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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Past volcanic coolings</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Past_volcanic_coolings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Past volcanic coolings subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Past_volcanic_coolings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Youngest_Toba_Tuff" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Youngest_Toba_Tuff"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Youngest Toba Tuff</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Youngest_Toba_Tuff-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sturtian_glaciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sturtian_glaciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Sturtian glaciation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sturtian_glaciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Effects on life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanic winter</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">36 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkaniese_winter" title="Vulkaniese winter – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Vulkaniese winter" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="شتاء بركاني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شتاء بركاني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Вулканична зима – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Вулканична зима" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hivern_volc%C3%A0nic" title="Hivern volcànic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Hivern volcànic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%8B%C3%A7%C3%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%85%C4%95%D0%BB%C4%95" title="Вулкан хыççин хĕлĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Вулкан хыççин хĕлĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sope%C4%8Dn%C3%A1_zima" title="Sopečná zima – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sopečná zima" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanischer_Winter" title="Vulkanischer Winter – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vulkanischer Winter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%87%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BC%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ηφαιστειακός χειμώνας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηφαιστειακός χειμώνας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invierno_volc%C3%A1nico" title="Invierno volcánico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Invierno volcánico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A2%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="زمستان آتشفشانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زمستان آتشفشانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiver_volcanique" title="Hiver volcanique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Hiver volcanique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%94%EC%82%B0_%EA%B2%A8%EC%9A%B8" title="화산 겨울 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="화산 겨울" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musim_dingin_vulkanik" title="Musim dingin vulkanik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Musim dingin vulkanik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%A3_%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%A9%D7%99" title="חורף געשי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חורף געשי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanin%C4%97_%C5%BEiema" title="Vulkaninė žiema – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vulkaninė žiema" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanikus_t%C3%A9l" title="Vulkanikus tél – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Vulkanikus tél" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Вулканска зима – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Вулканска зима" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82_%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D3%A9%D0%B2%D3%A9%D0%BB" title="Галт уулын өвөл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Галт уулын өвөл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanische_winter" title="Vulkanische winter – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vulkanische winter" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1%E3%81%AE%E5%86%AC" title="火山の冬 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="火山の冬" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanvinter" title="Vulkanvinter – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vulkanvinter" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iv%C3%A8rn_volcanic" title="Ivèrn volcanic – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ivèrn volcanic" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zima_wulkaniczna" title="Zima wulkaniczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zima wulkaniczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverno_vulc%C3%A2nico" title="Inverno vulcânico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Inverno vulcânico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Вулканическая зима – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вулканическая зима" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimri_vullkanik" title="Dimri vullkanik – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Dimri vullkanik" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_winter" title="Volcanic winter – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Volcanic winter" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanick%C3%A1_zima" title="Vulkanická zima – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vulkanická zima" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulivuorenpurkauksen_vaikutukset_ilmastoon" title="Tulivuorenpurkauksen vaikutukset ilmastoon – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tulivuorenpurkauksen vaikutukset ilmastoon" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanvinter" title="Vulkanvinter – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vulkanvinter" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A4%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F" title="ฤดูหนาวจากภูเขาไฟ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ฤดูหนาวจากภูเขาไฟ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkanik_k%C4%B1%C5%9F" title="Volkanik kış – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Volkanik kış" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Вулканічна зима – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вулканічна зима" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B9a_%C4%91%C3%B4ng_n%C3%BAi_l%E1%BB%ADa" title="Mùa đông núi lửa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Mùa đông núi lửa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C4%B1m%C4%B1stano_volkanik" title="Zımıstano volkanik – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Zımıstano volkanik" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1%E5%86%AC%E5%A4%A9" title="火山冬天 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="火山冬天" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Temperature anomaly event caused by a volcanic eruption</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Volcanic_injection.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Volcanic_injection.jpg/220px-Volcanic_injection.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Volcanic_injection.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>The conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid, which condenses rapidly in the stratosphere to form fine sulfate aerosols.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>volcanic winter</b> is a reduction in global temperatures caused by droplets of <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> obscuring the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> and raising <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a> (increasing the reflection of solar radiation) after a large, sulfur-rich, particularly explosive <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanic eruption</a>. Climate effects are primarily dependent upon the amount of injection of <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">SO<sub>2</sub></a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">H<sub>2</sub>S</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a> where they react with <a href="/wiki/Hydroxide" title="Hydroxide">OH</a> and H<sub>2</sub>O to form H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> on a timescale of a week, and the resulting H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> aerosols produce the dominant radiative effect. Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by <a href="/wiki/Backscatter" title="Backscatter">reflecting solar radiation</a> and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation for several years. Moreover, the cooling trend can be further extended by atmosphere–ice–ocean feedback mechanisms. These feedbacks can continue to maintain the cool climate long after the volcanic aerosols have dissipated. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_process">Physical process</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_winter&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Physical process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An explosive volcanic eruption releases <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> materials in the form of <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">volcanic ash</a> and gases into the atmosphere. While most volcanic ash settles to the ground within a few weeks after the eruption, impacting only the local area for a short duration, the emitted SO<sub>2</sub> can lead to the formation of H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> aerosols in the stratosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobock2000193_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobock2000193-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECole‐Dai2010825_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECole‐Dai2010825-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These aerosols can circle the hemisphere of the eruption source in a matter of weeks and persist with an <a href="/wiki/E-folding" title="E-folding"><i>e</i>-folding decay time</a> of about a year. As a result, they have a radiative impact that can last for several years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobock2000214_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobock2000214-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The subsequent dispersal of a volcanic cloud in the stratosphere and its impact on climate are strongly influenced by several factors, including the season of the eruption,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIacovinoJu-SongSissonLowenstern20168_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIacovinoJu-SongSissonLowenstern20168-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> of the source volcano,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETooheyKrügerSchmidtTimmreck2019100_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETooheyKrügerSchmidtTimmreck2019100-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the injection height.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECole‐Dai2010825–826_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECole‐Dai2010825–826-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the SO<sub>2</sub> injection height remains confined to the troposphere, the resulting H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> aerosols have a residence time of only a few days due to efficient removal through precipitation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECole‐Dai2010825–826_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECole‐Dai2010825–826-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lifetime of H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> aerosols resulting from extratropical eruptions is shorter compared to those from tropical eruptions, due to a longer transport path from the tropics to removal across the mid- or high-latitude <a href="/wiki/Tropopause" title="Tropopause">tropopause</a>, but extratropical eruptions strengthens the hemispheric climate impact by confining the aerosol to a single hemisphere.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETooheyKrügerSchmidtTimmreck2019100_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETooheyKrügerSchmidtTimmreck2019100-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Injections in the winter are also much less radiatively efficient than injections during the summer for high-latitude volcanic eruptions, when the removal of stratospheric aerosols in polar regions is enhanced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIacovinoJu-SongSissonLowenstern20168_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIacovinoJu-SongSissonLowenstern20168-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edvard_Munch,_1893,_The_Scream,_oil,_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard,_91_x_73_cm,_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg/220px-Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg/330px-Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg/440px-Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3223" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>It is speculated that <a href="/wiki/The_Scream" title="The Scream">Munch's famous painting</a> was inspired by the red volcanic aerosol cloud over Oslo produced by the 1892 Awu eruption</figcaption></figure> <p>The sulfate aerosol interacts strongly with <a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">solar radiation</a> through <a href="/wiki/Scattering" title="Scattering">scattering</a>, giving rise to remarkable <a href="/wiki/List_of_atmospheric_optical_phenomena" title="List of atmospheric optical phenomena">atmospheric optical phenomena</a> in the stratosphere. These phenomena include <a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">solar dimming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corona_(optical_phenomenon)" title="Corona (optical phenomenon)">coronae</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bishop%27s_Ring" title="Bishop's Ring">Bishop's rings</a>, peculiar twilight coloration, and dark total <a href="/wiki/Lunar_eclipse" title="Lunar eclipse">lunar eclipses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobock2000194–197_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobock2000194–197-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaOppenheimerLavigne202390_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaOppenheimerLavigne202390-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historical records that documented these atmospheric events are indications of volcanic winters and date back to periods preceding the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaillie1991238–242_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaillie1991238–242-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Surface temperature observations following historic eruptions show that there is no correlation between eruption size, as represented by the <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_explosivity_index" title="Volcanic explosivity index">VEI</a> or eruption volume, and the severity of the climate cooling. This is because eruption size does not correlate with the amount of SO<sub>2</sub> emitted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidtBlack2022628_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidtBlack2022628-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long-term_positive_feedback">Long-term positive feedback</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_winter&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Long-term positive feedback"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It has been proposed that the cooling effects of volcanic eruptions can extend beyond the initial several years, lasting for decades to possibly even millennia. This prolonged impact is hypothesized to be a result of positive feedback mechanisms involving ice and ocean dynamics, even after the H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> aerosols have dissipated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobock2000209_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobock2000209-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhongMillerOtto-BliesnerHolland20112373_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhongMillerOtto-BliesnerHolland20112373-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaldiniBrownMcElwaine20151_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldiniBrownMcElwaine20151-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the first few years following a volcanic eruption, the presence of H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> aerosols can induce a significant cooling effect. This cooling can lead to a widespread lowering of <a href="/wiki/Snow_line" title="Snow line">snowline</a>, enabling the rapid expansion of <a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">sea ice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ice_cap" title="Ice cap">ice caps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">continental glacier</a>. As a result, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">ocean temperatures</a> decrease, and surface albedo increases, further reinforcing the expansion of sea ice, ice caps, and glacier. These processes create a strong positive feedback loop, allowing the cooling trend to persist over centennial-scale or even longer periods of