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aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Causes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phakomatoses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phakomatoses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Phakomatoses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phakomatoses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acquired" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acquired"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Acquired </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acquired-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Mechanism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mechanism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mechanism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mechanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Epilepsy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epilepsy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Epilepsy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epilepsy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seizures_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seizures_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Seizures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seizures_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Diagnosis </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Diagnosis subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Definition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syndromes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syndromes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Syndromes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syndromes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Tests </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differential_diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differential_diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Differential diagnosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differential_diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Prevention </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Complications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Complications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Management </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Management subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_aid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_aid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 First aid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_aid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Medications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surgery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surgery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Surgery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surgery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neurostimulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurostimulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Neurostimulation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurostimulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vagus_nerve_stimulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vagus_nerve_stimulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.1 Vagus nerve stimulation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vagus_nerve_stimulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Diet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Alternative medicine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contraception_and_pregnancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contraception_and_pregnancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Contraception and pregnancy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contraception_and_pregnancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prognosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prognosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Prognosis </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prognosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Prognosis subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Prognosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mortality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mortality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Mortality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mortality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Epidemiology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stigma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stigma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Stigma </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stigma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vehicles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vehicles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Vehicles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vehicles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Support_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Support_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.4 Support organizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Support_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Research </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Research subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Seizure_prediction_and_modeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seizure_prediction_and_modeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Seizure prediction and modeling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seizure_prediction_and_modeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_future_therapies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_future_therapies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Potential future therapies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_future_therapies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Other animals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Epilepsy</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 120 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-120" aria-hidden="true" > 120 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsie" title="Epilepsie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Epilepsie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsie" title="Epilepsie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Epilepsie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%B1%D8%B9" title="صرع – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صرع" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsia" title="Epilepsia – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Epilepsia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%80%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97" title="মৃগীৰোগ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মৃগীৰোগ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsia" title="Epilepsia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Epilepsia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mba%27asyryr%C3%BDi" title="Mba'asyryrýi – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Mba'asyryrýi" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%27uku_usu" title="T'uku usu – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="T'uku usu" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsiya" title="Epilepsiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Epilepsiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A6%D9%BE%D8%B3%DB%8C/%D8%B5%D8%B1%D8%B9" title="اپیلئپسی/صرع – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اپیلئپسی/صرع" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%80" title="মৃগী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মৃগী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gila_babi" title="Gila babi – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Gila babi" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%BB%E2%81%BF-h%C3%AEn" title="Iûⁿ-hîn – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Iûⁿ-hîn" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8B%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Быума – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Быума" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Эпілепсія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эпілепсія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Эпілепсія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Эпілепсія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Епилепсия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Епилепсия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinf%C3%A5llets" title="Hinfållets – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Hinfållets" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsija" title="Epilepsija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Epilepsija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drougsant" title="Drougsant – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Drougsant" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8" title="Эпилепси – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Эпилепси" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epil%C3%A8psia" title="Epilèpsia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Epilèpsia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsie" title="Epilepsie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Epilepsie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfari" title="Pfari – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Pfari" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsi" title="Epilepsi – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Epilepsi" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsi" title="Epilepsi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Epilepsi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B9%D8%A9" title="صريعة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="صريعة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsie" title="Epilepsie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Epilepsie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsia" title="Epilepsia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Epilepsia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%88%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Επιληψία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιληψία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsia" title="Epilepsia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Epilepsia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsio" title="Epilepsio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Epilepsio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsia" title="Epilepsia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Epilepsia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%B1%D8%B9" title="صرع – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="صرع" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirgii" title="Mirgii – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Mirgii" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89pilepsie" title="Épilepsie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Épilepsie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titimeas" title="Titimeas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Titimeas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsia" title="Epilepsia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Epilepsia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%88" title="વાઈ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વાઈ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%87%8C%EC%A0%84%EC%A6%9D" title="뇌전증 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="뇌전증" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farfa%C9%97iya" title="Farfaɗiya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Farfaɗiya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%BA%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%BA%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Էպիլեպսիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էպիլեպսիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="अपस्मार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अपस्मार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsija" title="Epilepsija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Epilepsija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsio" title="Epilepsio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Epilepsio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsi" title="Epilepsi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Epilepsi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flogaveiki" title="Flogaveiki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Flogaveiki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilessia" title="Epilessia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Epilessia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%A4%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%94" title="אפילפסיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אפילפסיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayan" title="Ayan – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Ayan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0" title="ಅಪಸ್ಮಾರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಪಸ್ಮಾರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ეპილეფსია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეპილეფსია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%88%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Қояншық – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қояншық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kifafa" title="Kifafa – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kifafa" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malkadi" title="Malkadi – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Malkadi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ep%C3%AEleps%C3%AE" title="Epîlepsî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Epîlepsî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Талма – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Талма" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morbus_comitialis" title="Morbus comitialis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Morbus comitialis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsija" title="Epilepsija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Epilepsija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsija" title="Epilepsija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Epilepsija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faniri" title="Faniri – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Faniri" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensimbu" title="Ensimbu – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Ensimbu" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilessia" title="Epilessia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Epilessia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepszia" title="Epilepszia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Epilepszia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Епилепсија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Епилепсија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="അപസ്മാരം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അപസ്മാരം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="अपस्मार – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अपस्मार" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsi" title="Epilepsi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Epilepsi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayan" title="Ayan – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Ayan" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B2ng-h%C3%ACng" title="Iòng-hìng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Iòng-hìng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BFc%D0%B8" title="Эпилепcи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эпилепcи" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%90%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%82%E1%80%AB" title="အတက်ရောဂါ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အတက်ရောဂါ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsie" title="Epilepsie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Epilepsie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97" title="छारे रोग – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="छारे रोग" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8D" title="तिकुल्वय् – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="तिकुल्वय्" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%81%A6%E3%82%93%E3%81%8B%E3%82%93" title="てんかん – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="てんかん" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsi" title="Epilepsi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Epilepsi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsi" title="Epilepsi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Epilepsi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haut_ma" title="Haut ma – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Haut ma" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsia" title="Epilepsia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Epilepsia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%85%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B0" title="ଅପସ୍ମାର – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଅପସ୍ମାର" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsiya" title="Epilepsiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Epilepsiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%80" title="ਮਿਰਗੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਿਰਗੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="مرگی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مرگی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%EA%A9%BB%E1%80%95%E1%80%B1%E1%82%8F%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B2%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%82%8F%E1%80%91%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%82%8F" title="လိုꩻပေႏသဲင်ႏထင်ႏ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="လိုꩻပေႏသဲင်ႏထင်ႏ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsie" title="Epilepsie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Epilepsie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padaczka" title="Padaczka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Padaczka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsia" title="Epilepsia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Epilepsia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsie" title="Epilepsie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Epilepsie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эпилепсия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эпилепсия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/buliak" title="buliak – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="buliak" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Epilepsy" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsia" title="Epilepsia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Epilepsia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Epilepsy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsia" title="Epilepsia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Epilepsia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsija" title="Epilepsija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Epilepsija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qallal" title="Qallal – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Qallal" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%D8%B1%DA%A9%DB%95%D9%85" title="پەرکەم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پەرکەم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Епилепсија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Епилепсија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsija" title="Epilepsija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Epilepsija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89pil%C3%A9psi" title="Épilépsi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Épilépsi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsia" title="Epilepsia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Epilepsia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsi" title="Epilepsi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Epilepsi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsiya" title="Epilepsiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Epilepsiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="கால்-கை வலிப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கால்-கை வலிப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эпилепсия – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Эпилепсия" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9B%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81_(%E0%B0%AB%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D)" title="మూర్ఛలు (ఫిట్స్) – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మూర్ఛలు (ఫిట్స్)" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81" title="โรคลมชัก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โรคลมชัก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nok" title="Nok – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Nok" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target">Thuɔŋjäŋ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsi" title="Epilepsi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Epilepsi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Епілепсія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Епілепсія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="مرگی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مرگی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatyiengzdien" title="Fatyiengzdien – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Fatyiengzdien" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%99ng_kinh" title="Động kinh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Động kinh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsya" title="Epilepsya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Epilepsya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8A%E7%99%AB%E7%96%AF" title="羊癫疯 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="羊癫疯" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A4%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A2" title="עפילעפסיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="עפילעפסיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BC%E7%BE%8A%E5%90%8A" title="發羊吊 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="發羊吊" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epileps%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Epilepsėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Epilepsėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%AB%E7%97%AB" title="癫痫 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="癫痫" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q41571#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Group of neurological disorders causing seizures</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Epilepsia" and "Epileptic" redirect here. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Epilepsia_(journal)" title="Epilepsia (journal)">Epilepsia (journal)</a>. For the comics, see <a href="/wiki/Epileptic_(comics)" title="Epileptic (comics)">Epileptic (comics)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Epilepsy</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Seizure disorder Neurological disability</td></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Spike-waves.