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</button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Galileo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galileo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Galileo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galileo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-René_Descartes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#René_Descartes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>René Descartes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-René_Descartes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leibniz_and_Newton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leibniz_and_Newton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Leibniz and Newton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leibniz_and_Newton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Kant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-Euclidean_geometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-Euclidean_geometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Non-Euclidean geometry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-Euclidean_geometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gauss_and_Poincaré" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gauss_and_Poincaré"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Gauss and Poincaré</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gauss_and_Poincaré-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Einstein" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Einstein"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Einstein</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Einstein-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Mathematics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Physics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Physics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relativity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relativity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Relativity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relativity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Cosmology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spatial_measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spatial_measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Spatial measurement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spatial_measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographical_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographical_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Geographical space</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographical_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_social_sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_social_sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>In the social sciences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_social_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Space</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 100 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-100" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">100 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raum_(Physik)" title="Raum (Physik) – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Raum (Physik)" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="فضاء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فضاء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Տարածութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Տարածութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7" title="فضا – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فضا" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_(%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8)" title="স্থান (পদার্থ বিজ্ঞান) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="স্থান (পদার্থ বিজ্ঞান)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%9E_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%86%D1%8B" title="Прастора ў фізіцы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Прастора ў фізіцы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Прастора – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Прастора" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8" title="स्पेस – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="स्पेस" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Пространство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Пространство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raum" title="Raum – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Raum" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostor" title="Prostor – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Prostor" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espai" title="Espai – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Espai" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%C3%A7%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Уçлăх (физика) – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Уçлăх (физика)" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostor_(fyzika)" title="Prostor (fyzika) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Prostor (fyzika)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gofod_(ehangder)" title="Gofod (ehangder) – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gofod (ehangder)" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raum_(Physik)" title="Raum (Physik) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Raum (Physik)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruum" title="Ruum – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ruum" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Χώρος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χώρος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espacio_(f%C3%ADsica)" title="Espacio (física) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Espacio (física)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaco" title="Spaco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Spaco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espaciu_f%C3%ADsicu" title="Espaciu físicu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Espaciu físicu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espazio" title="Espazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Espazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7" title="فضا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فضا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espace_(notion)" title="Espace (notion) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Espace (notion)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romte_(natuerkunde)" title="Romte (natuerkunde) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Romte (natuerkunde)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A1s" title="Spás – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Spás" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A0nas" title="Fànas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Fànas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espazo" title="Espazo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Espazo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%B5%EA%B0%84" title="공간 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="공간" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Տարածություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տարածություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D" title="दिक् – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="दिक्" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostor" title="Prostor – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Prostor" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaco_(fiziko)" title="Spaco (fiziko) – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Spaco (fiziko)" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruang" title="Ruang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ruang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatio" title="Spatio – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Spatio" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umkhathi" title="Umkhathi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umkhathi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BAm_(e%C3%B0lisfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i)" title="Rúm (eðlisfræði) – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rúm (eðlisfræði)" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spazio_(fisica)" title="Spazio (fisica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Spazio (fisica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%97%D7%91_(%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94)" title="מרחב (פיזיקה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מרחב (פיזיקה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94" title="სივრცე – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სივრცე" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D2%A3%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Кеңістік (физика) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кеңістік (физика)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafasi" title="Nafasi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Nafasi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A8spas_(nosyon)" title="Lèspas (nosyon) – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Lèspas (nosyon)" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valah%C3%AE" title="Valahî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Valahî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatium" title="Spatium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Spatium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telpa" title="Telpa – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Telpa" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdv%C4%97" title="Erdvė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Erdvė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spassio_(fixica)" title="Spassio (fixica) – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Spassio (fixica)" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spasio_(fisica)" title="Spasio (fisica) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Spasio (fisica)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9r_(fizika)" title="Tér (fizika) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tér (fizika)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Простор – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Простор" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erana_(je%C3%B4metria)" title="Erana (jeômetria) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Erana (jeômetria)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%A4" title="സ്ഥൂലത – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സ്ഥൂലത" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6" title="अवकाश – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अवकाश" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruang" title="Ruang – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ruang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%B9" title="Огторгуй – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Огторгуй" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E" title="အာကာသ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အာကာသ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanualala" title="Vanualala – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Vanualala" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruimte_(natuurkunde)" title="Ruimte (natuurkunde) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ruimte (natuurkunde)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A9%BA%E9%96%93" title="空間 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="空間" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom_(fysikk)" title="Rom (fysikk) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Rom (fysikk)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espaci" title="Espaci – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Espaci" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fazo" title="Fazo – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fazo" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0" title="ਵਿਸਥਾਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਸਥਾਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="فضاء – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فضاء" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spies" title="Spies – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Spies" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przestrze%C5%84_(fizyka)" title="Przestrzeń (fizyka) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Przestrzeń (fizyka)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espa%C3%A7o_f%C3%ADsico" title="Espaço físico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Espaço físico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spa%C8%9Biu" title="Spațiu – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Spațiu" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Пространство в физике – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пространство в физике" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/kakitidaan" title="kakitidaan – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="kakitidaan" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A0tziu" title="Spàtziu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Spàtziu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hap%C3%ABsira" title="Hapësira – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Hapësira" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%BA" title="අවකාශය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අවකාශය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_(physics)" title="Space (physics) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Space (physics)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%BF%D9%8A" title="وٿي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="وٿي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priestor_(fyzika)" title="Priestor (fyzika) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Priestor (fyzika)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostor" title="Prostor – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Prostor" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%86%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="بۆشایی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بۆشایی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Простор – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Простор" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostor" title="Prostor – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Prostor" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rohang" title="Rohang – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Rohang" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysikaalinen_avaruus" title="Fysikaalinen avaruus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Fysikaalinen avaruus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rum_(fysik)" title="Rum (fysik) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Rum (fysik)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF" title="பரவெளி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பரவெளி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Фәза – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фәза" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%82" title="అంతరిక్షం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అంతరిక్షం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4" title="ปริภูมิ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปริภูมิ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE" title="Фазо – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Фазо" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A4%E1%8F%A2%E1%8F%85%E1%8F%9B" title="ᎤᏢᏅᏛ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎤᏢᏅᏛ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzay_(geometri)" title="Uzay (geometri) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Uzay (geometri)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Framework of distances and directions</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the general framework of distance and direction. For the space beyond Earth's atmosphere, see <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">Outer space</a>. For the writing separator, see <a href="/wiki/Space_(punctuation)" title="Space (punctuation)">Space (punctuation)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Space_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Space (disambiguation)">Space (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3D_coordinate_system.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/3D_coordinate_system.svg/220px-3D_coordinate_system.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/3D_coordinate_system.svg/330px-3D_coordinate_system.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/3D_coordinate_system.svg/440px-3D_coordinate_system.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="487" data-file-height="487" /></a><figcaption>A right-handed three-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system" title="Cartesian coordinate system">Cartesian coordinate system</a> used to indicate positions in space</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Space</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_space" title="Three-dimensional space">three-dimensional</a> continuum containing <a href="/wiki/Position_(geometry)" title="Position (geometry)">positions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Direction_(geometry)" title="Direction (geometry)">directions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical physics</a>, physical space is often conceived in three <a href="/wiki/Linear" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear">linear</a> <a href="/wiki/Dimension" title="Dimension">dimensions</a>. <a href="/wiki/Modern_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern physicist">Modern physicists</a> usually consider it, with <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>, to be part of a boundless <a href="/wiki/Four-dimensional" class="mw-redirect" title="Four-dimensional">four-dimensional</a> <a href="/wiki/Continuum_(theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuum (theory)">continuum</a> known as <i><a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-metafizika_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-metafizika-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of space is considered to be of fundamental importance to an understanding of the physical <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>. However, disagreement continues between <a href="/wiki/Philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophers">philosophers</a> over whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of a <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_framework" title="Conceptual framework">conceptual framework</a>. </p><p>In the 19th and 20th centuries mathematicians began to examine geometries that are <a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">non-Euclidean</a>, in which space is conceived as <i><a href="/wiki/Space_curvature" class="mw-redirect" title="Space curvature">curved</a></i>, rather than <i><a href="/wiki/Flat_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Flat space">flat</a></i>, as in the <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_space" title="Euclidean space">Euclidean space</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>, space around <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_field" title="Gravitational field">gravitational fields</a> deviates from Euclidean space.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experimental <a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">tests of general relativity</a> have confirmed that non-Euclidean geometries provide a better model for the shape of space.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy_of_space">Philosophy of space</h2></div> <p>Debates concerning the nature, essence and the mode of existence of space date back to antiquity; namely, to treatises like the <i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> in his reflections on what the Greeks called <i><a href="/wiki/Kh%C3%B4ra" title="Khôra">khôra</a></i> (i.e. "space"), or in the <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (Book IV, Delta) in the definition of <i>topos</i> (i.e. place), or in the later "geometrical conception of place" as "space <i>qua</i> extension" in the <i>Discourse on Place</i> (<i>Qawl fi al-Makan</i>) of the 11th-century Arab <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> <a href="/wiki/Alhazen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these classical philosophical questions were discussed in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and then reformulated in the 17th century, particularly during the early development of <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> viewed space as absolute, existing permanently and independently of whether there was any matter in it.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, other <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural philosopher">natural philosophers</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, thought that space was in fact a collection of relations between objects, given by their <a href="/wiki/Distance" title="Distance">distance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Direction_(geometry)" title="Direction (geometry)">direction</a> from one another. In the 18th century, the philosopher and theologian <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a> attempted to refute the "visibility of spatial depth" in his <i>Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision</i>. Later, the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysic">metaphysician</a> <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> said that the concepts of space and time are not empirical ones derived from experiences of the outside world—they are elements of an already given systematic framework that humans possess and use to structure all experiences. Kant referred to the experience of "space" in his <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> as being a subjective "pure <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a></i> form of intuition". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Galileo">Galileo</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galilean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Cartesian</a> theories about space, matter, and motion are at the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, which is understood to have culminated with the publication of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i> in 1687.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggett-1999_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggett-1999-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newton's theories about space and time helped him explain the movement of objects. While his theory of space is considered the most influential in physics, it emerged from his predecessors' ideas about the same.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As one of the pioneers of <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">modern science</a>, Galileo revised the established <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemaic</a> ideas about a <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric</a> cosmos. He backed the <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernican</a> theory that the universe was <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a>, with a stationary Sun at the center and the planets—including the Earth—revolving around the Sun. If the Earth moved, the Aristotelian belief that its natural tendency was to remain at rest was in question. Galileo wanted to prove instead that the Sun moved around its axis, that motion was as natural to an object as the state of rest. In other words, for Galileo, celestial bodies, including the Earth, were naturally inclined to move in circles. This view displaced another Aristotelian idea—that all objects gravitated towards their designated natural place-of-belonging.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="René_Descartes"><span id="Ren.C3.A9_Descartes"></span>René Descartes</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a> set out to replace the Aristotelian worldview with a theory about space and motion as determined by <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural laws</a>. In other words, he sought a <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> foundation or a <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanical</a> explanation for his theories about matter and motion. <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian space">Cartesian space</a> was <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_space" title="Euclidean space">Euclidean</a> in structure—infinite, uniform and flat.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was defined as that which contained matter; conversely, matter by definition had a spatial extension so that there was no such thing as empty space.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggett-1999_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggett-1999-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Cartesian notion of space is closely linked to his theories about the nature of the body, mind and matter. He is famously known for his "cogito ergo sum" (I think therefore I am), or the idea that we can only be certain of the fact that we can doubt, and therefore think and therefore exist. His theories belong to the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> tradition, which attributes knowledge about the world to our ability to think rather than to our experiences, as the <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricists</a> believe.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He posited a clear distinction between the body and mind, which is referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Cartesian dualism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leibniz_and_Newton">Leibniz and Newton</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz,_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg/250px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg/330px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg/500px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4486" data-file-height="5538" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Following Galileo and Descartes, during the seventeenth century the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">philosophy of space and time</a> revolved around the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, a German philosopher–mathematician, and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, who set out two opposing theories of what space is. Rather than being an entity that independently exists over and above other matter, Leibniz held that space is no more than the collection of spatial relations between objects in the world: "space is that which results from places taken together".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unoccupied regions are those that <i>could</i> have objects in them, and thus spatial relations with other places. For Leibniz, then, space was an idealised <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a> from the relations between individual entities or their possible locations and therefore could not be <a href="/wiki/Continuous_probability_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous probability distribution">continuous</a> but must be <a href="/wiki/Discrete_probability_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrete probability distribution">discrete</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Space could be thought of in a similar way to the relations between family members. Although people in the family are related to one another, the relations do not exist independently of the people.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz argued that space could not exist independently of objects in the world because that implies a difference between two universes exactly alike except for the location of the material world in each universe. But since there would be no observational way of telling these universes apart then, according to the <a href="/wiki/Identity_of_indiscernibles" title="Identity of indiscernibles">identity of indiscernibles</a>, there would be no real difference between them. According to the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_sufficient_reason" title="Principle of sufficient reason">principle of sufficient reason</a>, any theory of space that implied that there could be these two possible universes must therefore be wrong.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/250px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/330px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/500px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1364" data-file-height="1916" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Newton took space to be more than relations between material objects and based his position on <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> and experimentation. For a <a href="/wiki/Relational_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational theory">relationist</a> there can be no real difference between <a href="/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference" title="Inertial frame of reference">inertial motion</a>, in which the object travels with constant <a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">velocity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Non-inertial_reference_frame" title="Non-inertial reference frame">non-inertial motion</a>, in which the velocity changes with time, since all spatial measurements are relative to other objects and their motions. But Newton argued that since non-inertial motion generates <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">forces</a>, it must be absolute.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He used the example of <a href="/wiki/Bucket_argument" title="Bucket argument">water in a spinning bucket</a> to demonstrate his argument. Water in a <a href="/wiki/Bucket" title="Bucket">bucket</a> is hung from a rope and set to spin, starts with a flat surface. After a while, as the bucket continues to spin, the surface of the water becomes concave. If the bucket's spinning is stopped then the surface of the water remains concave as it continues to spin. The concave surface is therefore apparently not the result of relative motion between the bucket and the water.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, Newton argued, it must be a result of non-inertial motion relative to space itself. For several centuries the bucket argument was considered decisive in showing that space must exist independently of matter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kant">Kant</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/250px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/330px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/500px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1617" data-file-height="1802" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the eighteenth century the German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> published his theory of space as "a property of our mind" by which "we represent to ourselves objects as outside us, and all as in space" in the <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On his view the nature of spatial predicates are "relations that only attach to the form of intuition alone, and thus to the subjective constitution of our mind, without which these predicates could not be attached to anything at all."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This develops his theory of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> in which knowledge about space itself can be both <i>a priori</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Analytic-synthetic_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic-synthetic distinction">synthetic</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Kant, knowledge about space is <i>synthetic</i> because any proposition about space cannot be true <i>merely</i> in virtue of the meaning of the terms contained in the proposition. In the counter-example, the proposition "all unmarried men are bachelors" <i>is</i> true by virtue of each term's meaning. Further, space is <i>a priori</i> because it is the form of our receptive abilities to receive information about the external world. For example, someone without sight can still perceive spatial attributes via touch, hearing, and smell. Knowledge of space itself is <i>a priori</i> because it belongs to the subjective constitution of our mind as the form or manner of our intuition of external objects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-Euclidean_geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sphere_closed_path.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Sphere_closed_path.svg/150px-Sphere_closed_path.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Sphere_closed_path.svg/225px-Sphere_closed_path.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Sphere_closed_path.svg/300px-Sphere_closed_path.