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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" 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Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0qnimbrit" title="İqnimbrit – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İqnimbrit" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbrita" title="Ignimbrita – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ignimbrita" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbrit" title="Ignimbrit – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ignimbrit" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbrit" title="Ignimbrit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ignimbrit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbriit" title="Ignimbriit – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ignimbriit" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbrita" title="Ignimbrita – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ignimbrita" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igninbrita" title="Igninbrita – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Igninbrita" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbrite" title="Ignimbrite – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ignimbrite" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EA%B7%B8%EB%8B%98%EB%B8%8C%EB%9D%BC%EC%9D%B4%ED%8A%B8" title="이그님브라이트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이그님브라이트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%A3%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%A2%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BF" title="Իգնիմբրիտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իգնիմբրիտ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbrit" title="Ignimbrit – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ignimbrit" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flikruberg" title="Flikruberg – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Flikruberg" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbrite" title="Ignimbrite – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ignimbrite" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%98" title="איגנימבריט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="איגנימבריט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Игнимбрит – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Игнимбрит" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Egn%C3%AEmbr%C3%AEt" title="Îgnîmbrît – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Îgnîmbrît" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbrit" title="Ignimbrit – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ignimbrit" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbriet" title="Ignimbriet – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ignimbriet" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BA%B6%E7%B5%90%E5%87%9D%E7%81%B0%E5%B2%A9" title="溶結凝灰岩 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="溶結凝灰岩" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbritt" title="Ignimbritt – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ignimbritt" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbryt" title="Ignimbryt – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ignimbryt" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbrito" title="Ignimbrito – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ignimbrito" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Игнимбрит – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Игнимбрит" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbrit" title="Ignimbrit – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ignimbrit" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbrit" title="Ignimbrit – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ignimbrit" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Игнимбрит – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Игнимбрит" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbrit" title="Ignimbrit – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ignimbrit" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbriitti" title="Ignimbriitti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ignimbriitti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbrit" title="Ignimbrit – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ignimbrit" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0gnimbirit" title="İgnimbirit – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İgnimbirit" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B3%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Ігнімбрит – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ігнімбрит" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%86%94%E7%BB%93%E5%87%9D%E7%81%B0%E5%B2%A9" title="熔结凝灰岩 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="熔结凝灰岩" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q256438#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Ignimbrite" title="View the 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type of volcanic rock</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BishopTuff.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/BishopTuff.jpg/220px-BishopTuff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/BishopTuff.jpg/330px-BishopTuff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/BishopTuff.jpg/440px-BishopTuff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Rocks from the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_tuff" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop tuff">Bishop tuff</a> from California, United States, uncompressed with <a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">pumice</a> on left; compressed with <a href="/wiki/Fiamme" title="Fiamme">fiamme</a> on