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The electroencephalogram recording of a person with childhood absence epilepsy showing a seizure. The waves are black on a white background." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spike-waves.png/220px-Spike-waves.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spike-waves.png/330px-Spike-waves.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spike-waves.png/440px-Spike-waves.png 2x" data-file-width="478" data-file-height="500" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Generalized 3 <a href="/wiki/Hz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hz">Hz</a> <a href="/wiki/Spike-and-wave" title="Spike-and-wave">spike-and-wave</a> discharges on an <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroencephalogram">electroencephalogram</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Periods of loss of consciousness, abnormal shaking, staring, change in vision, mood changes and/or other cognitive disturbances <a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Duration</th><td class="infobox-data">Long term<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data">Unknown, <a href="/wiki/Brain_injury" title="Brain injury">brain injury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brain_tumor" title="Brain tumor">brain tumors</a>, infections of the brain, <a href="/wiki/Birth_defects" class="mw-redirect" title="Birth defects">birth defects</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gol2013-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic method</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Electroencephalogram, ruling out other possible causes<a href="#cite_note-Longo2012-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Differential_diagnosis" title="Differential diagnosis">Differential diagnosis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Syncope_(medicine)" title="Syncope (medicine)">Fainting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_withdrawal" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol withdrawal">alcohol withdrawal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte_problems" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrolyte problems">electrolyte problems</a><a href="#cite_note-Longo2012-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Treatment</th><td class="infobox-data">Medication, <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_surgery" title="Epilepsy surgery">surgery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurostimulation" title="Neurostimulation">neurostimulation</a>, dietary changes<a href="#cite_note-Bergey2013-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mar2018-6">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Prognosis" title="Prognosis">Prognosis</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Controllable in 69%<a href="#cite_note-Ead2012-7">[7]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Frequency</th><td class="infobox-data">51.7 million/0.68% (2021)<a href="#cite_note-GBD2021-8">[8]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">140,000 (2021)<a href="#cite_note-GBD2021De-9">[9]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Epilepsy is a group of <a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_disease" title="Non-communicable disease">non-communicable</a> <a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">neurological disorders</a> characterized by recurrent <a href="/wiki/Seizure" title="Seizure">epileptic seizures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fisher2014-10">[10]</a> An epileptic seizure is the clinical manifestation of an abnormal, excessive, and synchronized electrical discharge in the <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-1">[1]</a> The occurrence of two or more unprovoked seizures defines epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2023-11">[11]</a> The occurrence of just one seizure may warrant the definition (set out by the <a href="/wiki/International_League_Against_Epilepsy" title="International League Against Epilepsy">International League Against Epilepsy</a>) in a more clinical usage where recurrence may be able to be prejudged.<a href="#cite_note-Fisher2014-10">[10]</a> Epileptic seizures can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking due to abnormal electrical activity in the brain.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-1">[1]</a> These episodes can result in physical injuries, either directly, such as broken bones, or through causing accidents.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-1">[1]</a> In epilepsy, seizures tend to recur and may have no detectable underlying cause.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2023-11">[11]</a> Isolated seizures that are provoked by a specific cause such as poisoning are not deemed to represent epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15816939-12">[12]</a> People with epilepsy may be treated differently in various areas of the world and experience varying degrees of <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">social stigma</a> due to the alarming nature of their symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2023-11">[11]</a> The underlying mechanism of an epileptic seizure is excessive and abnormal <a href="/wiki/Neuronal" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuronal">neuronal</a> activity in the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cortex of the brain</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pmid15816939-12">[12]</a> which can be observed in the <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroencephalogram">electroencephalogram</a> (EEG) of an individual. The reason this occurs in most cases of epilepsy is unknown (<a href="/wiki/Cryptogenic_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptogenic disease">cryptogenic</a>);<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-1">[1]</a> some cases occur as the result of <a href="/wiki/Brain_injury" title="Brain injury">brain injury</a>, stroke, <a href="/wiki/Brain_tumor" title="Brain tumor">brain tumors</a>, infections of the brain, or <a href="/wiki/Birth_defects" class="mw-redirect" title="Birth defects">birth defects</a> through a process known as <a href="/wiki/Epileptogenesis" title="Epileptogenesis">epileptogenesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gol2013-3">[3]</a> Known <a href="/wiki/Genetic_mutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic mutations">genetic mutations</a> are directly linked to a small proportion of cases.<a href="#cite_note-Longo2012-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pand2011-13">[13]</a> The diagnosis involves ruling out other conditions that might cause similar <a href="/wiki/Symptom" class="mw-redirect" title="Symptom">symptoms</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(medicine)" title="Syncope (medicine)">fainting</a>, and determining if another cause of seizures is present, such as <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_withdrawal" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol withdrawal">alcohol withdrawal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> problems.<a href="#cite_note-Longo2012-4">[4]</a> This may be partly done by <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">imaging the brain</a> and performing <a href="/wiki/Blood_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood tests">blood tests</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Longo2012-4">[4]</a> Epilepsy can often be confirmed with an EEG, but a normal reading does not rule out the condition.<a href="#cite_note-Longo2012-4">[4]</a> Epilepsy that occurs as a result of other issues may be preventable.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-1">[1]</a> Seizures are controllable with medication in about 69% of cases;<a href="#cite_note-Ead2012-7">[7]</a> inexpensive anti-seizure medications are often available.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-1">[1]</a> In those whose seizures do not respond to medication; <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_surgery" title="Epilepsy surgery">surgery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurostimulation" title="Neurostimulation">neurostimulation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ketogenic_diet" title="Ketogenic diet">dietary changes</a> may be considered.<a href="#cite_note-Bergey2013-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mar2018-6">[6]</a> Not all cases of epilepsy are lifelong, and many people improve to the point that treatment is no longer needed.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-1">[1]</a> As of 2021<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit">[update]</a>, about 51 million people have epilepsy. Nearly 80% of cases occur in the <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-GBD2021-8">[8]</a> In 2021, it resulted in 140,000 deaths, an increase from 125,000 in 1990.<a href="#cite_note-GBD2021De-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-GBD2015De-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-GDB2013-15">[15]</a> Epilepsy is more common in children and older people.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19800848-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Holmes2008-17">[17]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Developed_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed world">developed world</a>, onset of new cases occurs most frequently in babies and the elderly.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In the developing world, onset is more common at the extremes of age – in younger children and in older children and young adults due to differences in the frequency of the underlying causes.<a href="#cite_note-Poor2012-19">[19]</a> About 5–10% of people will have an unprovoked seizure by the age of 80.<a href="#cite_note-AFP2012-20">[20]</a> The chance of experiencing a second seizure within two years after the first is around 40%.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> In many areas of the world, those with epilepsy either have restrictions placed on their ability to drive or are not permitted to drive until they are free of seizures for a specific length of time.<a href="#cite_note-Drive2012-23">[23]</a> The word epilepsy is from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> ἐπιλαμβάνειν, 'to seize, possess, or afflict'.<a href="#cite_note-magiorkinis_2010-24">[24]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Attaque;_Periode_Epileptoide._Planche_XVII._Wellcome_L0074938.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Attaque%3B_Periode_Epileptoide._Planche_XVII._Wellcome_L0074938.jpg/310px-Attaque%3B_Periode_Epileptoide._Planche_XVII._Wellcome_L0074938.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="425" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Attaque%3B_Periode_Epileptoide._Planche_XVII._Wellcome_L0074938.jpg/465px-Attaque%3B_Periode_Epileptoide._Planche_XVII._Wellcome_L0074938.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Attaque%3B_Periode_Epileptoide._Planche_XVII._Wellcome_L0074938.jpg/620px-Attaque%3B_Periode_Epileptoide._Planche_XVII._Wellcome_L0074938.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2087" data-file-height="2864" /></a><figcaption>A still image of a generalized seizure</figcaption></figure> Epilepsy is characterized by a long-term risk of recurrent <a href="/wiki/Epileptic_seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptic seizures">epileptic seizures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Adult2006-25">[25]</a> These seizures may present in several ways depending on the parts of the brain involved and the person's age.<a href="#cite_note-Adult2006-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seizures">Seizures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Seizures">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epileptic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptic seizure">Epileptic seizure</a></div> The most common type (60%) of seizures are <a href="/wiki/Convulsive" class="mw-redirect" title="Convulsive">convulsive</a> which involve involuntary muscle contractions.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> Of these, one-third begin as <a href="/wiki/Generalized_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Generalized seizure">generalized seizures</a> from the start, affecting both hemispheres of the brain and impairing <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> Two-thirds begin as <a href="/wiki/Focal_seizure" title="Focal seizure">focal seizures</a> (which affect one hemisphere of the brain) which may progress to generalized seizures.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> The remaining 40% of seizures are non-convulsive. An example of this type is the <a href="/wiki/Absence_seizure" title="Absence seizure">absence seizure</a>, which presents as a decreased level of consciousness and usually lasts about 10 seconds.<a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Certain experiences, known as <a href="/wiki/Aura_(symptom)" title="Aura (symptom)">auras</a> often precede focal seizures.<a href="#cite_note-EB06-28">[28]</a> The seizures can include sensory (visual, hearing, or smell), psychic, autonomic, and motor phenomena depending on which part of the brain is involved.<a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a> Muscle jerks may start in a specific muscle group and spread to surrounding muscle groups in which case it is known as a <a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_march" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacksonian march">Jacksonian march</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brad2012-29">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Automatism_(medicine)" title="Automatism (medicine)">Automatisms</a> may occur, which are non-consciously generated activities and mostly simple repetitive movements like smacking the lips or more complex activities such as attempts to pick up something.<a href="#cite_note-Brad2012-29">[29]</a> There are six main types of generalized seizures: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tonic%E2%80%93clonic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonic–clonic seizure">tonic-clonic</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonic seizure">tonic</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Clonic seizure">clonic</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myoclonus" title="Myoclonus">myoclonic</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absence_seizure" title="Absence seizure">absence</a>, and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atonic_seizure" title="Atonic seizure">atonic seizures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_119_129-30">[30]</a></li></ul> They all involve loss of consciousness and typically happen without warning. Tonic-clonic seizures occur with a contraction of the limbs followed by their extension and arching of the back which lasts 10–30 seconds (the tonic phase). A cry may be heard due to contraction of the <a href="/wiki/Pectoral_muscles" title="Pectoral muscles">chest muscles</a>, followed by a shaking of the limbs in unison (clonic phase). Tonic seizures produce constant contractions of the muscles. A person often turns blue as breathing is stopped. In clonic seizures there is shaking of the limbs in unison. After the shaking has stopped it may take 10–30 minutes for the person to return to normal; this period is called the "<a href="/wiki/Postictal_state" title="Postictal state">postictal state</a>" or "postictal phase." Loss of bowel or bladder control may occur during a seizure.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> People experiencing a seizure may bite their tongue, either the tip or on the sides;<a href="#cite_note-Engel2008pg2797-32">[32]</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tonic-clonic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonic-clonic seizure">tonic-clonic seizure</a>, bites to the sides are more common.<a href="#cite_note-Engel2008pg2797-32">[32]</a> Tongue bites are also relatively common in <a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_non-epileptic_seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures">psychogenic non-epileptic seizures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Engel2008pg2797-32">[32]</a> Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures are seizure like behavior without an associated synchronised electrical discharge on EEG and are considered a dissociative disorder.<a href="#cite_note-Engel2008pg2797-32">[32]</a> Myoclonic seizures involve very brief muscle spasms in either a few areas or all over.<a href="#cite_note-Neuro2012-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stephenson1990-34">[34]</a> These sometimes cause the person to fall, which can cause injury.<a href="#cite_note-Neuro2012-33">[33]</a> Absence seizures can be subtle with only a slight turn of the head or eye blinking with impaired consciousness;<a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a> typically, the person does not fall over and returns to normal right after it ends.<a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a> Atonic seizures involve losing muscle activity for greater than one second,<a href="#cite_note-Brad2012-29">[29]</a> typically occurring on both sides of the body.<a href="#cite_note-Brad2012-29">[29]</a> Rarer seizure types can cause involuntary unnatural laughter (gelastic), crying (dyscrastic), or more complex experiences such as <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9j%C3%A0_vu" title="Déjà vu">déjà vu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stephenson1990-34">[34]</a> About 6% of those with epilepsy have seizures that are often triggered by specific events and are known as <a href="/wiki/Reflex_seizure" title="Reflex seizure">reflex seizures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Reflex2008-35">[35]</a> Those with <a href="/wiki/Reflex_epilepsy" class="mw-redirect" title="Reflex epilepsy">reflex epilepsy</a> have seizures that are only triggered by specific stimuli.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Common triggers include flashing lights and sudden noises.<a href="#cite_note-Reflex2008-35">[35]</a> In certain types of epilepsy, seizures happen more often during <a href="/wiki/Sleep" title="Sleep">sleep</a>,<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> and in other types they occur almost only when sleeping.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> In 2017, the <a href="/wiki/International_League_Against_Epilepsy" title="International League Against Epilepsy">International League Against Epilepsy</a> published new uniform guidelines for the classification of seizures as well as epilepsies along with their cause and comorbidities.<a href="#cite_note-pmid28276062-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Seizure_clusters">Seizure clusters</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Seizure clusters">edit</a>]</div> People with epilepsy may experience seizure clusters which may be broadly defined as an acute deterioration in seizure control.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The prevalence of seizure clusters is uncertain given that studies have used different definitions to define them.<a href="#cite_note-Jafarpour_2019-41">[41]</a> However, estimates suggest that the prevalence may range from 5% to 50% of people with epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> People with refractory epilepsy who have a high seizure frequency are at the greatest risk for having seizure clusters.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Seizure clusters are associated with increased healthcare use, worse quality of life, impaired psychosocial functioning, and possibly increased mortality.<a href="#cite_note-Jafarpour_2019-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Benzodiazepines are used as an acute treatment for seizure clusters.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-ictal">Post-ictal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Post-ictal">edit</a>]</div> After the active portion of a seizure (the <a href="/wiki/Ictal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ictal">ictal</a> state) there is typically a period of recovery during which there is confusion, referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Postictal" class="mw-redirect" title="Postictal">postictal</a> period, before a normal <a href="/wiki/Level_of_consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Level of consciousness">level of consciousness</a> returns.<a href="#cite_note-EB06-28">[28]</a> It usually lasts 3 to 15 minutes<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> but may last for hours.<a href="#cite_note-Post2010-49">[49]</a> Other common symptoms include feeling tired, <a href="/wiki/Ictal_headache" title="Ictal headache">headache</a>, difficulty speaking, and abnormal behavior.<a href="#cite_note-Post2010-49">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Psychosis" title="Psychosis">Psychosis</a> after a seizure is relatively common, occurring in 6–10% of people.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Often people do not remember what happened during this time.<a href="#cite_note-Post2010-49">[49]</a> Localized weakness, known as <a href="/wiki/Todd%27s_paralysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Todd's paralysis">Todd's paralysis</a>, may also occur after a focal seizure. It would typically last for seconds to minutes but may rarely last for a day or two.<a href="#cite_note-Larner2010-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychosocial">Psychosocial</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Psychosocial">edit</a>]</div> Epilepsy can have adverse effects on social and psychological well-being.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> These effects may include social isolation, stigmatization, or disability.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> They may result in lower educational achievement and worse employment outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> Learning disabilities are common in those with the condition, and especially among <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_in_children" title="Epilepsy in children">children with epilepsy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> The stigma of epilepsy can also affect the families of those with the disorder.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> Certain disorders occur more often in people with epilepsy, depending partly on the epilepsy syndrome present. These include <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">anxiety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">obsessive–compulsive disorder</a> (OCD),<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Migraine" title="Migraine">migraine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a> (ADHD) affects three to five times more children with epilepsy than children without the condition.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> ADHD and epilepsy have significant consequences on a child's behavioral, learning, and social development.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Epilepsy is also more common in children with <a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum">autism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Approximately, one-in-three people with epilepsy have a lifetime history of a psychiatric disorder.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> There are believed to be multiple causes for this including pathophysiological changes related to the epilepsy itself as well as adverse experiences related to living with epilepsy (e.g., stigma, discrimination).