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Spherical_geometry" title="Spherical geometry">Spherical geometry</a> is similar to <a href="/wiki/Elliptical_geometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Elliptical geometry">elliptical geometry</a>. On a <a href="/wiki/Sphere" title="Sphere">sphere</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Surface_(topology)" title="Surface (topology)">surface</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Ball_(mathematics)" title="Ball (mathematics)">ball</a>) there are no <a href="/wiki/Parallel_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Parallel line">parallel lines</a>.</figcaption></figure><p>Euclid's <i>Elements</i> contained five postulates that form the basis for Euclidean geometry. One of these, the <a href="/wiki/Parallel_postulate" title="Parallel postulate">parallel postulate</a>, has been the subject of debate among mathematicians for many centuries. It states that on any <a href="/wiki/Plane_(mathematics)" title="Plane (mathematics)">plane</a> on which there is a straight line <i>L<sub>1</sub></i> and a point <i>P</i> not on <i>L<sub>1</sub></i>, there is exactly one straight line <i>L<sub>2</sub></i> on the plane that passes through the point <i>P</i> and is parallel to the straight line <i>L<sub>1</sub></i>. Until the 19th century, few doubted the truth of the postulate; instead debate centered over whether it was necessary as an axiom, or whether it was a theory that could be derived from the other axioms.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 1830 though, the Hungarian <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Bolyai" title="János Bolyai">János Bolyai</a> and the Russian <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Ivanovich_Lobachevsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky">Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky</a> separately published treatises on a type of geometry that does not include the parallel postulate, called <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_geometry" title="Hyperbolic geometry">hyperbolic geometry</a>. In this geometry, an <a href="/wiki/Infinity" title="Infinity">infinite</a> number of parallel lines pass through the point <i>P</i>. Consequently, the sum of angles in a triangle is less than 180° and the ratio of a <a href="/wiki/Circle" title="Circle">circle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Circumference" title="Circumference">circumference</a> to its <a href="/wiki/Diameter" title="Diameter">diameter</a> is greater than <a href="/wiki/Pi" title="Pi">pi</a>. In the 1850s, <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Riemann" title="Bernhard Riemann">Bernhard Riemann</a> developed an equivalent theory of <a href="/wiki/Elliptical_geometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Elliptical geometry">elliptical geometry</a>, in which no parallel lines pass through <i>P</i>. In this geometry, triangles have more than 180° and circles have a ratio of circumference-to-diameter that is less than <a href="/wiki/Pi" title="Pi">pi</a>. </p><table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:100px">Type of geometry</th> <th style="width:90px">Number of parallels</th> <th style="width:100px">Sum of angles in a triangle</th> <th style="width:120px">Ratio of circumference to diameter of circle</th> <th style="width:90px">Measure of curvature </th></tr> <tr> <th>Hyperbolic </th> <td>Infinite</td> <td>< 180°</td> <td>> π</td> <td>< 0 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Euclidean </th> <td>1</td> <td>180°</td> <td>π</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Elliptical </th> <td>0</td> <td>> 180°</td> <td>< π</td> <td>> 0 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gauss_and_Poincaré"><span id="Gauss_and_Poincar.C3.A9"></span>Gauss and Poincaré</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg/170px-Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg/255px-Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg/340px-Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg 2x" data-file-width="917" data-file-height="1180" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Young_Poincare.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Young_Poincare.jpg/170px-Young_Poincare.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Young_Poincare.jpg/255px-Young_Poincare.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Young_Poincare.jpg 2x" data-file-width="283" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although there was a prevailing Kantian consensus at the time, once non-Euclidean geometries had been formalised, some began to wonder whether or not physical space is curved. <a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a>, a German mathematician, was the first to consider an empirical investigation of the geometrical structure of space. He thought of making a test of the sum of the angles of an enormous stellar triangle, and there are reports that he actually carried out a test, on a small scale, by <a href="/wiki/Triangulation" title="Triangulation">triangulating</a> mountain tops in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a>, a French mathematician and physicist of the late 19th century, introduced an important insight in which he attempted to demonstrate the futility of any attempt to discover which geometry applies to space by experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He considered the predicament that would face scientists if they were confined to the surface of an imaginary large sphere with particular properties, known as a <a href="/wiki/Sphere-world" title="Sphere-world">sphere-world</a>. In this world, the temperature is taken to vary in such a way that all objects expand and contract in similar proportions in different places on the sphere. With a suitable falloff in temperature, if the scientists try to use measuring rods to determine the sum of the angles in a triangle, they can be deceived into thinking that they inhabit a plane, rather than a spherical surface.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, the scientists cannot in principle determine whether they inhabit a plane or sphere and, Poincaré argued, the same is true for the debate over whether real space is Euclidean or not. For him, which geometry was used to describe space was a matter of <a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">convention</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_geometry" title="Euclidean geometry">Euclidean geometry</a> is simpler than non-Euclidean geometry, he assumed the former would always be used to describe the 'true' geometry of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Einstein">Einstein</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_1947.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Albert_Einstein_1947.jpg/250px-Albert_Einstein_1947.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Albert_Einstein_1947.jpg/330px-Albert_Einstein_1947.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Albert_Einstein_1947.jpg/500px-Albert_Einstein_1947.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4517" data-file-height="5522" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1905, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> published his <a href="/wiki/Special_theory_of_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Special theory of relativity">special theory of relativity</a>, which led to the concept that space and time can be viewed as a single construct known as <i><a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a></i>. In this theory, the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> is the same for all observers—which has <a href="/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity" title="Relativity of simultaneity">the result</a> that two events that appear simultaneous to one particular observer will not be simultaneous to another observer if the observers are moving with respect to one another. Moreover, an observer will measure a moving clock to <a href="/wiki/Time_dilation" title="Time dilation">tick more slowly</a> than one that is stationary with respect to them; and objects are measured <a href="/wiki/Length_contraction" title="Length contraction">to be shortened</a> in the direction that they are moving with respect to the observer. </p><p>Subsequently, Einstein worked on a <a href="/wiki/General_theory_of_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="General theory of relativity">general theory of relativity</a>, which is a theory of how <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> interacts with spacetime. Instead of viewing gravity as a <a href="/wiki/Force_field_(physics)" title="Force field (physics)">force field</a> acting in spacetime, Einstein suggested that it modifies the geometric structure of spacetime itself.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the general theory, time <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_time_dilation" title="Gravitational time dilation">goes more slowly</a> at places with lower gravitational potentials and rays of light bend in the presence of a gravitational field. Scientists have studied the behaviour of <a href="/wiki/Binary_pulsar" title="Binary pulsar">binary pulsars</a>, confirming the predictions of Einstein's theories.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Non-Euclidean geometry is usually used to describe spacetime.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_space" title="Three-dimensional space">Three-dimensional space</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For broader coverage of this topic, see <a href="/wiki/Space_(mathematics)" title="Space (mathematics)">Space (mathematics)</a>.</div> <p>In modern mathematics <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical space">spaces</a> are defined as <a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">sets</a> with some added structure. They are typically <a href="/wiki/Topological_space" title="Topological space">topological spaces</a>, in which a concept of <a href="/wiki/Neighbourhood_(mathematics)" title="Neighbourhood (mathematics)">neighbourhood</a> is defined, frequently by means of a distance (<a href="/wiki/Metric_space" title="Metric space">metric spaces</a>). The elements of a space are often called <i>points</i>, but they can have other names such as <a href="/wiki/Vector_(mathematics_and_physics)" title="Vector (mathematics and physics)">vectors</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vector_space" title="Vector space">vector spaces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">functions</a> in <a href="/wiki/Function_space" title="Function space">function spaces</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physics">Physics</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-left:0.9em;padding-right:0.9em;"><a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\textbf {F}}={\frac {d\mathbf {p} }{dt}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext mathvariant="bold">F</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\textbf {F}}={\frac {d\mathbf {p} }{dt}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c2ad0a6d6780c3abc5247abd82bd8a2249d56ff3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:8.318ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\textbf {F}}={\frac {d\mathbf {p} }{dt}}}" /></span><div class="sidebar-caption" style="font-size:90%;padding:0.6em 0;font-style:italic;"><a href="/wiki/Second_law_of_motion" class="mw-redirect" title="Second law of motion">Second law of motion</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight: bold; display:block;margin-bottom:1.0em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_classical_mechanics" title="History of classical mechanics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_classical_mechanics" title="Timeline of classical mechanics">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_classical_mechanics_and_quantum_mechanics" title="List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics">Textbooks</a></li></ul> </div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.35em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_mechanics" title="Applied mechanics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">Continuum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical dynamics">Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_field_theory" title="Classical field theory">Field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">Kinematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetics_(physics)" title="Kinetics (physics)">Kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statics" title="Statics">Statics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Fundamentals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.35em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">Acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">Angular momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Couple_(mechanics)" title="Couple (mechanics)">Couple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%27Alembert%27s_principle" title="D'Alembert's principle">D'Alembert's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy#Newtonian_kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">potential</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">Frame of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference" title="Inertial frame of reference">Inertial frame of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impulse_(physics)" title="Impulse (physics)">Impulse</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">Inertia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Moment_of_inertia" title="Moment of inertia">Moment of inertia</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">Mass</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_power_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical power (physics)">Mechanical power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">Mechanical work</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Moment_(physics)" title="Moment (physics)">Moment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">Momentum</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed" title="Speed">Speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torque" title="Torque">Torque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">Velocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_work" title="Virtual work">Virtual work</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Formulations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.35em;"> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's laws of motion</a></b></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Analytical_mechanics" title="Analytical mechanics">Analytical mechanics</a></b> <div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lagrangian_mechanics" title="Lagrangian mechanics">Lagrangian mechanics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_mechanics" title="Hamiltonian mechanics">Hamiltonian mechanics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Routhian_mechanics" title="Routhian mechanics">Routhian mechanics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hamilton%E2%80%93Jacobi_equation" title="Hamilton–Jacobi equation">Hamilton–Jacobi equation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Appell%27s_equation_of_motion" title="Appell's equation of motion">Appell's equation of motion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Koopman%E2%80%93von_Neumann_classical_mechanics" title="Koopman–von Neumann classical mechanics">Koopman–von Neumann mechanics</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Core topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.35em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Damping" title="Damping">Damping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_(geometry)" title="Displacement (geometry)">Displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equations_of_motion" title="Equations of motion">Equations of motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Euler's laws of motion"><span class="wrap">Euler's laws of motion</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_force" title="Fictitious force">Fictitious force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">Friction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic_oscillator" title="Harmonic oscillator">Harmonic oscillator</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference" title="Inertial frame of reference">Inertial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-inertial_reference_frame" title="Non-inertial reference frame">Non-inertial reference frame</a></span></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Linear_motion" title="Linear motion">linear</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation"><span class="wrap">Newton's law of universal gravitation</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's laws of motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_velocity" title="Relative velocity">Relative velocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigid_body" title="Rigid body">Rigid body</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rigid_body_dynamics" title="Rigid body dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_equations_(rigid_body_dynamics)" title="Euler's equations (rigid body dynamics)">Euler's equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_harmonic_motion" title="Simple harmonic motion">Simple harmonic motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibration" title="Vibration">Vibration</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Rotation_around_a_fixed_axis" title="Rotation around a fixed axis">Rotation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.35em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circular_motion" title="Circular motion">Circular motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_reference_frame" title="Rotating reference frame">Rotating reference frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centripetal_force" title="Centripetal force">Centripetal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_force" title="Centrifugal force">Centrifugal force</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reactive_centrifugal_force" title="Reactive centrifugal force">reactive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendulum_(mechanics)" title="Pendulum (mechanics)">Pendulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangential_speed" title="Tangential speed">Tangential speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotational_frequency" title="Rotational frequency">Rotational frequency</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angular_acceleration" title="Angular acceleration">Angular acceleration</a> / <a href="/wiki/Angular_displacement" title="Angular displacement">displacement</a> / <a href="/wiki/Angular_frequency" title="Angular frequency">frequency</a> / <a href="/wiki/Angular_velocity" title="Angular velocity">velocity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.35em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_Horrocks" title="Jeremiah Horrocks">Horrocks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_Halley" title="Edmond Halley">Halley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Maupertuis" title="Pierre Louis Maupertuis">Maupertuis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bernoulli" title="Daniel Bernoulli">Daniel Bernoulli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Bernoulli" title="Johann Bernoulli">Johann Bernoulli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Euler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Clairaut" title="Alexis Clairaut">Clairaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph-Louis_Lagrange" title="Joseph-Louis Lagrange">Lagrange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace">Laplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%A9on_Denis_Poisson" title="Siméon Denis Poisson">Poisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rowan_Hamilton" title="William Rowan Hamilton">Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jacob_Jacobi" title="Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi">Jacobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustin-Louis_Cauchy" title="Augustin-Louis Cauchy">Cauchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Routh" title="Edward Routh">Routh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Liouville" title="Joseph Liouville">Liouville</a></li> <li><a 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Space" title="Special:EditPage/Space">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Space%22">"Space"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Space%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Space%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Space%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Space%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Space%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Space is one of the few <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_quantity" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental quantity">fundamental quantities</a> in <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, meaning that it cannot be defined via other quantities because nothing more fundamental is known at the present. On the other hand, it can be related to other fundamental quantities. Thus, similar to other fundamental quantities (like time and <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a>), space can be explored via <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measurement</a> and experiment. </p><p>Today, our <a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_space" title="Three-dimensional space">three-dimensional space</a> is viewed as embedded in a four-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Minkowski_space" title="Minkowski space">Minkowski space</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>). The idea behind spacetime is that time is <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic-orthogonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbolic-orthogonal">hyperbolic-orthogonal</a> to each of the three spatial dimensions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relativity">Relativity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">Theory of relativity</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Space" title="Special:EditPage/Space">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Space%22">"Space"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Space%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Space%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Space%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Space%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Space%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Before <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s work on relativistic physics, time and space were viewed as independent dimensions. Einstein's discoveries showed that due to relativity of motion our space and time can be mathematically combined into one object–<a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a>. It turns out that distances in <a href="/wiki/Spacetime#Space-like_interval" title="Spacetime">space</a> or in <a href="/wiki/Spacetime#Time-like_interval" title="Spacetime">time</a> separately are not invariant with respect to Lorentz coordinate transformations, but distances in Minkowski space along <a href="/wiki/Spacetime_interval" class="mw-redirect" title="Spacetime interval">spacetime intervals</a> are—which justifies the name. </p><p>In addition, time and space dimensions should not be viewed as exactly equivalent in Minkowski space. One can freely move in space but not in time. Thus, time and space coordinates are treated differently both in <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a> (where time is sometimes considered an <a href="/wiki/Imaginary_number" title="Imaginary number">imaginary</a> coordinate) and in <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> (where different signs are assigned to time and space components of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a> <a href="/wiki/Metric_tensor" title="Metric tensor">metric</a>). </p><p>Furthermore, in <a href="/wiki/Einstein%27s_general_theory_of_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein's general theory of relativity">Einstein's general theory of relativity</a>, it is postulated that spacetime is geometrically distorted – <i>curved</i> – near to gravitationally significant masses.