis/back.time/9605/15/">Freedom-Now" Time, May 17, 1963</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150309014723/http://cgi.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1996/analysis/back.time/9605/15/">Archived</a> March 9, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; Glenn T. Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Struggles in the Civil Rights Movement (University of North Carolina Press, 1997), p. 301. </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicholas_Andrew_Bryant_2006_pg._2-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nicholas_Andrew_Bryant_2006_pg._2_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nicholas_Andrew_Bryant_2006_pg._2_126-1">b</a> Nicholas Andrew Bryant, The Bystander: John F. Kennedy And the Struggle for Black Equality (Basic Books, 2006), p. 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://intellhisblackamerica.voices.wooster.edu/files/2012/03/Thomas_Sugrue_Affirmative_Action_from_Below.pdf">"Thomas J Sugrue, "Affirmative Action from Below: Civil Rights, Building Trades, and the Politics of Racial Equality in the Urban North, 1945–1969" The Journal of American History, Vol. 91, Issue 1"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Thomas+J+Sugrue%2C+%22Affirmative+Action+from+Below%3A+Civil+Rights%2C+Building+Trades%2C+and+the+Politics+of+Racial+Equality+in+the+Urban+North%2C+1945%E2%80%931969%22+The+Journal+of+American+History%2C+Vol.+91%2C+Issue+1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fintellhisblackamerica.voices.wooster.edu%2Ffiles%2F2012%2F03%2FThomas_Sugrue_Affirmative_Action_from_Below.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/events/4279/civil_rights_movement/532945">"Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission website, "The Civil Rights Movement""</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pennsylvania+Historical+and+Museum+Commission+website%2C+%22The+Civil+Rights+Movement%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.portal.state.pa.us%2Fportal%2Fserver.pt%2Fcommunity%2Fevents%2F4279%2Fcivil_rights_movement%2F532945&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> T <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/2922918/">he Daily Capital News(Missouri) June 14, 1963, p. 4</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150925190639/http://www.newspapers.com/newspage/2922918/">Archived</a> September 25, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=BU8cAAAAIBAJ&pg=2472,3798134&dq=north%20carolina%201963%20riot&hl=en">"The Dispatch – Google News Archive Search"</a>. Retrieved July 29, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Dispatch+%E2%80%93+Google+News+Archive+Search&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fid%3DBU8cAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D2472%2C3798134%26dq%3Dnorth%2520carolina%25201963%2520riot%26hl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson167-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson167_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson167_131-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2013" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Thomas F. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6YwXAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA167">From Civil Rights to Human Rights</a>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0000-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0000-3"><bdi>978-0-8122-0000-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Civil+Rights+to+Human+Rights&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=167&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-0000-3&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6YwXAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://teaching.msa.maryland.gov/000001/000000/000033/html/t33.html">"Teaching American History in Maryland – Documents for the Classroom – Maryland State Archives"</a>. Retrieved July 29, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Teaching+American+History+in+Maryland+%E2%80%93+Documents+for+the+Classroom+%E2%80%93+Maryland+State+Archives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fteaching.msa.maryland.gov%2F000001%2F000000%2F000033%2Fhtml%2Ft33.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-web1.millercenter.org-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-web1.millercenter.org_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-web1.millercenter.org_133-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web1.millercenter.org/apd/colloquia/pdf/col_2008_0410_jackson.pdf">"Thomas F. Jackson, "Jobs and Freedom: The Black Revolt of 1963 and the Contested Meanings of the March on Washington" Virginia Foundation for the Humanities April 2, 2008, pp. 10–14"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110606153917/http://web1.millercenter.org/apd/colloquia/pdf/col_2008_0410_jackson.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on June 6, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Thomas+F.+Jackson%2C+%22Jobs+and+Freedom%3A+The+Black+Revolt+of+1963+and+the+Contested+Meanings+of+the+March+on+Washington%22+Virginia+Foundation+for+the+Humanities+April+2%2C+2008%2C+pp.+10%E2%80%9314&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb1.millercenter.org%2Fapd%2Fcolloquia%2Fpdf%2Fcol_2008_0410_jackson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrtega2009" class="citation web cs1">Ortega, Tony (May 4, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121018054636/http://blogs.villagevoice.com/runninscared/2009/05/clip_job_miss_h.php">"Miss Lorraine Hansberry & Bobby Kennedy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.villagevoice.com/runninscared/2009/05/clip_job_miss_h.php">the original</a> on October 18, 2012. Retrieved July 29, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Miss+Lorraine+Hansberry+%26+Bobby+Kennedy&rft.date=2009-05-04&rft.aulast=Ortega&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.villagevoice.com%2Frunninscared%2F2009%2F05%2Fclip_job_miss_h.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilty2000" class="citation book cs1">Hilty, James (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Za8TAQAAQBAJ">Robert Kennedy: Brother Protector</a>. Temple University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4399-0519-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4399-0519-7"><bdi>978-1-4399-0519-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved July 29, 2016 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robert+Kennedy%3A+Brother+Protector&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-4399-0519-7&rft.aulast=Hilty&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZa8TAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schlesinger333-136"><a href="#cite_ref-Schlesinger333_136-0">^</a> Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy and His Times (1978), pp. 332–333. </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121010023123/http://jah.oxfordjournals.org/content/93/4/1319.1.extract">""Book Reviews-The Bystander by Nicholas A. Bryant" The Journal of American History (2007) 93 (4)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jah.oxfordjournals.org/content/93/4/1319.1.extract">the original</a> on October 10, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Book+Reviews-The+Bystander+by+Nicholas+A.+Bryant%22+The+Journal+of+American+History+%282007%29+93+%284%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjah.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcontent%2F93%2F4%2F1319.1.extract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis63.htm#1963tuscaloosa">Standing In the Schoolhouse Door</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090615060449/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis63.htm#1963tuscaloosa">Archived</a> June 15, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> "Radio and Television Report to the American People on Civil Rights," June 11, 1963, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/003POF03CivilRights06111963.htm">transcript from the JFK library.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070205051926/http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical%2BResources/Archives/Reference%2BDesk/Speeches/JFK/003POF03CivilRights06111963.htm">Archived</a> February 5, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.olemiss.edu/depts/english/ms-writers/dir/evers_medgar/">Medgar Evers</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051107211340/http://www.olemiss.edu/depts/english/ms-writers/dir/evers_medgar/">Archived</a> November 7, 2005, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, a worthwhile article, on The Mississippi Writers Page, a website of the University of Mississippi English Department. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis63.htm#1963medgar">Medgar Evers Assassination</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090615060449/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis63.htm#1963medgar">Archived</a> June 15, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-abbeville-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-abbeville_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-abbeville_142-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abbeville.com/civilrights/washington.asp">Civil Rights bill submitted, and date of JFK murder, plus graphic events of the March on Washington.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071012121716/http://abbeville.com/civilrights/washington.asp">Archived</a> October 12, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> This is an Abbeville Press website, a large informative article apparently from the book The Civil Rights Movement (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7892-0123-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7892-0123-2">0-7892-0123-2</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenbergKarabell2003" class="citation book cs1">Rosenberg, Jonathan; Karabell, Zachary (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kennedyjohnsonth00rose/page/130">Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice: The Civil Rights Tapes</a>. WW Norton & Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kennedyjohnsonth00rose/page/130">130</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05122-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05122-3"><bdi>978-0-393-05122-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kennedy%2C+Johnson%2C+and+the+Quest+for+Justice%3A+The+Civil+Rights+Tapes&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=WW+Norton+%26+Co&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-393-05122-3&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft.au=Karabell%2C+Zachary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkennedyjohnsonth00rose%2Fpage%2F130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchlesinger2002" class="citation book cs1">Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. (2002) [1978]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/robertkennedyhis01schl/page/350">Robert Kennedy and His Times</a>. Houghton Mifflin Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/robertkennedyhis01schl/page/350">350, 351</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-21928-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-21928-5"><bdi>978-0-618-21928-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robert+Kennedy+and+His+Times&rft.pages=350%2C+351&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-618-21928-5&rft.aulast=Schlesinger&rft.aufirst=Arthur+M.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frobertkennedyhis01schl%2Fpage%2F350&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2013" class="citation news cs1">Thompson, Krissah (August 25, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/in-march-on-washington-white-activists-were-largely-overlooked-but-strategically-essential/2013/08/25/f2738c2a-eb27-11e2-8023-b7f07811d98e_story.html">"In March on Washington, white activists were largely overlooked but strategically essential"</a>. The Washington Post. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180320230800/https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/in-march-on-washington-white-activists-were-largely-overlooked-but-strategically-essential/2013/08/25/f2738c2a-eb27-11e2-8023-b7f07811d98e_story.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 20, 2018. Retrieved March 24, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=In+March+on+Washington%2C+white+activists+were+largely+overlooked+but+strategically+essential&rft.date=2013-08-25&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Krissah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Flifestyle%2Fstyle%2Fin-march-on-washington-white-activists-were-largely-overlooked-but-strategically-essential%2F2013%2F08%2F25%2Ff2738c2a-eb27-11e2-8023-b7f07811d98e_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-southernspaces.org-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-southernspaces.org_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-southernspaces.org_146-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_G._Thomas_III2004" class="citation journal cs1">William G. Thomas III (November 3, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://southernspaces.org/2004/television-news-and-civil-rights-struggle-views-virginia-and-mississippi">"Television News and the Civil Rights Struggle: The Views in Virginia and Mississippi"</a>. Southern Spaces. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18737%2FM73C7X">10.18737/M73C7X</a>. Retrieved November 8, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southern+Spaces&rft.atitle=Television+News+and+the+Civil+Rights+Struggle%3A+The+Views+in+Virginia+and+Mississippi&rft.date=2004-11-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18737%2FM73C7X&rft.au=William+G.+Thomas+III&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsouthernspaces.org%2F2004%2Ftelevision-news-and-civil-rights-struggle-views-virginia-and-mississippi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/tim63b.htm#1963staug">Civil Rights Movement Archive. "St. Augustine FL, Movement – 1963"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160816034441/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/tim63b.htm#1963staug">Archived</a> August 16, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/hayling-robert-b">"Hayling, Robert B.", Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute, Stanford University</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.augustine.com/history/black_history/dr_robert_hayling/">"Black History: Dr. Robert B. Hayling"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160122042950/http://augustine.com/history/black_history/dr_robert_hayling/">Archived</a> January 22, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Augustine.com; David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (Harper Collins, 1987) pp. 316–318 </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/tim63b.htm#1963staug">Civil Rights Movement Archive. "St. Augustine FL, Movement – 1963"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160816034441/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/tim63b.htm#1963staug">Archived</a> August 16, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HecWJnClV3wC&pg=PA316">David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (Harper Collins, 1987) p. 317</a>; </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1981/02/07/obituaries/mary-peabody-89-rights-activist-dies.html">"Mary Peabody, 89, Rights Activist, Dies"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. February 7, 1981.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Mary+Peabody%2C+89%2C+Rights+Activist%2C+Dies&rft.date=1981-02-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1981%2F02%2F07%2Fobituaries%2Fmary-peabody-89-rights-activist-dies.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnodgrass2009" class="citation book cs1">Snodgrass, M. E. (2009). Civil Disobedience: A–Z entries. New York: Sharpe Reference. p. 181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-76568-127-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-76568-127-0"><bdi>978-0-76568-127-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+Disobedience%3A+A%E2%80%93Z+entries&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=181&rft.pub=Sharpe+Reference&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-76568-127-0&rft.aulast=Snodgrass&rft.aufirst=M.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mele-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mele_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mele_151-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mele_151-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mele_151-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mele_151-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMele2017" class="citation book cs1">Mele, Christopher (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xAl3DQAAQBAJ">Race and the Politics of Deception: The Making of an American City</a>. New York: New York University Press. pp. 74–100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4798-6609-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4798-6609-0"><bdi>978-1-4798-6609-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved October 27, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+the+Politics+of+Deception%3A+The+Making+of+an+American+City&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=74-100&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4798-6609-0&rft.aulast=Mele&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxAl3DQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Phoenix-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Phoenix_152-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolcomb2015" class="citation web cs1">Holcomb, Lindsay (October 29, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://swarthmorephoenix.com/2015/10/29/questions-surround-student-activism-fifty-two-years-later/">"Questions surround student activism fifty-two years later"</a>. www.swarthmorephoenix.com. Retrieved October 25, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.swarthmorephoenix.com&rft.atitle=Questions+surround+student+activism+fifty-two+years+later&rft.date=2015-10-29&rft.aulast=Holcomb&rft.aufirst=Lindsay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fswarthmorephoenix.com%2F2015%2F10%2F29%2Fquestions-surround-student-activism-fifty-two-years-later%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nvdbase-153">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nvdbase_153-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nvdbase_153-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nvdbase_153-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nvdbase_153-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/african-american-residents-chester-pa-demonstrate-end-de-facto-segregation-public-schools-19">"African American residents of Chester, PA, demonstrate to end de facto segregation in public schools, 1963–1966"</a>. www.nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu. Retrieved October 26, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu&rft.atitle=African+American+residents+of+Chester%2C+PA%2C+demonstrate+to+end+de+facto+segregation+in+public+schools%2C+1963%E2%80%931966&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnvdatabase.swarthmore.edu%2Fcontent%2Fafrican-american-residents-chester-pa-demonstrate-end-de-facto-segregation-public-schools-19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McLarnon-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McLarnon_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McLarnon_154-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLarnon2002" class="citation journal cs1">McLarnon, John M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/viewFile/25768/25537">"'Old Scratchhead' Reconsidered: George Raymond & Civil Rights in Chester, Pennsylvania"</a>. Pennsylvania History. 69 (3): 318–326. Retrieved October 27, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pennsylvania+History&rft.atitle=%27Old+Scratchhead%27+Reconsidered%3A+George+Raymond+%26+Civil+Rights+in+Chester%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=318-326&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=McLarnon&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.psu.edu%2Fphj%2Farticle%2FviewFile%2F25768%2F25537&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalwolfgram.widener.edu/digital/collection/p270801coll18/id/588">"Chester NAACP Scrapbook 1963–1964"</a>. www.digitalwolfgram.widener.edu. Retrieved October 20, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.digitalwolfgram.widener.edu&rft.atitle=Chester+NAACP+Scrapbook+1963%E2%80%931964&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalwolfgram.widener.edu%2Fdigital%2Fcollection%2Fp270801coll18%2Fid%2F588&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1964/04/26/archives/riots-mar-peace-in-chester-pa-negro-protests-continueschool-policy.html">"RIOTS MAR PEACE IN CHESTER, PA.; Negro Protests Continue – School Policy at Issue"</a>. The New York Times. April 26, 1964. Retrieved July 13, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=RIOTS+MAR+PEACE+IN+CHESTER%2C+PA.%3B+Negro+Protests+Continue+%E2%80%93+School+Policy+at+Issue&rft.date=1964-04-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1964%2F04%2F26%2Farchives%2Friots-mar-peace-in-chester-pa-negro-protests-continueschool-policy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMele201796-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMele201796_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMele2017">Mele 2017</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-crmvet.org-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crmvet.org_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-crmvet.org_158-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/disc/mfdp.htm">The Mississippi Movement & the MFDP</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080424084752/http://www.crmvet.org/disc/mfdp.htm">Archived</a> April 24, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/docs/msrv64.pdf">Mississippi: Subversion of the Right to Vote</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100505032056/http://www.crmvet.org/docs/msrv64.pdf">Archived</a> May 5, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAdam1988" class="citation book cs1">McAdam, Doug (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/freedomsummer00mcad">Freedom Summer</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504367-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504367-9"><bdi>978-0-19-504367-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+Summer&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-19-504367-9&rft.aulast=McAdam&rft.aufirst=Doug&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffreedomsummer00mcad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarson1981" class="citation book cs1">Carson, Clayborne (1981). In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Struggle%3A+SNCC+and+the+Black+Awakening+of+the+1960s&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Carson&rft.aufirst=Clayborne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-crmvet1-162">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crmvet1_162-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-crmvet1_162-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/vet/vethome.htm">Veterans Roll Call</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080423070052/http://www.crmvet.org/vet/vethome.htm">Archived</a> April 23, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReeves1993521–524-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReeves1993521–524_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReeves1993">Reeves 1993</a>, pp. 521–524. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/tim63b.htm">Freedom Ballot in MS</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160816034441/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/tim63b.htm">Archived</a> August 16, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-Bending-165">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bending_165-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bending_165-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMay2013" class="citation book cs1">May, Gary (April 9, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bendingtowardjus0000mayg">Bending Toward Justice: The Voting Rights Act and the Transformation of American Democracy</a> (Kindle ed.). New York, NY: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-01846-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-01846-8"><bdi>978-0-465-01846-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bending+Toward+Justice%3A+The+Voting+Rights+Act+and+the+Transformation+of+American+Democracy&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=Kindle&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2013-04-09&rft.isbn=978-0-465-01846-8&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbendingtowardjus0000mayg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/89-1965/s78">"Senate Vote #78 in 1965: To Pass S. 1564, the Voting Rights Act of 1965"</a>. govtrack.us. Civic Impulse, LLC. Retrieved October 14, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=govtrack.us&rft.atitle=Senate+Vote+%2378+in+1965%3A+To+Pass+S.