right</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rattlesnake_Formation_near_Picture_Gorge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Rattlesnake_Formation_near_Picture_Gorge.jpg/250px-Rattlesnake_Formation_near_Picture_Gorge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Rattlesnake_Formation_near_Picture_Gorge.jpg/330px-Rattlesnake_Formation_near_Picture_Gorge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Rattlesnake_Formation_near_Picture_Gorge.jpg/500px-Rattlesnake_Formation_near_Picture_Gorge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3088" data-file-height="2056" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Caprock" title="Caprock">caprock</a> in this photo is the ignimbrite layer of the <a href="/wiki/Rattlesnake_Formation" title="Rattlesnake Formation">Rattlesnake Formation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Ignimbrite</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_rock" title="Volcanic rock">volcanic rock</a>, consisting of hardened <a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">tuff</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LeMaitre2002_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeMaitre2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ignimbrites form from the deposits of <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">pyroclastic flows</a>, which are a hot suspension of particles and gases flowing rapidly from a <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcano</a>, driven by being denser than the surrounding atmosphere. New Zealand geologist <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Marshall" title="Patrick Marshall">Patrick Marshall</a> (1869–1950) coined the term <i>ignimbrite</i> from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>igni-</i> [fire] and <i>imbri-</i> [rain]. </p><p>Ignimbrites are made of a very poorly sorted mixture of <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">volcanic ash</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">tuff</a> when <a href="/wiki/Lithification" title="Lithification">lithified</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">pumice</a> <a href="/wiki/Lapilli" title="Lapilli">lapilli</a>, commonly with scattered lithic fragments. The ash is composed of glass shards and crystal fragments. Ignimbrites may be loose and unconsolidated, or lithified (solidified) rock called <a href="/wiki/Lapilli_tuff" class="mw-redirect" title="Lapilli tuff">lapilli tuff</a>. Near the volcanic source, ignimbrites often contain thick accumulations of lithic blocks, and distally, many show meter-thick accumulations of rounded cobbles of pumice. Ignimbrites may be white, grey, pink, beige, brown, or black depending on their composition and density. Many pale ignimbrites are <a href="/wiki/Dacite" title="Dacite">dacitic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">rhyolitic</a>. Darker-coloured ignimbrites may be densely welded <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_glass" title="Volcanic glass">volcanic glass</a> or, less commonly, <a href="/wiki/Mafic" title="Mafic">mafic</a> in composition. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deposition">Deposition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Deposition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two main models have been proposed to explain the deposition of ignimbrites from a pyroclastic density current: the <i>en masse</i> deposition and the progressive aggradation models. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="En_masse_model"><i>En masse</i> model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: En masse model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>en masse</i> model was proposed by volcanologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stephen_John_Sparks" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Stephen John Sparks">Stephen Sparks</a> in 1976. Sparks attributed the poor sorting in ignimbrites to <a href="/wiki/Laminar_flow" title="Laminar flow">laminar</a> flows of very high particle concentration. Pyroclastic flows were envisioned as being similar to debris flows, with a body undergoing laminar flow and then stopping <i>en masse</i>. The flow would travel as a plug flow, with an essentially non-deforming mass travelling on a thin shear zone, and the <i>en masse</i> freezing occurs when the driving stress falls below a certain level. This would produce a massive unit with an inversely graded base. </p><p>There are several problems with the <i>en masse</i> model. Since ignimbrite is a deposit, its characteristics cannot completely represent the flow, and the deposit may only record the depositional process. Vertical chemical zonation in ignimbrites is interpreted as recording incremental changes in the deposition, and the zonation rarely correlates with flow unit boundaries and may occur within flow units. It has been posited that the chemical changes are recording progressive aggradation at the base of the flow from an eruption whose composition changes with time. For this to be so, the base of the flow cannot be <a href="/wiki/Turbulence" title="Turbulence">turbulent</a>. The instantaneous deposition of an entire body of material is not possible because displacement of the fluid is not possible instantaneously. Any displacement of the fluid would mobilize the upper part of the flow, and <i>en masse</i> deposition would not occur. Instantaneously cessation of the flow would cause local compression and extension, which would be evident in the form of tension cracks and small scale thrusting, which is not seen in most ignimbrites.<sup id="cite_ref-branney2002_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-branney2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An adaptation of the <i>en masse</i> theory suggests that the ignimbrite records progressive aggradation from a sustained current and that the differences observed between ignimbrites and within an ignimbrite are the result of temporal changes to the nature of the flow that deposited it.<sup id="cite_ref-branney2002_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-branney2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rheomorphic_flow_model">Rheomorphic flow model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Rheomorphic flow model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rheo_flow.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/65/Rheo_flow.JPG/220px-Rheo_flow.