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One consequence of this postulate, which follows from the equations of general relativity, is the prediction of moving ripples of spacetime, called <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational waves</a>. While indirect evidence for these waves has been found (in the motions of the <a href="/wiki/Hulse%E2%80%93Taylor_binary" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulse–Taylor binary">Hulse–Taylor binary</a> system, for example) experiments attempting to directly measure these waves are ongoing at the <a href="/wiki/LIGO" title="LIGO">LIGO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virgo_interferometer" title="Virgo interferometer">Virgo</a> collaborations. LIGO scientists reported the <a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of gravitational waves">first such direct observation of gravitational waves</a> on 14 September 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PRL_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PRL-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmology">Cosmology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">Shape of the universe</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Space" title="Special:EditPage/Space">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Space%22">"Space"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Space%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Space%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Space%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Space%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Space%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Relativity theory leads to the <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmological</a> question of what shape the universe is, and where space came from. It appears that space was created in the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>, 13.8 billion years ago<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has been expanding ever since. The overall shape of space is not known, but space is known to be expanding very rapidly due to the <a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">cosmic inflation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spatial_measurement">Spatial measurement</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">Measurement</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Space" title="Special:EditPage/Space">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Space%22">"Space"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Space%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Space%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Space%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Space%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Space%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The measurement of <i>physical space</i> has long been important. Although earlier societies had developed measuring systems, the <a href="/wiki/SI" class="mw-redirect" title="SI">International System of Units</a>, (SI), is now the most common system of units used in the measuring of space, and is almost universally used. </p><p>Currently, the standard space interval, called a standard meter or simply meter, is defined as the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">distance traveled by light in vacuum</a> during a time interval of exactly 1/299,792,458 of a second. This definition coupled with present definition of the second is based on the <a href="/wiki/Special_theory_of_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Special theory of relativity">special theory of relativity</a> in which the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> plays the role of a fundamental constant of nature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographical_space">Geographical space</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Space" title="Special:EditPage/Space">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Space%22">"Space"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Space%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Space%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Space%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Space%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Space%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> is the branch of science concerned with identifying and describing places on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, utilizing spatial awareness to try to understand why things exist in specific locations. <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> is the mapping of spaces to allow better navigation, for visualization purposes and to act as a locational device. <a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a> apply statistical concepts to collected spatial data of Earth to create an estimate for unobserved phenomena. </p><p>Geographical space is often considered as land, and can have a relation to <a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">ownership</a> usage (in which space is seen as <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> or territory). While some cultures assert the rights of the individual in terms of ownership, other cultures will identify with a communal approach to land ownership, while still other cultures such as <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginals" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Aboriginals">Australian Aboriginals</a>, rather than asserting ownership rights to land, invert the relationship and consider that they are in fact owned by the land. <a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning" title="Spatial planning">Spatial planning</a> is a method of regulating the use of space at land-level, with decisions made at regional, national and international levels. Space can also impact on human and cultural behavior, being an important factor in architecture, where it will impact on the design of buildings and structures, and on farming. </p><p>Ownership of space is not restricted to land. Ownership of <a href="/wiki/Airspace" title="Airspace">airspace</a> and of <a href="/wiki/International_waters" title="International waters">waters</a> is decided internationally. Other forms of ownership have been recently asserted to other spaces—for example to the radio bands of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a> or to <a href="/wiki/Cyberspace" title="Cyberspace">cyberspace</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Public_space" title="Public space">Public space</a> is a term used to define areas of land as collectively owned by the community, and managed in their name by delegated bodies; such spaces are open to all, while <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a> is the land culturally owned by an individual or company, for their own use and pleasure. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Abstract_space" title="Abstract space">Abstract space</a> is a term used in <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a> to refer to a hypothetical space characterized by complete homogeneity. When modeling activity or behavior, it is a conceptual tool used to limit <a href="/wiki/Extraneous_variables" class="mw-redirect" title="Extraneous variables">extraneous variables</a> such as terrain. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_psychology">In psychology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Space" title="Special:EditPage/Space">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Space%22">"Space"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Space%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Space%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Space%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Space%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Space%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Psychologists first began to study the way space is perceived in the middle of the 19th century. Those now concerned with such studies regard it as a distinct branch of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>. Psychologists analyzing the perception of space are concerned with how recognition of an object's physical appearance or its interactions are perceived, see, for example, <a href="/wiki/Visual_space" title="Visual space">visual space</a>. </p><p>Other, more specialized topics studied include <a href="/wiki/Amodal_perception" title="Amodal perception">amodal perception</a> and <a href="/wiki/Object_permanence" title="Object permanence">object permanence</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> of surroundings is important due to its necessary relevance to survival, especially with regards to <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Self_preservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Self preservation">self preservation</a> as well as simply one's idea of <a href="/wiki/Personal_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal space">personal space</a>. </p><p>Several space-related <a href="/wiki/Phobia" title="Phobia">phobias</a> have been identified, including <a href="/wiki/Agoraphobia" title="Agoraphobia">agoraphobia</a> (the fear of open spaces), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/astrophobia" class="extiw" title="wikt:astrophobia">astrophobia</a> (the fear of celestial space) and <a href="/wiki/Claustrophobia" title="Claustrophobia">claustrophobia</a> (the fear of enclosed spaces). </p><p>The understanding of three-dimensional space in humans is thought to be learned during infancy using <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception#Unconscious_inference" title="Visual perception">unconscious inference</a>, and is closely related to <a href="/wiki/Hand-eye_coordination" class="mw-redirect" title="Hand-eye coordination">hand-eye coordination</a>. The visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions is called <a href="/wiki/Depth_perception" title="Depth perception">depth perception</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_the_social_sciences">In the social sciences</h2></div> <p>Space has been studied in the social sciences from the perspectives of <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">postcolonialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urban_theory" title="Urban theory">urban theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">critical geography</a>. These theories account for the effect of the history of colonialism, transatlantic slavery and globalization on our understanding and experience of space and place. The topic has garnered attention since the 1980s, after the publication of <a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Henri Lefebvre</a>'s <i>The Production of Space .