+1564%2C+the+Voting+Rights+Act+of+1965&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fvotes%2F89-1965%2Fs78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/89-1965/h87">"House Vote #87 in 1965: To Pass H.R. 6400, the Voting Rights Act of 1965"</a>. govtrack.us. Civic Impulse, LLC. Retrieved October 14, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=govtrack.us&rft.atitle=House+Vote+%2387+in+1965%3A+To+Pass+H.R.+6400%2C+the+Voting+Rights+Act+of+1965&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fvotes%2F89-1965%2Fh87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelf2005" class="citation book cs1">Self, Robert O. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b8MeAgAAQBAJ">American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4417-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4417-3"><bdi>978-1-4008-4417-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved July 29, 2016 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Babylon%3A+Race+and+the+Struggle+for+Postwar+Oakland&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-4417-3&rft.aulast=Self&rft.aufirst=Robert+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db8MeAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReitmanLandsberg2005" class="citation news cs1">Reitman, Valerie; Landsberg, Mitchell (August 11, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/news/la-me-watts11aug11-story.html">"Watts Riots, 40 Years Later"</a>. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved July 29, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Watts+Riots%2C+40+Years+Later&rft.date=2005-08-11&rft.aulast=Reitman&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rft.au=Landsberg%2C+Mitchell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Fnews%2Fla-me-watts11aug11-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt0b69q1bw/entire_text/">"No on Proposition 14: California Fair Housing Initiative Collection"</a>. 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The Root.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Root&rft.atitle=Dorothy+Height+and+the+Sexism+of+the+Civil+Rights+Movement&rft.date=2010-05-12&rft.aulast=Delaney&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theroot.com%2Fdorothy-height-and-the-sexism-of-the-civil-rights-movem-1790879502&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis51.htm">We Charge Genocide</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080402015621/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis51.htm">Archived</a> April 2, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1981-211">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1981_211-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1981_211-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1981_211-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarson1981" class="citation book cs1">Carson, Clayborne (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/instrugglesnccbl00cars_1">In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-44726-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-44726-4"><bdi>978-0-674-44726-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Struggle%3A+SNCC+and+the+Black+Awakening+of+the+1960s&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-674-44726-4&rft.aulast=Carson&rft.aufirst=Clayborne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finstrugglesnccbl00cars_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker" class="citation interview cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Baker, Ella</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docsouth.unc.edu/sohp/html_use/G-0007.html">"Oral History Interview with Ella Baker, September 4, 1974. Interview G-0007. Southern Oral History Program Collection (#4007): Electronic Edition. Ella Baker Describes Her Role in the Formation of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee"</a> (Interview).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oral+History+Interview+with+Ella+Baker%2C+September+4%2C+1974.+Interview+G-0007.+Southern+Oral+History+Program+Collection+%28%234007%29%3A+Electronic+Edition.+Ella+Baker+Describes+Her+Role+in+the+Formation+of+the+Southern+Christian+Leadership+Conference+and+the+Student+Nonviolent+Coordinating+Committee&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Ella&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocsouth.unc.edu%2Fsohp%2Fhtml_use%2FG-0007.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bostonreview.net-213"><a href="#cite_ref-bostonreview.net_213-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bostonreview.net/forum/occupy-future/what-should-sustained-movement-look">"What Should a Sustained Movement Look Like?"</a>. Boston Review. June 26, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Boston+Review&rft.atitle=What+Should+a+Sustained+Movement+Look+Like%3F&rft.date=2012-06-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbostonreview.net%2Fforum%2Foccupy-future%2Fwhat-should-sustained-movement-look&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Francis Fox Piven and Richard Cloward, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Poor_People%27s_Movements:_How_They_Succeed,_How_They_Fail&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poor People's Movements: How They Succeed, How They Fail (page does not exist)">Poor People's Movements: How They Succeed, How They Fail</a> (Random House, 1977), 182 </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140326100437/http://uncpress.unc.edu/books/T-1534.html">"Timothy B. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of "Black Power" (University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 79–80"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uncpress.unc.edu/books/T-1534.html">the original</a> on March 26, 2014. Retrieved September 9, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Timothy+B.+Tyson%2C+Radio+Free+Dixie%3A+Robert+F.+Williams+and+the+Roots+of+%22Black+Power%22+%28University+of+North+Carolina+Press%2C+1999%29%2C+79%E2%80%9380&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Funcpress.unc.edu%2Fbooks%2FT-1534.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 88–89 </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> Nicholas Graham, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-postwar/6068">"January 1958: The Lumbees face the Klan"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180206071001/http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-postwar/6068">Archived</a> February 6, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, This Month in North Carolina History </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 149 </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 159–164 </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/williams-robert-franklin">"Williams, Robert Franklin"</a>. July 13, 2017. Retrieved December 3, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Williams%2C+Robert+Franklin&rft.date=2017-07-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkinginstitute.stanford.edu%2Fencyclopedia%2Fwilliams-robert-franklin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRansby2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Ransby" title="Barbara Ransby">Ransby, Barbara</a> (November 20, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SEfOhvXSvZsC&pg=PA213">Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision</a>. Univ of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-6270-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-6270-4"><bdi>978-0-8078-6270-4</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ella+Baker+and+the+Black+Freedom+Movement%3A+A+Radical+Democratic+Vision&rft.pub=Univ+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2003-11-20&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-6270-4&rft.aulast=Ransby&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSEfOhvXSvZsC%26pg%3DPA213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-history.msu.edu-222"><a href="#cite_ref-history.msu.edu_222-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTyson1998" class="citation journal cs1">Tyson, Timothy B. (September 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.msu.edu/files/2010/04/Timothy-Tyson.pdf">"Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle"</a> (PDF). Journal of American History. 85 (2): 540–570. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2567750">10.2307/2567750</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723">0021-8723</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2567750">2567750</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Robert+F.+Williams%2C+%27Black+Power%2C%27+and+the+Roots+of+the+African+American+Freedom+Struggle&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=540-570&rft.date=1998-09&rft.issn=0021-8723&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2567750%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2567750&rft.aulast=Tyson&rft.aufirst=Timothy+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.msu.edu%2Ffiles%2F2010%2F04%2FTimothy-Tyson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lexisnexis.com/documents/academic/upa_cis/9353_BlackPowerMovemPt2.pdf">The Black Power Movement, Part 2: The Papers of Robert F. Williams" A Guide to the Microfilm Editions of the Black Studies Research Sources (University Publications of America)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130108060037/http://www.lexisnexis.com/documents/academic/upa_cis/9353_BlackPowerMovemPt2.pdf">Archived</a> January 8, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tyson_1998-224">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tyson_1998_224-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tyson_1998_224-1">b</a> Tyson, Journal of American History (September 1998) </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parting_the_Waters:_America_in_the_King_Years_1954%E2%80%931963" class="mw-redirect" title="Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954–1963">Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954–1963</a> (Simon and Schuster, 1988), 781 </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarqusee2004" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mike_Marqusee" title="Mike Marqusee">Marqusee, Mike</a> (June 17, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/any-means-necessary/">"By Any Means Necessary"</a>. The Nation. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8378">0027-8378</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140224101340/http://www.thenation.com/article/any-means-necessary">Archived</a> from the original on February 24, 2014. Retrieved October 1, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Nation&rft.atitle=By+Any+Means+Necessary&rft.date=2004-06-17&rft.issn=0027-8378&rft.aulast=Marqusee&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Farticle%2Farchive%2Fany-means-necessary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> Walter Rucker, "Crusader in Exile: Robert F. Williams and the International Struggle for Black Freedom in America" The Black Scholar 36, No. 2–3 (Summer–Fall 2006): 19–33. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/223267/_Crusader_in_Exile_Robert_F._Williams_and_the_Internationalized_Struggle_for_Black_Freedom_in_America._2006_">URL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170727005417/http://www.academia.edu/223267/_Crusader_in_Exile_Robert_F._Williams_and_the_Internationalized_Struggle_for_Black_Freedom_in_America._2006_">Archived</a> July 27, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> Timothy B. Tyson, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://investigatinghistory.ashp.cuny.edu/m11d.html">"Robert Franklin Williams: A Warrior For Freedom, 1925–1996"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130708140451/http://investigatinghistory.ashp.cuny.edu/m11d.html">Archived</a> July 8, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Southern Exposure, Winter 1996, Investigating U.S. History (City University of New York) </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rac.org/issues/civil-rights-voting-rights/brief-history-jews-and-civil-rights-movement-1960s">"A Brief History of Jews and the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s | Religious Action Center of Reform Judaism"</a>. rac.org. Retrieved December 14, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=rac.org&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+Jews+and+the+Civil+Rights+Movement+of+the+1960s+%7C+Religious+Action+Center+of+Reform+Judaism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frac.org%2Fissues%2Fcivil-rights-voting-rights%2Fbrief-history-jews-and-civil-rights-movement-1960s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/american-jews-and-the-civil-rights-movement">"American Jews and the Civil Rights Movement"</a>. www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved December 14, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=American+Jews+and+the+Civil+Rights+Movement&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Famerican-jews-and-the-civil-rights-movement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fair-Employment-Practices-Committee">"Fair Employment Practices Committee"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. March 20, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fair+Employment+Practices+Committee&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2023-03-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FFair-Employment-Practices-Committee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlass2018" class="citation news cs1">Glass, Andrew (June 29, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://politi.co/2Mz2C4K">"Truman addresses NAACP, June 29, 1947"</a>. Politico. 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CQ Press. p. 1946. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-0718-2463-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-0718-2463-4"><bdi>978-1-0718-2463-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Presidency%3A+Origins+and+Development%2C+1776%E2%80%932021&rft.pages=1946&rft.pub=CQ+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-0718-2463-4&rft.aulast=Milkis&rft.aufirst=Sidney+M.&rft.au=Nelson%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbW9KEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Den%26pg%3DPA1946&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-234">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_234-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_234-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_234-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_234-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNichols2020" class="citation web cs1">Nichols, David A. 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Global Nonviolent Action Database. <a href="/wiki/Swarthmore_College" title="Swarthmore College">Swarthmore College</a>. Retrieved January 13, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Global+Nonviolent+Action+Database&rft.atitle=Cambridge%2C+Maryland%2C+activists+campaign+for+desegregation%2C+USA%2C+1962%E2%80%931963&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnvdatabase.swarthmore.edu%2Fcontent%2Fcambridge-maryland-activists-campaign-desegregation-usa-1962-1963&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BAA-257">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BAA_257-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BAA_257-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorthy1964" class="citation web cs1">Worthy, Wliliam (March 10, 1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=1mY8AAAAIBAJ&pg=1694,6977757&dq=gloria%20richardson%20malcolm%20x&hl=en">"Mrs. Richardson okeys Malcolm X"</a>. Baltimore Afro-American. Retrieved July 29, 2016 – via Google News Archive Search.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Baltimore+Afro-American&rft.atitle=Mrs.+Richardson+okeys+Malcolm+X&rft.date=1964-03-10&rft.aulast=Worthy&rft.aufirst=Wliliam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fid%3D1mY8AAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D1694%2C6977757%26dq%3Dgloria%2520richardson%2520malcolm%2520x%26hl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/mlk/sfeature/sf_video_pop_04c_tr_qry.html">"The Negro and the American Promise,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161225033405/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/mlk/sfeature/sf_video_pop_04c_tr_qry.html">Archived</a> December 25, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> produced by Boston public television station WGBH in 1963 </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> Harlem CORE, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://harlemcore.com/omeka/items/show/162">"Film clip of Harlem CORE chairman Gladys Harrington speaking on Malcolm X"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304204921/http://harlemcore.com/omeka/items/show/162">Archived</a> March 4, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/malcolm-x">"Malcolm X"</a>. The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute. June 29, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Martin+Luther+King%2C+Jr.%2C+Research+and+Education+Institute&rft.atitle=Malcolm+X&rft.date=2017-06-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkinginstitute.stanford.edu%2Fencyclopedia%2Fmalcolm-x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarable2011" class="citation book cs1">Marable, Manning (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RownbjVryWIC&pg=PT429">Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-44527-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-44527-3"><bdi>978-1-101-44527-3</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malcolm+X%3A+A+Life+of+Reinvention&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-101-44527-3&rft.aulast=Marable&rft.aufirst=Manning&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRownbjVryWIC%26pg%3DPT429&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedia" class="citation web cs1">Media, American Public. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/blackspeech/mx.html">"Say it Plain, Say it Loud – American RadioWorks"</a>. Retrieved July 29, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Say+it+Plain%2C+Say+it+Loud+%E2%80%93+American+RadioWorks&rft.aulast=Media&rft.aufirst=American+Public&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famericanradioworks.publicradio.org%2Ffeatures%2Fblackspeech%2Fmx.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> Akinyele Umoja, We Will Shoot Back: Armed Resistance in the Mississippi Freedom Movement (NYU Press, 2013), p. 126 </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> Francis Fox Piven and Richard Cloward, Regulating the Poor (Random House 1971), p. 238; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bBQvmMnKmbcC&pg=PA118">Abel A. Bartley, Keeping the Faith: Race, Politics and Social Development in Jacksonville, 1940–1970 (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000), 111</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150110073828/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~public/civilrights/a0146.html">"The Ballot or the Bullet"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xroads.virginia.edu/~public/civilrights/a0146.html">the original</a> on January 10, 2015. Retrieved July 29, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Ballot+or+the+Bullet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fxroads.virginia.edu%2F~public%2Fcivilrights%2Fa0146.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> Blackside Productions, Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Movement 1954–1985, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/about/pt_201.html">"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100423154235/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/about/pt_201.html">Archived</a> April 23, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Time Has Come", Public Broadcasting System </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1998" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, John (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/walkingwithwindm00lewi">Walking With the Wind</a>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-81065-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-81065-2"><bdi>978-0-684-81065-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Walking+With+the+Wind&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-684-81065-2&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwalkingwithwindm00lewi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/docs/flh64.htm">Fannie Lou Hamer, Speech Delivered with Malcolm X at the Williams Institutional CME Church, Harlem, New York, December 20, 1964</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160114204507/http://www.crmvet.org/docs/flh64.htm">Archived</a> January 14, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> George Breitman, ed. Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements (Grove Press, 1965), pp. 106–109 </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrain2005" class="citation book cs1">Strain, Christopher B. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EAhHl-0ERn8C&pg=PA92">Pure Fire: Self-defense as Activism in the Civil Rights Era</a>. University of Georgia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-2687-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-2687-0"><bdi>978-0-8203-2687-0</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pure+Fire%3A+Self-defense+as+Activism+in+the+Civil+Rights+Era&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8203-2687-0&rft.aulast=Strain&rft.aufirst=Christopher+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEAhHl-0ERn8C%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> Juan Williams, et al, Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years 1954–1965 (Penguin Group, 1988), p. 262 </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> Paul Ryan Haygood, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackcommentator.com/127/127_guest_malcolm.html">"Malcolm's Contribution to Black Voting Rights"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304135106/http://www.blackcommentator.com/127/127_guest_malcolm.html">Archived</a> March 4, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Black Commentator </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/itvs/fromswastikatojimcrow/relations.html">From Swastika to Jim Crow</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150722212600/http://www.pbs.org/itvs/fromswastikatojimcrow/relations.html">Archived</a> July 22, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>—PBS Documentary </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> Cannato, Vincent "The Ungovernable City: John Lindsay and his struggle to save New York" Better Books, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-00843-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-00843-7">0-465-00843-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaren_Brodkin2000" class="citation book cs1">Karen Brodkin (2000). How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says About Race in America. Rutgers University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Jews+Became+White+Folks+and+What+That+Says+About+Race+in+America&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Karen+Brodkin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogin1998" class="citation book cs1">Rogin, Michael (May 29, 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=va8wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA263">Blackface, White Noise: Jewish Immigrants in the Hollywood Melting Pot</a>. University of California Press. pp. 262–267. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21380-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21380-7"><bdi>978-0-520-21380-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blackface%2C+White+Noise%3A+Jewish+Immigrants+in+the+Hollywood+Melting+Pot&rft.pages=262-267&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998-05-29&rft.isbn=978-0-520-21380-7&rft.aulast=Rogin&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dva8wDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-My_Jewish_Learning-277">^ <a href="#cite_ref-My_Jewish_Learning_277-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-My_Jewish_Learning_277-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSachar1993" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Howard_Sachar" title="Howard Sachar">Sachar, Howard</a> (November 2, 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140721012334/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history/Modern_History/1948-1980/America/Liberal_Politics/Black-Jewish_Relations/Civil_Rights_Movement.shtml?p=2">"A History of Jews in America"</a>. My Jewish Learning. Vintage Books. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history/Modern_History/1948-1980/America/Liberal_Politics/Black-Jewish_Relations/Civil_Rights_Movement.shtml?p=2">the original</a> on July 21, 2014. Retrieved March 1, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=My+Jewish+Learning&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Jews+in+America&rft.date=1993-11-02&rft.aulast=Sachar&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.myjewishlearning.com%2Fhistory%2FModern_History%2F1948-1980%2FAmerica%2FLiberal_Politics%2FBlack-Jewish_Relations%2FCivil_Rights_Movement.shtml%3Fp%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> Winner, Lauren F. "Doubtless Sincere: New Characters in the Civil Rights Cast." In The Role of Ideas in the Civil Rights South, edited by Ted Ownby. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2002, pp. 158–159. </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> Winner, Lauren F., 164–165. </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> Winner, Lauren F., 166–167. </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies" class="citation web cs1">Davies, Tom Adam. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/384127">"SNCC, the Federal Government & the Road to Black Power"</a>. Retrieved July 29, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SNCC%2C+the+Federal+Government+%26+the+Road+to+Black+Power&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Tom+Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F384127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.studythepast.com/4333_spring12/acrm/ACRM%205.1.pdf">"Allen J. Matusow "From Civil Rights to Black Power: The Case of SNCC", in Twentieth-Century America: Recent Interpretations (Harcourt Press, 1972), pp. 367–378"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Allen+J.+Matusow+%22From+Civil+Rights+to+Black+Power%3A+The+Case+of+SNCC%22%2C+in+Twentieth-Century+America%3A+Recent+Interpretations+%28Harcourt+Press%2C+1972%29%2C+pp.+367%E2%80%93378&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.studythepast.com%2F4333_spring12%2Facrm%2FACRM%25205.1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarqusee2004" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mike_Marqusee" title="Mike Marqusee">Marqusee, Mike</a> (June 18, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150313004902/http://www.thenation.com/article/any-means-necessary?page=0,0">"By Any Means Necessary"</a>. The Nation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thenation.com/article/any-means-necessary?page=0,0">the original</a> on March 13, 2015. Retrieved July 29, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Nation&rft.atitle=By+Any+Means+Necessary&rft.date=2004-06-18&rft.aulast=Marqusee&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Farticle%2Fany-means-necessary%3Fpage%3D0%2C0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2010" class="citation news cs1">Martin, Douglas (April 24, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/25/us/25hicks.html">"Robert Hicks, Leader in Armed Rights Group, Dies at 81"</a>. 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Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-60549-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-60549-3"><bdi>978-1-101-60549-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Seven&rft.btitle=The+Fierce+Urgency+of+Now%3A+Lyndon+Johnson%2C+Congress%2C+and+the+Battle+for+the+Great+Society&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2015-01-08&rft.isbn=978-1-101-60549-3&rft.aulast=Zelizer&rft.aufirst=Julian+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw835AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://networks.h-net.org/node/16794/reviews/17020/gillman-klarman-jim-crow-civil-rights-supreme-court-and-struggle-racial">"Gillman on Klarman, 'From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality' | H-Law | H-Net"</a>. networks.h-net.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180326202852/https://networks.h-net.org/node/16794/reviews/17020/gillman-klarman-jim-crow-civil-rights-supreme-court-and-struggle-racial">Archived</a> from the original on March 26, 2018. Retrieved March 26, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=networks.h-net.org&rft.atitle=Gillman+on+Klarman%2C+%27From+Jim+Crow+to+Civil+Rights%3A+The+Supreme+Court+and+the+Struggle+for+Racial+Equality%27+%7C+H-Law+%7C+H-Net&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnetworks.h-net.org%2Fnode%2F16794%2Freviews%2F17020%2Fgillman-klarman-jim-crow-civil-rights-supreme-court-and-struggle-racial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171210064143/https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2000/marchapril/feature/racism-redemption">"Racism to Redemption"</a>. National Endowment for the Humanities. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2000/marchapril/feature/racism-redemption">the original</a> on December 10, 2017. Retrieved March 26, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Endowment+for+the+Humanities&rft.atitle=Racism+to+Redemption&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.neh.gov%2Fhumanities%2F2000%2Fmarchapril%2Ffeature%2Fracism-redemption&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLassiter2013" class="citation book cs1">Lassiter, Matthew D. (October 24, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_a0EAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South</a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 6–7, 302–304. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4942-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4942-0"><bdi>978-1-4008-4942-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silent+Majority%3A+Suburban+Politics+in+the+Sunbelt+South&rft.pages=6-7%2C+302-304&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013-10-24&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-4942-0&rft.aulast=Lassiter&rft.aufirst=Matthew+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_a0EAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArsenault2006" class="citation book cs1">Arsenault, Raymond (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/freedomriders1960000arse">Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice</a>. 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Jonathan (2001) Blessed Are The Peacemakers: Martin Luther King Jr., Eight White Religious Leaders, and the "Letter from Birmingham Jail". Baton Rouge: LSU Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8071-2655-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8071-2655-1">0-8071-2655-1</a></li> <li>Beito, David T. and Beito, Linda Royster, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dS4eA77qau0C">Black Maverick: T.R.M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power</a>, University of Illinois Press, 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03420-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03420-6">978-0-252-03420-6</a></li> <li>Branch, Taylor. Parting the waters: America in the King years, 1954–1963. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988</li> <li>Breitman, George ed. Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements (Grove Press, 1965)</li> <li>Brown, Jennie Medgar Evers, Holloway House Publishing, 1994</li> <li>Bryant, Nicholas Andrew The Bystander: John F. Kennedy And the Struggle for Black Equality (Basic Books, 2006)</li> <li>Cannato, Vincent "The Ungovernable City: John Lindsay and his struggle to save New York" Better Books, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-00843-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-00843-7">0-465-00843-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarson1981" class="citation book cs1">Carson, Clayborne (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fm9v7KKj_UQC">In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s</a>. 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New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502625-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502625-2"><bdi>978-0-19-502625-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civilities+and+civil+rights%3A+Greensboro%2C+North+Carolina%2C+and+the+Black+struggle+for+freedom&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-19-502625-2&rft.aulast=Chafe&rft.aufirst=William+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcivilitiescivilr0000chaf_h5c0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChafe2003" class="citation book cs1">Chafe, William Henry (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unfinishedjourne0000chaf">The Unfinished Journey: America since World War II</a>. 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Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-04592-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-04592-5"><bdi>978-0-393-04592-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weary+Feet%2C+Rested+Souls%3A+A+Guided+History+of+the+Civil+Rights+Movement&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-393-04592-5&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Townsend&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwearyfeetresteds00town&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Dudziak, M.L.: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Cold-War-Civil-Rights-Twentieth-Century/dp/0691152438">Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErikson1969" class="citation book cs1">Erikson, Erik (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gandhistruth00erik_0">Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence</a>. New York: Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31034-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31034-4"><bdi>978-0-393-31034-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gandhi%27s+Truth%3A+On+the+Origins+of+Militant+Nonviolence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-393-31034-4&rft.aulast=Erikson&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgandhistruth00erik_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Eskew, Glenn T. But for Birmingham: The Local and National Struggles in the Civil Rights Movement (University of North Carolina Press, 1997)</li> <li>Fine, Sidney Expanding the Frontier of Civil Rights: Michigan, 1948–1968 (Wayne State University Press, 2000)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelman2009" class="citation book cs1">Finkelman, Paul, ed. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6gbQHxb_P0QC&pg=RA3-PA199">Encyclopedia of African American History</a>. 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Henry Epps.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+Chronicle+History+of+the+African-American+People+Experience+in+America&rft.pub=Henry+Epps&rft.aulast=Gregg&rft.aufirst=Khyree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHagueSebestaBeirich2008" class="citation book cs1">Hague, Euan; Sebesta, Edward H.; Beirich, Heidi (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EYnoDAAAQBAJ">Neo-Confederacy: A Critical Introduction</a>. University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71837-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71837-1"><bdi>978-0-292-71837-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neo-Confederacy%3A+A+Critical+Introduction&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-292-71837-1&rft.aulast=Hague&rft.aufirst=Euan&rft.au=Sebesta%2C+Edward+H.&rft.au=Beirich%2C+Heidi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEYnoDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hill, Lance <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8H9Me8LZ488C&pg=PA206">The Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement</a> (University of North Carolina Press, 2006)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilty2000" class="citation book cs1">Hilty, James (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Za8TAQAAQBAJ">Robert Kennedy: Brother Protector</a>. Temple University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4399-0519-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4399-0519-7"><bdi>978-1-4399-0519-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robert+Kennedy%3A+Brother+Protector&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-4399-0519-7&rft.aulast=Hilty&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZa8TAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoose2009" class="citation book cs1">Hoose, Phillip (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/claudettecolvint00hoos">Claudette Colvin: Twice Toward Justice</a>. 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Board of Education and the Civil Rights Movement [electronic resource] : abridged edition of From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality, Oxford; New York : Oxford University Press, 2007.</li> <li>Levy, Peter B. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924123559/http://www.temple.edu/tempress/chapters_1800/2148_ch1.pdf">The Dream Deferred: The Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., and the Holy Week Uprisings of 1968</a>" in Baltimore '68 : Riots and Rebirth in an American city (Temple University Press, 2011)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1998" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, John (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/walkingwithwindm00lewi">Walking With the Wind</a>. 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WW Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05122-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05122-3"><bdi>978-0-393-05122-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kennedy%2C+Johnson%2C+and+the+Quest+for+Justice%3A+The+Civil+Rights+Tapes&rft.pub=WW+Norton+%26+Co&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-393-05122-3&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft.au=Karabell%2C+Zachary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkennedyjohnsonth00rose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Saito, Leland T. (1998). Race and Politics: Asian Americans, Latinos, and Whites in a Los Angeles Suburb. 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Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4417-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4417-3"><bdi>978-1-4008-4417-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Babylon%3A+Race+and+the+Struggle+for+Postwar+Oakland&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-4417-3&rft.aulast=Self&rft.aufirst=Robert+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db8MeAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Jean Edward (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grant00smit">Grant</a>. Simon and Schuster. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grant00smit/page/544">544</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-1701-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-1701-9"><bdi>978-0-7432-1701-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grant&rft.pages=544&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-1701-9&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Jean+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrant00smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephensScheb2007" class="citation book cs1">Stephens, Otis H. Jr.; Scheb, John M. II (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tFcwj2yrLcwC&pg=PA528">American Constitutional Law: Civil Rights and Liberties</a>. Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-09705-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-09705-1"><bdi>978-0-495-09705-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Constitutional+Law%3A+Civil+Rights+and+Liberties&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-495-09705-1&rft.aulast=Stephens&rft.aufirst=Otis+H.+Jr.&rft.au=Scheb%2C+John+M.+II&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtFcwj2yrLcwC%26pg%3DPA528&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Strain, Christopher <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EAhHl-0ERn8C&pg=PA92">Pure Fire:Self-Defense as Activism in the Civil Rights Era</a> (University of Georgia Press, 2005)</li> <li>Sugrue, Thomas J. Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (2008). 720pp comprehensive history of civil rights issue in the North, 1930s–2000s <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sweetlandofliber0000thom">online</a></li> <li>Sugrue, Thomas J. The origins of the urban crisis : race and inequality in postwar Detroit (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofurbancr0000sugr">online</a></li> <li>Tucker, William H. The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund, University of Illinois Press (2007)</li> <li>Tyson, Timothy B. Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of "Black Power" (University of North Carolina Press, 1999)</li> <li>Umoja, Akinyele We Will Shoot Back: Armed Resistance in the Mississippi Freedom Movement (NYU Press, 2013)</li> <li>Weems, Robert E. Jr., Business in Black and White: American presidents and Black Entrepreneurs (2009)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiner2010" class="citation book cs1">Weiner, Melissa F. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AkPnRoKK-XYC&pg=PA54">Power, Protest, and the Public Schools: Jewish and African American Struggles in New York City</a>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4772-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4772-5"><bdi>978-0-8135-4772-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power%2C+Protest%2C+and+the+Public+Schools%3A+Jewish+and+African+American+Struggles+in+New+York+City&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-4772-5&rft.aulast=Weiner&rft.aufirst=Melissa+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAkPnRoKK-XYC%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Wendt, Simon The Spirit and the Shotgun: Armed Resistance and the Struggle for Civil Rights (University of Florida Press, 2007).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Williams" title="Juan Williams">Williams, Juan</a>. Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954–1965. Penguin Books, 1987. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-009653-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-009653-1">0-14-009653-1</a>.</li> <li>Winner, Lauren F. "Doubtless Sincere: New Characters in the Civil Rights Cast." In The Role of Ideas in the Civil Rights South, edited by Ted Ownby. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2002</li> <li>Woodward, C. Vann The Strange Career of Jim Crow, 3rd rev. ed. (Oxford University Press, 1974).</li> <li>Young, Coleman Hard Stuff: The Autobiography of Mayor Coleman Young (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Zarefsky" title="David Zarefsky">Zarefsky, David</a> President Johnson's war on poverty: Rhetoric and history (2005)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Abel" title="Elizabeth Abel">Abel, Elizabeth</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520261839">Signs of the Times: The Visual Politics of Jim Crow</a>. (U of California Press, 2010).</li> <li>Bader, Michael D.M., and Siri Warkentien. "The fragmented evolution of racial integration since the civil rights movement." Sociological Science 3 (2016): 135–166. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/vol-3/march/SocSci_v3_135to166.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Barnes, Catherine A. Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Transit (Columbia UP, 1983).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="bennett1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lerone_Bennett_Jr." title="Lerone Bennett Jr.">Bennett, Lerone Jr.</a> (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/confrontationbla0000unse/page/n9/mode/2up">Confrontation Black and White</a>. Chicago: Johnson Publishing Company, Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confrontation+Black+and+White&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Johnson+Publishing+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Lerone+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconfrontationbla0000unse%2Fpage%2Fn9%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Bloom, Jack M. Class, race, and the civil rights movement (Indiana University Press, 2019).</li> <li>Branch, Taylor. Pillar of fire: America in the King years, 1963–1965. (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Branch, Taylor</a>. <a href="/wiki/At_Canaan%27s_Edge:_America_In_the_King_Years,_1965%E2%80%931968" class="mw-redirect" title="At Canaan's Edge: America In the King Years, 1965–1968">At Canaan's Edge: America In the King Years, 1965–1968</a>. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-85712-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-85712-X">0-684-85712-X</a></li> <li>Chandra, Siddharth and Angela Williams-Foster. "The 'Revolution of Rising Expectations,' Relative Deprivation, and the Urban Social Disorders of the 1960s: Evidence from State-Level Data." Social Science History, (2005) 29#2 pp:299–332, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40267877">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Cox, Julian. Road to Freedom: Photographs of the Civil Rights Movement, 1956–1968, Atlanta: High Museum of Art, 2008.</li> <li>Eig, Jonathan. <a href="/wiki/King:_A_Life" title="King: A Life">King: A Life</a> (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2023), won Pulitzer Prize.</li> <li>Ellis, Sylvia. Freedom's Pragmatist: Lyndon Johnson and Civil Rights (U Press of Florida, 2013).</li> <li>Fairclough, Adam. To Redeem the Soul of America: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference & Martin Luther King. The University of Georgia Press, 1987.</li> <li>Faulkenbury, Evan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uncpress.org/book/9781469652009/poll-power/">Poll Power: The Voter Education Project and the Movement for the Ballot in the American South</a>. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2019.</li> <li>Garrow, David J. The FBI and Martin Luther King. New York: W.W. Norton. 1981. Viking Press Reprint edition. 1983. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-006486-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-006486-9">0-14-006486-9</a>. Yale University Press; Revised and Expanded edition. 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-08731-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-08731-4">0-300-08731-4</a>.</li> <li>Greene, Christina. Our Separate Ways: Women and the Black Freedom Movement in Durham. North Carolina. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.</li> <li>Hine, Darlene Clark, ed. Black Women in America (3 Vol. 2nd ed. 2005; several multivolume editions). Short biographies by scholars.</li> <li>Horne, Gerald. The Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. 1995. Da Capo Press; 1st Da Capo Press ed. 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-80792-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-80792-0">0-306-80792-0</a></li> <li>Jones, Jacqueline. Labor of love, labor of sorrow: Black women, work, and the family, from slavery to the present (2009).</li> <li>Kasher, Steven. The Civil Rights Movement: A Photographic History, New York: Abbeville Press, 1996.</li> <li>Keppel, Ben. Brown v. Board and the Transformation of American Culture (LSU Press, 2016). xiv, 225 pp.</li> <li>Kirk, John A. Redefining the Color Line: Black Activism in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1940–1970. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8130-2496-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8130-2496-X">0-8130-2496-X</a></li> <li>Kirk, John A. Martin Luther King Jr. London: Longman, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-41431-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-41431-8">0-582-41431-8</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071014221044/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3651/is_200004/ai_n8888452">Kousser, J. Morgan, "The Supreme Court And The Undoing of the Second Reconstruction," National Forum, (Spring 2000).</a></li> <li>Kryn, Randall L. "James L. Bevel, The Strategist of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement", 1984 paper with 1988 addendum, printed in We Shall Overcome, Volume II edited by David Garrow, New York: Carlson Publishing Co., 1989.</li> <li>Levy, Peter B. The Civil Rights Movement: A Reference Guide (ABC-CLIO, 2019).</li> <li>Lowery, Charles D. Encyclopedia of African-American civil rights: from emancipation to the present (Greenwood, 1992).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manning_Marable" title="Manning Marable">Marable, Manning</a>. Race, Reform and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945–1982. 249 pages. University Press of Mississippi, 1984. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87805-225-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-87805-225-9">0-87805-225-9</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">McAdam, Doug</a>. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1982.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">McAdam, Doug</a>, 'The US Civil Rights Movement: Power from Below and Above, 1945–70', in <a href="/wiki/Adam_Roberts_(scholar)" title="Adam Roberts (scholar)">Adam Roberts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a> (eds.), Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955201-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955201-6">978-0-19-955201-6</a>.</li> <li>Minchin, Timothy J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hb3ETCCaWV4C">Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960–1980</a>. University of North Carolina Press, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-2470-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-2470-4">0-8078-2470-4</a>.</li> <li>Morris, Aldon D. The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change. New York: The Free Press, 1984. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-922130-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-922130-7">0-02-922130-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgletree2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Ogletree" title="Charles Ogletree">Ogletree, Charles J. Jr.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alldeliberatespe00ogle">All Deliberate Speed: Reflections on the First Half Century of Brown v. Board of Education</a>. New York: W.W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05897-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05897-0"><bdi>978-0-393-05897-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All+Deliberate+Speed%3A+Reflections+on+the+First+Half+Century+of+Brown+v.+Board+of+Education&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-393-05897-0&rft.aulast=Ogletree&rft.aufirst=Charles+J.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falldeliberatespe00ogle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Payne, Charles M.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520251762">I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle</a>. U of California Press, 1995.</li> <li>Patterson, James T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brownvboardofedu2001patt">Brown v. Board of Education : a civil rights milestone and its troubled legacy</a> Brown v. Board of Education, a Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy]. Oxford University Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-515632-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-515632-3">0-19-515632-3</a>.</li> <li>Raffel, Jeffrey. Historical dictionary of school segregation and desegregation: The American experience (Bloomsbury, 1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2a7OEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=HISTORICAL+DICTIONARY+OF+SCHOOL+SEGREGATION+AND+DESEGREGATION&ots=FNVMhQhrqU&sig=IpyhybKlG5BpZFJxVxtOMfHU_q4">online</a></li> <li>Raiford, Leigh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uncpress.unc.edu/browse/book_detail?title_id=1771">Imprisoned in a Luminous Glare: Photography and the African American Freedom Struggle</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160822225520/http://uncpress.unc.edu/browse/book_detail?title_id=1771">Archived</a> August 22, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. (U of North Carolina Press, 2011).</li> <li>Reed, Thomas Vernon. The art of protest: Culture and activism from the Civil Rights Movement to the present (U of Minnesota Press, 2019).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson,_Christopher_M.Ralph_E._Luker2014" class="citation book cs1">Richardson, Christopher M.; Ralph E. Luker, eds. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CafcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR13">Historical Dictionary of the Civil Rights Movement (2nd ed.)</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8037-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8037-5"><bdi>978-0-8108-8037-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Civil+Rights+Movement+%282nd+ed.%29&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-8037-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCafcAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Riches, William. The civil rights movement: Struggle and resistance (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017), short survey</li> <li>Sitkoff, Howard. The Struggle for Black Equality (2nd ed. 2008)</li> <li>Smith, Jessie Carney, ed. Encyclopedia of African American Business (2 vol. Greenwood 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-VYN_LWZwf4C&pg=PA164">excerpt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_Sokol" title="Jason Sokol">Sokol, Jason.</a> <a href="/wiki/There_Goes_My_Everything_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="There Goes My Everything (book)">There Goes My Everything: White Southerners in the Age of Civil Rights, 1945–1975</a>. (Knopf, 2006).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Tsesis" title="Alexander Tsesis">Tsesis, Alexander</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A94zj6PYV7gC">We Shall Overcome: A History of Civil Rights and the Law</a>. (Yale University Press, 2008). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11837-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11837-7">978-0-300-11837-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Tuck" title="Stephen Tuck">Tuck, Stephen</a>. We Ain't What We Ought to Be: The Black Freedom Struggle from Emancipation to Obama (2011).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_and_memory">Historiography and memory</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmstrong2015" class="citation book cs1">Armstrong, Julie Buckner, ed. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JvrIBgAAQBAJ">The Cambridge Companion to American Civil Rights Literature</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. xxiv, 209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-24038-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-24038-0"><bdi>978-1-316-24038-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+American+Civil+Rights+Literature&rft.pages=xxiv%2C+209&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-316-24038-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJvrIBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Berger, Martin A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520268647">Seeing through Race: A Reinterpretation of Civil Rights Photography</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.</li> <li>Berger, Maurice. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300121315/all-world-see">For All the World to See: Visual Culture and the Struggle for Civil Rights</a>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2010.</li> <li>Carawan, Candie. Sing for freedom: The story of the civil rights movement through its songs (NewSouth Books, 2021).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatsam2008" class="citation journal cs1">Catsam, Derek (January 2008). "The Civil Rights Movement and the Presidency in the Hot Years of the Cold War: A Historical and Historiographical Assessment". History Compass. 6 (1): 314–344. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1478-0542.2007.00486.x">10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00486.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Compass&rft.atitle=The+Civil+Rights+Movement+and+the+Presidency+in+the+Hot+Years+of+the+Cold+War%3A+A+Historical+and+Historiographical+Assessment&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=314-344&rft.date=2008-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1478-0542.2007.00486.x&rft.aulast=Catsam&rft.aufirst=Derek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCha-JuaLang2007" class="citation journal cs1">Cha-Jua, Sundiata Keita; Lang, Clarence (Spring 2007). "The 'Long Movement' as Vampire: Temporal and Spatial Fallacies in Recent Black Freedom Studies". The Journal of African American History. 92 (2): 265–288. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2FJAAHv92n2p265">10.1086/JAAHv92n2p265</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:140436349">140436349</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+American+History&rft.atitle=The+%27Long+Movement%27+as+Vampire%3A+Temporal+and+Spatial+Fallacies+in+Recent+Black+Freedom+Studies&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=265-288&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2FJAAHv92n2p265&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A140436349%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cha-Jua&rft.aufirst=Sundiata+Keita&rft.au=Lang%2C+Clarence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Clayton, Dewey M. "Black Lives Matter and the civil rights movement: A comparative analysis of two social movements in the United States." Journal of Black Studies 49.5 (2018): 448–480.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEagles2000" class="citation journal cs1">Eagles, Charles W. (November 2000). "Toward New Histories of the Civil Rights Era". The Journal of Southern History. 66 (4): 815–848. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2588012">10.2307/2588012</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2588012">2588012</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=Toward+New+Histories+of+the+Civil+Rights+Era&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=815-848&rft.date=2000-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2588012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2588012%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Eagles&rft.aufirst=Charles+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairclough1990" class="citation journal cs1">Fairclough, Adam (December 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021875800033697">"Historians and the Civil Rights Movement"</a>. Journal of American Studies. 24 (3): 387–398. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021875800033697">10.1017/S0021875800033697</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Studies&rft.atitle=Historians+and+the+Civil+Rights+Movement&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=387-398&rft.date=1990-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021875800033697&rft.aulast=Fairclough&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0021875800033697&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost2012" class="citation journal cs1">Frost, Jennifer (May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.societyforhistoryeducation.org/pdfs/M12_Frost.pdf">"Using 'Master Narratives' to Teach History: The Case of the Civil Rights Movement"</a> (PDF). History Teacher. 45 (3): 437–446. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150412005207/http://www.societyforhistoryeducation.org/pdfs/M12_Frost.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on April 12, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Teacher&rft.atitle=Using+%27Master+Narratives%27+to+Teach+History%3A+The+Case+of+the+Civil+Rights+Movement&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=437-446&rft.date=2012-05&rft.aulast=Frost&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.societyforhistoryeducation.org%2Fpdfs%2FM12_Frost.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2005" class="citation journal cs1">Hall, Jacquelyn Dowd (March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190727061353/http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/ows/seminars/tcentury/movinglr/longcivilrights.pdf">"The Long Civil Rights Movement and the Political Uses of the Past"</a> (PDF). The Journal of American History. 91 (4): 1233–1263. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3660172">10.2307/3660172</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3660172">3660172</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/ows/seminars/tcentury/movinglr/longcivilrights.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on July 27, 2019. Retrieved May 16, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=The+Long+Civil+Rights+Movement+and+the+Political+Uses+of+the+Past&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1233-1263&rft.date=2005-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3660172&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3660172%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Jacquelyn+Dowd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnationalhumanitiescenter.org%2Fows%2Fseminars%2Ftcentury%2Fmovinglr%2Flongcivilrights.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lang, Clarence. "Locating the civil rights movement: An essay on the Deep South, Midwest, and border South in Black Freedom Studies." Journal of Social History 47.2 (2013): 371–400. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43305919">Online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawson1991" class="citation journal cs1">Lawson, Steven F. (April 1991). "Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement". The American Historical Review. 96 (2): 456–471. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2163219">10.2307/2163219</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2163219">2163219</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Freedom+Then%2C+Freedom+Now%3A+The+Historiography+of+the+Civil+Rights+Movement&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=456-471&rft.date=1991-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2163219&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2163219%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lawson&rft.aufirst=Steven+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawsonPayne1998" class="citation book cs1">Lawson, Steven F.; Payne, Charles M. (1998). Debating the Civil Rights Movement, 1945–1968. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-9053-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-9053-4"><bdi>978-0-8476-9053-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Debating+the+Civil+Rights+Movement%2C+1945%E2%80%931968&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8476-9053-4&rft.aulast=Lawson&rft.aufirst=Steven+F.&rft.au=Payne%2C+Charles+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawson2003" class="citation book cs1">Lawson, Steven F. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/civilrightscross0000laws">Civil Rights Crossroads: Nation, Community, and the Black Freedom Struggle</a>. University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-2693-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-2693-7"><bdi>978-0-8131-2693-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+Rights+Crossroads%3A+Nation%2C+Community%2C+and+the+Black+Freedom+Struggle&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-2693-7&rft.aulast=Lawson&rft.aufirst=Steven+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcivilrightscross0000laws&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayne2007" class="citation book cs1">Payne, Charles M. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4eh_iGj2bzsC&pg=PA413">"Bibliographic Essay: The Social Construction of History"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4eh_iGj2bzsC">I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle</a>. University of California Press. pp. 413–442. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25176-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25176-2"><bdi>978-0-520-25176-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bibliographic+Essay%3A+The+Social+Construction+of+History&rft.btitle=I%27ve+Got+the+Light+of+Freedom%3A+The+Organizing+Tradition+and+the+Mississippi+Freedom+Struggle&rft.pages=413-442&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25176-2&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=Charles+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4eh_iGj2bzsC%26pg%3DPA413&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinsonSullivan1991" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Armstead L.; Sullivan, Patricia, eds. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MTn8CT5SNp4C">New Directions in Civil Rights Studies</a>. University of Virginia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-1319-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-1319-3"><bdi>978-0-8139-1319-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Directions+in+Civil+Rights+Studies&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8139-1319-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMTn8CT5SNp4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandage1993" class="citation journal cs1">Sandage, Scott A. (June 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402144202/http://www.journalofamericanhistory.orgwww.journalofamericanhistory.org/projects/lincoln/bibliography/articles/pdf/LIJ-Article-1990s.pdf">"A Marble House Divided: The Lincoln Memorial, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Politics of Memory, 1939–1963"</a> (PDF). The Journal of American History. 80 (1): 135–167. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2079700">10.2307/2079700</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2079700">2079700</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journalofamericanhistory.orgwww.journalofamericanhistory.org/projects/lincoln/bibliography/articles/pdf/LIJ-Article-1990s.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on April 2, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=A+Marble+House+Divided%3A+The+Lincoln+Memorial%2C+the+Civil+Rights+Movement%2C+and+the+Politics+of+Memory%2C+1939%E2%80%931963&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=135-167&rft.date=1993-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2079700&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2079700%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sandage&rft.aufirst=Scott+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.journalofamericanhistory.orgwww.journalofamericanhistory.org%2Fprojects%2Flincoln%2Fbibliography%2Farticles%2Fpdf%2FLIJ-Article-1990s.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStricklandWeems2001" class="citation book cs1">Strickland, Arvarh E.; Weems, Robert E., eds. (2001). The African American Experience: An Historiographical and Bibliographical Guide. Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29838-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29838-7"><bdi>978-0-313-29838-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+African+American+Experience%3A+An+Historiographical+and+Bibliographical+Guide&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-313-29838-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZamalin2015" class="citation book cs1">Zamalin, Alex (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RizeCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT6">African American Political Thought and American Culture: The Nation's Struggle for Racial Justice</a>. Springer. pp. xii, 192. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-52810-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-52810-0"><bdi>978-1-137-52810-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+American+Political+Thought+and+American+Culture%3A+The+Nation%27s+Struggle+for+Racial+Justice&rft.pages=xii%2C+192&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-137-52810-0&rft.aulast=Zamalin&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRizeCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autobiographies_and_memoirs">Autobiographies and memoirs</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Carson, Clayborne; Garrow, David J.; Kovach, Bill; Polsgrove, Carol, eds. Reporting Civil Rights: American Journalism 1941–1963 and Reporting Civil Rights: American Journalism 1963–1973. New York: <a href="/wiki/Library_of_America" title="Library of America">Library of America</a>, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-931082-28-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-931082-28-6">1-931082-28-6</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-931082-29-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-931082-29-4">1-931082-29-4</a>.</li> <li>Dann, Jim. Challenging the Mississippi Firebombers, Memories of Mississippi 1964–65. Baraka Books, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-926824-87-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-926824-87-1">978-1-926824-87-1</a>.</li> <li>Holsaert, Faith et al. Hands on the Freedom Plow Personal Accounts by Women in SNCC. University of Illinois Press, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03557-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03557-9">978-0-252-03557-9</a>.</li> <li>Malcolm X (with the assistance of <a href="/wiki/Alex_Haley" title="Alex Haley">Alex Haley</a>). <a href="/wiki/The_Autobiography_of_Malcolm_X" title="The Autobiography of Malcolm X">The Autobiography of Malcolm X</a>. New York: Random House, 1965. Paperback <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-35068-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-345-35068-5">0-345-35068-5</a>. Hardcover <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-37975-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-345-37975-6">0-345-37975-6</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Civil_Rights_Movement" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/civilrights/modern-civil-rights-movement.htm/">The Modern Civil Rights Movement, 1954–1964</a> Information from <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">The National Park Service</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/civilrights/index.htm/">Civil Rights in America</a> Information from <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">The National Park Service</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanarchive.org/exhibits/civil-rights">Voices from the Southern Civil Rights Movement</a> Exhibit – Provided by the <a href="/wiki/American_Archive_of_Public_Broadcasting" title="American Archive of Public Broadcasting">American Archive of Public Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://crdl.usg.edu/">Civil Rights Digital Library</a> – Provided by the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Library_of_Georgia" title="Digital Library of Georgia">Digital Library of Georgia</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crmvet.org/">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a> – provides movement history, personal stories, documents, and photos (hosted by <a href="/wiki/Tougaloo_College" title="Tougaloo College">Tougaloo College</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/civil-rights-movement/civil-rights-movement-timeline">Civil Rights Movement Timeline</a> – Provided by <a href="/wiki/History_(American_TV_network)" class="mw-redirect" title="History (American TV network)">History.com</a> on December 4, 2017, and updated on January 19, 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210119164457/https://www.history.com/topics/civil-rights-movement/civil-rights-movement-timeline">Archived</a> from the original on January 19, 2021</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/civilrightstv/">Television News of the Civil Rights Era 1950–1970</a> – Provided by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia" title="University of Virginia">University of Virginia</a>.</li> <li>Provided by the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://guides.loc.gov/civil-rights-in-america/introduction">Civil Rights in America: A Resource Guide</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aaohtml/exhibit/aopart9.html">The Civil Rights Era</a> – Part of The African American Odyssey: A Quest for Full Citizenship presentation.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/civilrights/">Voices of Civil Rights</a> – A project with the collaboration of <a href="/wiki/AARP" title="AARP">AARP</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Leadership Conference on Civil Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil Rights</a> (LCCR).</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/civilrights/">We Shall Overcome: Historic Places of the Civil Rights Movement</a> – Provided by the <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>.</li> <li>Provided by <a href="/wiki/Southern_Poverty_Law_Center" title="Southern Poverty Law Center">Southern Poverty Law Center</a>: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.splcenter.org/20110920/teaching-movement-state-standards-we-deserve">"Teaching the Movement: The State Standards We Deserve"</a> – Part of "Teaching Tolerance" project published on September 19, 2011.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.splcenter.org/news/2014/03/27/teaching-tolerance-publishes-guide-teaching-civil-rights-movement">"Teaching Tolerance Publishes Guide for Teaching the Civil Rights Movement"</a> – Part of "Teaching Tolerance" project published on March 26, 2014.