<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In addition, it is thought that the relationship between epilepsy and psychiatric disorders is not unilateral but rather bidirectional. For example, people with depression have an increased risk for developing new-onset epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The presence of comorbid depression or anxiety in people with epilepsy is associated with a poorer quality of life, increased mortality, increased healthcare use and a worse response to treatment (including surgical).<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Anxiety disorders and depression may explain more variability in quality of life than seizure type or frequency.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> There is evidence that both depression and anxiety disorders are underdiagnosed and undertreated in people with epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_seizures" title="Causes of seizures">Causes of seizures</a></div> Epilepsy can have both genetic and acquired causes, with the interaction of these factors in many cases.<a href="#cite_note-tnberkovic2006-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Established acquired causes include serious brain trauma, stroke, tumours, and brain problems resulting from a previous infection.<a href="#cite_note-tnberkovic2006-66">[66]</a> In about 60% of cases, the cause is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> Epilepsies caused by <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">genetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congenital" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital">congenital</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Developmental_disorder" title="Developmental disorder">developmental</a> conditions are more common among younger people, while <a href="/wiki/Brain_tumor" title="Brain tumor">brain tumors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strokes" class="mw-redirect" title="Strokes">strokes</a> are more likely in older people.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> Seizures may also occur as a consequence of other health problems;<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_119_129-30">[30]</a> if they occur right around a specific cause, such as a stroke, head injury, toxic ingestion, or metabolic problem, they are known as <a href="/wiki/Acute_symptomatic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Acute symptomatic seizure">acute symptomatic seizures</a> and are in the broader classification of <a href="/wiki/Seizure-related_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizure-related disorders">seizure-related disorders</a> rather than epilepsy itself.<a href="#cite_note-Thur2011-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nel2012-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Genetics">edit</a>]</div> Genetics is believed to be involved in the majority of cases, either directly or indirectly.<a href="#cite_note-Pand2011-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Some epilepsies are due to a <a href="/wiki/Single-gene_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-gene disorder">single gene defect</a> (1–2%); most are due to the interaction of multiple genes and environmental factors.<a href="#cite_note-Pand2011-13">[13]</a> Each of the single gene defects is rare, with more than 200 in all described.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Most genes involved affect <a href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">ion channels</a>, either directly or indirectly.<a href="#cite_note-tnberkovic2006-66">[66]</a> These include genes for ion channels, <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>, <a href="/wiki/GABA_receptor" title="GABA receptor">GABA</a>, and <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">G protein-coupled receptors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Neuro2012-33">[33]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Twin" title="Twin">identical twins</a>, if one is affected, there is a 50–60% chance that the other will also be affected.<a href="#cite_note-Pand2011-13">[13]</a> In non-identical twins, the risk is 15%.<a href="#cite_note-Pand2011-13">[13]</a> These risks are greater in those with generalized rather than focal seizures.<a href="#cite_note-Pand2011-13">[13]</a> If both twins are affected, most of the time they have the same epileptic syndrome (70–90%).<a href="#cite_note-Pand2011-13">[13]</a> Other close relatives of a person with epilepsy have a risk five times that of the general population.<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> Between 1 and 10% of those with <a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a> and 90% of those with <a href="/wiki/Angelman_syndrome" title="Angelman syndrome">Angelman syndrome</a> have epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phakomatoses">Phakomatoses</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phakomatoses">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Phakomatosis" title="Phakomatosis">Phakomatoses</a>, also known as neurocutaneous disorders, are a group of multisystemic diseases that most prominently affect the skin and central nervous system. They are caused by defective development of the embryonic ectodermal tissue that is most often due to a single genetic mutation. The brain, as well as other neural tissue and the skin, are all derived from the ectoderm and thus defective development may result in epilepsy as well as other manifestations such as autism and intellectual disability. Some types of phakomatoses such as tuberous sclerosis complex and Sturge-Weber syndrome have a higher prevalence of epilepsy relative to others such as <a href="/wiki/Neurofibromatosis_type_I" title="Neurofibromatosis type I">neurofibromatosis type 1</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stafstrom_2017-73">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tuberous_sclerosis" title="Tuberous sclerosis">Tuberous sclerosis complex</a> is an autosomal dominant disorder that is caused by mutations in either the <a href="/wiki/TSC1" title="TSC1">TSC1</a> or <a href="/wiki/TSC2" title="TSC2">TSC2</a> gene and it affects approximately 1 in 6,000–10,000 live births.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Northrup_2021-75">[75]</a> These mutations result in the upregulation of the <a href="/wiki/MTOR" title="MTOR">mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR)</a> pathway which leads to the growth of tumors in many organs including the brain, skin, heart, eyes and kidneys.<a href="#cite_note-Northrup_2021-75">[75]</a> In addition, abnormal mTOR activity is believed to alter neural excitability.<a href="#cite_note-Curatolo_2015-76">[76]</a> The prevalence of epilepsy is estimated to be 80-90%.<a href="#cite_note-Stafstrom_2017-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-Curatolo_2015-76">[76]</a> The majority of cases of epilepsy present within the first 3 years of life and are medically refractory.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Relatively recent developments for the treatment of epilepsy in people with TSC include <a href="/wiki/MTOR_inhibitors" title="MTOR inhibitors">mTOR inhibitors</a>, cannabidiol and vigabatrin. Epilepsy surgery is often pursued. <a href="/wiki/Sturge%E2%80%93Weber_syndrome" title="Sturge–Weber syndrome">Sturge-Weber syndrome</a> is caused by an activating somatic mutation in the <a href="/wiki/GNAQ" title="GNAQ">GNAQ</a> gene and it affects approximately 1 in 20,000–50,000 live births.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> The mutation results in vascular malformations affecting the brain, skin and eyes. The typical presentation includes a facial port-wine birthmark, ocular angiomas and cerebral vascular malformations which are most often unilateral but are bilateral in 15% of cases.<a href="#cite_note-Sudarsanam_2014-79">[79]</a> The prevalence of epilepsy is 75-100% and is higher in those with bilateral involvement.<a href="#cite_note-Sudarsanam_2014-79">[79]</a> Seizures typically occur within the first two years of life and are refractory in nearly half of cases.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> However, high rates of seizure freedom with surgery have been reported in as many as 83%.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neurofibromatosis_type_I" title="Neurofibromatosis type I">Neurofibromatosis type 1</a> is the most common phakomatoses and occurs in approximately 1 in 3,000 live births.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> It is caused by autosomal dominant mutations in the <a href="/wiki/Neurofibromin_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurofibromin 1">Neurofibromin 1</a> gene. Clinical manifestations are variable but may include hyperpigmented skin marks, hamartomas of the iris called <a href="/wiki/Lisch_nodule" title="Lisch nodule">Lisch nodules</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurofibroma" title="Neurofibroma">neurofibromas</a>, optic pathway gliomas and cognitive impairment. The prevalence of epilepsy is estimated to be 4–7%.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Seizures are typically easier to control with anti-seizure medications relative to other phakomatoses but in some refractory cases surgery may need to be pursued.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acquired">Acquired</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Acquired">edit</a>]</div> Epilepsy may occur as a result of several other conditions, including tumors, strokes, head trauma, previous <a href="/wiki/Infections_of_the_central_nervous_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Infections of the central nervous system">infections of the central nervous system</a>, genetic abnormalities, and as a result of brain damage around the time of birth.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_119_129-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> Of those with brain tumors, almost 30% have epilepsy, making them the cause of about 4% of cases.<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> The risk is greatest for tumors in the <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobe</a> and those that grow slowly.<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> Other mass lesions such as <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system_cavernous_hemangioma" title="Central nervous system cavernous hemangioma">cerebral cavernous malformations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_arteriovenous_malformation" title="Cerebral arteriovenous malformation">arteriovenous malformations</a> have risks as high as 40–60%.<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> Of those who have had a stroke, 6–10% develop epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Risk factors for post-stroke epilepsy include stroke severity, cortical involvement, hemorrhage and early seizures.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Between 6 and 20% of epilepsy is believed to be due to head trauma.<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mild_brain_injury" class="mw-redirect" title="Mild brain injury">Mild brain injury</a> increases the risk about two-fold while <a href="/wiki/Severe_brain_injury" class="mw-redirect" title="Severe brain injury">severe brain injury</a> increases the risk seven-fold.<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> In those who have experienced a high-powered gunshot wound to the head, the risk is about 50%.<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> Some evidence links epilepsy and <a href="/wiki/Celiac_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Celiac disease">celiac disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-celiac_gluten_sensitivity" title="Non-celiac gluten sensitivity">non-celiac gluten sensitivity</a>, while other evidence does not. There appears to be a specific syndrome that includes coeliac disease, epilepsy, and calcifications in the brain.<a href="#cite_note-Grossman2008-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-JacksonEaton2012-90">[90]</a> A 2012 review estimates that between 1% and 6% of people with epilepsy have coeliac disease while 1% of the general population has the condition.<a href="#cite_note-JacksonEaton2012-90">[90]</a> The risk of epilepsy following <a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a> is less than 10%; it more commonly causes seizures during the infection itself.<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Herpes_simplex_encephalitis" title="Herpes simplex encephalitis">herpes simplex encephalitis</a> the risk of a seizure is around 50%<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> with a high risk of epilepsy following (up to 25%).<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> A form of an infection with the <a href="/wiki/Taenia_solium" title="Taenia solium">pork tapeworm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cysticercosis" title="Cysticercosis">cysticercosis</a>), in the brain, is known as <a href="/wiki/Neurocysticercosis" title="Neurocysticercosis">neurocysticercosis</a>, and is the cause of up to half of epilepsy cases in areas of the world where the parasite is common.<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> Epilepsy may also occur after other brain infections such as <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">cerebral malaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toxoplasmosis" title="Toxoplasmosis">toxoplasmosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Toxocariasis" title="Toxocariasis">toxocariasis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> Chronic alcohol use increases the risk of epilepsy: those who drink six <a href="/wiki/Units_of_alcohol" class="mw-redirect" title="Units of alcohol">units of alcohol</a> per day have a 2.5-fold increase in risk.<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> Other risks include <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">multiple sclerosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_encephalitis" title="Autoimmune encephalitis">autoimmune encephalitis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> Getting vaccinated does not increase the risk of epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-Bh2011-72">[72]</a> <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">Malnutrition</a> is a risk factor seen mostly in the developing world, although it is unclear however if it is a direct cause or an association.<a href="#cite_note-Poor2012-19">[19]</a> People with <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_palsy" title="Cerebral palsy">cerebral palsy</a> have an increased risk of epilepsy, with half of people with <a href="/wiki/Spastic_quadriplegia" title="Spastic quadriplegia">spastic quadriplegia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spastic_hemiplegia" title="Spastic hemiplegia">spastic hemiplegia</a> having the condition.<a href="#cite_note-CerebralPalsy1-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanism">Mechanism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mechanism">edit</a>]</div> Normally brain electrical activity is non-synchronous, as large numbers of neurons do not normally fire at the same time, but rather fire in order as signals travel throughout the brain.<a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">Neuron</a> activity is regulated by various factors both within the cell and the cellular environment. Factors within the neuron include the type, number and distribution of ion channels, changes to <a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptors</a> and changes of <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Intro2006-94">[94]</a> Factors around the neuron include <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a> concentrations, <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">synaptic plasticity</a> and regulation of <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">transmitter</a> breakdown by <a href="/wiki/Neuroglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroglia">glial cells</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Intro2006-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epilepsy">Epilepsy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Epilepsy">edit</a>]</div> The exact mechanism of epilepsy is unknown,<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> but a little is known about its cellular and network mechanisms. However, it is unknown under which circumstances the brain shifts into the activity of a seizure with its excessive <a href="/wiki/Neural_oscillation" title="Neural oscillation">synchronization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-quyen2003-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid27839653-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> In epilepsy, the resistance of excitatory neurons to fire during this period is decreased.<a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a> This may occur due to changes in ion channels or inhibitory neurons not functioning properly.<a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a> This then results in a specific area from which seizures may develop, known as a "seizure focus".<a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a> Another mechanism of epilepsy may be the up-regulation of excitatory circuits or down-regulation of inhibitory circuits following an injury to the brain.<a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gol2013-3">[3]</a> These secondary epilepsies occur through processes known as <a href="/wiki/Epileptogenesis" title="Epileptogenesis">epileptogenesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gol2013-3">[3]</a> Failure of the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a> may also be a causal mechanism as it would allow substances in the blood to enter the brain.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seizures_2">Seizures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Seizures">edit</a>]</div> There is evidence that epileptic seizures are usually not a random event. Seizures are often brought on by factors (also known as triggers) such as stress, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_use_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol use disorder">excessive alcohol use</a>, flickering light, or a lack of sleep, among others. The term <a href="/wiki/Seizure_threshold" title="Seizure threshold">seizure threshold</a> is used to indicate the amount of <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">stimulus</a> necessary to bring about a seizure; this threshold is lowered in epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-quyen2003-97">[97]</a> In epileptic seizures a group of neurons begin firing in an abnormal, excessive,<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> and synchronized manner.<a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a> This results in a wave of depolarization known as a <a href="/wiki/Paroxysmal_depolarizing_shift" title="Paroxysmal depolarizing shift">paroxysmal depolarizing shift</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Normally, after an <a href="/wiki/Excitatory_neuron" class="mw-redirect" title="Excitatory neuron">excitatory neuron</a> fires it becomes more resistant to firing for a period of time.<a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a> This is due in part to the effect of inhibitory neurons, electrical changes within the excitatory neuron, and the negative effects of <a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">adenosine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ham2010-2">[2]</a> Focal seizures begin in one area of the brain while generalized seizures begin in both <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemisphere" title="Cerebral hemisphere">hemispheres</a>.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_119_129-30">[30]</a> Some types of seizures may change brain structure, while others appear to have little effect.<a href="#cite_note-Epi2008p483-103">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gliosis" title="Gliosis">Gliosis</a>, neuronal loss, and atrophy of specific areas of the brain are linked to epilepsy but it is unclear if epilepsy causes these changes or if these changes result in epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-Epi2008p483-103">[103]</a> The seizures can be described on different scales, from the cellular level<a href="#cite_note-pmid35031915-104">[104]</a> to the whole brain.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> These are several concomitant factor, which on different scale can "drive" the brain to pathological states and trigger a seizure. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Diagnosis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EEG_Recording_Cap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/EEG_Recording_Cap.jpg/310px-EEG_Recording_Cap.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/EEG_Recording_Cap.jpg/465px-EEG_Recording_Cap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/EEG_Recording_Cap.jpg/620px-EEG_Recording_Cap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">EEG</a> can aid in locating the focus of the epileptic seizure.</figcaption></figure> The diagnosis of epilepsy is typically made based on observation of the seizure onset and the underlying cause.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroencephalogram">electroencephalogram</a> (EEG) to look for abnormal patterns of brain waves and <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> (<a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scan</a> or <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a>) to look at the structure of the brain are also usually part of the initial investigations.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> While figuring out a specific epileptic syndrome is often attempted, it is not always possible.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/Long-term_video-EEG_monitoring" title="Long-term video-EEG monitoring">Video and EEG monitoring</a> may be useful in difficult cases.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definition">Definition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a>]</div> Epilepsy is a disorder of the brain defined by any of the following conditions:<a href="#cite_note-Fisher2014-10">[10]</a> <dl><dd><table cellpadding="5" style="border:1px solid #ccc"> <tbody><tr bgcolor="#fafafa"> <td> <ol><li>At least two unprovoked (or reflex) seizures occurring more than 24 hours apart</li> <li>One unprovoked (or reflex) seizure and a probability of further seizures similar to the general recurrence risk (at least 60%) after two unprovoked seizures, occurring over the next 10 years</li> <li>Diagnosis of an epilepsy syndrome</li></ol> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> Furthermore, epilepsy is considered to be resolved for individuals who had an age-dependent epilepsy syndrome but are now past that age or those who have remained seizure-free for the last 10 years, with no seizure medicines for the last 5 years.<a href="#cite_note-Fisher2014-10">[10]</a> This 2014 definition of the <a href="/wiki/International_League_Against_Epilepsy" title="International League Against Epilepsy">International League Against Epilepsy</a><a href="#cite_note-Fisher2014-10">[10]</a> (ILAE) is a clarification of the ILAE 2005 conceptual definition, according to which epilepsy is "a disorder of the brain characterized by an enduring predisposition to generate epileptic seizures and by the neurobiologic, cognitive, psychological, and social consequences of this condition. The definition of epilepsy requires the occurrence of at least one epileptic seizure."<a href="#cite_note-pmid15816939-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pana2011-107">[107]</a> It is, therefore, possible to outgrow epilepsy or to undergo treatment that causes epilepsy to be resolved, but with no guarantee that it will not return. In the definition, epilepsy is now called a disease, rather than a disorder. This was a decision of the executive committee of the ILAE, taken because the word disorder, while perhaps having less stigma than does disease, also does not express the degree of seriousness that epilepsy deserves.