</i> In this book, Lefebvre applies Marxist ideas about the production of commodities and accumulation of capital to discuss space as a social product. His focus is on the multiple and overlapping social processes that produce space.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his book <i>The Condition of Postmodernity,</i> <a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a> describes what he terms the "<a href="/wiki/Time-space_compression" class="mw-redirect" title="Time-space compression">time-space compression</a>." This is the effect of technological advances and capitalism on our perception of time, space and distance.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Changes in the modes of production and consumption of capital affect and are affected by developments in transportation and technology. These advances create relationships across time and space, new markets and groups of wealthy elites in urban centers, all of which annihilate distances and affect our perception of linearity and distance.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his book <i>Thirdspace,</i> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Soja" title="Edward Soja">Edward Soja</a> describes space and spatiality as an integral and neglected aspect of what he calls the "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Trialectics_of_being&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trialectics of being (page does not exist)">trialectics of being</a>," the three modes that determine how we inhabit, experience and understand the world. He argues that critical theories in the Humanities and Social Sciences study the historical and social dimensions of our lived experience, neglecting the spatial dimension.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He builds on Henri Lefebvre's work to address the dualistic way in which humans understand space—as either material/physical or as represented/imagined. Lefebvre's "lived space"<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Soja's "thirdspace" are terms that account for the complex ways in which humans understand and navigate place, which "firstspace" and "Secondspace" (Soja's terms for material and imagined spaces respectively) do not fully encompass. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonial</a> theorist <a href="/wiki/Homi_K._Bhabha" title="Homi K. Bhabha">Homi Bhabha</a>'s concept of <a href="/wiki/Third_Space_Theory" title="Third Space Theory">Third Space</a> is different from Soja's Thirdspace, even though both terms offer a way to think outside the terms of a <a href="/wiki/Binary_opposition" title="Binary opposition">binary</a> logic. Bhabha's Third Space is the space in which hybrid cultural forms and identities exist. In his theories, the term <a href="/wiki/Hybridity" title="Hybridity">hybrid</a> describes new cultural forms that emerge through the interaction between colonizer and colonized.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 21em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_state_space" title="Quantum state space">Quantum state space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_space_and_time" title="Absolute space and time">Absolute space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aether_theories" title="Aether theories">Aether theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxemics" title="Proxemics">Proxemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">Shape of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_space" title="Social space">Social space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacetime_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spacetime (mathematics)">Spacetime (mathematics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial%E2%80%93temporal_reasoning" title="Spatial–temporal reasoning">Spatial–temporal reasoning</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9068962/space">"Space – Physics and Metaphysics"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506121655/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9068962/space">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Space+%E2%80%93+Physics+and+Metaphysics&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9068962%2Fspace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-metafizika-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-metafizika_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBunyadzade2018" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bunyadzade, Konul (15 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://metafizikajurnali.az/yukle/files/Vol.1-8%281%29.pdf">"Thoughts of Time"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metafizika_Journal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metafizika Journal (page does not exist)">Metafizika Journal</a></i> (in Azerbaijani). <b>1</b>. AcademyGate Publishing: <span class="nowrap">8–</span>29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.33864%2FMTFZK.2019.0">10.33864/MTFZK.2019.0</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190405102207/https://metafizikajurnali.az/yukle/files/Vol.1-8(1).pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 5 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Metafizika+Journal&rft.atitle=Thoughts+of+Time&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8-%3C%2Fspan%3E29&rft.date=2018-03-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.33864%2FMTFZK.2019.0&rft.aulast=Bunyadzade&rft.aufirst=Konul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmetafizikajurnali.az%2Fyukle%2Ffiles%2FVol.1-8%25281%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carnap, R. (1995). <i>An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science</i>. New York: Dove. (Original edition: <i>Philosophical Foundations of Physics</i>. New York: Basic books, 1966).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Refer to Plato's <i>Timaeus</i> in the Loeb Classical Library, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, and to his reflections on <i>khora</i>. See also Aristotle's <i>Physics</i>, Book IV, Chapter 5, on the definition of <i>topos</i>. Concerning Ibn al-Haytham's 11th century conception of "geometrical place" as "spatial extension", which is akin to <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>' and Leibniz's 17th century notions of <i>extensio</i> and <i>analysis situs</i>, and his own mathematical refutation of Aristotle's definition of <i>topos</i> in natural philosophy, refer to: <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, "In Defence of the Sovereignty of Philosophy: al-Baghdadi's Critique of Ibn al-Haytham's Geometrisation of Place", <i>Arabic Sciences and Philosophy</i> (<a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>), Vol. 17 (2007), pp. 57–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">French, A.J.; Ebison, M.G. (1986). <i>Introduction to Classical Mechanics</i>. Dordrecht: Springer, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huggett-1999-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Huggett-1999_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huggett-1999_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHuggett,_Nick1999" class="citation book cs1">Huggett, Nick, ed. (1999). <i>Space from Zeno to Einstein: classic readings with a contemporary commentary</i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999sze..book.....H">1999sze..book.....H</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-585-05570-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-585-05570-1"><bdi>978-0-585-05570-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42855123">42855123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space+from+Zeno+to+Einstein%3A+classic+readings+with+a+contemporary+commentary&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42855123&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999sze..book.....H&rft.isbn=978-0-585-05570-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJaniak2015" class="citation journal cs1">Janiak, Andrew (2015). "Space and Motion in Nature and Scripture: Galileo, Descartes, Newton". <i>Studies in History and Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>51</b>: <span class="nowrap">89–</span>99. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015SHPSA..51...89J">2015SHPSA..51...89J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.shpsa.2015.02.004">10.1016/j.shpsa.2015.02.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26227236">26227236</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+History+and+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Space+and+Motion+in+Nature+and+Scripture%3A+Galileo%2C+Descartes%2C+Newton&rft.volume=51&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E99&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26227236&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.shpsa.2015.02.004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015SHPSA..51...89J&rft.aulast=Janiak&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDainton2001" class="citation book cs1">Dainton, Barry (2001). <i>Time and space</i>. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-2302-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-2302-9"><bdi>978-0-7735-2302-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47691120">47691120</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time+and+space&rft.place=Montreal&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47691120&rft.isbn=978-0-7735-2302-9&rft.aulast=Dainton&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDainton2014" class="citation book cs1">Dainton, Barry (2014). <i>Time and Space</i>. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 164.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time+and+Space&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Dainton&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTom.2000" class="citation book cs1">Tom., Sorell (2000). <i>Descartes: a very short introduction</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-154036-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-154036-3"><bdi>978-0-19-154036-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/428970574">428970574</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Descartes%3A+a+very+short+introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F428970574&rft.isbn=978-0-19-154036-3&rft.aulast=Tom.