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tolerance.org/TTM2014">"Teaching the Movement 2014: The State of Civil Rights Education in the United States"</a> – Part of "Teaching Tolerance" project published in 2014.</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://civilrightsteaching.org/">Civil Rights Teaching</a> – Provided by <a href="/wiki/Teaching_for_Change" title="Teaching for Change">Teaching for Change</a>, a <a href="/wiki/501(c)(3)_organization" title="501(c)(3) organization">501(c)(3) organization</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snccdigital.org">SNCC Digital Gateway</a> – Profiles and primary documents on the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), the national civil rights movement organization led by young people. A project of the SNCC Legacy Project, Duke's Center for Documentary Studies, and <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Libraries" title="Duke University Libraries">Duke University Libraries</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23901">Collection: "U.S. Civil Rights Movement"</a> from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Museum_of_Art" title="University of Michigan Museum of Art">University of Michigan Museum of Art</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template talk:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Events (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Prior to 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1954–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. Prince Edward County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Co." title="Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministers%27_Manifesto" title="Ministers' Manifesto">Ministers' Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day_March" title="New Year's Day March">New Year's Day March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibley_Commission" title="Sibley Commission">Sibley Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_Protest_Movement" title="Savannah Protest Movement">Savannah Protest Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenville_Eight" title="Greenville Eight">Greenville Eight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ax_Handle_Saturday" title="Ax Handle Saturday">Ax Handle Saturday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Nine" title="Friendship Nine">Rock Hill sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_bus_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniston bus bombing">Anniston bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_bus_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham bus attack">Birmingham attack</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_sit-ins" title="University of Chicago sit-ins">University of Chicago sit-ins</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta%27s_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Atlanta's Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">"Segregation now, segregation forever"</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">1963 Birmingham campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Detroit Walk to Freedom">Detroit Walk to Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">"I Have a Dream"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1964–1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">workers' murders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">1964–1965 Scripto strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">1965 Selma to Montgomery marches</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activist groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Freedom_Now" title="Committee for Freedom Now">Committee for Freedom Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_United_Civil_Rights_Leadership" title="Council for United Civil Rights Leadership">Council for United Civil Rights Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_County_Voters_League" title="Dallas County Voters League">Dallas County Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Council_on_Human_Relations" title="Georgia Council on Human Relations">Georgia Council on Human Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_and_Human_Rights" title="Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">Youth Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Student_Movement" title="Northern Student Movement">Northern Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Regional_Council" title="Southern Regional Council">Southern Regional Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Singers" title="The Freedom Singers">The Freedom Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers (UAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wednesdays_in_Mississippi" title="Wednesdays in Mississippi">Wednesdays in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Aelony" title="Zev Aelony">Zev Aelony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathew_Ahmann" title="Mathew Ahmann">Mathew Ahmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Anderson" title="William G. Anderson">William G. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Aronson" title="Arnold Aronson">Arnold Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Blackwell" title="Gloria Blackwell">Gloria Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Blackwell" title="Randolph Blackwell">Randolph Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezell_Blair_Jr." title="Ezell Blair Jr.">Ezell Blair Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanne_Bland" title="Joanne Bland">Joanne Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Boone" title="Joseph E. Boone">Joseph E. Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_Borders" title="William Holmes Borders">William Holmes Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Boynton" title="Bruce Boynton">Bruce Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_Browder" title="Aurelia Browder">Aurelia Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Calhoun" title="John H. Calhoun">John H. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Carawan" title="Guy Carawan">Guy Carawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnnie_Carr" title="Johnnie Carr">Johnnie Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Chestnut,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="J. L. Chestnut, Jr.">J. L. Chestnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colia_Clark" title="Colia Clark">Colia Lafayette Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Dobbs_Clement" title="Josephine Dobbs Clement">Josephine Dobbs Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Davis" title="Abraham Lincoln Davis">Abraham Lincoln Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_DeLaine" title="Joseph DeLaine">Joseph DeLaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Dennis_(activist)" title="Dave Dennis (activist)">Dave Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Bell Robinson Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Stephens_Due" title="Patricia Stephens Due">Patricia Stephens Due</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellwanger" title="Joseph Ellwanger">Joseph Ellwanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter Fauntroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Foster" title="Marie Foster">Marie Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Frinks" title="Golden Frinks">Golden Frinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Graetz" title="Robert Graetz">Robert Graetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Greenberg" title="Jack Greenberg">Jack Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Guyot" title="Lawrence Guyot">Lawrence Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Harbour" title="William E. Harbour">William E. Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Faye_Hendricks" title="Audrey Faye Hendricks">Audrey Faye Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Hollowell" title="Donald L. Hollowell">Donald L. Hollowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zilphia_Horton" title="Zilphia Horton">Zilphia Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Hurley" title="Ruby Hurley">Ruby Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Ivory" title="Cecil Ivory">Cecil Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Jean_Jackson" title="Richie Jean Jackson">Richie Jean Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Johns" title="Vernon Johns">Vernon Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Minis_Johnson" title="Frank Minis Johnson">Frank Minis Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Charles_Jones" title="J. Charles Jones">J. Charles Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Jones_(activist)" title="Matthew Jones (activist)">Matthew Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevene_Bowers_King" title="Chevene Bowers King">C.B. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_R._Leigh" title="Sanford R. Leigh">Sanford R. Leigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Letherer" title="Jim Letherer">Jim Letherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z._Alexander_Looby" title="Z. Alexander Looby">Z. Alexander Looby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danny_Lyon" title="Danny Lyon">Danny Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Mants" title="Bob Mants">Bob Mants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Ming" title="William Robert Ming">William Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._Moore" title="Cecil B. Moore">Cecil B. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_E._Moore" title="Douglas E. Moore">Douglas E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_Moore" title="Queen Mother Moore">Queen Mother Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Morgan" title="Irene Morgan">Irene Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">William Moyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Neblett" title="Charles Neblett">Charles Neblett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_O%27Dell" title="Jack O'Dell">Jack O'Dell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Person" title="Charles Person">Charles Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_N._Powell" title="Rodney N. Powell">Rodney N. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Raby" title="Albert Raby">Al Raby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ragsdale" title="Lincoln Ragsdale">Lincoln Ragsdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Johnson_Reagon" title="Bernice Johnson Reagon">Bernice Johnson Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Reagon" title="Cordell Reagon">Cordell Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Robinson" title="Bernice Robinson">Bernice Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Russell_(politician)" title="Angela Russell (politician)">Angela Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Pete Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_D._Shimkin" title="Alexander D. Shimkin">Alexander D. Shimkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_E._Smiley" title="Glenn E. Smiley">Glenn E. Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Maceo_Smith" title="A. Maceo Smith">A. Maceo Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Miller_Smith" title="Kelly Miller Smith">Kelly Miller Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(activist)" title="Mary Louise Smith (activist)">Mary Louise Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Smith" title="Maxine Smith">Maxine Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hank_Thomas" title="Hank Thomas">Hank Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Tillman" title="Dorothy Tillman">Dorothy Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Tureaud" title="A. P. Tureaud">A. P. Tureaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Turner_(activist)" title="Albert Turner (activist)">Albert Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._T._Walden" title="A. T. Walden">A. T. Walden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollis_Watkins" title="Hollis Watkins">Hollis Watkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Kale Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q._V._Williamson" title="Q. V. Williamson">Q. V. Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Zellner" title="Bob Zellner">Bob Zellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Movement songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ain%27t_Gonna_Let_Nobody_Turn_Me_%27Round" title="Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round">"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_You_Miss_Me_at_the_Back_of_the_Bus" title="If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus">"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">"Kumbaya"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep_Your_Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Keep Your Eyes on the Prize">"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oh,_Freedom" title="Oh, Freedom">"Oh, Freedom"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">"This Little Light of Mine"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">"We Shall Not Be Moved"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">"We Shall Overcome"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke_Up_This_Morning_(With_My_Mind_Stayed_On_Freedom)" title="Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)">"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit_Four" title="Fifth Circuit Four">Fifth Circuit Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethel_Baptist_Church_(Birmingham,_Alabama)" title="Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama)">Bethel Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma,_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holt_Street_Baptist_Church" title="Holt Street Baptist Church">Holt Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches#20th_Century" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">African-American churches attacked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom songs">Freedom songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_and_Mamie_Till-Mobley_National_Monument" title="Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument">Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_and_Myrlie_Evers_Home_National_Monument" title="Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument">Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides_Museum" title="Freedom Rides Museum">Freedom Rides Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change" title="King Center for Nonviolent Social Change">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">other King memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="Mississippi Civil Rights Museum">Mississippi Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_Foot_Soldiers_Monument" title="St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument">St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_Salute_(statue)" title="Victory Salute (statue)">Olympic Black Power Statue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Noted historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Adam Fairclough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">David Garrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_F._Lawson" title="Steven F. Lawson">Steven F. Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">Diane McWhorter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles M. Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_(journalist)" title="Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)">Thomas E. Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Tyson" title="Timothy Tyson">Timothy Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">Movement photographers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Martin_Luther_King_Jr." style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Template:Martin Luther King Jr."><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Template talk:Martin Luther King Jr."><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Special:EditPage/Template:Martin Luther King Jr."><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Martin_Luther_King_Jr." style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Speeches,_writings,_movements,_and_protests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Speeches, writings, movements, and protests</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sermons_and_speeches_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King Jr.">Speeches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>" (1957)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">I Have a Dream</a>" (1963)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>" (1965)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>" (1967)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/I%27ve_Been_to_the_Mountaintop" title="I've Been to the Mountaintop">I've Been to the Mountaintop</a>" (1968)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stride_Toward_Freedom" title="Stride Toward Freedom">Stride Toward Freedom</a> (1958)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/What_Is_Man%3F_(King_essay)" class="mw-redirect" title="What Is Man? (King essay)">What Is Man?</a>" (1959)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strength_to_Love" title="Strength to Love">Strength to Love</a> (1963)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a>" (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Why_We_Can%27t_Wait" title="Why We Can't Wait">Why We Can't Wait</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience_for_Change" title="Conscience for Change">Conscience for Change</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Where_Do_We_Go_from_Here:_Chaos_or_Community%3F" title="Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?">Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?</a> (1967)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Movements and protests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> (1955–1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a> (1961–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham campaign</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a> (1963–1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">Mississippi March Against Fear</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnam_War_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Vietnam War movement">Anti-Vietnam</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam#April_15,_1967_Anti-Vietnam_war_demonstrations" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">War movement</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a> (1968)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="People" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">People</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yolanda_King" title="Yolanda King">Yolanda King</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_III" title="Martin Luther King III">Martin Luther King III</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_King" title="Dexter King">Dexter King</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_King" title="Bernice King">Bernice King</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alberta_Williams_King" title="Alberta Williams King">Alberta Williams King</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_King_Farris" title="Christine King Farris">Christine King Farris</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Albert_King" title="James Albert King">James Albert King</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alveda_King" title="Alveda King">Alveda King</a> (niece)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a> (mentor, colleague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a> (colleague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a> (strategist / colleague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a> (colleague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a> (protégé)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a> (colleague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a> (colleague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a> (colleague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a> (colleague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a> (mentor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a> (colleague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a> (colleague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a> (advisor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a> (colleague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a> (colleague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Walker</a> (colleague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a> (colleague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a> (colleague)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Assassination" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">Lorraine Motel</a> (now National Civil Rights Museum)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/King-assassination_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="King-assassination riots">Riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Earl_Ray" title="James Earl Ray">James Earl Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Kershaw" title="Jack Kershaw">Jack Kershaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Select_Committee_on_Assassinations" title="United States House Select Committee on Assassinations">U.S. House Select Committee on Assassinations</a> (HSCA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Records_Collection_Act" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Records Collection Act">Martin Luther King Jr. Records Collection Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyd_Jowers" title="Loyd Jowers">Loyd Jowers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loyd_Jowers_trial" title="Loyd Jowers trial">Trial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._assassination_conspiracy_theories" title="Martin Luther King Jr. assassination conspiracy theories">Conspiracy theories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Media" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Media</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Film</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King:_A_Filmed_Record..._Montgomery_to_Memphis" title="King: A Filmed Record... Montgomery to Memphis">King: A Filmed Record... Montgomery to Memphis</a> (1970 documentary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Friend,_Martin" title="Our Friend, Martin">Our Friend, Martin</a> (1999 animated)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boycott_(2001_film)" title="Boycott (2001 film)">Boycott</a> (2001 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Witness:_From_the_Balcony_of_Room_306" title="The Witness: From the Balcony of Room 306">The Witness: From the Balcony of Room 306</a> (2008 documentary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_(film)" title="Selma (film)">Selma</a> (2014 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_the_Way_(2016_film)" title="All the Way (2016 film)">All the Way</a> (2016 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_in_the_Wilderness" title="King in the Wilderness">King in the Wilderness</a> (2018 documentary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MLK/FBI" title="MLK/FBI">MLK/FBI</a> (2020 documentary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rustin_(film)" title="Rustin (film)">Rustin</a> (2023 film)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_(miniseries)" title="King (miniseries)">King</a> (1978 miniseries)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_First_Store" title="The First Store">The First Store</a>" (<a href="/wiki/The_Jeffersons" title="The Jeffersons">The Jeffersons</a>, 1980)</li> <li>"Great X-Pectations" (<a href="/wiki/A_Different_World" title="A Different World">A Different World</a>, 1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Promised_Land_(New_York_Undercover)" title="The Promised Land (New York Undercover)">"The Promised Land"</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_York_Undercover" title="New York Undercover">New York Undercover</a>, 1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma,_Lord,_Selma" title="Selma, Lord, Selma">Selma, Lord, Selma</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Return_of_the_King_(The_Boondocks)" title="Return of the King (The Boondocks)">"Return of the King"</a> (<a href="/wiki/The_Boondocks_(TV_series)" title="The Boondocks (TV series)">The Boondocks</a>, 2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Man:_The_Brotherhood_of_MLK" title="Alpha Man: The Brotherhood of MLK">Alpha Man: The Brotherhood of MLK</a> (2011 documentary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genius_(American_TV_series)" title="Genius (American TV series)">Genius</a> (MLK/X, 2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plays</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Meeting_(play)" title="The Meeting (play)">The