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/65/Rheo_flow.JPG/330px-Rheo_flow.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/65/Rheo_flow.JPG/440px-Rheo_flow.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Rheomorphic flow structures in a welded ignimbrite, Isle of Lipari, Italy</figcaption></figure> <p>Rheomorphic structures are only observed in high grade ignimbrites. There are two types of rheomorphic flow; post-depositional re-mobilization, and late stage viscous flow. While there is currently debate in the field of the relative importance of either mechanism, there is agreement that both mechanisms have an effect.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A vertical variation in orientation of the structures is compelling evidence against post-depositional re-mobilization being responsible for the majority of the structures, but more work needs to be carried out to discover if the majority of ignimbrites have these vertical variations in order to say which process is the most common. </p><p>A model based on observations at the Wall Mountain Tuff at <a href="/wiki/Florissant_Fossil_Beds_National_Monument" class="mw-redirect" title="Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument">Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument</a> in Colorado suggests that the rheomorphic structures such as <a href="/wiki/Foliation_(geology)" title="Foliation (geology)">foliation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_rock" title="Pyroclastic rock">pyroclasts</a> were formed during laminar viscous flow as the density current comes to a halt. A change from particulate flow to a viscous fluid could cause the rapid <i>en masse</i> cooling in the last few meters.<sup id="cite_ref-schmincke_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schmincke-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also theorized that transformation occurs at a boundary layer at the base of the flow and that all the materials pass through this layer during deposition.<sup id="cite_ref-chapin_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapin-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another model proposed is that the density current became stationary before the rheomorphic structures form.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Structures such as pervasive foliation are a result of load compaction, and other structures are the result of remobilization by load and deposition on inclined topography. The tuff deposited at <a href="/wiki/Wagontire_Mountain" title="Wagontire Mountain">Wagontire Mountain</a> in Oregon and <a href="/wiki/Bishop_Tuff" title="Bishop Tuff">Bishop Tuff</a> in California show evidence of late stage viscous flow. These tuffs have a similar chemistry and so must have undergone the same compaction process to have the same foliation. </p><p>The Green Tuff in <a href="/wiki/Pantelleria" title="Pantelleria">Pantelleria</a> contains rheomorphic structures which are held to be a result of post-depositional re-mobilization because at that time the Green Tuff was believed to be a <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">fall deposit</a> which has no lateral transport.<sup id="cite_ref-wolff_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wolff-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarities between the structures in the Green Tuff and ignimbrites on <a href="/wiki/Gran_Canaria" title="Gran Canaria">Gran Canaria</a> suggest post-depositional re-mobilization. This interpretation of the deposition of the Green Tuff has been disputed, suggesting that it is an ignimbrite, and structures such as imbricate <a href="/wiki/Fiamme" title="Fiamme">fiamme</a>, observed in the Green Tuff, were the result of late stage primary viscous flow.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar structures observed on Gran Canaria had been interpreted as syn-depositional flow.<sup id="cite_ref-wolff_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wolff-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sheathfolds and other rheomorphic structures may be the result of a single stage of shear. Shear possibly occurred as the density current passed over the forming deposit. Vertical variations in the orientations of sheathfolds are evidence that rheomorphism and welding can occur syn-depositionally.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been disputed that the shear between the density current and the forming deposit is significant enough to cause all of the rheomorphic structures observed in ignimbrites, although the shear could be responsible for some of the structures such as imbricate fiamme.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Petrology">Petrology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Petrology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ignimbrite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Ignimbrite.jpg/200px-Ignimbrite.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Ignimbrite.jpg/300px-Ignimbrite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Ignimbrite.jpg/400px-Ignimbrite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="513" /></a><figcaption>A block of ignimbrite</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tuff_welded.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tuff_welded.jpg/250px-Tuff_welded.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tuff_welded.jpg/330px-Tuff_welded.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tuff_welded.jpg/500px-Tuff_welded.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="627" /></a><figcaption>Light microscope image of a welded ignimbrite, composed of eutaxitic lapilli-tuff as seen in thin section (Long dimension is several mm). The glass shards (mostly brown) sometimes become welded together when the deposit is still hot, and can be deformed by flow and compaction about crystal fragments (clear).