&rft.aufirst=Sorell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leibniz, Fifth letter to Samuel Clarke. By H.G. Alexander (1956). <i>The Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence</i>. Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 55–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vailati, E. (1997). <i>Leibniz & Clarke: A Study of Their Correspondence</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sklar, L. (1992). <i>Philosophy of Physics</i>. Boulder: Westview Press, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sklar, L. <i>Philosophy of Physics</i>. p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sklar, L. <i>Philosophy of Physics</i>. p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Newton_bucket.html">"Newton's bucket"</a>. <i>st-and.ac.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080317062957/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Newton_bucket.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=st-and.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Newton%27s+bucket&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk%2F~history%2FHistTopics%2FNewton_bucket.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAllison2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_E._Allison" title="Henry E. Allison">Allison, Henry E.</a> (2004). <i>Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense; Revised and Enlarged Edition</i>. Yale University Press. p. 97-132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300102666" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300102666"><bdi>978-0300102666</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Transcendental+Idealism%3A+An+Interpretation+and+Defense%3B+Revised+and+Enlarged+Edition&rft.pages=97-132&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0300102666&rft.aulast=Allison&rft.aufirst=Henry+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKant1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant, Immanuel</a> (1999). <i>Critique of Pure Reason (The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant)</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. A3/B37-38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5216-5729-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5216-5729-7"><bdi>978-0-5216-5729-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason+%28The+Cambridge+Edition+of+the+Works+of+Immanuel+Kant%29&rft.pages=A3%2FB37-38&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-5216-5729-7&rft.aulast=Kant&rft.aufirst=Immanuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carnap, R. <i>An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science</i>. pp. 177–178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carnap, R. <i>An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science</i>. p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carnap, R. <i>An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science</i>. pp. 134–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jammer, Max (1954). <i>Concepts of Space. The History of Theories of Space in Physics</i>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A medium with a variable <a href="/wiki/Index_of_refraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of refraction">index of refraction</a> could also be used to bend the path of light and again deceive the scientists if they attempt to use light to map out their geometry.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carnap, R. <i>An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science</i>. p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sklar, L. <i>Philosophy of Physics</i>. p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sklar, L. <i>Philosophy of Physics</i>. p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wheeler, John A. <i>A Journey into Gravity and Spacetime</i>. Chapters 8 and 9, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-6034-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-6034-7">0-7167-6034-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCastelvecchiWitze2016" class="citation news cs1">Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Alexandra (11 February 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/news/einstein-s-gravitational-waves-found-at-last-1.19361">"Einstein's gravitational waves found at last"</a>. <i>Nature News</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160216095503/http://www.nature.com/news/einstein-s-gravitational-waves-found-at-last-1.19361">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+News&rft.atitle=Einstein%27s+gravitational+waves+found+at+last&rft.date=2016-02-11&rft.aulast=Castelvecchi&rft.aufirst=Davide&rft.au=Witze%2C+Alexandra&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnews%2Feinstein-s-gravitational-waves-found-at-last-1.19361&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PRL-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PRL_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbbott2016" class="citation journal cs1">Abbott, Benjamin P.; et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger". <i><a href="/wiki/Phys._Rev._Lett." class="mw-redirect" title="Phys. Rev. Lett.">Phys. Rev. Lett.</a></i> <b>116</b> (6): 061102. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1602.03837">1602.03837</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PhRvL.116f1102A">2016PhRvL.116f1102A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.116.061102">10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26918975">26918975</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:124959784">124959784</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phys.+Rev.+Lett.&rft.atitle=Observation+of+Gravitational+Waves+from+a+Binary+Black+Hole+Merger&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=061102&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A124959784%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016PhRvL.116f1102A&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1602.03837&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26918975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.116.061102&rft.aulast=Abbott&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/system/media_files/binaries/301/original/detection-science-summary.pdf">"Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>LIGO Scientific Collaboration</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LIGO+Scientific+Collaboration&rft.atitle=Observation+of+Gravitational+Waves+from+a+Binary+Black+Hole+Merger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ligo.caltech.edu%2Fsystem%2Fmedia_files%2Fbinaries%2F301%2Foriginal%2Fdetection-science-summary.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Cosmic_detectives">"Cosmic Detectives"</a>. The European Space Agency (ESA). 2 April 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130405083228/http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Cosmic_detectives">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cosmic+Detectives&rft.pub=The+European+Space+Agency+%28ESA%29&rft.date=2013-04-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esa.int%2FOur_Activities%2FSpace_Science%2FCosmic_detectives&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStanek2011" class="citation book cs1">Stanek, Lukasz (2011). <i>Henri Lefebvre on Space: Architecture, Urban Research, and the Production of Theory</i>. Univ of Minnesota Press. pp. ix.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Henri+Lefebvre+on+Space%3A+Architecture%2C+Urban+Research%2C+and+the+Production+of+Theory.&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=Univ+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Stanek&rft.aufirst=Lukasz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199874002/obo-9780199874002-0025.xml">"Time-Space Compression – Geography – Oxford Bibliographies – obo"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180920011023/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199874002/obo-9780199874002-0025.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 20 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Time-Space+Compression+%E2%80%93+Geography+%E2%80%93+Oxford+Bibliographies+%E2%80%93+obo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fview%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780199874002%2Fobo-9780199874002-0025.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarvey2001" class="citation book cs1">Harvey, David (2001). <i>Spaces of Capital: Towards a Critical Geography</i>. Edinburgh University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">244–</span>246.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spaces+of+Capital%3A+Towards+a+Critical+Geography&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E244-%3C%2Fspan%3E246&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFW.1996" class="citation book cs1">W., Soja, Edward (1996). <i>Thirdspace: journeys to Los Angeles and other real-and-imagined places</i>. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55786-674-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55786-674-5"><bdi>978-1-55786-674-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/33863376">33863376</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thirdspace%3A+journeys+to+Los+Angeles+and+other+real-and-imagined+places&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F33863376&rft.isbn=978-1-55786-674-5&rft.aulast=W.&rft.aufirst=Soja%2C+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLefebvre1991" class="citation book cs1">Lefebvre, Henri (1991). <i>The production of space</i>. Oxford, OX, UK: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-14048-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-14048-1"><bdi>978-0-631-14048-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22624721">22624721</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+production+of+space&rft.place=Oxford%2C+OX%2C+UK&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22624721&rft.isbn=978-0-631-14048-1&rft.aulast=Lefebvre&rft.aufirst=Henri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAshcroft_BillGriffiths,_GarethTiffin,_Helen2013" class="citation book cs1">Ashcroft Bill; Griffiths, Gareth; Tiffin, Helen (2013). <i>Postcolonial studies: the key concepts</i> (Third ed.). London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-66190-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-66190-4"><bdi>978-0-415-66190-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/824119565">824119565</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Postcolonial+studies%3A+the+key+concepts&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Third&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F824119565&rft.isbn=978-0-415-66190-4&rft.au=Ashcroft+Bill&rft.au=Griffiths%2C+Gareth&rft.au=Tiffin%2C+Helen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location 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vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Space</span></div> </div> </div> <div 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cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> 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