time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhongMillerOtto-BliesnerHolland20112373_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhongMillerOtto-BliesnerHolland20112373-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been proposed that a cluster of closely spaced, large volcanic eruptions triggered or amplified the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillerGeirsdóttirZhongLarsen20121_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillerGeirsdóttirZhongLarsen20121-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age" title="Late Antique Little Ice Age">Late Antique Little Ice Age</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBüntgenMyglanLjungqvistMcCormick20161_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBüntgenMyglanLjungqvistMcCormick20161-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stadial" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadial">stadials</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayBramallPrice20046344–6345_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayBramallPrice20046344–6345-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas" title="Younger Dryas">Younger Dryas</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaldiniBrownMawdsley2018974–977_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldiniBrownMawdsley2018974–977-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_event" title="Heinrich event">Heinrich events</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaldiniBrownMcElwaine20152–5_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldiniBrownMcElwaine20152–5-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Dansgaard%E2%80%93Oeschger_event" title="Dansgaard–Oeschger event">Dansgaard-Oeschger events</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELohmannSvensson20222033–2037_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELohmannSvensson20222033–2037-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through the atmosphere-ice-ocean positive feedbacks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weathering_effects">Weathering effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_winter&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Weathering effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Timeframes_of_Different_Volcanic_Cooling_Mechanisms.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Timeframes_of_Different_Volcanic_Cooling_Mechanisms.png/380px-Timeframes_of_Different_Volcanic_Cooling_Mechanisms.png" decoding="async" width="380" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Timeframes_of_Different_Volcanic_Cooling_Mechanisms.png/570px-Timeframes_of_Different_Volcanic_Cooling_Mechanisms.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Timeframes_of_Different_Volcanic_Cooling_Mechanisms.png/760px-Timeframes_of_Different_Volcanic_Cooling_Mechanisms.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Timescales of various volcanic cooling mechanisms on climate</figcaption></figure> <p>The weathering of a sufficiently large volume of rapidly erupted volcanic materials has been proposed as an important factor in Earth's <a href="/wiki/Carbonate%E2%80%93silicate_cycle" title="Carbonate–silicate cycle">silicate weathering</a> cycle, which operates on a timescale of tens of millions of years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesJerramSvensenGrove201614–16_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesJerramSvensenGrove201614–16-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this process, weathered <a href="/wiki/Silicate_mineral" title="Silicate mineral">silicate minerals</a> react with carbon dioxide and water, resulting in the formation of <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_carbonate" title="Magnesium carbonate">magnesium carbonate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>. These carbonates are then removed from the atmosphere and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">sequestrated</a> on the ocean floor. The eruption of a large volume of volcanic materials can <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_weathering" title="Enhanced weathering">enhance weathering</a> processes, thereby lowering atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> levels and contributing to global temperature reduction. </p><p>The rapid emplacement of <a href="/wiki/Mafic" title="Mafic">mafic</a> <a href="/wiki/Large_igneous_province" title="Large igneous province">large igneous provinces</a> has the potential to cause a swift decline in atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> content, leading to a multi-million-year-long <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth" title="Greenhouse and icehouse Earth">icehouse</a> climate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoddérisDonnadieuNédélecDupré20031_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoddérisDonnadieuNédélecDupré20031-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoxHalversonStevensonVokaty201689_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoxHalversonStevensonVokaty201689-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A notable example is the <a href="/wiki/Sturtian_glaciation" title="Sturtian glaciation">Sturtian glaciation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is considered the most severe and widespread known glacial event in Earth's history. This glaciation is believed to have been caused by the weathering of erupted <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Large_Igneous_Province" title="Franklin Large Igneous Province">Franklin Large Igneous Province</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoxHalversonStevensonVokaty201689_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoxHalversonStevensonVokaty201689-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuMacdonaldSchmitzRainbird20221_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuMacdonaldSchmitzRainbird20221-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Past_volcanic_coolings">Past volcanic coolings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_winter&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Past volcanic coolings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Dendroclimatology" title="Dendroclimatology">Tree-ring-based temperature reconstructions</a>, historical records of dust veils, and <a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">ice cores</a> studies have confirmed that some of the coldest years during the last five millennia were directly caused by massive volcanic injections of SO<sub>2</sub>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiglWinstrupMcConnellWelten20155_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiglWinstrupMcConnellWelten20155-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalzerHughes200761–63_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzerHughes200761–63-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Volcanic_winter_of_536,_1258,_1453,_1816.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Volcanic_winter_of_536%2C_1258%2C_1453%2C_1816.png/550px-Volcanic_winter_of_536%2C_1258%2C_1453%2C_1816.png" decoding="async" width="550" height="367" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Volcanic_winter_of_536%2C_1258%2C_1453%2C_1816.png/825px-Volcanic_winter_of_536%2C_1258%2C_1453%2C_1816.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Volcanic_winter_of_536%2C_1258%2C_1453%2C_1816.png/1100px-Volcanic_winter_of_536%2C_1258%2C_1453%2C_1816.png 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Northern Hemisphere coolings are observed following major volcanic eruptions, and temperatures are reconstructed from tree-ring data.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiglTooheyMcConnellCole-Dai2021_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiglTooheyMcConnellCole-Dai2021-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaLudlowOppenheimer2020_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaLudlowOppenheimer2020-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Hemispheric temperature anomalies resulting from volcanic eruptions have primarily been reconstructed based on tree-ring data for the past <a href="/wiki/Temperature_record_of_the_last_2,000_years" title="Temperature record of the last 2,000 years">two millennia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaLudlowOppenheimer2020_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaLudlowOppenheimer2020-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilsonAnchukaitisBriffaBüntgen201611–12_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilsonAnchukaitisBriffaBüntgen201611–12-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneiderSmerdonBüntgenWilson20154560–4561_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneiderSmerdonBüntgenWilson20154560–4561-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBüntgenAllenAnchukaitisArseneault20215–6_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBüntgenAllenAnchukaitisArseneault20215–6-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For earlier periods in the <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a>, the identification of frost rings that coincide with large ice core sulfate spikes serves as an indicator of severe volcanic winters.