</figcaption></figure> <p>Ignimbrite is primarily composed of a matrix of volcanic ash (<a href="/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra">tephra</a>) which is composed of shards and fragments of volcanic glass, pumice fragments, and crystals. The crystal fragments are commonly blown apart by the explosive eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most are <a href="/wiki/Phenocryst" title="Phenocryst">phenocrysts</a> that grew in the magma, but some may be exotic crystals such as <a href="/wiki/Xenocryst" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenocryst">xenocrysts</a>, derived from other magmas, igneous rocks, or from <a href="/wiki/Country_rock_(geology)" title="Country rock (geology)">country rock</a>. </p><p>The ash matrix typically contains varying amounts of pea- to cobble-sized rock fragments called lithic inclusions. They are mostly bits of older solidified volcanic debris entrained from conduit walls or from the land surface. More rarely, clasts are cognate material from the magma chamber. </p><p>If sufficiently hot when deposited, the particles in an ignimbrite may weld together, and the deposit is transformed into a <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Welding">'welded ignimbrite'</a>, made of <i>eutaxitic lapilli-tuff</i>. When this happens, the pumice lapilli commonly flatten, and these appear on rock surfaces as dark lens shapes, known as <a href="/wiki/Fiamme" title="Fiamme">fiamme</a>. Intensely welded ignimbrite may have glassy zones near the base and top, called lower and upper 'vitrophyres', but central parts are microcrystalline ('lithoidal'). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mineralogy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The mineralogy of an ignimbrite is controlled primarily by the chemistry of the source magma. </p><p>The typical range of phenocrysts in ignimbrites are biotite, quartz, sanidine or other <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">alkali feldspar</a>, occasionally <a href="/wiki/Hornblende" title="Hornblende">hornblende</a>, rarely <a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">pyroxene</a> and in the case of <a href="/wiki/Phonolite" title="Phonolite">phonolite</a> tuffs, the <a href="/wiki/Feldspathoid" title="Feldspathoid">feldspathoid</a> minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Nepheline" title="Nepheline">nepheline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leucite" title="Leucite">leucite</a>. </p><p>Commonly in most felsic ignimbrites the quartz polymorphs <a href="/wiki/Cristobalite" title="Cristobalite">cristobalite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tridymite" title="Tridymite">tridymite</a> are usually found within the welded <a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">tuffs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Breccia" title="Breccia">breccias</a>. In the majority of cases, it appears that these high-temperature polymorphs of <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> occurred post-eruption as part of an autogenic post-eruptive alteration in some metastable form. Thus although tridymite and cristobalite are common minerals in ignimbrites, they may not be primary magmatic minerals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Geochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most ignimbrites are silicic, with generally over 65% SiO<sub>2</sub>. The chemistry of the ignimbrites, like all felsic rocks, and the resultant mineralogy of phenocryst populations within them, is related mostly to the varying contents of sodium, potassium, calcium, the lesser amounts of iron and magnesium.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some rare ignimbrites are andesitic, and may even be formed from volatile saturated <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>, where the ignimbrite would have the geochemistry of a normal basalt. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alteration">Alteration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Alteration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Large hot ignimbrites can create some form of <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal">hydrothermal</a> activity as they tend to blanket the wet <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> and bury watercourses and rivers. The water from such substrates will exit the ignimbrite blanket in <a href="/wiki/Fumarole" title="Fumarole">fumaroles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geyser" title="Geyser">geysers</a> and the like, a process which may take several years, for example after the <a href="/wiki/Novarupta" title="Novarupta">Novarupta</a> tuff eruption. In the process of boiling off this water, the ignimbrite layer may become <a href="/wiki/Metasomatism" title="Metasomatism">metasomatised</a> (altered). This tends to form chimneys and pockets of <a href="/wiki/Kaolin" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaolin">kaolin</a>-altered rock. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Welding">Welding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Welding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rock_sample_8_Ignimbrite_Guna_Mika%27el.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Rock_sample_8_Ignimbrite_Guna_Mika%27el.jpg/220px-Rock_sample_8_Ignimbrite_Guna_Mika%27el.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Rock_sample_8_Ignimbrite_Guna_Mika%27el.jpg/330px-Rock_sample_8_Ignimbrite_Guna_Mika%27el.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Rock_sample_8_Ignimbrite_Guna_Mika%27el.jpg/440px-Rock_sample_8_Ignimbrite_Guna_Mika%27el.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1809" data-file-height="2033" /></a><figcaption>Rock sample of ignimbrite, collected at the foot of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Guna" title="Mount Guna">Mount Guna</a> in Ethiopia</figcaption></figure> <p>Welding is a common form of ignimbrite alteration. There are two types of welding, primary and secondary. If the density current is sufficiently hot the particles will <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/agglutinate" class="extiw" title="wikt:agglutinate">agglutinate</a> and weld at the surface of sedimentation to form a viscous fluid; this is primary welding. If during transport and deposition the temperature is low, then the particles will not agglutinate and weld, although welding may occur later if compaction or other factors reduce the minimum welding temperature to below the temperature of the glassy particles; this is secondary welding. This secondary welding is most common and suggests that the temperature of most pyroclastic density currents is below the softening point of the particles.