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Rainbands in [[tropical cyclone]]s can be either [[Nimbostratus cloud|stratiform]] or [[atmospheric convection|convective]] and are curved in shape. They consist of showers and thunderstorms, and along with the eyewall and the [[Eye (cyclone)|eye]], they make up a tropical cyclone. The extent of rainbands around a tropical cyclone can help determine the cyclone's intensity. Rainbands spawned near and ahead of [[cold front]]s can be [[squall line]]s which are able to produce [[tornado]]es. Rainbands associated with cold fronts can be warped by mountain barriers perpendicular to the front's orientation due to the formation of a low-level [[barrier jet]]. Bands of thunderstorms can form with [[sea breeze]] and [[land breeze]] boundaries, if enough moisture is present. If sea breeze rainbands become active enough just ahead of a cold front, they can mask the location of the cold front itself. Banding within the comma head precipitation pattern of an [[extratropical cyclone]] can yield significant amounts of [[rain]] or [[snow]]. Behind extratropical cyclones, rainbands can form downwind of relative warm bodies of water such as the [[Great Lakes]]. If the atmosphere is cold enough, these rainbands can yield heavy [[snow]]. ==Extratropical cyclones== [[File:Feb242007 blizzard.gif|thumb|right|A February 24, 2007 radar image of a large extratropical cyclonic storm system at its peak over the central United States. Note the band of thunderstorms along its trailing cold front.]] {{See also|Extratropical cyclone|Lake effect snow|Squall line}} Rainbands in advance of warm [[occluded front]]s and [[warm front]]s are associated with weak upward motion,<ref>Owen Hertzman (1988). [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988PhDT.......110H Three-Dimensional Kinematics of Rainbands in Midlatitude Cyclones.] Retrieved on 2008-12-24</ref> and tend to be wide and stratiform in nature.<ref>Yuh-Lang Lin (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=4KXtnQ3bDeEC&dq=sea+breeze+rainbands&pg=PA405 Mesoscale Dynamics.] Retrieved on 2008-12-25.</ref> In an atmosphere with rich low level moisture and vertical [[wind shear]],<ref>Richard H. Grumm (2006). [http://nws.met.psu.edu/severe/2006/16Nov2006.pdf 16 November Narrow Frontal Rain band Floods and severe weather.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720032822/http://nws.met.psu.edu/severe/2006/16Nov2006.pdf |date=2011-07-20 }} Retrieved on 2008-12-26.</ref> narrow, convective rainbands known as [[squall line]]s form generally in the [[cyclone]]'s warm sector, ahead of strong cold fronts associated with extratropical cyclones.<ref>Glossary of Meteorology (2009). [http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=prefrontal-squall-line1 Prefrontal squall line.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070817224959/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=prefrontal-squall-line1 |date=2007-08-17 }} Retrieved on 2008-12-24.</ref> Wider rain bands can occur behind cold fronts, which tend to have more stratiform, and less convective, precipitation.<ref>K. A. Browning and Robert J. Gurney (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=DO5K1NK_ZewC&dq=when+do+wide+rain+bands+form+near+cold+fronts%3F&pg=PA117 Global Energy and Water Cycles.] Retrieved on 2008-12-26.</ref> Within the cold sector north to northwest of a cyclone center, in colder cyclones, [[microscale meteorology|small scale]], or [[mesoscale meteorology|mesoscale]], bands of heavy snow can occur within a cyclone's comma head precipitation pattern with a width of {{convert|20|mi|km|order=flip}} to {{convert|50|mi|km|order=flip}}.<ref>KELLY HEIDBREDER (2007). [http://www.theweatherprediction.com/weatherpapers/023/index.html Mesoscale snow banding.] Retrieved on 2008-12-24.</ref> These bands in the comma head are associated with areas of frontogensis, or zones of strengthening temperature contrast.<ref>David R. Novak, Lance F. Bosart, Daniel Keyser, and Jeff S. Waldstreicher (2002). [http://cstar.cestm.albany.edu/CAP_Projects/Project4/Banded%20Precip/novakWAF.pdf A CLIMATOLOGICAL AND COMPOSITE STUDY OF COLD SEASON BANDED PRECIPITATION IN THE NORTHEAST UNITED STATES.