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaMarcheHirschboeck1984121_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaMarcheHirschboeck1984121-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quantification of volcanic coolings further back in time during the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period" title="Last Glacial Period">Last Glacial Period</a> is made possible by annually resolved <a href="/wiki/%CE%9418O" title="Δ18O">δ<sup>18</sup>O</a> records.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELohmannLinVintherRasmussen20231_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELohmannLinVintherRasmussen20231-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a non-exhaustive compilation of notable and consequential coolings that have been definitively attributed to volcanic aerosols, although the source volcanos of the aerosols are rarely identified. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Northern Hemisphere cooling episodes definitively attributed to volcanic eruptions </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Cooling episode (CE/BCE) </th> <th>Volcanic eruptions </th> <th>N.H. peak temperature anomaly </th> <th>Notes </th> <th>Ref. </th></tr> <tr> <td>1991–1993 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1991_eruption_of_Mount_Pinatubo" title="1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo">1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo</a> </td> <td>−0.5 K </td> <td> </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESodenWetheraldStenchikovRobock2002728_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESodenWetheraldStenchikovRobock2002728-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1883–1886 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1883_eruption_of_Krakatoa" title="1883 eruption of Krakatoa">1883 eruption of Krakatoa</a> </td> <td>−0.3 K </td> <td> </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERampinoSelf1982132_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERampinoSelf1982132-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1809–1820 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1808_mystery_eruption" title="1808 mystery eruption">1808 mystery eruptions</a>, <a href="/wiki/1815_eruption_of_Mount_Tambora" title="1815 eruption of Mount Tambora">1815 eruption of Mount Tambora</a> </td> <td>−1.7 K </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Year_Without_a_Summer" title="Year Without a Summer">Year Without a Summer</a> </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaLudlowOppenheimer2020_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaLudlowOppenheimer2020-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1453–1460 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1452/1453_mystery_eruption" title="1452/1453 mystery eruption">1452 N.H. mystery eruption</a>, <a href="/wiki/1458_mystery_eruption" title="1458 mystery eruption">1458 S.H. mystery eruption</a> </td> <td>−1.2 K </td> <td>The attribution of the 1458 eruption to <a href="/wiki/Kuwae" title="Kuwae">Kuwae Caldera</a> remains controversial. </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaLudlowOppenheimer2020_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaLudlowOppenheimer2020-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1258–1260 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1257_Samalas_eruption" title="1257 Samalas eruption">1257 Samalas eruption</a> </td> <td>−1.3 K </td> <td>The single largest sulfur injection of the Common Era. </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaLudlowOppenheimer2020_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaLudlowOppenheimer2020-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_winter_of_536" title="Volcanic winter of 536">536–546</a> </td> <td>535 N.H. mystery eruptions, 540 tropical mystery eruption </td> <td>−1.4 K </td> <td>The first phase of Late Antique Little Ice Age. </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBüntgenMyglanLjungqvistMcCormick20161_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBüntgenMyglanLjungqvistMcCormick20161-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaLudlowOppenheimer2020_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaLudlowOppenheimer2020-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>−43–41 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mount_Okmok" title="Mount Okmok">Okmok II</a> </td> <td>−2–3 K </td> <td> </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcConnellSiglPlunkettBurke20203_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcConnellSiglPlunkettBurke20203-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>During the Last Glacial Period, volcanic coolings comparable to the largest volcanic coolings during the Common Era (e.g. Tambora, Samalas) are inferred based on the magnitudes of δ<sup>18</sup>O anomalies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELohmannLinVintherRasmussen202310_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELohmannLinVintherRasmussen202310-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, in the period 12,000–32,000 years ago, the peak δ<sup>18</sup>O cooling anomaly of the eruptions exceeds the anomaly after the largest eruptions in the Common Era.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELohmannLinVintherRasmussen202311_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELohmannLinVintherRasmussen202311-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One Last Glacial Period eruption that have gained significant attention is the eruption of the Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT), which has sparked vigorous debates regarding its climate effects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Youngest_Toba_Tuff">Youngest Toba Tuff</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_winter&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Youngest Toba Tuff"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Toba_catastrophe_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Toba catastrophe theory">Toba catastrophe theory</a></div> <p>The eruption of YTT from <a href="/wiki/Lake_Toba" title="Lake Toba">Toba Caldera</a>, 74,000 years ago, is regarded as the largest known <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a> eruption<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChesnerRoseDeinoDrake1991200_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChesnerRoseDeinoDrake1991200-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and two orders of magnitude greater than the magma volume of the largest historical eruption, Tambora.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChesnerRoseDeinoDrake1991202_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChesnerRoseDeinoDrake1991202-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exceptional magnitude of this eruption has prompted sustained debate as to its global and regional impact on climate. </p><p>Sulfate concentration and isotope measurements from polar ice cores taken around the time of 74,000 years BP have identified four atmospheric aerosol events that could potentially be attributed to YTT.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvenssonBiglerBlunierClausen2013755_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvenssonBiglerBlunierClausen2013755-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The calculated stratospheric sulfate loadings for these four events range from 219 to 535 million tonnes, which is 1 to 3 times greater than that of the Samalas eruption in 1257 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELinAbbottSiglSteffensen20235_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELinAbbottSiglSteffensen20235-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Global climate models simulate peak global mean cooling of 2.3 to 4.1 K for this amount of erupted sulfate aerosols, and complete temperature recovery does not occur within 10 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackLamarqueMarshSchmidt20213_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackLamarqueMarshSchmidt20213-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Empirical evidence for cooling induced by YTT, however, is mixed. YTT coincides with the onset of Greenland Stadial 20 (GS-20), which is characterized by a 1,500-year cooling period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrickBurkeHutchisonKohno20212130–2132_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrickBurkeHutchisonKohno20212130–2132-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> GS-20 is considered the most isotopically extreme<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvenssonBiglerBlunierClausen2013760_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvenssonBiglerBlunierClausen2013760-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and coldest stadial,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliamsAmbrosevan_der_KaarsRuehlemann2009295_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamsAmbrosevan_der_KaarsRuehlemann2009295-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as having the weakest Asian <a href="/wiki/Monsoon_of_South_Asia" title="Monsoon of South Asia">monsoon</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuChengXuYang20191_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuChengXuYang20191-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the last 100,000 years. This timing has led some to speculate on the relation between YTT and GS-20.