<sup id="cite_ref-chapin_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapin-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The factor that determines whether an ignimbrite has primary welding, secondary welding or no welding is debated: </p> <ul><li>Different chemical compositions will lower the <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> and enable primary weld.<sup id="cite_ref-schmincke_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schmincke-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>There is not enough variation in the composition of primary and secondary welded ignimbrites for this to be a major factor.<sup id="cite_ref-chapin_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapin-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Cooling during transport is negligible, so if the eruption temperature is high enough then primary welding will occur. Lateral variations in degree of welding are not a result of cooling during transport.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Lithostatic load is responsible for the intensity of welding because the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tiribi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tiribi (page does not exist)">Tiribi</a> ignimbrite is most densely welded where the thickness is greatest. The correlation is not perfect, and that other factors may have an influence.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>There are two lines of evidence for the relative unimportance of lithostatic load in determining the intensity of welding; lateral changes in the degree of welding irrespective of thickness and cases where the degree of welding correlates with the chemical zoning. Welding is determined by a combination of factors including compositional changes, volatile content, temperature, grain size population and lithic content.<sup id="cite_ref-branney2002_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-branney2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology_and_occurrence">Morphology and occurrence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Morphology and occurrence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Landscapes formed by erosion in hardened ignimbrite can be remarkably similar to those formed on <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granitic rocks</a>. In <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sierra_de_Lihuel_Calel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sierra de Lihuel Calel (page does not exist)">Sierra de Lihuel Calel</a>, <a href="/wiki/La_Pampa_Province" title="La Pampa Province">La Pampa Province</a>, Argentina, various landforms typical of granites can be observed in ignimbrite. These landforms are <a href="/wiki/Inselberg" title="Inselberg">inselbergs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flared_slope" title="Flared slope">flared slopes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Granite_dome" title="Granite dome">domes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nubbin_(landform)" title="Nubbin (landform)">nubbins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tor_(rock_formation)" title="Tor (rock formation)">tors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tafoni" title="Tafoni">tafonis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gnamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnamma">gnammas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aguilera_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aguilera-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, just like in granite landscapes landforms in ignimbrites may be influenced by <a href="/wiki/Joint_(geology)" title="Joint (geology)">joint systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aguilera_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aguilera-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ignimbrites occur worldwide associated with many volcanic provinces having high-silica content <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> and the resulting explosive eruptions. </p><p>Ignimbrite occurs very commonly around the lower <a href="/wiki/Hunter_Region" title="Hunter Region">Hunter Region</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australian</a> state of <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a>. The ignimbrite quarried in the Hunter region at locations such as Martins Creek, Brandy Hill, Seaham (<a href="/wiki/Boral" title="Boral">Boral</a>) and at abandoned quarry at Raymond Terrace is a volcanic sedimentation rock of <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> age (280–345 million years). It had an extremely violent origin. This material built up to considerable depth and must have taken years to cool down completely. In the process the materials that made up this mixture fused together into a very tough rock of medium density. </p><p>Ignimbrite also occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Coromandel,_New_Zealand" title="Coromandel, New Zealand">Coromandel</a> region of <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, where the striking orange-brown ignimbrite cliffs form a distinctive feature of the landscape. The nearby <a href="/wiki/Taup%C5%8D_Volcanic_Zone" title="Taupō Volcanic Zone">Taupō Volcanic Zone</a> is covered in extensive flat sheets of ignimbrite erupted from caldera volcanoes during the Pleistocene and Holocene. The exposed ignimbrite cliffs at <a href="/wiki/Hinuera" title="Hinuera">Hinuera</a> (Waikato) mark the edges of the ancient Waikato River course which flowed through the valley before the last major <a href="/wiki/Taup%C5%8D" title="Taupō">Taupō</a> eruption 