<a href="#cite_note-Fisher2014-10">[10]</a> The definition is practical in nature and is designed for clinical use. In particular, it aims to clarify when an "enduring predisposition" according to the 2005 conceptual definition is present. Researchers, statistically minded epidemiologists, and other specialized groups may choose to use the older definition or a definition of their own devising. The ILAE considers doing so is perfectly allowable, so long as it is clear what definition is being used.<a href="#cite_note-Fisher2014-10">[10]</a> The ILAE definition for one seizure needs an understanding of projecting an enduring predisposition to the generation of epileptic seizures.<a href="#cite_note-Fisher2014-10">[10]</a> WHO, for instance, chooses to just use the traditional definition of two unprovoked seizures.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2023-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ILAE_classification_of_seizure_types_2017.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/ILAE_classification_of_seizure_types_2017.png/220px-ILAE_classification_of_seizure_types_2017.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/ILAE_classification_of_seizure_types_2017.png/330px-ILAE_classification_of_seizure_types_2017.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/ILAE_classification_of_seizure_types_2017.png/440px-ILAE_classification_of_seizure_types_2017.png 2x" data-file-width="1211" data-file-height="613" /></a><figcaption>Revised operational scheme of seizure classification, ILAE, 2017</figcaption></figure> In contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Seizure_types" title="Seizure types">classification of seizures</a> which focuses on what happens during a seizure, the classification of epilepsies focuses on the underlying causes. When a person is admitted to hospital after an epileptic seizure the <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_workup" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagnostic workup">diagnostic workup</a> results preferably in the seizure itself being classified (e.g. tonic-clonic) and in the underlying disease being identified (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Hippocampal_sclerosis" title="Hippocampal sclerosis">hippocampal sclerosis</a>).<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> The name of the diagnosis finally made depends on the available diagnostic results and the applied definitions and classifications (of seizures and epilepsies) and its respective terminology. The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) provided a classification of the epilepsies and <a href="/wiki/List_of_epilepsy_syndromes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of epilepsy syndromes">epileptic syndromes</a> in 1989 as follows:<a href="#cite_note-ILEA1989-108">[108]</a> <dl><dd><table cellpadding="5" style="border:1px solid #ccc"> <tbody><tr bgcolor="#fafafa"> <td> <ol><li>Localization-related epilepsies and syndromes <ol><li>Unknown cause (e.g. benign childhood epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes)</li> <li>Symptomatic/<a href="/wiki/Cryptogenic_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptogenic disease">cryptogenic</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe_epilepsy" title="Temporal lobe epilepsy">temporal lobe epilepsy</a>)</li></ol></li> <li>Generalized <ol><li>Unknown cause (e.g. childhood absence epilepsy)</li> <li>Cryptogenic or symptomatic (e.g. Lennox-Gastaut syndrome)</li> <li>Symptomatic (e.g. early infantile epileptic encephalopathy with burst suppression)</li></ol></li> <li>Epilepsies and syndromes undetermined whether focal or generalized <ol><li>With both generalized and focal seizures (e.g. epilepsy with continuous spike-waves during slow wave sleep)</li></ol></li> <li>Special syndromes (with situation-related seizures)</li></ol> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> This classification was widely accepted but has also been criticized mainly because the underlying causes of epilepsy (which are a major determinant of clinical course and prognosis) were not covered in detail.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> In 2010 the ILAE Commission for Classification of the Epilepsies addressed this issue and divided epilepsies into three categories (genetic, structural/metabolic, unknown cause)<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> which were refined in their 2011 recommendation into four categories and a number of subcategories reflecting recent technological and scientific advances.<a href="#cite_note-2011rec-111">[111]</a> <dl><dd><table cellpadding="5" style="border:1px solid #ccc"> <tbody><tr bgcolor="#fafafa"> <td> <ol><li>Unknown cause (mostly genetic or presumed genetic origin) <ol><li>Pure epilepsies due to single gene disorders</li> <li>Pure epilepsies with complex inheritance</li></ol></li> <li>Symptomatic (associated with gross anatomic or pathologic abnormalities) <ol><li>Mostly genetic or developmental causation <ol><li>Childhood epilepsy syndromes</li> <li>Progressive myoclonic epilepsies</li> <li>Neurocutaneous syndromes</li> <li>Other neurologic single gene disorders</li> <li>Disorders of chromosome function</li> <li>Developmental anomalies of cerebral structure</li></ol></li> <li>Mostly acquired causes <ol><li>Hippocampal sclerosis</li> <li>Perinatal and infantile causes</li> <li>Cerebral trauma, tumor or infection</li> <li>Cerebrovascular disorders</li> <li>Cerebral immunologic disorders</li> <li>Degenerative and other neurologic conditions</li></ol></li></ol></li> <li>Provoked (a specific systemic or environmental factor is the predominant cause of the seizures) <ol><li>Provoking factors</li> <li>Reflex epilepsies</li></ol></li> <li>Cryptogenic (presumed symptomatic nature in which the cause has not been identified)<a href="#cite_note-2011rec-111">[111]</a></li></ol> </td></tr></tbody></table> A revised, operational classification of seizure types has been introduced by the ILAE.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> It allows more clearly understood terms and clearly defines focal and generalized onset dichotomy, when possible, even without observing the seizures based on description by patient or observers.<a href="#cite_note-pmid28276060-113">[113]</a> The essential changes in terminology are that "partial" is called "focal" with awareness used as a classifier for focal seizures -based on description focal seizures are now defined as behavioral arrest, automatisms, cognitive, autonomic, emotional or hyperkinetic variants while atonic, myoclonic, clonic, infantile spasms, and tonic seizures may be either focal or generalized based on their onset.<a href="#cite_note-pmid28276060-113">[113]</a> Several terms that were not clear or consistent in the description were removed such as dyscognitive, psychic, simple, and complex partial, while "secondarily generalized" is replaced by a clearer term "focal to bilateral tonic-clonic seizure".<a href="#cite_note-pmid28276060-113">[113]</a> New seizure types now believed to be generalized are eyelid myoclonia, myoclonic atonic, myoclonic absence, and myoclonic tonic-clonic.<a href="#cite_note-pmid28276060-113">[113]</a> Sometimes it is possible to classify seizures as focal or generalized based on presenting features even though onset is not known.<a href="#cite_note-pmid28276060-113">[113]</a> This system is based on the 1981 seizure classification modified in 2010 and principally is the same with an effort to improve the flexibility and clarity of use to understand seizure types better in keeping with current knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-pmid28276060-113">[113]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syndromes">Syndromes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Syndromes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_syndromes" title="Epilepsy syndromes">Epilepsy syndromes</a></div> Cases of epilepsy may be organized into <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_syndromes" title="Epilepsy syndromes">epilepsy syndromes</a> by the specific features that are present. These features include the age that seizures begin, the seizure types, <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">EEG</a> findings, among others. Identifying an epilepsy syndrome is useful as it helps determine the underlying causes as well as what <a href="/wiki/Anticonvulsant" title="Anticonvulsant">anti-seizure medication</a> should be tried.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_119_129-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-ileasyndromes2014-114">[114]</a> The ability to categorize a case of epilepsy into a specific syndrome occurs more often with children since the onset of seizures is commonly early.<a href="#cite_note-Nel2012-69">[69]</a> Less serious examples are <a href="/wiki/Benign_rolandic_epilepsy" class="mw-redirect" title="Benign rolandic epilepsy">benign rolandic epilepsy</a> (2.8 per 100,000), <a href="/wiki/Childhood_absence_epilepsy" title="Childhood absence epilepsy">childhood absence epilepsy</a> (0.8 per 100,000) and <a href="/wiki/Juvenile_myoclonic_epilepsy" title="Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy">juvenile myoclonic epilepsy</a> (0.7 per 100,000).<a href="#cite_note-Nel2012-69">[69]</a> Severe syndromes with diffuse brain dysfunction caused, at least partly, by some aspect of epilepsy, are also referred to as developmental and epileptic encephalopathies. These are associated with frequent <a href="/wiki/Seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizures">seizures</a> that are resistant to treatment and cognitive dysfunction, for instance <a href="/wiki/Lennox%E2%80%93Gastaut_syndrome" title="Lennox–Gastaut syndrome">Lennox–Gastaut syndrome</a> (1–2% of all persons with epilepsy),<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dravet_syndrome" title="Dravet syndrome">Dravet syndrome</a> (1: 15,000-40,000 worldwide<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a>), and <a href="/wiki/West_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="West syndrome">West syndrome</a> (1–9: 100,000<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a>).<a href="#cite_note-jcnnordli2012-118">[118]</a> Genetics is believed to play an important role in epilepsies by a number of mechanisms. Simple and complex modes of <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">inheritance</a> have been identified for some of them. However, extensive screening have failed to identify many single <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> variants of large effect.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> More recent exome and genome sequencing studies have begun to reveal a number of de novo gene mutations that are responsible for some epileptic encephalopathies, including <a href="/wiki/CHD2" title="CHD2">CHD2</a> and <a href="/wiki/SYNGAP1" title="SYNGAP1">SYNGAP1</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNM1" title="DNM1">DNM1</a>, <a href="/wiki/GABBR2" title="GABBR2">GABBR2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_synthase" title="Fatty acid synthase">FASN</a> and <a href="/wiki/RYR3" class="mw-redirect" title="RYR3">RYR3</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Syndromes in which causes are not clearly identified are difficult to match with categories of the current classification of epilepsy. Categorization for these cases was made somewhat arbitrarily.<a href="#cite_note-2011rec-111">[111]</a> The idiopathic (unknown cause) category of the 2011 classification includes syndromes in which the general clinical features and/or age specificity strongly point to a presumed genetic cause.<a href="#cite_note-2011rec-111">[111]</a> Some childhood epilepsy syndromes are included in the unknown cause category in which the cause is presumed genetic, for instance benign rolandic epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-2011rec-111">[111]</a> Clinical syndromes in which epilepsy is not the main feature (e.g. Angelman syndrome) were categorized symptomatic but it was argued to include these within the category idiopathic.<a href="#cite_note-2011rec-111">[111]</a> Classification of epilepsies and particularly of epilepsy syndromes will change with advances in research.<a href="#cite_note-2011rec-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tests">Tests</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Tests">edit</a>]</div> An electroencephalogram (EEG) can assist in showing brain activity suggestive of an increased risk of seizures. It is only recommended for those who are likely to have had an epileptic seizure on the basis of symptoms. In the diagnosis of epilepsy, electroencephalography may help distinguish the type of seizure or syndrome present.<a href="#cite_note-nice.org.uk-124">[124]</a> In children it is typically only needed after a second seizure unless specified by a specialist. It cannot be used to rule out the diagnosis and may be falsely positive in those without the condition.<a href="#cite_note-nice.org.uk-124">[124]</a> In certain situations it may be useful to perform the EEG while the affected individual is sleeping or sleep deprived.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> Diagnostic imaging by <a href="/wiki/X-ray_computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="X-ray computed tomography">CT scan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI</a> is recommended after a first non-febrile seizure to detect structural problems in and around the brain.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> MRI is generally a better imaging test except when bleeding is suspected, for which CT is more sensitive and more easily available.<a href="#cite_note-AFP2012-20">[20]</a> If someone attends the emergency room with a seizure but returns to normal quickly, imaging tests may be done at a later point.<a href="#cite_note-AFP2012-20">[20]</a> If a person has a previous diagnosis of epilepsy with previous imaging, repeating the imaging is usually not needed even if there are subsequent seizures.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wise2018-125">[125]</a> For adults, the testing of electrolyte, <a href="/wiki/Blood_glucose" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood glucose">blood glucose</a> and calcium levels is important to rule out problems with these as causes.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Electrocardiogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrocardiogram">electrocardiogram</a> can rule out problems with the rhythm of the heart.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> A lumbar puncture may be useful to diagnose a <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> infection but is not routinely needed.<a href="#cite_note-AFP2012-20">[20]</a> In children additional tests may be required such as urine biochemistry and blood testing looking for <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_disorder" title="Metabolic disorder">metabolic disorders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Together with EEG and neuroimaging, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">genetic testing</a> is becoming one of the most important diagnostic techniques for epilepsy, as a diagnosis might be achieved in a relevant proportion of cases with severe epilepsies, both in children and adults.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> For those with negative genetic testing, in some it might be important to repeat or re-analyze previous genetic studies after 2–3 years.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> A high blood <a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">prolactin</a> level within the first 20 minutes following a seizure may be useful to help confirm an epileptic seizure as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_non-epileptic_seizure" title="Psychogenic non-epileptic seizure">psychogenic non-epileptic seizure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ahmad2004-130">[130]</a> Serum prolactin level is less useful for detecting focal seizures.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15256189-131">[131]</a> If it is normal an epileptic seizure is still possible<a href="#cite_note-Ahmad2004-130">[130]</a> and a serum prolactin does not separate epileptic seizures from syncope.<a href="#cite_note-Chen2005-132">[132]</a> It is not recommended as a routine part of the diagnosis of epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differential_diagnosis">Differential diagnosis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Differential diagnosis">edit</a>]</div> Diagnosis of epilepsy can be difficult. A number of other conditions may present very similar signs and symptoms to seizures, including <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(medicine)" title="Syncope (medicine)">syncope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyperventilation_syndrome" title="Hyperventilation syndrome">hyperventilation</a>, migraines, <a href="/wiki/Narcolepsy" title="Narcolepsy">narcolepsy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panic_attack" title="Panic attack">panic attacks</a> and psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES).<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rosen2010-134">[134]</a> In particular, syncope can be accompanied by a short episode of convulsions.<a href="#cite_note-zaidi-135">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Autosomal_dominant_nocturnal_frontal_lobe_epilepsy" title="Autosomal dominant nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy">Nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy</a>, often misdiagnosed as nightmares, was considered to be a <a href="/wiki/Parasomnia" title="Parasomnia">parasomnia</a> but later identified to be an epilepsy syndrome.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Attacks of the movement disorder <a href="/wiki/Paroxysmal_dyskinesia" title="Paroxysmal dyskinesia">paroxysmal dyskinesia</a> may be taken for epileptic seizures.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> The cause of a <a href="/wiki/Drop_attack" title="Drop attack">drop attack</a> can be, among many others, an atonic seizure.<a href="#cite_note-Rosen2010-134">[134]</a> Children may have behaviors that are easily mistaken for epileptic seizures but are not. These include <a href="/wiki/Breath-holding_spell" title="Breath-holding spell">breath-holding spells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nocturnal_enuresis" title="Nocturnal enuresis">bedwetting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Night_terror" title="Night terror">night terrors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tic" title="Tic">tics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shudder_attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Shudder attacks">shudder attacks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rosen2010-134">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gastroesophageal_reflux" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastroesophageal reflux">Gastroesophageal reflux</a> may cause arching of the back and <a href="/wiki/Torticollis" title="Torticollis">twisting of the head to the side</a> in infants, which may be mistaken for tonic-clonic seizures.<a href="#cite_note-Rosen2010-134">[134]</a> Misdiagnosis is frequent (occurring in about 5 to 30% of cases).<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> Different studies showed that in many cases seizure-like attacks in apparent treatment-resistant epilepsy have a cardiovascular cause.<a href="#cite_note-zaidi-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Approximately 20% of the people seen at epilepsy clinics have PNES<a href="#cite_note-AFP2012-20">[20]</a> and of those who have PNES about 10% also have epilepsy;<a href="#cite_note-Jer2013-139">[139]</a> separating the two based on the seizure episode alone without further testing is often difficult.<a href="#cite_note-Jer2013-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Prevention">edit</a>]</div> While many cases are not preventable, efforts to reduce head injuries,<a href="#cite_note-Ead2012-7">[7]</a> provide good care around the time of birth, and reduce environmental parasites such as the pork tapeworm may be effective.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> After brain injuries, there is a limited window of time to intervene with treatments to prevent epilepsy, similar to the therapeutic approach used in stroke therapy. Epileptogenesis may occur rapidly, further narrowing this window, but a delayed process known as "secondary epileptogenesis" can influence the progression and severity of epilepsy, offering opportunities for intervention even after its onset. Current research focuses on identifying methods and targets to prevent or slow epilepsy development. Promising treatments include drugs such as TrkB inhibitors, losartan, statins, isoflurane, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative drugs, the SV2A modulator levetiracetam, and epigenetic interventions.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Efforts in one part of Central America to decrease rates of pork tapeworm resulted in a 50% decrease in new cases of epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-Poor2012-19">[19]</a> Yoga-based Nadi Shodhana Pranayama, also known as Alternate Nostril Breathing, may positively impact the nervous system and help manage seizure disorders. Regular exercise helps balance brain function by providing the body with oxygen and removing carbon dioxide and toxins from the blood.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Complications">Complications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Complications">edit</a>]</div> Epilepsy can be dangerous when seizure occurs at certain times. The risk of drowning or being involved in a motor vehicle collision is higher. It is also found that people with epilepsy are more likely to have psychological problems.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Other complications include aspiration pneumonia and difficulty learning.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Management">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epilepsy_Medical_Alert_Wrist_Bracelets_2018.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Epilepsy_Medical_Alert_Wrist_Bracelets_2018.jpg/310px-Epilepsy_Medical_Alert_Wrist_Bracelets_2018.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Epilepsy_Medical_Alert_Wrist_Bracelets_2018.jpg/465px-Epilepsy_Medical_Alert_Wrist_Bracelets_2018.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Epilepsy_Medical_Alert_Wrist_Bracelets_2018.jpg 2x" data-file-width="562" data-file-height="288" /></a><figcaption>Wristbands or bracelets denoting their condition are occasionally worn by people with epilepsy should they need medical assistance.</figcaption></figure> Epilepsy is usually treated with daily medication once a second seizure has occurred,<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> while medication may be started after the first seizure in those at high risk for subsequent seizures.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> Supporting people's <a href="/wiki/Self_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Self care">self-management</a> of their condition may be useful.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> In drug-resistant cases different <a href="/wiki/Management_of_drug-resistant_epilepsy" title="Management of drug-resistant epilepsy">management options</a> may be considered, including special diets, the implantation of a <a href="/wiki/Neurostimulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurostimulator">neurostimulator</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">neurosurgery</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_aid">First aid</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: First aid">edit</a>]</div> Rolling people with an active tonic-clonic seizure onto their side and into the <a href="/wiki/Recovery_position" title="Recovery position">recovery position</a> helps prevent fluids from getting into the lungs.