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZielinskiMayewskiMeekerWhitlow1996840_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZielinskiMayewskiMeekerWhitlow1996840-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolyakAsmeromLachniet2017843_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolyakAsmeromLachniet2017843-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stratigraphic position of YTT in relation to the GS-20 transition suggests that the stadial would have occurred without YTT, as the cooling was already underway.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZielinskiMayewskiMeekerWhitlow1996839–840_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZielinskiMayewskiMeekerWhitlow1996839–840-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrickBurkeHutchisonKohno20212119_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrickBurkeHutchisonKohno20212119-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is the possibility that YTT contributed to the extremity of GS-20.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrickBurkeHutchisonKohno20212119_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrickBurkeHutchisonKohno20212119-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenkingShackletonBauskaBuffen20225_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenkingShackletonBauskaBuffen20225-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China Sea</a> shows a 1 K cooling over 1,000 years following the deposition of YTT,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuangZhaoWangWei20013915_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuangZhaoWangWei20013915-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a> shows no discernible impact.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchulzEmeisErlenkeuservon_Rad200222_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchulzEmeisErlenkeuservon_Rad200222-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In India and the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a>, initial cooling and prolonged desiccation are observed above the YTT ash layer,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliamsAmbrosevan_der_KaarsRuehlemann2009295_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamsAmbrosevan_der_KaarsRuehlemann2009295-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it is argued that these environmental changes were already occurring prior to YTT.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetragliaDitchfieldJonesKorisettar2012119_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetragliaDitchfieldJonesKorisettar2012119-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lake_Malawi" title="Lake Malawi">Lake Malawi</a> sediments do not provide evidence supporting a volcanic winter within a few years after the eruption of YTT,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaneChornJohnson20138025_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaneChornJohnson20138025-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacksonStoneCohenYost2015823_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacksonStoneCohenYost2015823-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYostJacksonStoneCohen201875_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYostJacksonStoneCohen201875-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the resolution of the sediments is questioned due to sediment mixing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmbrose2019183–185_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmbrose2019183–185-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Directly above the YTT layer in Lake Malawi, there is evidence of a 2,000-year-long <a href="/wiki/Megadrought" title="Megadrought">megadrought</a> and cooling period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmbrose2019187–188_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmbrose2019187–188-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Greenland ice cores identify a 110-year period of accelerated cooling immediately following what is likely the YTT aerosol event.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELinAbbottSiglSteffensen20237_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELinAbbottSiglSteffensen20237-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sturtian_glaciation">Sturtian glaciation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_winter&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sturtian glaciation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The enhanced weathering of continental flood basalts, which erupted just prior to the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Sturtian_glaciation" title="Sturtian glaciation">Sturtian glaciation</a> at 717 million years ago, is recognized as the trigger for the most severe glaciation in Earth's history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuMacdonaldSchmitzRainbird20221_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuMacdonaldSchmitzRainbird20221-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoxHalversonStevensonVokaty201689_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoxHalversonStevensonVokaty201689-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoddérisDonnadieuNédélecDupré20031_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoddérisDonnadieuNédélecDupré20031-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, Earth's surface temperatures dropped below the freezing point of water everywhere,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmanAbbotAshkenazyBenn20172_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmanAbbotAshkenazyBenn20172-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ice rapidly advanced from low latitudes to the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>, covering a worldwide extent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanLiZhuChen2014401_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanLiZhuChen2014401-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This glaciation lasted almost 60 million years, from 717 to 659 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchellGernonNordsvanCox2019381_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchellGernonNordsvanCox2019381-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a> dates the rapid emplacement of 5,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> (1,900,000 sq mi) Franklin large igneous province just 1 million year before the onset of Sturtian glaciation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuMacdonaldSchmitzRainbird20221_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuMacdonaldSchmitzRainbird20221-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multiple large igneous provinces on the scale of 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> (390,000 sq mi) were also emplaced on <a href="/wiki/Rodinia" title="Rodinia">Rodinia</a> between 850 and 720 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoxHalversonStevensonVokaty201691_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoxHalversonStevensonVokaty201691-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuMitchellYangZhou20221_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuMitchellYangZhou20221-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Weathering of massive amount of fresh mafic materials initiated runaway cooling and ice-albedo feedback after 1 million year. Chemical isotopic compositions show a massive flux of weathered freshly erupted materials entering the ocean, coinciding with the eruptions of large igneous provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERooneyMacdonaldStraussDudás201455_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERooneyMacdonaldStraussDudás201455-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoxHalversonStevensonVokaty201692–94_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoxHalversonStevensonVokaty201692–94-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simulations demonstrate that the increased weatherability led to drop in atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> of the order of 1,320 ppm and an 8 K cooling of global temperatures, triggering the most extraordinary episode of climate change in the geologic record.