1,800 years ago (the <a href="/wiki/Hatepe_eruption" title="Hatepe eruption">Hatepe eruption</a>). The west cliffs are quarried to get blocks of Hinuera Stone, the name given to welded ignimbrite used for building cladding. The stone is light grey with traces of green and is slightly porous. </p><p>Huge deposits of ignimbrite form large parts of the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Madre_Occidental" title="Sierra Madre Occidental">Sierra Madre Occidental</a> in western Mexico. In the <a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">western United States</a>, massive ignimbrite deposits up to several hundred metres thick occur in the <a href="/wiki/Basin_and_Range_Province" title="Basin and Range Province">Basin and Range Province</a>, largely in <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a>, western <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, and north-central and southern <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Snake_River_Plain" title="Snake River Plain">Snake River Plain</a>. The magmatism in the Basin and Range Province included a massive flare-up of ignimbrite which began about 40 million years ago and largely ended 25 million years ago: the magmatism followed the end of the <a href="/wiki/Laramide_orogeny" title="Laramide orogeny">Laramide orogeny</a>, when deformation and magmatism occurred far east of the plate boundary. Additional eruptions of ignimbrite continued in Nevada until roughly 14 million years ago. Individual eruptions were often enormous, sometimes up to thousands of cubic kilometres in volume, giving them a <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_Explosivity_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic Explosivity Index">Volcanic Explosivity Index</a> of 8, comparable to <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_Caldera" title="Yellowstone Caldera">Yellowstone Caldera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lake_Toba" title="Lake Toba">Lake Toba</a> eruptions. </p><p>Successions of ignimbrites make up a large part of post-erosional rocks in <a href="/wiki/Tenerife" title="Tenerife">Tenerife</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gran_Canaria" title="Gran Canaria">Gran Canaria</a> islands. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use">Use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Yucca_Mountain_nuclear_waste_repository" title="Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository">Yucca Mountain</a> Repository, a U.S. Department of Energy terminal storage facility for spent nuclear reactor and other radioactive waste, is in a deposit of ignimbrite and tuff. </p><p>The layering of ignimbrites is used when the stone is worked, as it sometimes splits into convenient slabs, useful for flagstones and in garden edge landscaping. </p><p>In the Hunter region of New South Wales, ignimbrite serves as an excellent aggregate or "blue <a href="/wiki/Pavement_(roads)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pavement (roads)">metal</a>" for road surfacing and construction purposes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bluestone" title="Bluestone">Bluestone</a> – Cultural or commercial name for a number of dimension or building stone varieties</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_rock" title="Pyroclastic rock">Pyroclastic rock</a> – Clastic rocks composed solely or primarily of volcanic materials</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">Lava</a> – Molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">Magma</a> – Hot semifluid material found beneath the surface of Earth</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-LeMaitre2002-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LeMaitre2002_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLe_Maitre2002" class="citation book cs1">Le Maitre, R. W., ed. (2002). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/igneousrocksclas00mait"><i>Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms</i></a></span>. New York, United States: Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/igneousrocksclas00mait/page/n109">92</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-06651-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-06651-1"><bdi>978-0-511-06651-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Igneous+Rocks%3A+A+Classification+and+Glossary+of+Terms&rft.place=New+York%2C+United+States&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-511-06651-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Figneousrocksclas00mait&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIgnimbrite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-branney2002-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-branney2002_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-branney2002_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-branney2002_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBranneyKokelaar2002" class="citation book cs1">Branney, M. 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(1999). "Formation of high-grade ignimbrites Part II. A pyroclastic suspension current model with implications also for low-grade ignimbrites". <i>Bulletin of Volcanology</i>. <b>60</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">545–</span>567. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999BVol...60..545F">1999BVol...60..545F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs004450050251">10.1007/s004450050251</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128562387">128562387</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+Volcanology&rft.atitle=Formation+of+high-grade+ignimbrites+Part+II.+A+pyroclastic+suspension+current+model+with+implications+also+for+low-grade+ignimbrites&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E545-%3C%2Fspan%3E567&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128562387%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs004450050251&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999BVol...60..545F&rft.aulast=Freundt&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIgnimbrite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPérezAlvaradoGans2006" class="citation journal cs1">Pérez, W.; Alvarado, G. E.; Gans, P. B. (2006). "The 322 ka Tiribí Tuff: stratigraphy, geochronology and mechanisms of deposition of the largest and most recent ignimbrite in the Valle Central, Costa Rica". <i>Bulletin of Volcanology</i>. <b>69</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">25–</span>40. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006BVol...69...25P">2006BVol...69...25P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00445-006-0053-x">10.1007/s00445-006-0053-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:58892024">58892024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+Volcanology&rft.atitle=The+322+ka+Tirib%C3%AD+Tuff%3A+stratigraphy%2C+geochronology+and+mechanisms+of+deposition+of+the+largest+and+most+recent+ignimbrite+in+the+Valle+Central%2C+Costa+Rica&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A58892024%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00445-006-0053-x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006BVol...69...25P&rft.aulast=P%C3%A9rez&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Alvarado%2C+G.+E.&rft.au=Gans%2C+P.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIgnimbrite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aguilera-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aguilera_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aguilera_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAguileraSatoLlambíasTickyj2014" class="citation book cs1">Aguilera, Emilia Y.; Sato, Ana María; Llambías, Eduardo; Tickyj, Hugo (2014). "Erosion Surface and Granitic Morphology in the Sierra de Lihuel Calel, Province of La Pampa, Argentina". In <a href="/wiki/Jorge_Rabassa" title="Jorge Rabassa">Rabassa, Jorge</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cliff_Ollier" title="Cliff Ollier">Ollier, Cliff</a> (eds.). <i>Gondwana Landscapes in southern South America</i>. Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">393–</span>422.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Erosion+Surface+and+Granitic+Morphology+in+the+Sierra+de+Lihuel+Calel%2C+Province+of+La+Pampa%2C+Argentina&rft.btitle=Gondwana+Landscapes+in+southern+South+America&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E393-%3C%2Fspan%3E422&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Aguilera&rft.aufirst=Emilia+Y.&rft.au=Sato%2C+Ana+Mar%C3%ADa&rft.au=Llamb%C3%ADas%2C+Eduardo&rft.au=Tickyj%2C+Hugo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIgnimbrite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCannon2002" class="citation web cs1">Cannon, E. (April 28, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160421230957/http://www.colorado.edu/GeolSci/Resources/WUSTectonics/CzIgnimbrite/ignimbrite_intro.html">"The Mid-Tertiary Ignimbrite Flare-Up"</a>. University of Colorado Boulder. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorado.edu/GeolSci/Resources/WUSTectonics/CzIgnimbrite/ignimbrite_intro.html">the original</a> on April 21, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 24,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Mid-Tertiary+Ignimbrite+Flare-Up&rft.pub=University+of+Colorado+Boulder&rft.date=2002-04-28&rft.aulast=Cannon&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorado.edu%2FGeolSci%2FResources%2FWUSTectonics%2FCzIgnimbrite%2Fignimbrite_intro.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIgnimbrite" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSparks1976" class="citation journal cs1">Sparks, R. S. J. (1976). "Grain size variations in ignimbrites and implications for the transport of pyroclastic flows". <i>Sedimentology</i>. <b>23</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">147–</span>188. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976Sedim..23..147S">1976Sedim..23..147S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-3091.1976.tb00045.x">10.1111/j.1365-3091.1976.tb00045.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sedimentology&rft.atitle=Grain+size+variations+in+ignimbrites+and+implications+for+the+transport+of+pyroclastic+flows&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E147-%3C%2Fspan%3E188&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-3091.1976.tb00045.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976Sedim..23..147S&rft.aulast=Sparks&rft.aufirst=R.+S.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIgnimbrite" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Patrick Marshall 1869-1950, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.dnzb.govt.nz/dnzb/default.asp?Find_Quick.asp?PersonEssay=3M44">http://www.dnzb.govt.nz/dnzb/default.asp?Find_Quick.asp?PersonEssay=3M44</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rock_type" title="Template:Rock type"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rock_type" title="Template talk:Rock type"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rock_type" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rock type"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_rocks88" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types of rocks</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">Igneous rock</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adakite" title="Adakite">Adakite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_feldspar_granite" title="Alkali feldspar granite">Alkali feldspar granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andesite" title="Andesite">Andesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anorthosite" title="Anorthosite">Anorthosite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aplite" title="Aplite">Aplite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">Basalt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_basalt" title="Alkali basalt">Alkali basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picrite_basalt" title="Picrite basalt">Picrite basalt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basaltic_trachyandesite" class="mw-redirect" title="Basaltic trachyandesite">Basaltic