<a href="#cite_note-Mic2011-145">[145]</a> Putting fingers, a bite block or tongue depressor in the mouth is not recommended as it might make the person vomit or result in the rescuer being bitten.<a href="#cite_note-EB06-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mic2011-145">[145]</a> Efforts should be taken to prevent further self-injury.<a href="#cite_note-EB06-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Spinal_precautions" title="Spinal precautions">Spinal precautions</a> are generally not needed.<a href="#cite_note-Mic2011-145">[145]</a> If a seizure lasts longer than 5 minutes or if there are more than two seizures in 5 minutes without a return to a normal level of consciousness between them, it is considered a <a href="/wiki/Medical_emergency" title="Medical emergency">medical emergency</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Status_epilepticus" title="Status epilepticus">status epilepticus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> This may require <a href="/wiki/Airway_management" title="Airway management">medical help to keep the airway open and protected</a>;<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> a <a href="/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_airway" title="Nasopharyngeal airway">nasopharyngeal airway</a> may be useful for this.<a href="#cite_note-Mic2011-145">[145]</a> At home the recommended initial medication for seizure of a long duration is <a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">midazolam</a> placed in the nose or mouth.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_55_56-147">[147]</a> <a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">Diazepam</a> may also be used <a href="/wiki/Suppository" title="Suppository">rectally</a>.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_55_56-147">[147]</a> In hospital, intravenous <a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">lorazepam</a> is preferred.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> If two doses of <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepines" class="mw-redirect" title="Benzodiazepines">benzodiazepines</a> are not effective, other medications such as <a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">phenytoin</a> are recommended.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> Convulsive status epilepticus that does not respond to initial treatment typically requires admission to the <a href="/wiki/Intensive_care_unit" title="Intensive care unit">intensive care unit</a> and treatment with stronger agents such as midazolam infusion, ketamine, thiopentone or propofol.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> Most institutions have a preferred pathway or protocol to be used in a seizure emergency like status epilepticus.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> These protocols have been found to be effective in reducing time to delivery of treatment.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medications">Medications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Medications">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anticonvulsants.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Anticonvulsants.jpg/310px-Anticonvulsants.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Anticonvulsants.jpg/465px-Anticonvulsants.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Anticonvulsants.jpg/620px-Anticonvulsants.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2320" data-file-height="2590" /></a><figcaption>Anticonvulsants</figcaption></figure> The mainstay treatment of epilepsy is anticonvulsant medications, possibly for the person's entire life.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> The choice of anticonvulsant is based on seizure type, epilepsy syndrome, other medications used, other health problems, and the person's age and lifestyle.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_55_56-147">[147]</a> A single medication is recommended initially;<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> if this is not effective, switching to a single other medication is recommended.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> Two medications at once is recommended only if a single medication does not work.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> In about half, the first agent is effective; a second single agent helps in about 13% and a third or two agents at the same time may help an additional 4%.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> About 30% of people continue to have seizures despite anticonvulsant treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Ead2012-7">[7]</a> There are a number of medications available including phenytoin, <a href="/wiki/Carbamazepine" title="Carbamazepine">carbamazepine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Valproate" title="Valproate">valproate</a>. Evidence suggests that phenytoin, carbamazepine, and valproate may be equally effective in both focal and generalized seizures.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> <a href="/wiki/Controlled_release" class="mw-redirect" title="Controlled release">Controlled release</a> carbamazepine appears to work as well as immediate release carbamazepine, and may have fewer <a href="/wiki/Side_effect" title="Side effect">side effects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> In the United Kingdom, carbamazepine or <a href="/wiki/Lamotrigine" title="Lamotrigine">lamotrigine</a> are recommended as first-line treatment for focal seizures, with <a href="/wiki/Levetiracetam" title="Levetiracetam">levetiracetam</a> and valproate as second-line due to issues of cost and side effects.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Valproate is recommended first-line for generalized seizures with lamotrigine being second-line.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> In those with absence seizures, <a href="/wiki/Ethosuximide" title="Ethosuximide">ethosuximide</a> or valproate are recommended; valproate is particularly effective in myoclonic seizures and tonic or atonic seizures.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> If seizures are well-controlled on a particular treatment, it is not usually necessary to routinely check the medication levels in the blood.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> The least expensive anticonvulsant is <a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">phenobarbital</a> at around US$5 a year.<a href="#cite_note-Poor2012-19">[19]</a> The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> gives it a first-line recommendation in the developing world and it is commonly used there.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Access, however, may be difficult as some countries label it as a <a href="/wiki/Controlled_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Controlled drug">controlled drug</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Poor2012-19">[19]</a> Adverse effects from medications are reported in 10% to 90% of people, depending on how and from whom the data is collected.<a href="#cite_note-Per2012-157">[157]</a> Most adverse effects are dose-related and mild.<a href="#cite_note-Per2012-157">[157]</a> Some examples include mood changes, sleepiness, or an unsteadiness in gait.<a href="#cite_note-Per2012-157">[157]</a> Certain medications have side effects that are not related to dose such as rashes, liver toxicity, or <a href="/wiki/Aplastic_anemia" title="Aplastic anemia">suppression of the bone marrow</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Per2012-157">[157]</a> Up to a quarter of people stop treatment due to adverse effects.<a href="#cite_note-Per2012-157">[157]</a> Some medications are associated with <a href="/wiki/Birth_defect" title="Birth defect">birth defects</a> when used in pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> Many of the common used medications, such as valproate, phenytoin, carbamazepine, phenobarbital, and gabapentin have been reported to cause increased risk of birth defects,<a href="#cite_note-Bromley_2023-158">[158]</a> especially when used during the <a href="/wiki/First_trimester" class="mw-redirect" title="First trimester">first trimester</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kam2013-159">[159]</a> Despite this, treatment is often continued once effective, because the risk of untreated epilepsy is believed to be greater than the risk of the medications.<a href="#cite_note-Kam2013-159">[159]</a> Among the antiepileptic medications, levetiracetam and lamotrigine seem to carry the lowest risk of causing birth defects.<a href="#cite_note-Bromley_2023-158">[158]</a> Slowly stopping medications may be reasonable in some people who do not have a seizure for two to four years; however, around a third of people have a recurrence, most often during the first six months.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Stopping is possible in about 70% of children and 60% of adults.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> Measuring medication levels is not generally needed in those whose seizures are well controlled.<a href="#cite_note-Wise2018-125">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surgery">Surgery</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Surgery">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_surgery" title="Epilepsy surgery">Epilepsy surgery</a> should be considered for any person with epilepsy who is medically refractory.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19800848-16">[16]</a> People with epilepsy are evaluated on a case-by-case basis in centres that are familiar with and have expertise in epilepsy surgery.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19800848-16">[16]</a> Results from a 2023 systematic review found that surgical interventions for children aged 1–36 months with drug-resistant epilepsy can lead to significant seizure reduction or freedom, especially when other treatments have failed.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> Epilepsy surgery may be an option for people with focal seizures that remain a problem despite other treatments.<a href="#cite_note-pmid28994113-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid7361318-163">[163]</a> These other treatments include at least a trial of two or three medications.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17491501-164">[164]</a> The goal of surgery has been total control of seizures.<a href="#cite_note-pmid12027916-165">[165]</a> However, most physicians believe that even palliative surgery where the burden of seizures is reduced significantly can help in achieving developmental progress or reversal of developmental stagnation in children with drug-resistant epilepsy and this may be achieved in 60–70% of cases.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17491501-164">[164]</a> Common procedures include cutting out the hippocampus via an anterior temporal lobe resection, removal of tumors, and removing parts of the <a href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">neocortex</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17491501-164">[164]</a> Some procedures such as a <a href="/wiki/Corpus_callosotomy" title="Corpus callosotomy">corpus callosotomy</a> are attempted in an effort to decrease the number of seizures rather than cure the condition.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17491501-164">[164]</a> Following surgery, medications may be slowly withdrawn in many cases.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17491501-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid28994113-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neurostimulation">Neurostimulation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Neurostimulation">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Neurostimulation" title="Neurostimulation">Neurostimulation</a> via <a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">neuro-cybernetic prosthesis</a> implantation may be another option in those who are not candidates for surgery, providing chronic, pulsatile electrical stimulation of specific nerve or brain regions, alongside standard care.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> Three types of <a href="/wiki/Neurotherapy" title="Neurotherapy">neurotherapy</a> have been used in those who do not respond to medications: <a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve_stimulation" title="Vagus nerve stimulation">vagus nerve stimulation (VNS)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anterior_thalamic_stimulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior thalamic stimulation">anterior thalamic stimulation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Closed-loop_responsive_stimulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed-loop responsive stimulation">closed-loop responsive stimulation</a> (RNS).<a href="#cite_note-Bergey2013-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Edwards2017-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cochrane2015-167">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vagus_nerve_stimulation">Vagus nerve stimulation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Vagus nerve stimulation">edit</a>]</div> Non-pharmacological modulation of neurotransmitters via high-level VNS (h-VNS) may reduce seizure frequency in children and adults who do not respond to medical and/or surgical therapy, when compared with low-level VNS (l-VNS).<a href="#cite_note-Cochrane2015-167">[167]</a> In a 2022 <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_(organisation)" title="Cochrane (organisation)">Cochrane</a> review of four <a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">randomized controlled trials</a>, with moderate certainty of evidence, people receiving h-VNS treatment were 73% more likely (13% more likely to 164% more likely) to experience a reduction in seizure frequency by at least 50% (the minimum threshold defined for individual clinical response).<a href="#cite_note-Cochrane2015-167">[167]</a> Potentially 249 (163 to 380) per 1000 people with drug-resistant epilepsy may achieve a 50% reduction in seizures following h-VNS, benefiting an additional 105 per 1000 people compared with l-VNS.<a href="#cite_note-Cochrane2015-167">[167]</a> This outcome was limited by the number of studies available, and the quality of one trial in particular, wherein three people received l-VNS in error. A <a href="/wiki/Sensitivity_analysis" title="Sensitivity analysis">sensitivity analysis</a> suggested that the best case scenario was that the likelihood of clinical response to h-VNS may be 91% (27% to 189%) higher than those receiving l-VNS. In the worst-case scenario, the likelihood of clinical response to h-VNS was still 61% higher (7% higher to 143% higher) than l-VNS.<a href="#cite_note-Cochrane2015-167">[167]</a> Despite the potential benefit for h-VNS treatment, the Cochrane review also found that the risk of several adverse-effects was greater than those receiving l-VNS. There was moderate certainty of evidence that voice alteration or hoarseness risk may be 2.17(1.49 to 3.17) fold higher than people receiving l-VNS. <a href="/wiki/Dyspnoea" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyspnoea">Dyspnoea</a> risk was also 2.45 (1.07 to 5.60) times that of l-VNS recipients, although the low number of events and studies meant that the certainty of evidence was low. The risk of rebound-withdrawal symptoms, coughing, pain and paraesthesia was unclear.<a href="#cite_note-Cochrane2015-167">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diet">Diet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Diet">edit</a>]</div> There is promising evidence that a <a href="/wiki/Ketogenic_diet" title="Ketogenic diet">ketogenic diet</a> (high-fat, <a href="/wiki/Low-carbohydrate_diet" title="Low-carbohydrate diet">low-carbohydrate</a>, adequate-<a href="/wiki/Protein_(nutrient)" title="Protein (nutrient)">protein</a>) decreases the number of seizures and eliminates seizures in some; however, further research is necessary.<a href="#cite_note-Mar2018-6">[6]</a> A 2022 systematic review of the literature has found some evidence to support that a ketogenic diet or <a href="/wiki/Modified_Atkins_diet" class="mw-redirect" title="Modified Atkins diet">modified Atkins diet</a> can be helpful in the treatment of epilepsy in some infants.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> These types of diets may be beneficial for children with drug-resistant epilepsy; the use for adults remains uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-Mar2018-6">[6]</a> The most commonly reported adverse effects were vomiting, constipation and diarrhoea.<a href="#cite_note-Mar2018-6">[6]</a> It is unclear why this diet works.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> In people with coeliac disease or non-celiac gluten sensitivity and occipital calcifications, a <a href="/wiki/Gluten-free_diet" title="Gluten-free diet">gluten-free diet</a> may decrease the frequency of seizures.<a href="#cite_note-JacksonEaton2012-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Other">edit</a>]</div> Avoidance therapy consists of minimizing or eliminating triggers. For example, those who are sensitive to light may have success with using a small television, avoiding video games, or wearing dark glasses.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> <a href="/wiki/Operant-based_biofeedback" class="mw-redirect" title="Operant-based biofeedback">Operant-based biofeedback</a> based on the EEG waves has some support in those who do not respond to medications.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> Psychological methods should not, however, be used to replace medications.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_57_83-106">[106]</a> Exercise has been proposed as possibly useful for preventing seizures,<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> with some data to support this claim.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Some dogs, commonly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Seizure_dog" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizure dog">seizure dogs</a>, may help during or after a seizure.<a href="#cite_note-eddivito2010-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-ebkirton2008-175">[175]</a> It is not clear if dogs have the ability to predict seizures before they occur.<a href="#cite_note-Doh2007-176">[176]</a> There is moderate-quality evidence supporting the use of psychological interventions along with other treatments in epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-CD012081-177">[177]</a> This can improve quality of life, enhance emotional wellbeing, and reduce fatigue in adults and adolescents.<a href="#cite_note-CD012081-177">[177]</a> Psychological interventions may also improve seizure control for some individuals by promoting self-management and adherence.<a href="#cite_note-CD012081-177">[177]</a> As an add-on therapy in those who are not well controlled with other medications, <a href="/wiki/Cannabidiol" title="Cannabidiol">cannabidiol</a> appears to be useful in some children.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> In 2018 the FDA approved this product for Lennox–Gastaut syndrome and Dravet syndrome.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> There are a few studies on the use of <a href="/wiki/Dexamethasone" title="Dexamethasone">dexamethasone</a> for the successful treatment of drug-resistant seizures in both adults and children.<a href="#cite_note-Archive_of_Journal_of_Investigative_Medicine_High_Impact_Case_Reports-181">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_medicine">Alternative medicine</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Alternative medicine">edit</a>]</div> Alternative medicine, including <a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">acupuncture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> routine <a href="/wiki/Vitamins" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamins">vitamins</a>,<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">yoga</a>,<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> have no reliable <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">evidence</a> to support their use in epilepsy. <a href="/wiki/Melatonin" title="Melatonin">Melatonin</a>, as of 2016<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit">[update]</a>, is insufficiently supported by evidence.<a href="#cite_note-Brigo2016-185">[185]</a> The trials were of poor methodological quality and it was not possible to draw any definitive conclusions.<a href="#cite_note-Brigo2016-185">[185]</a> Several supplements (with varied reliabilities of evidence) have been reported to be helpful for drug-resistant epilepsy. These include high-dose Omega-3, berberine, Manuka honey, reishi and lion's mane mushrooms, curcumin,<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> vitamin E, coenzyme Q-10, and resveratrol. The reason these can work (in theory) is that they reduce inflammation or oxidative stress, two of the major mechanism contributing to epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contraception_and_pregnancy">Contraception and pregnancy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Contraception and pregnancy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_and_pregnancy" title="Epilepsy and pregnancy">Epilepsy and pregnancy</a></div> Women of child-bearing age, including those with epilepsy, are at risk of <a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancies" class="mw-redirect" title="Unintended pregnancies">unintended pregnancies</a> if they are not using an effective form of <a href="/wiki/Contraception" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraception">contraception</a>.<a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a> Women with epilepsy may experience a temporary increase in seizure frequency when they begin <a href="/wiki/Hormonal_contraception" title="Hormonal contraception">hormonal contraception</a>.<a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a> Some anti-seizure medications interact with enzymes in the liver and cause the drugs in hormonal contraception to be broken down more quickly. These <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inducer" title="Enzyme inducer">enzyme inducing</a> drugs make hormonal contraception less effective, and this is particularly hazardous if the anti-seizure medication is associated with birth defects.<a href="#cite_note-SeizureMay2015-189">[189]</a> Potent enzyme-inducing anti-seizure medications include <a href="/wiki/Carbamazepine" title="Carbamazepine">carbamazepine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eslicarbazepine_acetate" title="Eslicarbazepine acetate">eslicarbazepine acetate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxcarbazepine" title="Oxcarbazepine">oxcarbazepine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">phenobarbital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">phenytoin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Primidone" title="Primidone">primidone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rufinamide" title="Rufinamide">rufinamide</a>. The drugs <a href="/wiki/Perampanel" title="Perampanel">perampanel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">topiramate</a> can be enzyme-inducing at higher doses.<a href="#cite_note-EnzymeNice-190">[190]</a> Conversely, hormonal contraception can lower the amount of the anti-seizure medication <a href="/wiki/Lamotrigine" title="Lamotrigine">lamotrigine</a> circulating in the body, making it less effective.