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719134657/http://cstar.cestm.albany.edu/CAP_Projects/Project4/Banded%20Precip/novakWAF.pdf |date=2011-07-19 }} Retrieved on 2008-12-26.</ref> Southwest of [[extratropical cyclone]]s, curved flow bringing cold air across the relatively warm [[Great Lakes]] can lead to narrow [[lake-effect snow]] bands which bring significant localized snowfall.<ref>{{cite web|author=B. Geerts|year=1998|url=http://www-das.uwyo.edu/~geerts/cwx/notes/chap10/lake_effect_snow.html|title=Lake Effect Snow|access-date=2008-12-24|publisher=[[University of Wyoming]]}}</ref> ===Narrow cold-frontal rainband=== A narrow cold-frontal rainband (NCFR) is a characteristic of particularly sharp cold frontal boundaries. These can usually be seen very easily on satellite photos. NCFRs are typically accompanied by strong gusty winds and brief but intense rainfall. Convection may or may not occur depending on the stability of the air mass being lifted by the front. Such fronts usually are also marked by a sharp wind shift and temperature drop.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Marian |last1=de Orla-Barile |first2=Forest |last2=Cannon |first3=Nina S. |last3=Oakley |first4=F. |last4=Martin Ralph |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=49 |issue=2 |date=January 2022 |doi= 10.1029/2021GL095362 |title=A Climatology of Narrow Cold-Frontal Rainbands in Southern California|bibcode=2022GeoRL..4995362D |s2cid=245415748 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ==Tropical cyclones== {{See also|Dvorak technique|Tropical cyclone}} [[File:Isidore091902-p3sunset.jpg|thumb|Photograph of rainbands in [[Hurricane Isidore]]]] Rainbands exist in the periphery of tropical cyclones, which point towards the cyclone's center of [[Atmospheric pressure|low pressure]].<ref>Glossary of Meteorology (2009). [http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=tropical-cyclone1 Tropical cyclone.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227134255/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=tropical-cyclone1 |date=2008-12-27 }} Retrieved on 2008-12-24.</ref> Rainbands within tropical cyclones require ample moisture and a low level pool of cooler air.<ref>A. Murata, K. Saito and M. Ueno (1999). [http://www.mri-jma.go.jp/Project/mrinpd/APPE/srnwp99/murata.html A Numerical Study of Typhoon Flo (1990) using the MRI Mesoscale Nonhydrostatic Model.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722105513/http://www.mri-jma.go.jp/Project/mrinpd/APPE/srnwp99/murata.html |date=2011-07-22 }} Retrieved on 2008-12-25.</ref> Bands located {{convert|80|km|mi}} to {{convert|150|km|mi}} from a cyclone's center migrate outward.<ref>Yuqing Wang (2007). [http://ams.confex.com/ams/28Hurricanes/techprogram/paper_137453.htm How Do Outer Spiral Rainbands Affect Tropical Cyclone Structure and Intensity?] Retrieved on 2008-12-26.</ref> They are capable of producing heavy [[Rain|rains]] and [[squall]]s of wind, as well as [[tornado]]es,<ref>NWS JetStream &ndash; Online School for Weather (2008). [http://www.srh.noaa.gov/srh/jetstream/tropics/tc_structure.htm Tropical Cyclone Structure.]| [[National Weather Service]]. Retrieved on 2008-12-24.</ref> particularly in the storm's right-front quadrant.<ref>[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] (1999). [http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/pdf/hurricanebook.pdf Hurricane Basics.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212021133/http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/pdf/hurricanebook.pdf |date=2012-02-12 }} Retrieved on 2008-12-24</ref> Some rainbands move closer to the center, forming a secondary, or outer, [[eyewall]] within intense hurricanes.<ref>Jasmine Cetrone (2006). [http://ams.confex.com/ams/27Hurricanes/techprogram/paper_107677.htm Secondary eyewall structure in Hurricane Rita: Results from RAINEX.] Retrieved on 2009-01-09.</ref> Spiral rainbands are such a basic structure to a tropical cyclone that in most [[tropical cyclone basins]], use of the satellite-based [[Dvorak technique]] is the primary method used to determine a tropical cyclone's [[maximum sustained wind]]s.<ref name="ODT">[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] (1998).