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonnadieuGoddérisRamsteinNédélec2004303_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnadieuGoddérisRamsteinNédélec2004303-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_on_life">Effects on life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_winter&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Effects on life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/1991_eruption_of_Mount_Pinatubo#Effects_on_agriculture" title="1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo">1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo § Effects on agriculture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Toba_zoom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Toba_zoom.jpg/220px-Toba_zoom.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Toba_zoom.jpg/330px-Toba_zoom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Toba_zoom.jpg/440px-Toba_zoom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano">supervolcano</a> caldera <a href="/wiki/Lake_Toba" title="Lake Toba">Lake Toba</a> </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Population_bottleneck" title="Population bottleneck">Population bottlenecks</a>—a sharp decrease in the population of a <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> population—have been attributed to volcanic winters by some researchers. Such events may diminish populations to "levels low enough for evolutionary changes, which occur much faster in small populations, to produce rapid population differentiation".<sup id="cite_ref-Burroughs_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burroughs-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the Lake Toba bottleneck, many species showed the massive genetic effects of this decrease in the gene pool; Toba may have reduced the human population to between 15,000 and 40,000, or even fewer.<sup id="cite_ref-Burroughs_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burroughs-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_winter&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_winter" title="Impact winter">Impact winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Nuclear winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth" title="Timeline of volcanism on Earth">Timeline of volcanism on Earth</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_winter&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Sturtian glaciation is controversially referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Snowball_Earth" title="Snowball Earth">Snowball Earth</a>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Each reconstruction results different magnitudes of volcanic coolings</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frost damage implies a rare occurrence of temperatures dropping below freezing during the <a href="/wiki/Growing_season" title="Growing season">growing season</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%CE%9418O" title="Δ18O">δ<sup>18</sup>O</a> record is proxy of local temperatures.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_winter&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobock2000193-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobock2000193_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobock2000">Robock 2000</a>, p. 193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECole‐Dai2010825-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECole‐Dai2010825_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCole‐Dai2010">Cole‐Dai 2010</a>, p. 825.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFCole‐Dai2010 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobock2000214-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobock2000214_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobock2000">Robock 2000</a>, p. 214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIacovinoJu-SongSissonLowenstern20168-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIacovinoJu-SongSissonLowenstern20168_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIacovinoJu-SongSissonLowenstern20168_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIacovinoJu-SongSissonLowenstern2016">Iacovino et al. 2016</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETooheyKrügerSchmidtTimmreck2019100-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETooheyKrügerSchmidtTimmreck2019100_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETooheyKrügerSchmidtTimmreck2019100_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTooheyKrügerSchmidtTimmreck2019">Toohey et al. 2019</a>, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECole‐Dai2010825–826-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECole‐Dai2010825–826_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECole‐Dai2010825–826_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCole‐Dai2010">Cole‐Dai 2010</a>, pp. 825–826.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFCole‐Dai2010 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobock2000194–197-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobock2000194–197_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobock2000">Robock 2000</a>, pp. 194–197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaOppenheimerLavigne202390-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuilletCoronaOppenheimerLavigne202390_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuilletCoronaOppenheimerLavigne2023">Guillet et al. 2023</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaillie1991238–242-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaillie1991238–242_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaillie1991">Baillie 1991</a>, pp. 238–242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidtBlack2022628-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidtBlack2022628_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmidtBlack2022">Schmidt & Black 2022</a>, p. 628.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobock2000209-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a 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<i>Climate Change in Prehistory: The End of the Reign of Chaos,</i> Cambridge University Press, p. 139 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon 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.citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521824095" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521824095">978-0521824095</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_winter&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmbrose2019" class="citation 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A.; Mayewski, P. A.; Meeker, L. D.; Whitlow, S.; Twickler, M. S.; Taylor, K. (1996-04-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/96GL00706">"Potential atmospheric impact of the Toba Mega-Eruption ~71,000 years ago"</a>. <i>Geophysical Research Letters</i>. <b>23</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">837–</span>840. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996GeoRL..23..837Z">1996GeoRL..23..837Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F96GL00706">10.1029/96GL00706</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Potential+atmospheric+impact+of+the+Toba+Mega-Eruption+~71%2C000+years+ago&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E837-%3C%2Fspan%3E840&rft.date=1996-04-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F96GL00706&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996GeoRL..23..837Z&rft.aulast=Zielinski&rft.aufirst=G.+A.&rft.au=Mayewski%2C+P.+A.&rft.au=Meeker%2C+L.+D.&rft.au=Whitlow%2C+S.&rft.au=Twickler%2C+M.+S.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.wiley.com%2F10.1029%2F96GL00706&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVolcanic+winter" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_winter&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRampinoSelfStothers1988" class="citation journal cs1">Rampino, M R; Self, S; Stothers, R B (May 1988). "Volcanic Winters". <i>Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences</i>. <b>16</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">73–</span>99. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988AREPS..16...73R">1988AREPS..16...73R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ea.16.050188.000445">10.1146/annurev.ea.16.050188.000445</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0084-6597">0084-6597</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Earth+and+Planetary+Sciences&rft.atitle=Volcanic+Winters&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E73-%3C%2Fspan%3E99&rft.date=1988-05&rft.issn=0084-6597&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ea.16.050188.000445&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1988AREPS..16...73R&rft.aulast=Rampino&rft.aufirst=M+R&rft.au=Self%2C+S&rft.au=Stothers%2C+R+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVolcanic+winter" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_winter&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/volcanic_winter" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/volcanic winter">volcanic winter</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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aria-labelledby="Volcano_topics60" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Volcano_topics" title="Template:Volcano topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Volcano_topics" title="Template talk:Volcano topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Volcano_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Volcano topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Volcano_topics60" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">Volcano topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decade_Volcanoes" title="Decade Volcanoes">Decade Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prediction_of_volcanic_activity" title="Prediction of volcanic activity">Prediction of volcanic activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_explosivity_index" title="Volcanic explosivity index">Volcanic explosivity index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_Seven_Summits" title="Volcanic Seven Summits">Volcanic Seven Summits</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Volcanic winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcano_Number" title="Volcano Number">Volcano Number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcano_observatory" title="Volcano observatory">Volcano observatory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_volcanoes" title="Lists of volcanoes">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extraterrestrial_volcanoes" title="List of extraterrestrial volcanoes">Extraterrestrial volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_large_volume_volcanic_eruptions_in_the_Basin_and_Range_Province" title="List of large volume volcanic eruptions in the Basin and Range Province">Large volume volcanic eruptions in the Basin and Range Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_large_volcanic_eruptions" title="List of large volcanic eruptions">Large volcanic eruptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_volcanic_eruptions" title="List of largest volcanic eruptions">Largest volcanic eruptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth" title="Timeline of volcanism on Earth">Earth timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Quaternary_volcanic_eruptions" title="List of Quaternary volcanic eruptions">Quaternary volcanic eruptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanic_eruption_deaths" title="List of volcanic eruption deaths">Volcanic eruption deaths</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Global_catastrophic_risks750" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Template:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Template talk:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Global_catastrophic_risks750" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risks</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberattack" title="Cyberattack">Cyberattack</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberterrorism" title="Cyberterrorism">Cyberterrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybergeddon" title="Cybergeddon">Cybergeddon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_goo" title="Gray goo">Gray goo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_applications_of_nanotechnology#Weapons" title="Industrial applications of nanotechnology">Nanoweapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_bombardment" title="Kinetic bombardment">Kinetic bombardment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy_weapon" title="Kinetic energy weapon">Kinetic energy weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction" title="Mutual assured destruction">Mutual assured destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Hand" title="Dead Hand">Dead Hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_Clock" title="Doomsday Clock">Doomsday Clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_device" title="Doomsday device">Doomsday device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter_weapon" title="Antimatter weapon">Antimatter weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</a> (EMP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_of_high-energy_particle_collision_experiments" title="Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments">Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micro_black_hole" title="Micro black hole">Micro black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strangelet" title="Strangelet">Strangelet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_intelligence" title="Synthetic intelligence">Synthetic intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AI_takeover" title="AI takeover">AI takeover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">Existential risk from artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sociological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic hazard">Anthropogenic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collapsology" title="Collapsology">Collapsology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_argument" title="Doomsday argument">Doomsday argument</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-indication_assumption_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-referencing_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_collapse" title="Economic collapse">Economic collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order (conspiracy theory)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_bomb" title="Cobalt bomb">cobalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">Societal collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_collapse" title="State collapse">State collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_III" title="World War III">World War III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_apocalypse" title="Climate apocalypse">Ecological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate change</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclysmic_pole_shift_hypothesis" title="Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis">Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Climate change and civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk from climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">Flood basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_terrestrial_stilling" title="Global terrestrial stilling">Global terrestrial stilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercane" title="Hypercane">Hypercane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">Ice age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano">Supervolcano</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verneshot" title="Verneshot">Verneshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">Human extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinction_events" title="List of extinction events">List of extinction events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_erosion" title="Genetic erosion">Genetic erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">Decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">Decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_risk" title="Biotechnology risk">Biotechnology risk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Bioterrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_collapse_disorder" title="Colony collapse disorder">Colony collapse disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_contamination" title="Interplanetary contamination">Interplanetary contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator_decline" title="Pollinator decline">Pollinator decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">Overfishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Crunch" title="Big Crunch">Big Crunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Rip" title="Big Rip">Big Rip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">Coronal mass ejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_phase_transition" title="Cosmological phase transition">Cosmological phase transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_vacuum_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="False vacuum decay">False vacuum decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">Heat death of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay">Proton decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_black_hole" title="Virtual black hole">Virtual black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">Impact