<a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a> The failure rate of oral contraceptives, when used correctly, is 1%, but this increases to between 3–6% in women with epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-SeizureMay2015-189">[189]</a> Overall, <a href="/wiki/Intrauterine_devices" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrauterine devices">intrauterine devices</a> (IUDs) are preferred for women with epilepsy who are not intending to become pregnant.<a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a> Women with epilepsy, especially if they have other medical conditions, may have a slightly lower, but still high, chance of becoming pregnant.<a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a> Women with <a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">infertility</a> have about the same chance of success with <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">in vitro fertilisation</a> or other forms of <a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">assisted reproductive technology</a> as women without epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a> There may be a higher risk of <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_loss" title="Pregnancy loss">pregnancy loss</a>.<a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a> Once pregnant, there are two main concerns related to <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a>. The first concern is about the risk of seizures during pregnancy, and the second concern is that the anti-seizure medications may result in <a href="/wiki/Birth_defects" class="mw-redirect" title="Birth defects">birth defects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bromley_2023-158">[158]</a> Most women with epilepsy must continue treatment with anti-seizure drugs, and the treatment goal is to balance the need to prevent seizures with the need to prevent drug-induced birth defects.<a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid31782407-191">[191]</a> Pregnancy does not seem to change seizure frequency very much.<a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a> When seizures happen, however, they can cause some pregnancy complications, such as <a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">pre-term births</a> or the babies being <a href="/wiki/Small_for_gestational_age" title="Small for gestational age">smaller than usual</a> when they are born.<a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a> All pregnancies have a risk of birth defects, e.g., due to <a href="/wiki/Smoking_during_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoking during pregnancy">smoking during pregnancy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a> In addition to this typical level of risk, some anti-seizure drugs significantly increase the risk of birth defects and <a href="/wiki/Intrauterine_growth_restriction" title="Intrauterine growth restriction">intrauterine growth restriction</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Developmental_disorder" title="Developmental disorder">developmental</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurocognitive_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurocognitive disorder">neurocognitive</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" title="Emotional and behavioral disorders">behavioral disorders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31782407-191">[191]</a> Most women with epilepsy receive safe and effective treatment and have typical, healthy children.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31782407-191">[191]</a> The highest risks are associated with specific anti-seizure drugs, such as valproic acid and carbamazepine, and with higher doses.<a href="#cite_note-Bromley_2023-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a> <a href="/wiki/Folic_acid_supplementation" class="mw-redirect" title="Folic acid supplementation">Folic acid supplementation</a>, such as through <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_vitamin" title="Prenatal vitamin">prenatal vitamins</a>, reduced the risk.<a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a> Planning pregnancies in advance gives women with epilepsy an opportunity to switch to a lower-risk treatment program and reduced drug doses.<a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a> Although anti-seizure drugs can be found in <a href="/wiki/Breast_milk" title="Breast milk">breast milk</a>, women with epilepsy <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_medications" title="Breastfeeding and medications">can breastfeed</a> their babies, and the benefits usually outweigh the risks.<a href="#cite_note-King_2022-188">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prognosis">Prognosis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Prognosis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epilepsy_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Epilepsy_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/310px-Epilepsy_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Epilepsy_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/465px-Epilepsy_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Epilepsy_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/620px-Epilepsy_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>Deaths due to epilepsy per million persons in 2012 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 10em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  0–7</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  8–10</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  11–13</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  14–17</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  18–21</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  22–28</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  29–37</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  38–67</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  68–100</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  101–232</div></div></figcaption></figure> Epilepsy cannot usually be cured, but medication can control seizures effectively in about 70% of cases.<a href="#cite_note-Ead2012-7">[7]</a> Of those with generalized seizures, more than 80% can be well controlled with medications while this is true in only 50% of people with focal seizures.<a href="#cite_note-Bergey2013-5">[5]</a> One predictor of long-term outcome is the number of seizures that occur in the first six months.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> Other factors increasing the risk of a poor outcome include little response to the initial treatment, generalized seizures, a family history of epilepsy, psychiatric problems, and waves on the EEG representing generalized epileptiform activity.<a href="#cite_note-Fast2012-192">[192]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/International_League_Against_Epilepsy" title="International League Against Epilepsy">ILAE</a> epilepsy is considered to be resolved if an individual with epilepsy is seizure free for 10 years and off <a href="/wiki/Anticonvulsant" title="Anticonvulsant">anticonvulsant</a> for 5 years.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> In the developing world, 75% of people are either untreated or not appropriately treated.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> In Africa, 90% do not get treatment.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> This is partly related to appropriate medications not being available or being too expensive.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mortality">Mortality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Mortality">edit</a>]</div> People with epilepsy may have a higher risk of premature death compared to those without the condition.<a href="#cite_note-Hit2007-194">[194]</a> This risk is estimated to be between 1.6 and 4.1 times greater than that of the general population.<a href="#cite_note-Mosh2009-195">[195]</a> The greatest increase in mortality from epilepsy is among the elderly.<a href="#cite_note-Mosh2009-195">[195]</a> Those with epilepsy due to an unknown cause have a relatively low increase in risk.<a href="#cite_note-Mosh2009-195">[195]</a> Mortality is often related to the underlying cause of the seizures, status epilepticus, suicide, <a href="/wiki/Major_trauma" title="Major trauma">trauma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sudden_unexpected_death_in_epilepsy" title="Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy">sudden unexpected death in epilepsy</a> (SUDEP).<a href="#cite_note-Hit2007-194">[194]</a> Death from status epilepticus is primarily due to an underlying problem rather than missing doses of medications.<a href="#cite_note-Hit2007-194">[194]</a> The risk of suicide is between two and six times higher in those with epilepsy;<a href="#cite_note-Bagary2011-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mula2013-197">[197]</a> the cause of this is unclear.<a href="#cite_note-Bagary2011-196">[196]</a> SUDEP appears to be partly related to the frequency of generalized tonic-clonic seizures<a href="#cite_note-Ry2013-198">[198]</a> and accounts for about 15% of epilepsy-related deaths;<a href="#cite_note-Fast2012-192">[192]</a> it is unclear how to decrease its risk.<a href="#cite_note-Ry2013-198">[198]</a> Risk factors for SUDEP include nocturnal generalized tonic-clonic seizures, seizures, sleeping alone and medically intractable epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-pmid36270688-199">[199]</a> In the United Kingdom, it is estimated that 40–60% of deaths are possibly preventable.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> In the developing world, many deaths are due to untreated epilepsy leading to falls or status epilepticus.<a href="#cite_note-Poor2012-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Epidemiology">edit</a>]</div> Epilepsy is one of the most common serious neurological disorders<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> affecting about 50 million people as of 2021<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GBD2021-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-GBD2015-201">[201]</a> It affects 1% of the population by age 20 and 3% of the population by age 75.<a href="#cite_note-Holmes2008-17">[17]</a> It is more common in males than females with the overall difference being small.<a href="#cite_note-Poor2012-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nel2012-69">[69]</a> Most of those with the disorder (80%) are in low income populations<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> The estimated prevalence of active epilepsy (as of 2012<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit">[update]</a>) is in the range 3–10 per 1,000, with active epilepsy defined as someone with epilepsy who has had at least one unprovoked seizure in the last five years.<a href="#cite_note-Nel2012-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sander2003-203">[203]</a> Epilepsy begins each year in 40–70 per 100,000 in developed countries and 80–140 per 100,000 in developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> Poverty is a risk and includes both being from a poor country and being poor relative to others within one's country.<a href="#cite_note-Poor2012-19">[19]</a> In the developed world epilepsy most commonly starts either in the young or in the old.<a href="#cite_note-Poor2012-19">[19]</a> In the developing world its onset is more common in older children and young adults due to the higher rates of trauma and infectious diseases.<a href="#cite_note-Poor2012-19">[19]</a> In developed countries the number of cases a year has decreased in children and increased among the elderly between the 1970s and 2003.<a href="#cite_note-Sander2003-203">[203]</a> This has been attributed partly to better survival following strokes in the elderly.<a href="#cite_note-Nel2012-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/On_the_Sacred_Disease" title="On the Sacred Disease">On the Sacred Disease</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hippocrates_rubens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Hippocrates_rubens.jpg/310px-Hippocrates_rubens.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="433" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Hippocrates_rubens.jpg/465px-Hippocrates_rubens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Hippocrates_rubens.jpg/620px-Hippocrates_rubens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2365" data-file-height="3301" /></a><figcaption>Hippocrates, 17th century engraving by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Peter Paul Rubens</a> of an antique bust</figcaption></figure> The oldest medical records show that epilepsy has been affecting people at least since the beginning of recorded history.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_Atlas2005-204">[204]</a> Throughout <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient history</a>, the condition was thought to be of a spiritual cause.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_Atlas2005-204">[204]</a> The world's oldest description of an epileptic seizure comes from a text in <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> (a language used in ancient <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>) and was written around 2000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-magiorkinis_2010-24">[24]</a> The person described in the text was diagnosed as being under the influence of a moon god, and underwent an <a href="/wiki/Exorcism" title="Exorcism">exorcism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-magiorkinis_2010-24">[24]</a> Epileptic seizures are listed in the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Code of Hammurabi</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1790 BC) as reason for which a purchased slave may be returned for a refund,<a href="#cite_note-magiorkinis_2010-24">[24]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus" title="Edwin Smith Papyrus">Edwin Smith Papyrus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1700 BC) describes cases of individuals with epileptic convulsions.<a href="#cite_note-magiorkinis_2010-24">[24]</a> The oldest known detailed record of the condition itself is in the <a href="/wiki/Sakikku" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakikku">Sakikku</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> medical text from 1067–1046 BC.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_Atlas2005-204">[204]</a> This text gives signs and symptoms, details treatment and likely outcomes,<a href="#cite_note-magiorkinis_2010-24">[24]</a> and describes many features of the different seizure types.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_Atlas2005-204">[204]</a> As the Babylonians had no biomedical understanding of the nature of epilepsy, they attributed the seizures to possession by evil spirits and called for treating the condition through spiritual means.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_Atlas2005-204">[204]</a> Around 900 BC, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Punarvasu_Atreya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Punarvasu Atreya (page does not exist)">Punarvasu Atreya</a> described epilepsy as loss of consciousness;<a href="#cite_note-eadie_2001-205">[205]</a> this definition was carried forward into the <a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurvedic</a> text of <a href="/wiki/Charaka_Samhita" title="Charaka Samhita">Charaka Samhita</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 400 BC).<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greeks</a> had contradictory views of the condition. They thought of epilepsy as a form of spiritual possession, but also associated the condition with genius and the divine. One of the names they gave to it was the sacred disease (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: ἠ ἱερὰ νόσος).<a href="#cite_note-magiorkinis_2010-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-history-207">[207]</a> Epilepsy appears within Greek mythology: it is associated with the Moon goddesses <a href="/wiki/Selene" title="Selene">Selene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artemis" title="Artemis">Artemis</a>, who afflicted those who upset them. The Greeks thought that important figures such as <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a> had the condition.<a href="#cite_note-magiorkinis_2010-24">[24]</a> The notable exception to this divine and spiritual view was that of the school of <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>. In the fifth century BC, Hippocrates rejected the idea that the condition was caused by spirits. In his landmark work <a href="/wiki/On_the_Sacred_Disease" title="On the Sacred Disease">On the Sacred Disease</a>, he proposed that epilepsy was not divine in origin and instead was a medically treatable problem originating in the brain.<a href="#cite_note-magiorkinis_2010-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO_Atlas2005-204">[204]</a> He accused those of attributing a sacred cause to the condition of spreading ignorance through a belief in superstitious magic.<a href="#cite_note-magiorkinis_2010-24">[24]</a> Hippocrates proposed that <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heredity</a> was important as a cause, described worse outcomes if the condition presents at an early age, and made note of the physical characteristics as well as the social shame associated with it.<a href="#cite_note-magiorkinis_2010-24">[24]</a> Instead of referring to it as the sacred disease, he used the term great disease, giving rise to the modern term grand mal, used for tonic–clonic seizures.<a href="#cite_note-magiorkinis_2010-24">[24]</a> Despite his work detailing the physical origins of the condition, his view was not accepted at the time.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_Atlas2005-204">[204]</a> Evil spirits continued to be blamed until at least the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_Atlas2005-204">[204]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> people did not eat or drink with the same pottery as that used by someone who was affected.<a href="#cite_note-Tem2010-208">[208]</a> People of the time would spit on their chest believing that this would keep the problem from affecting them.<a href="#cite_note-Tem2010-208">[208]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a> and other ancient physicians, to detect epilepsy, it was common to light a piece of <a href="/wiki/Jet_(lignite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet (lignite)">gagates</a>, whose smoke would trigger the seizure.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> Occasionally a spinning <a href="/wiki/Potter%27s_wheel" title="Potter's wheel">potter's wheel</a> was used, perhaps a reference to <a href="/wiki/Photosensitive_epilepsy" title="Photosensitive epilepsy">photosensitive epilepsy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> In most cultures, persons with epilepsy have been stigmatized, shunned, or even imprisoned. As late as in the second half of the 20th century, in <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> and other parts of Africa epilepsy was associated with possession by evil spirits, witchcraft, or poisoning and was believed by many to be contagious.<a href="#cite_note-Jil1999-211">[211]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Salp%C3%AAtri%C3%A8re" class="mw-redirect" title="Salpêtrière">Salpêtrière</a>, the birthplace of modern neurology, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Martin_Charcot" title="Jean-Martin Charcot">Jean-Martin Charcot</a> found people with epilepsy side by side with the mentally ill, those with chronic <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>, and the criminally insane.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> In Ancient Rome, epilepsy was known as the morbus comitialis or 'disease of the assembly hall' and was seen as a curse from the gods. In northern Italy, epilepsy was traditionally known as Saint Valentine's malady.<a href="#cite_note-Illes2011-213">[213]</a> In at least the 1840s in the United States of America, epilepsy was known as the falling sickness or the falling fits, and was considered a form of medical <a href="/wiki/Insanity" title="Insanity">insanity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JHaggerty-214">[214]</a> Around the same time period, epilepsy was known in France as the haut-mal <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'high evil', mal-de terre <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'earthen sickness', mal de Saint Jean <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> '<a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">Saint John</a>'s sickness', mal des enfans <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'child sickness', and mal-caduc <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'falling sickness'.<a href="#cite_note-JHaggerty-214">[214]</a> People of epilepsy in France were also known as tombeurs <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'people who fall', due to the seizures and loss of consciousness in an epileptic episode.<a href="#cite_note-JHaggerty-214">[214]</a> In the mid-19th century, the first effective anti-seizure medication, <a href="/wiki/Bromide" title="Bromide">bromide</a>, was introduced.<a href="#cite_note-Per2012-157">[157]</a> The first modern treatment, phenobarbital, was developed in 1912, with phenytoin coming into use in 1938.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_people_with_epilepsy" title="List of people with epilepsy">List of people with epilepsy</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stigma">Stigma</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Stigma">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a> is commonly experienced, around the world, by those with epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2023-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Boer2010-216">[216]</a> It can affect people economically, socially and culturally.<a href="#cite_note-Boer2010-216">[216]</a> In India and China, epilepsy may be used as justification to deny marriage.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> People in some areas still believe those with epilepsy to be <a href="/wiki/Curse" title="Curse">cursed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Poor2012-19">[19]</a> In parts of Africa, such as Tanzania and <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, epilepsy is claimed to be associated with possession by evil spirits, witchcraft, or poisoning and is incorrectly believed by many to be <a href="/wiki/Contagious_disease" title="Contagious disease">contagious</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jil1999-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-Poor2012-19">[19]</a> Before 1971 in the United Kingdom, epilepsy was considered grounds for the annulment of marriage.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> The stigma may result in some people with epilepsy denying that they have ever had seizures.<a href="#cite_note-Nel2012-69">[69]</a> A 2024 cross-sectional study revealed that 64.8% of relatives of epilepsy patients experienced moderate stigma and held moderately positive attitudes toward epilepsy. The study found that higher levels of stigma among participants were associated with more negative attitudes toward the condition. Additionally, relatives of patients who experienced frequent seizures (one or more per month) faced greater stigma, while those of patients who did not adhere to their medication regimen exhibited more negative attitudes toward epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics">Economics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Economics">edit</a>]</div> Seizures result in direct economic costs of about one billion dollars in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-AFP2012-20">[20]</a> Epilepsy resulted in economic costs in Europe of around 15.5 billion euros in 2004.