Meeting</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Mountaintop" title="The Mountaintop">The Mountaintop</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Dream_(opera)" class="mw-redirect" title="I Dream (opera)">I Dream</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_the_Way_(play)" title="All the Way (play)">All the Way</a> (2012)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Illustrated</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_and_the_Montgomery_Story" title="Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story">Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story</a> (1957 comic book)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Music</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Abraham,_Martin_and_John" title="Abraham, Martin and John">Abraham, Martin and John</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Dion_DiMucci" title="Dion DiMucci">Dion</a>)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Yellow_Princess_(album)#Track_listing" title="The Yellow Princess (album)">March! For Martin Luther King</a>" (<a href="/wiki/John_Fahey_(musician)" title="John Fahey (musician)">John Fahey</a>)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Just_a_Collection_of_Antiques_and_Curios#Track_listing" title="Just a Collection of Antiques and Curios">Martin Luther King's Dream</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Strawbs" title="Strawbs">Strawbs</a>)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Happy_Birthday_(Stevie_Wonder_song)" title="Happy Birthday (Stevie Wonder song)">Happy Birthday</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Stevie_Wonder" title="Stevie Wonder">Stevie Wonder</a>)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Pride_(In_the_Name_of_Love)" title="Pride (In the Name of Love)">Pride (In the Name of Love)</a>" (<a href="/wiki/U2" title="U2">U2</a>)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/MLK_(song)" title="MLK (song)">MLK</a>" (U2)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/King_Holiday" title="King Holiday">King Holiday</a>" (<a href="/wiki/King_Dream_Chorus_and_Holiday_Crew" class="mw-redirect" title="King Dream Chorus and Holiday Crew">King Dream Chorus and Holiday Crew</a>)</li> <li>"By the Time I Get to Arizona" (<a href="/wiki/Public_Enemy_(band)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Enemy (band)">Public Enemy</a>)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/New_Moon_Shine" title="New Moon Shine">Shed a Little Light</a>" (<a href="/wiki/James_Taylor" title="James Taylor">James Taylor</a>)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Up_to_the_Mountain_(MLK_Song)" title="Up to the Mountain (MLK Song)">Up to the Mountain</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Patti_Griffin" class="mw-redirect" title="Patti Griffin">Patti Griffin</a>)</li> <li>"Never Alone Martin" (<a href="/wiki/Jason_Upton" title="Jason Upton">Jason Upton</a>)</li> <li>"Symphony of Brotherhood" (<a href="/wiki/Miri_Ben-Ari" title="Miri Ben-Ari">Miri Ben-Ari</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schwantner:_New_Morning_for_the_World;_Nicolas_Flagello:_The_Passion_of_Martin_Luther_King" title="Joseph Schwantner: New Morning for the World; Nicolas Flagello: The Passion of Martin Luther King">Joseph Schwantner: New Morning for the World; Nicolas Flagello: The Passion of Martin Luther King</a> (1995 album)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/A_Dream_(Common_song)" title="A Dream (Common song)">A Dream</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Common_(rapper)" title="Common (rapper)">Common</a> featuring <a href="/wiki/Will.i.am" title="Will.i.am">will.i.am</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glory_(Common_and_John_Legend_song)" title="Glory (Common and John Legend song)">"Glory"</a> (Common and <a href="/wiki/John_Legend" title="John Legend">John Legend</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">Civil rights movement in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_of_Martin_Luther_King,_Jr.,_Inc._v._CBS,_Inc." title="Estate of Martin Luther King, Jr., Inc. v. CBS, Inc.">Estate of Martin Luther King, Jr., Inc. v. CBS, Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_v._Trustees_of_Boston_Univ." title="King v. Trustees of Boston Univ.">King v. Trustees of Boston Univ.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Passage_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Passage of Martin Luther King Jr. Day">passage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._National_Historical_Park" title="Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park">National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_King_Center_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="The King Center (Atlanta)">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._authorship_issues" title="Martin Luther King Jr. authorship issues">Authorship issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBI%E2%80%93King_suicide_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI–King suicide letter">FBI–King suicide letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Phi_Alpha" title="Alpha Phi Alpha">Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_for_Nonviolence" title="Season for Nonviolence">Season for Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bust_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(U.S._Capitol)" title="Bust of Martin Luther King Jr. (U.S. Capitol)">U.S. Capitol Rotunda sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bust_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Alston)" title="Bust of Martin Luther King Jr. (Alston)">Oval Office bust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homage_to_King" title="Homage to King">Homage to King sculpture, Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hope_Moving_Forward" title="Hope Moving Forward">Hope Moving Forward statue, Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_House_Black_History_Museum" title="Safe House Black History Museum">Safe House Black History Museum</a></li> <li>Statues of Martin Luther King Jr. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Atlanta)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Atlanta)">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Embrace" title="The Embrace">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Denver)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Denver)">Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Houston)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Houston)">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr._Memorial_(Jersey_City)" title="Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial (Jersey City)">Jersey City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Milwaukee)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Milwaukee)">Milwaukee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Mexico_City)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Mexico City)">Mexico City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Newark)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Newark)">Newark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Pueblo,_Colorado)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Pueblo, Colorado)">Pueblo, Colorado</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerba_Buena_Gardens#Public_art" title="Yerba Buena Gardens">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial, San Francisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr._Memorial_(Compton)" title="Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial (Compton)">Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial (Compton)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landmark_for_Peace_Memorial" title="Landmark for Peace Memorial">Landmark for Peace Memorial, Indianapolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Dream_(sculpture)" title="The Dream (sculpture)">The Dream sculpture, Portland, Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy%E2%80%93King_College" title="Kennedy–King College">Kennedy–King College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial_Library" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library, Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr._Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Library" title="Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library">Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library, San Jose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parc_Clichy-Batignolles_%E2%80%93_Martin_Luther_King" title="Parc Clichy-Batignolles – Martin Luther King">Paris park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_County,_Washington" title="King County, Washington">King County, Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_streets_named_after_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="List of streets named after Martin Luther King Jr.">Eponymous streets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/America_in_the_King_Years" title="America in the King Years">America in the King Years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">Civil rights movement in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee%E2%80%93Jackson%E2%80%93King_Day" title="Lee–Jackson–King Day">Lee–Jackson–King Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_Rights_Memorial" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Template:Civil Rights Memorial"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Template talk:Civil Rights Memorial"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil Rights Memorial"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_Rights_Memorial" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Southern_Poverty_Law_Center" title="Southern Poverty Law Center">Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC)</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Designer</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Lin" title="Maya Lin">Maya Lin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Martyrs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Allen" title="Louis Allen">Louis Allen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Willie_Brewster" title="Murder of Willie Brewster">Willie Brewster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Brown_(activist)" title="Benjamin Brown (activist)">Benjamin Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Johnnie_Mae_Chappell" title="Murder of Johnnie Mae Chappell">Johnnie Mae Chappell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Addie_Mae_Collins" class="mw-redirect" title="Addie Mae Collins">Addie Mae Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hezekiah_Dee" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Hezekiah Dee">Henry Hezekiah Dee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Ducksworth_Jr." title="Roman Ducksworth Jr.">Roman Ducksworth Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Willie_Edwards" title="Murder of Willie Edwards">Willie Edwards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Paul_Guihard" title="Murder of Paul Guihard">Paul Guihard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hammond_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Hammond Jr.">Samuel Hammond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Wharlest_Jackson" title="Murder of Wharlest Jackson">Wharlest Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_W._Klunder" title="Bruce W. Klunder">Bruce W. Klunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Lee" title="George W. Lee">George W. Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Lee_(activist)" title="Herbert Lee (activist)">Herbert Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Denise_McNair" class="mw-redirect" title="Carol Denise McNair">Carol Denise McNair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delano_Herman_Middleton" class="mw-redirect" title="Delano Herman Middleton">Delano Herman Middleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Eddie_Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Eddie Moore">Charles Eddie Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Oneal_Moore" title="Murder of Oneal Moore">Oneal Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mack_Charles_Parker" class="mw-redirect" title="Mack Charles Parker">Mack Charles Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Lemuel_Penn" title="Murder of Lemuel Penn">Lemuel Penn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Reese" title="John Earl Reese">John Earl Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carole_Robertson" class="mw-redirect" title="Carole Robertson">Carole Robertson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ezekial_Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Ezekial Smith">Henry Ezekial Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamar_Smith_(activist)" title="Lamar Smith (activist)">Lamar Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Triggs" title="Clarence Triggs">Clarence Triggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil_Lamar_Ware" title="Virgil Lamar Ware">Virgil Lamar Ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Wesley" class="mw-redirect" title="Cynthia Wesley">Cynthia Wesley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Chester_White" title="Ben Chester White">Ben Chester White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Cold_Case" title="Mississippi Cold Case">Mississippi Cold Case</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_topics" title="Template:United States topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_topics" title="Template talk:United States topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By event</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-colonial era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_American_military_history" title="Colonial American military history">military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">drafting and ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li>Civil rights movement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">1896–1954</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1954–1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Feminist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">LGBT Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">Post-Cold War (1991–2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on Terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline of U.S. history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions" title="Timeline of United States inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_States" title="Geography of the United States">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._territorial_sovereignty" title="U.S. territorial sovereignty">Territory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">Contiguous United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">federal district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_enclave" title="Federal enclave">federal enclaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">insular zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands" title="United States Minor Outlying Islands">minor outlying islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of populated places in the United States">populated places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_United_States" title="List of earthquakes in the United States">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_United_States" title="List of extreme points of the United States">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_United_States" title="List of islands of the United States">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountains of the United States">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountain peaks of the United States">peaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#United_States" title="List of mountain ranges">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System" title="List of areas in the United States National Park System">National Parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States" title="List of regions of the United States">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_United_States" title="Northwestern United States">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longest <a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_States" title="List of rivers of the United States">rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_River" title="Arkansas River">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South" title="Red River of the South">Red (South)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon_River" title="Yukon River">Yukon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_the_United_States" title="Time in the United States">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_States" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United States">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Executive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Powers of the president of the United States">powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments" title="United States federal executive departments">Executive departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">Independent agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">Intelligence Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">Director of National Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" title="Federal law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">ATF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">CBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Diplomatic_Security" title="Bureau of Diplomatic Security">Diplomatic Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement">ICE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">Marshals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service" title="United States Secret Service">Secret Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administration" title="Transportation Security Administration">TSA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Inspector_General_(United_States)" title="Office of Inspector General (United States)">Inspector generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Public policy of the United States">Public policy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_senators" title="List of current United States senators">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States#President_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Capitol Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">Government Publishing Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_circuit_judges" title="List of current United States circuit judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_territorial_court" title="United States territorial court">Territorial courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list of courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_district_judges" title="List of current United States district judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">Other tribunals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">U.S. attorney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of powers</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">civil rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">Uniformed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">NOAA Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State</a>, <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Government of the District of Columbia">Federal District</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territorial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_constitutional_officer" title="State constitutional officer">Executive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant governor (United States)">Lieutenant governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_lieutenant_governors" title="List of current United States lieutenant governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state_(U.S._state_government)" title="Secretary of state (U.S. state government)">Secretary of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">Attorney general</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_treasurer" title="State treasurer">Treasurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_auditor" title="State auditor">Auditor/Comptroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_commissioner" title="Agriculture commissioner">Agriculture commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_commissioner" title="Insurance commissioner">Insurance commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_utilities_commission" title="Public utilities commission">Public utilities commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_police_(United_States)" title="State police (United States)">State police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_and_local_law_enforcement_agencies" title="List of United States state and local law enforcement agencies">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_legislatures" title="List of United States state legislatures">List of legislatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_legislators" title="List of U.S. state legislators">List of legislators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">Supreme courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_chief_justices" title="List of state chief justices">Chief justices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_attorney" title="District attorney">District attorney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district_attorneys_by_county" class="mw-redirect" title="List of district attorneys by county">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_constitutions_in_the_United_States" title="State constitutions in the United States">State constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_statutory_codes" title="List of U.S. state statutory codes">Statutory codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_act" title="Uniform act">Uniform act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_U.S._state_and_territory_governments" title="Comparison of U.S. state and territory governments">Comparison of governments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Tribal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities" title="List of Alaska Native tribal entities">Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_home_land" title="Hawaiian home land">Hawaiian home land</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">County</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_counties_and_county_equivalents" title="List of United States counties and county equivalents">List of counties and county equivalents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_executive" title="County executive">County executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheriffs_in_the_United_States" title="Sheriffs in the United States">Sheriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_clerk" title="Municipal clerk">Clerk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_city-county" title="Consolidated city-county">Consolidated city-county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_city_(United_States)" title="Independent city (United States)">Independent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coterminous_municipality" title="Coterminous municipality">Coterminous municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_charter#United_States" title="Municipal charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayor%E2%80%93council_government" title="Mayor–council government">Mayor–council government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council%E2%80%93manager_government" title="Council–manager government">Council–manager government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_commission_government" title="City commission government">City commission government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayoralty_in_the_United_States" title="Mayoralty in the United States">Mayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_manager" title="City manager">City manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_council#United_States" title="Municipal council">City council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Minor_civil_division" title="Minor civil division">Minor divisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_township" title="Civil township">Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">Town meeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">Special district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_district" title="School district">School district</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_school_districts_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of school districts in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_presidency" title="Imperial presidency">Imperial presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Ideologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">Anti-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_(U.S._politics)" title="Third party (U.S. politics)">Third parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_political_scandals_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal political scandals in the United States">Scandals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector">By sector</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" title="United States federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_position_of_the_United_States" title="Financial position of the United States">Financial position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_debt_of_the_United_States" title="National debt of the United States">Public debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social welfare programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the United States">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_United_States" title="Aviation in the United States">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_States" title="Driving in the United States">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Public transportation in the United States">Public transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">Rail transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation safety in the United States">Transportation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Trucking industry in the United States">Trucking industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Society of the United States">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americana_(culture)" title="Americana (culture)">Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Architecture in the United States">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_cuisine" title="American cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_the_United_States" title="Dance in the United States">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economic issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction_in_the_United_States" title="Eviction in the United States">eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_class_in_the_United_States" title="Working class in the United States">working class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_United_States" title="Family in the United States">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_United_States" title="Fashion in the United States">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_United_States" title="Folklore of the United States">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Federal holidays in the United States">Federal holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_States" title="Housing in the United States">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States" title="Languages of the United States">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">ASL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_States" title="Mass media in the United States">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_States" title="Internet in the United States">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_in_the_United_States" title="Naming in the United States">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner" title="The Star-Spangled Banner">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_the_United_States" title="National symbols of the United States">National symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(personification)" title="Columbia (personification)">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Political ideologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_the_United_States" title="Sexuality in the United States">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_United_States" title="Sports in the United States">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_in_the_United_States" title="Theater in the United States">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_the_United_States" title="Visual art of the United States">Visual art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Educational attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">Homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_States" title="Health in the United States">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_the_United_States" title="Aging of the United States">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care_in_the_United_States" title="Prenatal care in the United States">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospice_care_in_the_United_States" title="Hospice care in the United States">Hospice care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigrant_health_care_in_the_United_States" title="Immigrant health care in the United States">Immigrant health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_rationing_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare rationing in the United States">Rationing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Health care finance in the United States">Health care finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_costs_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance costs in the United States">Health insurance costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Health care prices in the United States">Health care prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Prescription drug prices in the United States">Prescription drug prices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_United_States" title="Disability in the United States">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance in the United States">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician_shortage_in_the_United_States" title="Physician shortage in the United States">Physician shortage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty and health in the United States">Poverty and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity_in_the_United_States" title="Obesity in the United States">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_deserts_in_the_United_States" title="Medical deserts in the United States">Medical deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_the_United_States" title="Women's reproductive health in the United States">Women's reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. states and territories by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_United_States_government" title="Criticism of the United States government">Criticism of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Discrimination in the United States">Discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Intersex rights in the United States">intersex rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Islamophobia in the United States">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">Mass shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_States" title="Hunger in the United States">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">illegal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_the_United_States" title="National security of the United States">National security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Opioid epidemic in the United States">Opioid epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Xenophobia in the United States">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States" title="Category:United States">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, 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scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Arts_Movement" title="Black Arts Movement">Black Arts Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_art" title="Psychedelic art">Psychedelic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_music" title="Psychedelic music">Psychedelic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youthquake_(movement)" title="Youthquake (movement)">Youthquake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Renaissance" title="San Francisco Renaissance">San Francisco Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beatlemania" title="Beatlemania">Beatlemania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Invasion" title="British Invasion">British Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mods_and_rockers" title="Mods and rockers">Mods and rockers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swinging_Sixties" title="Swinging Sixties">Swinging Sixties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_hippie_movement" title="History of the hippie movement">Hippie movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Be-In" title="Human Be-In">Human Be-In</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_of_Love" title="Summer of Love">Summer of Love</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed-Ins_for_Peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Bed-Ins for Peace">Bed-Ins for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodstock" title="Woodstock">Woodstock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social and political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-the-land_movement" title="Back-to-the-land movement">Back-to-the-land movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Power_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power movement">Black Power movement</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialoguero" title="Dialoguero">Dialoguero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_school_movement" title="Free school movement">Free school movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Speech_Movement" title="Free Speech Movement">Free Speech Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_United_States_involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War">Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protests_against_the_Vietnam_War" title="List of protests against the Vietnam War">protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_liberation_movement" title="Women's liberation movement">Women's liberation movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_revolution" title="Sexual revolution">Sexual revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_revolution_in_1960s_United_States" title="Sexual revolution in 1960s United States">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underground_press" title="Underground press">Underground press</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_underground_newspapers_of_the_1960s_counterculture" title="List of underground newspapers of the 1960s counterculture">newspapers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subcultures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discordianism" title="Discordianism">Discordianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_scene" title="Freak scene">Freak scene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippie" title="Hippie">Hippie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mod_(subculture)" title="Mod (subculture)">Mod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocker_(subculture)" title="Rocker (subculture)">Rocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rude_boy" title="Rude boy">Rude boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_underground" title="UK underground">UK underground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_International_Party" title="Youth International Party">Yippies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Protests_of_1968" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1968_protests" title="Template:1968 protests"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1968_protests" title="Template talk:1968 protests"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1968_protests" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1968 protests"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Protests_of_1968" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1968%E2%80%9369_Japanese_university_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="1968–69 Japanese university protests">1968–69 Japanese university protests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zenky%C5%8Dt%C5%8D" title="Zenkyōtō">Zenkyōtō</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_movement_in_Italy" title="1968 movement in Italy">1968 movement in Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_movement_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="1968 movement in Pakistan">1968 movement in Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Consciousness_Movement" title="Black Consciousness Movement">Black Consciousness Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Power_Revolution" title="Black Power Revolution">Black Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicano_Movement" title="Chicano Movement">Chicano Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippie_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippie movement">Hippie movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_movement_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights movement in the Soviet Union">Human rights movement in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Movement_of_1968" title="Mexican Movement of 1968">Mexican Movement of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_of_22_March" title="Movement of 22 March">Movement of 22 March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_civil_rights_movement" title="Northern Ireland civil rights movement">Northern Ireland civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_United_States_involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War">Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Red Power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_revolution" title="Sexual revolution">Sexual revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Troubles" title="The Troubles">The Troubles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_German_student_movement" title="West German student movement">West German student movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_liberation_movement" title="Women's liberation movement">Women's liberation movement</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Peace_symbol_(bold).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Peace_symbol_%28bold%29.svg/80px-Peace_symbol_%28bold%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Peace_symbol_%28bold%29.svg/120px-Peace_symbol_%28bold%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Peace_symbol_%28bold%29.svg/160px-Peace_symbol_%28bold%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1968_Democratic_National_Convention_protests" title="1968 Democratic National Convention protests">1968 Democratic National Convention protests</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_whole_world_is_watching" title="The whole world is watching">The whole world is watching</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_protests_in_Egypt" title="1968 protests in Egypt">1968 protests in Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_student_demonstrations_in_Yugoslavia" title="1968 student demonstrations in Yugoslavia">1968 student demonstrations in Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Miami_riot" title="1968 Miami riot">1968 Miami riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Red_Square_demonstration" title="1968 Red Square demonstration">1968 Red Square demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_uprising_in_Senegal" title="1968 uprising in Senegal">1968 uprising in Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A5stad_riots" title="Båstad riots">Båstad riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valle_Giulia" title="Battle of Valle Giulia">Battle of Valle Giulia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceau%C8%99escu%27s_speech_of_21_August_1968" title="Ceaușescu's speech of 21 August 1968">Ceaușescu's speech of 21 August 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Park_be-ins" title="Central Park be-ins">Central Park be-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_protests_of_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbia University protests of 1968">Columbia University protests of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delano_grape_strike" title="Delano grape strike">Delano grape strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_L.A._walkouts" title="East L.A. walkouts">East L.A. walkouts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">King assassination riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mafeje_affair" title="Mafeje affair">Mafeje affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_the_One_Hundred_Thousand" title="March of the One Hundred Thousand">March of the One Hundred Thousand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 1968 in France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miss_America_protest" title="Miss America protest">Miss America protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Student_Union_Building" title="Occupation of the Student Union Building">Occupation of the Student Union Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidio_mutiny" title="Presidio mutiny">Presidio mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_riots" title="Rodney riots">Rodney riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinjuku_riot" title="Shinjuku riot">Shinjuku riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silence_March_(Mexico)" title="Silence March (Mexico)">Silence March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takeover_of_Vanha" title="Takeover of Vanha">Takeover of Vanha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_World_Liberation_Front_strikes_of_1968" title="Third World Liberation Front strikes of 1968">Third World Liberation Front strikes of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1968_Summer_Olympics" title="1968 Summer Olympics">1968 Summer Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture of the 1960s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower_power" title="Flower power">Flower power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_love" title="Free love">Free love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippie" title="Hippie">Hippie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Antisemitism in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_Autumn" title="Hot Autumn">Hot Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">Racism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_discipline" title="School discipline">School discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Morocco)" title="Years of Lead (Morocco)">Morocco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Segregation in Northern Ireland">Segregation in Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_activism" title="Student activism">Student activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lyndon_B._Johnson" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Template:Lyndon B. Johnson"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Template talk:Lyndon B. Johnson"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lyndon B. Johnson"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lyndon_B._Johnson" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">36th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1963–1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of vice presidents of the United States">37th</a> <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President of the United States</a> (1961–1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">U.S. Senator</a> from <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Texas" title="List of United States senators from Texas">Texas</a> (1949–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/wiki/Texas%27s_10th_congressional_district" title="Texas's 10th congressional district">TX-10</a> (1937–1949)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Lyndon_B._Johnson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Lyndon B. Johnson presidency">Timeline</a></li> <li>Inaugurations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="First inauguration of Lyndon B. Johnson">first</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Second inauguration of Lyndon B. Johnson">second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Let_Us_Continue" title="Let Us Continue">Let Us Continue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a> (<a href="/wiki/Model_Cities_Program" title="Model Cities Program">Model Cities Program</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_Barriers_Act_of_1968" title="Architectural Barriers Act of 1968">Architectural Barriers Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Nutrition_Act" title="Child Nutrition Act">Child Nutrition Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_Act_of_1965" title="Coinage Act of 1965">Coinage Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development" title="United States Department of Housing and Urban Development">Department of Housing and Urban Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Transportation" title="United States Department of Transportation">Department of Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Opportunity_Act_of_1964" title="Economic Opportunity Act of 1964">Economic Opportunity Act of 1964</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Head_Start_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Head Start Program">Head Start Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_Corps" title="Job Corps">Job Corps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act" title="Elementary and Secondary Education Act">Elementary and Secondary Education Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Housing_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Housing Act">Fair Housing Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth_in_Lending_Act" title="Truth in Lending Act">Truth in Lending Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal-Aid_Highway_Act_of_1968" title="Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1968">Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_Stamp_Act_of_1964" title="Food Stamp Act of 1964">Food Stamp Act of 1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glassboro_Summit_Conference" title="Glassboro Summit Conference">Glassboro Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_Control_Act_of_1968" title="Gun Control Act of 1968">Gun Control Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_Education_Act_of_1965" title="Higher Education Act of 1965">Higher Education Act of 1965</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upward_Bound" title="Upward Bound">Upward Bound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRIO_(program)" class="mw-redirect" title="TRIO (program)">TRIO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_Corps" title="Teacher Corps">Teacher Corps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_and_Urban_Development_Act_of_1968" title="Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968">Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1965" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965">Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_the_Dominican_Republic_(1965%E2%80%9366)" class="mw-redirect" title="United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1965–66)">Dominican Republic occupation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicare_(United_States)" title="Medicare (United States)">Medicare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicaid" title="Medicaid">Medicaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritorious_Service_Medal_(United_States)#History" title="Meritorious Service Medal (United States)">Meritorious Service Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts" title="National Endowment for the Arts">National Endowment for the Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_11246" title="Executive Order 11246">Executive Order 11246</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_11375" title="Executive Order 11375">Executive Order 11375</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Older_Americans_Act" title="Older Americans Act">Older Americans Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_CHAOS" title="Operation CHAOS">Operation CHAOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Space_Treaty" title="Outer Space Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Act_of_1967" title="Public Broadcasting Act of 1967">Public Broadcasting Act of 1967</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Lyndon_B._Johnson_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Lyndon B. Johnson administration">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War#Lyndon_B._Johnson's_escalation,_1963–69" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Tonkin_Resolution" title="Gulf of Tonkin Resolution">Gulf of Tonkin Resolution</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Credibility_gap" title="Credibility gap">Credibility gap</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AmeriCorps_VISTA" title="AmeriCorps VISTA">VISTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_poverty" title="War on poverty">War on poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_policy_of_the_Lyndon_B._Johnson_administration" title="Cannabis policy of the Lyndon B. Johnson administration">Cannabis policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_the_Preservation_of_the_White_House" title="Committee for the Preservation of the White House">White House preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union Address</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1964_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1964 State of the Union Address">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1965 State of the Union Address">1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1966 State of the Union Address">1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1967 State of the Union Address">1967</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1968 State of the Union Address">1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1969 State of the Union Address">1969</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson#Administration_and_Cabinet" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Lyndon B. Johnson">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Lyndon B. Johnson Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Thurgood Marshall Supreme Court nomination">Thurgood Marshall Supreme Court nomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="Lyndon B. Johnson judicial appointment controversies">controversies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_desk" title="Johnson desk">Johnson desk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Presidential transition of Richard Nixon">Presidential transition of Richard Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Lyndon_Baines_Johnson/Executive_orders" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:Lyndon Baines Johnson/Executive orders">Executive Orders</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Lyndon_Baines_Johnson/Presidential_Proclamations" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:Lyndon Baines Johnson/Presidential Proclamations">Presidential Proclamations</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:37_Lyndon_Johnson_3x4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/37_Lyndon_Johnson_3x4.jpg/100px-37_Lyndon_Johnson_3x4.