[http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/tropic/research/products/dvorak/odt.html Objective Dvorak Technique.] Retrieved on 2006-05-29.</ref> Within this method, the extent of spiral banding and difference in temperature between the [[Eye (cyclone)|eye]] and eyewall is used to assign a maximum sustained wind and a central pressure.<ref>Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (2007). [http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/H1.html Subject: H1) What is the Dvorak technique and how is it used?] Retrieved on 2006-12-08.</ref> [[Atmospheric pressure|Central pressure]] values for their centers of [[low pressure]] derived from this technique are approximate. Different programs have been studying these rainbands, including [[the Hurricane Rainband and Intensity Change Experiment]]. ==Forced by geography== Convective rainbands can form parallel to terrain on its [[windward]] side, due to [[lee wave]]s triggered by hills just upstream of the cloud's formation.<ref>Daniel J. Kirshbaum, George H. Bryan, Richard Rotunno, and Dale R. Durran (2006). [http://ams.allenpress.com/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1175%2FJAS3924.1 The Triggering of Orographic Rainbands by Small-Scale Topography.] Retrieved on 2008-12-25.</ref> Their spacing is normally {{convert|5|km|mi}} to {{convert|10|km|mi}} apart.<ref>Daniel J. Kirshbaum, Richard Rotunno, and George H. Bryan (2007). [http://ams.allenpress.com/perlserv/?SESSID=d3e348e558726c2caf1612c67d4a682b&request=get-abstract&doi=10.1175%2F2007JAS2335.1 The Spacing of Orographic Rainbands Triggered by Small-Scale Topography.] Retrieved on 2008-12-25.</ref> When bands of precipitation near frontal zones approach steep topography, a low-level barrier [[jet stream]] forms parallel to and just prior to the mountain ridge, which slows down the frontal rainband just prior to the mountain barrier.<ref>J. D. Doyle (1997). [http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=2721180 The influence of mesoscale orography on a coastal jet and rainband.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106231443/http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=2721180 |date=2012-01-06 }} Retrieved on 2008-12-25.</ref> If enough moisture is present, [[sea breeze]] and [[land breeze]] fronts can form convective rainbands. Sea breeze front [[thunderstorm]] lines can become strong enough to mask the location of an approaching cold front by evening.<ref>A. Rodin (1995). [http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3570629 Interaction of a cold front with a sea-breeze front numerical simulations.] Retrieved on 2008-12-25.</ref> The edge of [[ocean currents]] can lead to the development of thunderstorm bands due to heat differential at this interface.<ref>Eric D. Conway (1997). [https://books.google.com/books?id=iGrHsr2U8p0C&dq=thunderstorms+edge+of+warm+water+currents&pg=PA162 An Introduction to Satellite Image Interpretation.] Retrieved on 2008-12-26.</ref> Downwind of islands, bands of showers and thunderstorms can develop due to low level wind convergence downwind of the island edges. Offshore [[California]], this has been noted in the wake of cold fronts.<ref>Ivory J. Small (1999). [http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/wrh/99TAs/9918/index.html AN OBSERVATIONAL STUDY OF ISLAND EFFECT BANDS: PRECIPITATION PRODUCERS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306040459/http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/wrh/99TAs/9918/index.html |date=2012-03-06 }} Retrieved on 2008-12-26.</ref> == References == {{reflist|35em}} == External links == {{portal|weather}} * {{cite web|url=http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter15/anatomy.html|work=Lecture Notes for Chapter 15 &ndash; Hurricanes &ndash; Survey of Meteorology and Lyndon State College|title=Anatomy of a Hurricane}} * {{cite press release|url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=104329|title=Rainbands Offer Better Forecasts of Hurricane Intensity|publisher=National Science Foundation|work=news release|access-date=2008-09-06|date=2005-08-08}} * {{cite journal|title=Mesoscale and Convective Structure of a Hurricane Rainband|journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences|author=G.M. Barnes and E.J. 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