<a href="#cite_note-National_Clinical_Guideline_21_28-26">[26]</a> In India epilepsy is estimated to result in costs of US$1.7 billion or 0.5% of the GDP.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> It is the cause of about 1% of emergency department visits (2% for emergency departments for children) in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21109099-218">[218]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vehicles">Vehicles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Vehicles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_and_driving" title="Epilepsy and driving">Epilepsy and driving</a></div> Those with epilepsy are at about twice the risk of being involved in a <a href="/wiki/Motor_vehicular_collision" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor vehicular collision">motor vehicular collision</a> and thus in many areas of the world are not allowed to drive or only able to drive if certain conditions are met.<a href="#cite_note-Drive2012-23">[23]</a> Diagnostic delay has been suggested to be a cause of some potentially avoidable motor vehicle collisions since at least one study showed that most motor vehicle accidents occurred in those with undiagnosed non-motor seizures as opposed to those with motor seizures at epilepsy onset.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> In some places physicians are required by law to report if a person has had a seizure to the licensing body while in others the requirement is only that they encourage the person in question to report it themselves.<a href="#cite_note-Drive2012-23">[23]</a> Countries that require physician reporting include Sweden, Austria, Denmark and Spain.<a href="#cite_note-Drive2012-23">[23]</a> Countries that require the individual to report include the UK and New Zealand, and physicians may report if they believe the individual has not already.<a href="#cite_note-Drive2012-23">[23]</a> In Canada, the United States and Australia the requirements around reporting vary by province or state.<a href="#cite_note-Drive2012-23">[23]</a> If seizures are well controlled most feel allowing driving is reasonable.<a href="#cite_note-Epi2279-220">[220]</a> The amount of time a person must be free from seizures before they can drive varies by country.<a href="#cite_note-Epi2279-220">[220]</a> Many countries require one to three years without seizures.<a href="#cite_note-Epi2279-220">[220]</a> In the United States the time needed without a seizure is determined by each state and is between three months and one year.<a href="#cite_note-Epi2279-220">[220]</a> Those with epilepsy or seizures are typically denied a pilot license.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> <ul><li>In Canada if an individual has had no more than one seizure, they may be considered after five years for a limited license if all other testing is normal.<a href="#cite_note-Ca2013-222">[222]</a> Those with febrile seizures and drug related seizures may also be considered.<a href="#cite_note-Ca2013-222">[222]</a></li> <li>In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> does not allow those with epilepsy to get a commercial pilot license.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> Rarely, exceptions can be made for persons who have had an isolated seizure or febrile seizures and have remained free of seizures into adulthood without medication.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a></li> <li>In the United Kingdom, a full <a href="/wiki/National_private_pilot_license" class="mw-redirect" title="National private pilot license">national private pilot license</a> requires the same standards as a professional driver's license.<a href="#cite_note-Caa2013-225">[225]</a> This requires a period of ten years without seizures while off medications.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> Those who do not meet this requirement may acquire a restricted license if free from seizures for five years.<a href="#cite_note-Caa2013-225">[225]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Support_organizations">Support organizations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Support organizations">edit</a>]</div> There are organizations that provide support for people and families affected by epilepsy. The Out of the Shadows campaign, a joint effort by the World Health Organization, the ILAE and the <a href="/wiki/International_Bureau_for_Epilepsy" title="International Bureau for Epilepsy">International Bureau for Epilepsy</a>, provides help internationally.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-31">[31]</a> In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_Foundation" title="Epilepsy Foundation">Epilepsy Foundation</a> is a national organization that works to increase the acceptance of those with the disorder, their ability to function in society and to promote research for a cure.<a href="#cite_note-EFA-227">[227]</a> The Epilepsy Foundation, some hospitals, and some individuals also run support groups in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> In Australia, the <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_Foundation_of_Victoria" title="Epilepsy Foundation of Victoria">Epilepsy Foundation</a> provides support, delivers education and training and funds research for people living with epilepsy. International Epilepsy Day (World Epilepsy Day) began in 2015 and occurs on the second Monday in February.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> <a href="/wiki/Purple_Day" title="Purple Day">Purple Day</a>, a different world-wide epilepsy awareness day for epilepsy, was initiated by a nine-year-old Canadian named Cassidy Megan in 2008, and is every year on 26 March.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Computational_models_in_epilepsy" title="Computational models in epilepsy">Computational models in epilepsy</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seizure_prediction_and_modeling">Seizure prediction and modeling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Seizure prediction and modeling">edit</a>]</div> Seizure prediction refers to attempts to forecast epileptic seizures based on the <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">EEG</a> before they occur.<a href="#cite_note-Car2011-232">[232]</a> As of 2011<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit">[update]</a>, no effective mechanism to predict seizures has been developed.<a href="#cite_note-Car2011-232">[232]</a> Although no effective device that can predict seizures is available, the science behind seizure prediction and ability to deliver such a tool has made progress. <a href="/wiki/Kindling_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Kindling model">Kindling</a>, where repeated exposures to events that could cause seizures eventually causes seizures more easily, has been used to create <a href="/wiki/Animal_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal model">animal models</a> of epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> Different <a href="/wiki/Animal_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal model">animal models</a> of epilepsy have been characterized in rodents that recapitulate the EEG and behavioral concomitants of different forms of epilepsy, in particular the occurrence of recurrent spontaneous seizures.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> Because epileptic seizures of different kinds are observed naturally in some of these animals, strains of mice and rats have been selected to be used as genetic models of epilepsy. In particular, several lines of mice and rats display spike-and-wave discharges when EEG recorded and have been studied to understand absence epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> Among these models, the strain of <a href="/wiki/GAERS" title="GAERS">GAERS</a> (Genetic Absence Epilepsy Rats from Strasbourg) was characterized in the 1980s and has helped to understand the mechanisms underlying childhood absence epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> Rat brain slices serve as a valuable model for assessing the potential of compounds in reducing epileptiform activity. By evaluating the frequency of epileptiform bursting in hippocampal networks, researchers can identify promising candidates for novel anti-seizure drugs.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> Reductionist views on the mechanisms of epileptiform discharges are often expressed through mathematical models. The simplest of these models are based on a few ordinary differential equations, such as the Epileptor model.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> The more physiologically explicit Epileptor-2 model<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> replicates brief interictal discharges—observed as clusters of action potential spikes in the activity of individual neurons—and longer ictal discharges, represented as clusters of these shorter discharges. According to this model, brief interictal discharges are characterized as stochastic oscillations of the membrane potential and synaptic resources, while ictal discharges emerge as oscillations in the extracellular concentration of potassium ions and the intracellular concentration of sodium ions. These models demonstrate <a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> that ionic dynamics play a decisive role in the generation of pathological activity. One of the hypotheses present in the literature is based on inflammatory pathways. Studies supporting this mechanism revealed that inflammatory, glycolipid, and oxidative factors are higher in people with epilepsy, especially those with generalized epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potential_future_therapies">Potential future therapies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Potential future therapies">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy_for_epilepsy" title="Gene therapy for epilepsy">Gene therapy</a> is being studied in some types of epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> Medications that alter immune function, such as <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_immunoglobulin" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravenous immunoglobulin">intravenous immunoglobulins</a>, may reduce the frequency of seizures when including in normal care as an add-on therapy; however, further research is required to determine whether these medications are very well tolerated in children and in adults with epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> Noninvasive <a href="/wiki/Stereotactic_radiosurgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotactic radiosurgery">stereotactic radiosurgery</a> is, as of 2012<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit">[update]</a>, being compared to standard surgery for certain types of epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Other animals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_in_animals" title="Epilepsy in animals">Epilepsy in animals</a></div> Epilepsy occurs in a number of other animals including dogs and cats; it is in fact the most common brain disorder in dogs.<a href="#cite_note-Vet10-245">[245]</a> It is typically treated with anticonvulsants such as levetiracetam, phenobarbital, or bromide in dogs and phenobarbital in cats.<a href="#cite_note-Vet10-245">[245]</a> <a href="/wiki/Imepitoin" title="Imepitoin">Imepitoin</a> is also used in dogs.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> While generalized seizures in horses are fairly easy to diagnose, it may be more difficult in non-generalized seizures and <a href="/wiki/EEG" class="mw-redirect" title="EEG">EEGs</a> may be useful.<a href="#cite_note-pmid23163553-247">[247]</a> Juvenile idiopathic epilepsy (JIE) in foals is a condition with varying outcomes, depending on the severity and management of the condition. Some foals eventually outgrow the condition without significant long-term effects, while others may face severe consequences, including death or lifelong complications, if left untreated. This variability highlights the importance of timely intervention and care. Earlier research has pointed to a significant genetic influence in the development of JIE, suggesting that the condition may follow the inheritance pattern of a single-gene trait. These findings underscore the need for further genetic studies to confirm this hypothesis and explore potential breeding strategies to reduce the prevalence of JIE.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-WHO2016-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2016_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2016_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2016_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2016_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2016_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2016_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2016_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2016_1-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2016_1-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2016_1-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2016_1-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2016_1-11">l</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs999/en/">"Epilepsy Fact sheet"</a>. 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Epilepsia. 40 (3): 382–386. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1528-1157.1999.tb00723.x">10.1111/j.1528-1157.1999.tb00723.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10080524">10080524</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Epilepsia&rft.atitle=Morbus+sacer+in+Africa%3A+some+religious+aspects+of+epilepsy+in+traditional+cultures&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E382-%3C%2Fspan%3E386&rft.date=1999-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1528-1157.1999.tb00723.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10080524&rft.aulast=Jilek-Aall&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1528-1157.1999.tb00723.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpilepsy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286200646">"Epilepsy and its Management: A Review"</a>. <a href="/wiki/ResearchGate" title="ResearchGate">ResearchGate</a>. 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HarperCollins. p. 1238. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-209854-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-209854-2"><bdi>978-0-06-209854-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140111113232/http://books.google.com/books?id=QLuQZUo8bQMC&pg=PT1238">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2014. <q>Saint Valentine is invoked for healing as well as love. He protects against fainting and is requested to heal epilepsy and other seizure disorders. In northern Italy, epilepsy was once traditionally known as Saint Valentine's Malady.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Mystics%2C+Saints+%26+Sages&rft.pages=1238&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-06-209854-2&rft.aulast=Illes&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQLuQZUo8bQMC%26pg%3DPT1238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpilepsy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JHaggerty-214">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JHaggerty_214-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JHaggerty_214-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JHaggerty_214-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2012" class="citation book cs1">Lewis E (17 February 2012). Report of The Trial and Conviction of John Haggerty, for The Murder of Melchoir Fordney, Late of The City of Lancaster, Pennsylvania. 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Journal of Heredity. 114 (5): 488–491. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjhered%2Fesad029">10.1093/jhered/esad029</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37145017">37145017</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Heredity&rft.atitle=Juvenile+idiopathic+epilepsy+in+Arabian+horses+is+not+a+single-gene+disorder&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E488-%3C%2Fspan%3E491&rft.date=2023-08-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjhered%2Fesad029&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37145017&rft.aulast=Ciosek&rft.aufirst=Julia&rft.au=Kimes%2C+Abigail&rft.au=Vinardell%2C+Tatiana&rft.au=Miller%2C+Donald+C&rft.au=Antczak%2C+Douglas+F&rft.au=Brooks%2C+Samantha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpilepsy" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li>As of <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&oldid=1236511413">this edit</a>, this article uses content from <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&oldid=1235954003">"Epilepsy"</a>, authored by <a class="external free" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=history">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=history</a>, which is licensed in a way that permits reuse under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License</a>, but not under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the GNU Free Documentation License">GFDL</a>. All relevant terms must be followed.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchefferBerkovicCapovillaConnolly2017" class="citation journal cs1">Scheffer IE, Berkovic S, Capovilla G, Connolly MB, French J, Guilhoto L, et al. (April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5386840">"ILAE classification of the epilepsies: Position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology"</a>. Epilepsia. 58 (4): 512–521. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fepi.13709">10.1111/epi.13709</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5386840">5386840</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28276062">28276062</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Epilepsia&rft.atitle=ILAE+classification+of+the+epilepsies%3A+Position+paper+of+the+ILAE+Commission+for+Classification+and+Terminology&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E512-%3C%2Fspan%3E521&rft.date=2017-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5386840%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28276062&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fepi.13709&rft.aulast=Scheffer&rft.aufirst=IE&rft.au=Berkovic%2C+S&rft.au=Capovilla%2C+G&rft.au=Connolly%2C+MB&rft.au=French%2C+J&rft.au=Guilhoto%2C+L&rft.au=Hirsch%2C+E&rft.au=Jain%2C+S&rft.au=Mathern%2C+GW&rft.au=Mosh%C3%A9%2C+SL&rft.au=Nordli%2C+DR&rft.au=Perucca%2C+E&rft.au=Tomson%2C+T&rft.au=Wiebe%2C+S&rft.au=Zhang%2C+YH&rft.au=Zuberi%2C+SM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5386840&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpilepsy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProgramme_for_Neurological_Diseases_and_Neuroscience2005" class="citation book cs1">Programme for Neurological Diseases and Neuroscience (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9241563036">Atlas, epilepsy care in the world, 2005</a>. Global Campaign against Epilepsy; International League against Epilepsy. Geneva: Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse, World Health Organization. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-4-156303-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-4-156303-1"><bdi>978-92-4-156303-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas%2C+epilepsy+care+in+the+world%2C+2005&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=Department+of+Mental+Health+and+Substance+Abuse%2C+World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-92-4-156303-1&rft.au=Programme+for+Neurological+Diseases+and+Neuroscience&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fpublications%2Fi%2Fitem%2F9241563036&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpilepsy" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilsonReynolds1990" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson JV, Reynolds EH (April 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1036070">"Texts and documents. Translation and analysis of a cuneiform text forming part of a Babylonian treatise on epilepsy"</a>. Medical History. 34 (2): 185–198. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025727300050651">10.1017/s0025727300050651</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1036070">1036070</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2187129">2187129</a>.</cite><span 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Epilepsy" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Epilepsy">Epilepsy</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aplka9d7N8A">"Epilepsy Basics: An Overview for Behavioral Health Providers"</a>. YouTube. Epilepsy Foundation. 30 May 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/Aplka9d7N8A">Archived</a> from the original on 11 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Epilepsy+Basics%3A+An+Overview+for+Behavioral+Health+Providers&rft.date=2019-05-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DAplka9d7N8A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpilepsy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ovsw7tdneqE">"What To Do If Someone Has A Seizure – First Aid Training – St John Ambulance"</a>. YouTube. St John Ambulance. 