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/37_Lyndon_Johnson_3x4.jpg/150px-37_Lyndon_Johnson_3x4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/37_Lyndon_Johnson_3x4.jpg/200px-37_Lyndon_Johnson_3x4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="924" data-file-height="1228" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson#Early_years" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Early years and career</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Texas" title="Operation Texas">Operation Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KTBC_(TV)" title="KTBC (TV)">Texas Broadcasting Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Amendment" title="Johnson Amendment">Johnson Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Box_13_scandal" title="Box 13 scandal">Box 13 scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashir_Ahmad_(camel_driver)" title="Bashir Ahmad (camel driver)">Bashir Ahmad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy and <a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="List of memorials to Lyndon B. Johnson">memorials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson_bibliography" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyndon B. Johnson bibliography">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_Baines_Johnson_Library_and_Museum" title="Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum">Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson_National_Grassland" title="Lyndon B. Johnson National Grassland">Lyndon B. Johnson National Grassland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson_National_Historical_Park" title="Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park">Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson_Space_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center">Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_Baines_Johnson_Day" title="Lyndon Baines Johnson Day">Lyndon Baines Johnson Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson_School_of_Public_Affairs" title="Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs">Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_Baines_Johnson_Memorial_Grove_on_the_Potomac" title="Lyndon Baines Johnson Memorial Grove on the Potomac">Memorial Grove on the Potomac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Electoral history of Lyndon B. Johnson">Elections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Texas%27s_10th_congressional_district" title="Texas's 10th congressional district">United States House of Representatives special elections, 1937</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1938 United States House of Representatives elections">1938 United States House of Representatives elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1940 United States House of Representatives elections">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1942_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1942 United States House of Representatives elections">1942</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1944 United States House of Representatives elections">1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1946 United States House of Representatives elections">1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Texas" title="List of United States senators from Texas">United States Senate special elections, 1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_United_States_Senate_elections" title="1948 United States Senate elections">1948 United States Senate elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_United_States_Senate_elections" title="1954 United States Senate elections">1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_elections,_1960_and_1961" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Senate elections, 1960 and 1961">1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1960 Democratic Party presidential primaries">Democratic Party presidential primaries, 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1964 Democratic Party presidential primaries">1964</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson_1964_presidential_campaign" title="Lyndon B. Johnson 1964 presidential campaign">campaign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1968 Democratic Party presidential primaries">1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson_from_the_1968_United_States_presidential_election" title="Withdrawal of Lyndon B. Johnson from the 1968 United States presidential election">withdrawal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1956 Democratic National Convention">Democratic National Convention 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1960 Democratic National Convention">1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1964 Democratic National Convention">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election" title="1960 United States presidential election">1960 United States presidential election</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy">transition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_United_States_presidential_election" title="1964 United States presidential election">1964</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson#Personality_and_public_image" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Public image</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson_in_popular_culture" title="Lyndon B. Johnson in popular culture">Lyndon B. Johnson in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_(advertisement)" title="Daisy (advertisement)">Daisy advertisement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_cult" title="Johnson cult">Johnson cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Years_of_Lyndon_Johnson" title="The Years of Lyndon Johnson">The Years of Lyndon Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LBJ_(1991_film)" title="LBJ (1991 film)">LBJ (1991 television film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Path_to_War" title="Path to War">Path to War (2002 film)</a></li> <li>All the Way (<a href="/wiki/All_the_Way_(play)" title="All the Way (play)">play</a>, <a href="/wiki/All_the_Way_(2016_film)" title="All the Way (2016 film)">film</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_(film)" title="Selma (film)">Selma (2014 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LBJ_(2016_film)" title="LBJ (2016 film)">LBJ (2017 film)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Family of Lyndon B. Johnson">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lady_Bird_Johnson" title="Lady Bird Johnson">Claudia "Lady Bird" Taylor Johnson</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynda_Bird_Johnson_Robb" title="Lynda Bird Johnson Robb">Lynda Bird Johnson Robb</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luci_Baines_Johnson" title="Luci Baines Johnson">Luci Baines Johnson</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Ealy_Johnson_Jr." title="Samuel Ealy Johnson Jr.">Samuel Ealy Johnson Jr.</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Houston_Johnson" title="Sam Houston Johnson">Sam Houston Johnson</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Ealy_Johnson,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Ealy Johnson, Sr.">Samuel Ealy Johnson, Sr.</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wilson_Baines" title="Joseph Wilson Baines">Joseph Wilson Baines</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Baines" title="George Washington Baines">George Washington Baines</a> (great-grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Robb" title="Chuck Robb">Chuck Robb</a> (son-in-law)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">← John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon →</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">← Richard Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey" title="Hubert Humphrey">Hubert Humphrey →</a></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Category:Lyndon B. Johnson">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48537#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" 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.portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/19px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/29px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/38px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Sample_09-F9_protest_art%2C_Free_Speech_Flag_by_John_Marcotte.svg/21px-Sample_09-F9_protest_art%2C_Free_Speech_Flag_by_John_Marcotte.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Sample_09-F9_protest_art%2C_Free_Speech_Flag_by_John_Marcotte.svg/32px-Sample_09-F9_protest_art%2C_Free_Speech_Flag_by_John_Marcotte.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Sample_09-F9_protest_art%2C_Free_Speech_Flag_by_John_Marcotte.svg/42px-Sample_09-F9_protest_art%2C_Free_Speech_Flag_by_John_Marcotte.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="288" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Freedom_of_speech" title="Portal:Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Newspaper_nicu_buculei_01.svg/19px-Newspaper_nicu_buculei_01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Newspaper_nicu_buculei_01.svg/29px-Newspaper_nicu_buculei_01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Newspaper_nicu_buculei_01.svg/38px-Newspaper_nicu_buculei_01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Journalism" title="Portal:Journalism">Journalism</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/21px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/32px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/41px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/21px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/42px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Fifties_jukebox.png/11px-Fifties_jukebox.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Fifties_jukebox.png/17px-Fifties_jukebox.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Fifties_jukebox.png/23px-Fifties_jukebox.png 2x" data-file-width="298" data-file-height="493" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:1950s" title="Portal:1950s">1950s</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg/21px-Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg/32px-Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg/42px-Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="361" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:1960s" title="Portal:1960s">1960s</a></li></ul></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement&oldid=1259436336">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement&oldid=1259436336</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Civil_rights_movement" title="Category:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1954_establishments_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1954 establishments in the United States">1954 establishments in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1968_disestablishments_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1968 disestablishments in the United States">1968 disestablishments in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_social_movements" title="Category:20th-century social movements">20th-century social movements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_African-American_civil_rights" title="Category:History of African-American civil rights">History of African-American civil rights</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1950s_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1950s in the United States">1950s in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1960s_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1960s in the United States">1960s in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Community_organizing" title="Category:Community organizing">Community organizing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Defunct_American_political_movements" title="Category:Defunct American political movements">Defunct American political movements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Category:History of civil rights in the United States">History of civil rights in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Movements_for_civil_rights" title="Category:Movements for civil rights">Movements for civil rights</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nonviolent_resistance_movements" title="Category:Nonviolent resistance movements">Nonviolent resistance movements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="Category:Politics of the Southern United States">Politics of the Southern United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Category:Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presidency_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Category:Presidency of John F. Kennedy">Presidency of John F. Kennedy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presidency_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Category:Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson">Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_movements_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Social movements in the United States">Social movements in the United States</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_missing_ISBNs" title="Category:Pages with missing ISBNs">Pages with missing ISBNs</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2023" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2023">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_September_2022" title="Category:Use mdy dates from September 2022">Use mdy dates from September 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_January_2016" title="Category:Use American English from January 2016">Use American English from January 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_that_may_be_too_long_from_August_2024" title="Category:Articles that may be too long from August 2024">Articles that may be too long from August 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_May_2023" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2023">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_hAudio_microformats" title="Category:Articles with hAudio microformats">Articles with hAudio microformats</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_locally_defined" title="Category:Commons category link is locally defined">Commons category link is locally defined</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_video_clips" title="Category:Articles containing video clips">Articles containing video clips</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 25 November 2024, at 04:01 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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[\"CITEREFHolladay2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoose2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHouston2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJackson2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJervis2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaren_Brodkin2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKevin_Michael_Kruse2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLassiter2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawson1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawsonPayne1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1998\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLingMonteith2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarable2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarqusee2004\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMartin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthew1900\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMay2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMazumder2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcAdam1988\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMcLarnon2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMedia\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMele2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilkisNelson2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinami2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewkirk_II2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNichols2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOgletree2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOmar_Wasow\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrtega2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOtis_H_Stephens,_JrJohn_M_Scheb,_II2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Finkelman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayne2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPipes2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuinn2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRansby2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRansby2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReeves1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReinders2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReitmanLandsberg2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichardson,_Christopher_M.Ralph_E._Luker2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRickert2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRickford2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRisen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinsonSullivan1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogin1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenbergKarabell2003\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSachar1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSandage1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchlesinger2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSchoen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchultz2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSelf2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSeligman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSell1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2001\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSnodgrass2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStations2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephensScheb2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrain2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStricklandWeems2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThamel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTolnay2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTyson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTyson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUrban2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVolodzko2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWasow2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWattJack_Hannah2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeiner2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWeller2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_G._Thomas_III2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWormser\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorthy1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZamalin2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZelizer2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFhandeyside2014\"] = 1,\n [\"WUWM_89.7_Milwaukee_NPR\"] = 1,\n [\"bennett1965\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 9,\n [\"'s\"] = 1,\n [\"1968 protests\"] = 1,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"African American topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 12,\n [\"Bulleted list\"] = 2,\n [\"Campaignbox Civil rights movement\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 96,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite interview\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 19,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 29,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 92,\n [\"Civil Rights Memorial\"] = 1,\n [\"Civil rights movement\"] = 1,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Counterculture of the 1960s\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"For timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 7,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 29,\n [\"ISBN?\"] = 3,\n [\"Infobox civil conflict\"] = 1,\n [\"Isbn\"] = 1,\n [\"Listen\"] = 4,\n [\"Main\"] = 24,\n [\"Main article\"] = 1,\n [\"Martin Luther King Jr.\"] = 1,\n [\"Mdash\"] = 23,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Ndash\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 4,\n [\"Refend\"] = 4,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 6,\n [\"See also\"] = 7,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 1,\n [\"United States topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Very long\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 49,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"small\",\n [\"state\"] = \"uncollapsed\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"small\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","380","17.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","360","16.1"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","200","8.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","140","6.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","5.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","120","5.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","100","4.5"],["type","80","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","80","3.6"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","60","2.7"],["[others]","600","26.8"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-7whqm","timestamp":"20241125104515","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Civil rights movement","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Civil_rights_movement","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q48537","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q48537","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-04-13T19:21:01Z","dateModified":"2024-11-25T04:01:54Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/4c\/Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_marching_from_the_Washington_Monument_to_the_Lincoln_Memorial%29_-_NARA_-_542010.jpg","headline":"1954\u20131968 U.S. nonviolent social movement"}</script> </body> </html>