event</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Asteroid impact avoidance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_prediction" title="Asteroid impact prediction">Asteroid impact prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth object</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_winter" title="Impact winter">winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_planet" title="Rogue planet">Rogue planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_star" title="Intergalactic star">Rogue star</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_supernova" title="Near-Earth supernova">Near-Earth supernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_collision" title="Stellar collision">Stellar collision</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Ages of Buddhism">Three Ages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_eschatology" title="Hindu eschatology">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalki" title="Kalki">Kalki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali_Yuga" title="Kali Yuga">Kali Yuga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Enoch" title="Book of Enoch">1 Enoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abomination_of_desolation" title="Abomination of desolation">Abomination of desolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy_of_Seventy_Weeks" title="Prophecy of Seventy Weeks">Prophecy of Seventy Weeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Futurism_(Christianity)" title="Futurism (Christianity)">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(Christianity)" title="Historicism (Christianity)">Historicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicist_interpretations_of_the_Book_of_Revelation" title="Historicist interpretations of the Book of Revelation">Interpretations of Revelation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_(Christian_eschatology)" title="Idealism (Christian eschatology)"> Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterism" title="Preterism">Preterism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Esdras" title="2 Esdras">2 Esdras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_the_Thessalonians" title="Second Epistle to the Thessalonians">2 Thessalonians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Man_of_sin" title="Man of sin">Man of sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katechon" title="Katechon">Katechon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antichrist" title="Antichrist">Antichrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Events_of_Revelation" title="Events of Revelation">Events</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Horsemen_of_the_Apocalypse" title="Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse">Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_of_fire" title="Lake of fire">Lake of fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Number_of_the_beast" title="Number of the beast">Number of the Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_bowls" title="Seven bowls">Seven bowls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_seals" title="Seven seals">Seven seals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beast_(Revelation)" title="The Beast (Revelation)">The Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_witnesses" title="Two witnesses">Two witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Heaven" title="War in Heaven">War in Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon" title="Whore of Babylon">Whore of Babylon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Apostasy" title="Great Apostasy">Great Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Earth_(Christianity)" title="New Earth (Christianity)">New Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem" title="New Jerusalem">New Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivet_Discourse" title="Olivet Discourse">Olivet Discourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Tribulation" title="Great Tribulation">Great Tribulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_perdition" title="Son of perdition">Son of perdition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sheep_and_the_Goats" title="The Sheep and the Goats">Sheep and Goats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qa%27im_Al_Muhammad" title="Qa'im Al Muhammad">Al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beast_of_the_Earth" title="Beast of the Earth">Beast of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn" title="Dhu al-Qarnayn">Dhu al-Qarnayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhul-Suwayqatayn" title="Dhul-Suwayqatayn">Dhul-Suwayqatayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Masih_ad-Dajjal" title="Al-Masih ad-Dajjal">Dajjal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israfil" title="Israfil">Israfil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufyani" title="Sufyani">Sufyani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">War of Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Temple" title="Third Temple">Third Temple</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar%C3%B6k" title="Ragnarök">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frashokereti" title="Frashokereti">Zoroastrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saoshyant" title="Saoshyant">Saoshyant</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_end_times_prediction" title="2011 end times prediction">2011 end times prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypse" title="Apocalypse">Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature" title="Apocalyptic literature">Apocalyptic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armageddon" title="Armageddon">Armageddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_moon_prophecy" title="Blood moon prophecy">Blood moon prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Changes" title="Earth Changes">Earth Changes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">End time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dates_predicted_for_apocalyptic_events" title="List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events">List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messianism" title="Messianism">Messianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messianic_Age" title="Messianic Age">Messianic Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">Millenarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennialism" title="Millennialism">Millennialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premillennialism" title="Premillennialism">Premillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amillennialism" title="Amillennialism">Amillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmillennialism" title="Postmillennialism">Postmillennialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemesis_(hypothetical_star)" title="Nemesis (hypothetical star)">Nemesis (hypothetical star)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapture" title="Rapture">Rapture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rapture#Prewrath_premillennialism" title="Rapture">Prewrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posttribulation_rapture" title="Posttribulation rapture">Posttribulation rapture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_resurrection" title="Universal resurrection">Resurrection of the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_to_come" title="World to come">World to come</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fictional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alien_invasion" title="Alien invasion">Alien invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_films" title="List of apocalyptic films">List of apocalyptic films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">Climate fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_film" title="Disaster film">Disaster films</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disaster_films" title="List of disaster films">List of disaster films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zombie_apocalypse" title="Zombie apocalypse">Zombie apocalypse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zombie" title="Zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_the_Study_of_Existential_Risk" title="Centre for the Study of Existential Risk">Centre for the Study of Existential Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Humanity_Institute" title="Future of Humanity Institute">Future of Humanity Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Life_Institute" title="Future of Life Institute">Future of Life Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Threat_Initiative" title="Nuclear Threat Initiative">Nuclear Threat Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster" title="Disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a 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