1 February 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/Ovsw7tdneqE">Archived</a> from the original on 11 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=What+To+Do+If+Someone+Has+A+Seizure+%E2%80%93+First+Aid+Training+%E2%80%93+St+John+Ambulance&rft.date=2017-02-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DOvsw7tdneqE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpilepsy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs999/en/">World Health Organization fact sheet</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output 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dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox32" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41571" class="extiw" title="d:Q41571">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-11" title="ICD-11">11</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#2073711696">8A60</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#517052870">8A61</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#1786562875">8A62</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#906174792">8A66</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#1397288146%2Fother">8A6Y</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#1397288146%2Funspecified">8A6Z</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/G40">G40</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/G41">G41</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=345">345</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004827">D004827</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb4366.htm">4366</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/SNOMED_CT" title="SNOMED CT">SNOMED CT</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://snomed.info/id/84757009">84757009</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000694.htm">000694</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/EMedicine" title="EMedicine">eMedicine</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/neuro/415-overview">neuro/415</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Diseases_of_the_nervous_system,_primarily_CNS157" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Central_nervous_system_disease" title="Template:Central nervous system disease"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Central_nervous_system_disease" title="Template talk:Central nervous system disease"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Central_nervous_system_disease" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Central nervous system disease"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Diseases_of_the_nervous_system,_primarily_CNS157" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Diseases of the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>, primarily <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system_disease" title="Central nervous system disease">CNS</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">Inflammation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Brain46" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">Brain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encephalitis" title="Encephalitis">Encephalitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viral_encephalitis" title="Viral encephalitis">Viral encephalitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpesviral_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Herpesviral encephalitis">Herpesviral encephalitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbic_encephalitis" title="Limbic encephalitis">Limbic encephalitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encephalitis_lethargica" title="Encephalitis lethargica">Encephalitis lethargica</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavernous_sinus_thrombosis" title="Cavernous sinus thrombosis">Cavernous sinus thrombosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_abscess" title="Brain abscess">Brain abscess</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amoebic_brain_abscess" title="Amoebic brain abscess">Amoebic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Brain and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encephalomyelitis" title="Encephalomyelitis">Encephalomyelitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_disseminated_encephalomyelitis" title="Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis">Acute disseminated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">Meningitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meningoencephalitis" title="Meningoencephalitis">Meningoencephalitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">Brain</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Encephalopathy" title="Encephalopathy">encephalopathy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease" title="Neurodegenerative disease">Degenerative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extrapyramidal_system" title="Extrapyramidal system">Extrapyramidal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Movement_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Movement disorders">movement disorders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia_disease" title="Basal ganglia disease">Basal ganglia disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parkinsonism" title="Parkinsonism">Parkinsonism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">PD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postencephalitic_parkinsonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Postencephalitic parkinsonism">Postencephalitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroleptic_malignant_syndrome" title="Neuroleptic malignant syndrome">NMS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodegeneration_with_brain_iron_accumulation" title="Neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation">NBIA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pantothenate_kinase-associated_neurodegeneration" title="Pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration">PKAN</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tauopathy" title="Tauopathy">Tauopathy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_supranuclear_palsy" title="Progressive supranuclear palsy">PSP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_system_atrophy" title="Multiple system atrophy">Striatonigral degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemiballismus" title="Hemiballismus">Hemiballismus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huntington%27s_disease" title="Huntington's disease">HD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivopontocerebellar_atrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Olivopontocerebellar atrophy">OA</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyskinesia" title="Dyskinesia">Dyskinesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dystonia" title="Dystonia">Dystonia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Status_dystonicus" title="Status dystonicus">Status dystonicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spasmodic_torticollis" title="Spasmodic torticollis">Spasmodic torticollis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meige%27s_syndrome" title="Meige's syndrome">Meige's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blepharospasm" title="Blepharospasm">Blepharospasm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athetosis" title="Athetosis">Athetosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorea" title="Chorea">Chorea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choreoathetosis" title="Choreoathetosis">Choreoathetosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myoclonus" title="Myoclonus">Myoclonus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myoclonic_epilepsy" title="Myoclonic epilepsy">Myoclonic epilepsy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akathisia" title="Akathisia">Akathisia</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tremor" title="Tremor">Tremor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Essential_tremor" title="Essential tremor">Essential tremor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention_tremor" title="Intention tremor">Intention tremor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restless_legs_syndrome" title="Restless legs syndrome">Restless legs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stiff-person_syndrome" title="Stiff-person syndrome">Stiff-person</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">Dementia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tauopathy" title="Tauopathy">Tauopathy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early-onset_Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Early-onset Alzheimer's disease">Early-onset</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_progressive_aphasia" title="Primary progressive aphasia">Primary progressive aphasia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontotemporal_dementia" title="Frontotemporal dementia">Frontotemporal dementia</a>/<a href="/wiki/Frontotemporal_lobar_degeneration" title="Frontotemporal lobar degeneration">Frontotemporal lobar degeneration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pick%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Pick's disease">Pick's</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewy_bodies_dementia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewy bodies dementia">Lewy bodies dementia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_cortical_atrophy" title="Posterior cortical atrophy">Posterior cortical atrophy</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease" title="Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease">Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_dementia" title="Vascular dementia">Vascular dementia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_disease" title="Mitochondrial disease">Mitochondrial disease</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leigh_syndrome" title="Leigh syndrome">Leigh syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demyelinating_disease" title="Demyelinating disease">Demyelinating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CNS_demyelinating_autoimmune_diseases" title="CNS demyelinating autoimmune diseases">Autoimmune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflammatory_demyelinating_diseases_of_the_central_nervous_system" title="Inflammatory demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system">Inflammatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">Multiple sclerosis</a></li> <li>For more detailed coverage, see <a href="/wiki/Template:Demyelinating_diseases_of_CNS" title="Template:Demyelinating diseases of CNS">Template:Demyelinating diseases of CNS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Episodic/ <a href="/wiki/Paroxysmal_attack" title="Paroxysmal attack">paroxysmal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epileptic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptic seizure">Seizures</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">epilepsy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Focal_seizure" title="Focal seizure">Focal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_epilepsy" title="Generalized epilepsy">Generalised</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_epilepticus" title="Status epilepticus">Status epilepticus</a></li> <li>For more detailed coverage, see <a href="/wiki/Template:Epilepsy" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Epilepsy">Template:Epilepsy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">Headache</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migraine" title="Migraine">Migraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_headache" title="Cluster headache">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tension_headache" title="Tension headache">Tension</a></li> <li>For more detailed coverage, see <a href="/wiki/Template:Headache" title="Template:Headache">Template:Headache</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cerebrovascular_disease" title="Cerebrovascular disease">Cerebrovascular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transient_ischemic_attack" title="Transient ischemic attack">TIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">Stroke</a></li> <li>For more detailed coverage, see <a href="/wiki/Template:Cerebrovascular_diseases" title="Template:Cerebrovascular diseases">Template:Cerebrovascular diseases</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Sleep disorders">Sleep disorders</a> <ul><li>For more detailed coverage, see <a href="/wiki/Template:Sleep" title="Template:Sleep">Template:Sleep</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">CSF</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intracranial_pressure" title="Intracranial pressure">Intracranial hypertension</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrocephalus" title="Hydrocephalus">Hydrocephalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_pressure_hydrocephalus" title="Normal pressure hydrocephalus">Normal pressure hydrocephalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choroid_plexus_papilloma" title="Choroid plexus papilloma">Choroid plexus papilloma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiopathic_intracranial_hypertension" title="Idiopathic intracranial hypertension">Idiopathic intracranial hypertension</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_edema" title="Cerebral edema">Cerebral edema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_cerebrospinal_fluid_leak" class="mw-redirect" title="Spontaneous cerebrospinal fluid leak">Intracranial hypotension</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_herniation" title="Brain herniation">Brain herniation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reye_syndrome" title="Reye syndrome">Reye syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatic_encephalopathy" title="Hepatic encephalopathy">Hepatic encephalopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_encephalopathy" title="Toxic encephalopathy">Toxic encephalopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hashimoto%27s_encephalopathy" title="Hashimoto's encephalopathy">Hashimoto's encephalopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_alcohol_spectrum_disorder" title="Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder">Static encephalopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Both/either</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Degenerative42" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease" title="Neurodegenerative disease">Degenerative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spinocerebellar_ataxia" title="Spinocerebellar ataxia">SA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedreich%27s_ataxia" title="Friedreich's ataxia">Friedreich's ataxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ataxia%E2%80%93telangiectasia" title="Ataxia–telangiectasia">Ataxia–telangiectasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron_diseases" title="Motor neuron diseases">MND</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_motor_neuron" title="Upper motor neuron">UMN</a> only: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_lateral_sclerosis" title="Primary lateral sclerosis">Primary lateral sclerosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudobulbar_palsy" title="Pseudobulbar palsy">Pseudobulbar palsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_spastic_paraplegia" title="Hereditary spastic paraplegia">Hereditary spastic paraplegia</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_motor_neuron" title="Lower motor neuron">LMN</a> only: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distal_hereditary_motor_neuronopathies" title="Distal hereditary motor neuronopathies">Distal hereditary motor neuronopathies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_muscular_atrophies" title="Spinal muscular atrophies">Spinal muscular atrophies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_muscular_atrophy" title="Spinal muscular atrophy">SMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_and_bulbar_muscular_atrophy" title="Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy">SMAX1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-linked_spinal_muscular_atrophy_type_2" title="X-linked spinal muscular atrophy type 2">SMAX2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distal_spinal_muscular_atrophy_type_1" title="Distal spinal muscular atrophy type 1">DSMA1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congenital_distal_spinal_muscular_atrophy" title="Congenital distal spinal muscular atrophy">Congenital DSMA</a></li> <li>Spinal muscular atrophy with lower extremity predominance (SMALED) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_muscular_atrophy_with_lower_extremity_predominance_1" title="Spinal muscular atrophy with lower extremity predominance 1">SMALED1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_muscular_atrophy_with_lower_extremity_predominance_2A" title="Spinal muscular atrophy with lower extremity predominance 2A">SMALED2A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_muscular_atrophy_with_lower_extremity_predominance_2B" title="Spinal muscular atrophy with lower extremity predominance 2B">SMALED2B</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontocerebellar_hypoplasia" title="Pontocerebellar hypoplasia">SMA-PCH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_muscular_atrophy_with_progressive_myoclonic_epilepsy" title="Spinal muscular atrophy with progressive myoclonic epilepsy">SMA-PME</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_muscular_atrophy" title="Progressive muscular atrophy">Progressive muscular atrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_bulbar_palsy" title="Progressive bulbar palsy">Progressive bulbar palsy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fazio%E2%80%93Londe_disease" title="Fazio–Londe disease">Fazio–Londe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantile_progressive_bulbar_palsy" title="Infantile progressive bulbar palsy">Infantile progressive bulbar palsy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>both: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis">Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Seizures_and_epilepsy161" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Seizures_and_epilepsy" title="Template:Seizures and epilepsy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Seizures_and_epilepsy" title="Template talk:Seizures and epilepsy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Seizures_and_epilepsy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Seizures and epilepsy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Seizures_and_epilepsy161" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Epileptic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptic seizure">Seizures</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">epilepsy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seizure_types" title="Seizure types">Seizure types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aura_(symptom)" title="Aura (symptom)">Aura (warning sign)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postictal_state" title="Postictal state">Postictal state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epileptogenesis" title="Epileptogenesis">Epileptogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonatal_seizure" title="Neonatal seizure">Neonatal seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_in_children" title="Epilepsy in children">Epilepsy in children</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anticonvulsant" title="Anticonvulsant">Anticonvulsants</a></li> <li>Investigations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">Electroencephalography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epileptologist" title="Epileptologist">Epileptologist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Issues_for_people_with_epilepsy" title="Issues for people with epilepsy">Personal issues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_and_driving" title="Epilepsy and driving">Epilepsy and driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_and_employment" title="Epilepsy and employment">Epilepsy and employment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Seizure_types" title="Seizure types">Seizure types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Focal_seizure" title="Focal seizure">Focal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>Seizures</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Simple_partial_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple partial seizure">Simple partial</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Complex_partial_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex partial seizure">Complex partial</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gelastic_seizure" title="Gelastic seizure">Gelastic seizure</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Epilepsy</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe_epilepsy" title="Temporal lobe epilepsy">Temporal lobe epilepsy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe_epilepsy" title="Frontal lobe epilepsy">Frontal lobe epilepsy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rolandic_epilepsy" title="Rolandic epilepsy">Rolandic epilepsy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sleep-related_hypermotor_epilepsy" title="Sleep-related hypermotor epilepsy">Sleep-related hypermotor epilepsy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Panayiotopoulos_syndrome" title="Panayiotopoulos syndrome">Panayiotopoulos syndrome</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vertiginous_epilepsy" title="Vertiginous epilepsy">Vertiginous epilepsy</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Generalised_epilepsy" class="mw-redirect" title="Generalised epilepsy">Generalised</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_tonic%E2%80%93clonic_seizure" title="Generalized tonic–clonic seizure">Tonic–clonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absence_seizure" title="Absence seizure">Absence seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atonic_seizure" title="Atonic seizure">Atonic seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatism_(medicine)" title="Automatism (medicine)">Automatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benign_familial_neonatal_seizures" title="Benign familial neonatal seizures">Benign familial neonatal seizures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lennox%E2%80%93Gastaut_syndrome" title="Lennox–Gastaut syndrome">Lennox–Gastaut syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myoclonic_astatic_epilepsy" title="Myoclonic astatic epilepsy">Myoclonic astatic epilepsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epileptic_spasms" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptic spasms">Epileptic spasms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Febrile_seizure" title="Febrile seizure">Febrile seizure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Status_epilepticus" title="Status epilepticus">Status epilepticus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsia_partialis_continua" title="Epilepsia partialis continua">Epilepsia partialis continua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_partial_status_epilepticus" title="Complex partial status epilepticus">Complex partial status epilepticus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Myoclonic_epilepsy" title="Myoclonic epilepsy">Myoclonic epilepsy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_myoclonus_epilepsy" title="Progressive myoclonus epilepsy">Progressive myoclonus epilepsy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dentatorubral%E2%80%93pallidoluysian_atrophy" title="Dentatorubral–pallidoluysian atrophy">Dentatorubral–pallidoluysian atrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unverricht%E2%80%93Lundborg_disease" title="Unverricht–Lundborg disease">Unverricht–Lundborg disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MERRF_syndrome" title="MERRF syndrome">MERRF syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lafora_disease" title="Lafora disease">Lafora disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_myoclonic_encephalopathy" title="Early myoclonic encephalopathy">Early myoclonic encephalopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenile_myoclonic_epilepsy" title="Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy">Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sudden_unexpected_death_in_epilepsy" title="Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy">Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todd%27s_paresis" title="Todd's paresis">Todd's paresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landau%E2%80%93Kleffner_syndrome" title="Landau–Kleffner syndrome">Landau–Kleffner syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_non-epileptic_seizure" title="Psychogenic non-epileptic seizure">Psychogenic non-epileptic seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_in_animals" title="Epilepsy in animals">Epilepsy in animals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_for_Research_in_Epilepsy" title="Citizens United for Research in Epilepsy">Citizens United for Research in Epilepsy</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_Action" title="Epilepsy Action">Epilepsy Action</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_Action_Australia" title="Epilepsy Action Australia">Epilepsy Action Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_Foundation" title="Epilepsy Foundation">Epilepsy Foundation</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_Outlook" title="Epilepsy Outlook">Epilepsy Outlook</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_Research_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="Epilepsy Research UK">Epilepsy Research UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_Society" title="Epilepsy Society">Epilepsy Society</a> (UK)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=17939">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&oldid=1275836271">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy&oldid=1275836271</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epilepsy" title="Category:Epilepsy">Epilepsy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Disorders_causing_seizures" title="Category:Disorders causing seizures">Disorders causing seizures</a></li><li><a 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