trachyandesite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mugearite" title="Mugearite">Mugearite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoshonite" title="Shoshonite">Shoshonite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basanite" title="Basanite">Basanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blairmorite" title="Blairmorite">Blairmorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boninite" title="Boninite">Boninite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonatite" title="Carbonatite">Carbonatite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charnockite" title="Charnockite">Charnockite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enderbite" title="Enderbite">Enderbite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacite" title="Dacite">Dacite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabase" title="Diabase">Diabase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diorite" title="Diorite">Diorite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonite" title="Napoleonite">Napoleonite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunite" title="Dunite">Dunite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essexite" title="Essexite">Essexite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foidolite" title="Foidolite">Foidolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabbro" title="Gabbro">Gabbro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granodiorite" title="Granodiorite">Granodiorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granophyre" title="Granophyre">Granophyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harzburgite" title="Harzburgite">Harzburgite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hornblendite" title="Hornblendite">Hornblendite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyaloclastite" title="Hyaloclastite">Hyaloclastite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandite" title="Icelandite">Icelandite</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ignimbrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijolite" title="Ijolite">Ijolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimberlite" title="Kimberlite">Kimberlite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komatiite" title="Komatiite">Komatiite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamproite" title="Lamproite">Lamproite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamprophyre" title="Lamprophyre">Lamprophyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latite" title="Latite">Latite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lherzolite" title="Lherzolite">Lherzolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monzogranite" title="Monzogranite">Monzogranite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monzonite" title="Monzonite">Monzonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepheline_syenite" title="Nepheline syenite">Nepheline syenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephelinite" title="Nephelinite">Nephelinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norite" title="Norite">Norite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">Obsidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegmatite" title="Pegmatite">Pegmatite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peridotite" title="Peridotite">Peridotite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonolite" title="Phonolite">Phonolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonotephrite" title="Phonotephrite">Phonotephrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(geology)" title="Porphyry (geology)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">Pumice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroxenite" title="Pyroxenite">Pyroxenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartz_diorite" title="Quartz diorite">Quartz diorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartz_monzonite" title="Quartz monzonite">Quartz monzonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartzolite" title="Quartzolite">Quartzolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyodacite" title="Rhyodacite">Rhyodacite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">Rhyolite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comendite" title="Comendite">Comendite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantellerite" title="Pantellerite">Pantellerite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scoria" title="Scoria">Scoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shonkinite" title="Shonkinite">Shonkinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovite" title="Sovite">Sovite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syenite" title="Syenite">Syenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachylyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Tachylyte">Tachylyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephriphonolite" title="Tephriphonolite">Tephriphonolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephrite" title="Tephrite">Tephrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonalite" title="Tonalite">Tonalite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachyandesite" title="Trachyandesite">Trachyandesite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benmoreite" title="Benmoreite">Benmoreite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachybasalt" title="Trachybasalt">Trachybasalt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiite" title="Hawaiite">Hawaiite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachyte" title="Trachyte">Trachyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troctolite" title="Troctolite">Troctolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trondhjemite" title="Trondhjemite">Trondhjemite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">Tuff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Websterite" title="Websterite">Websterite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wehrlite" title="Wehrlite">Wehrlite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">Sedimentary rock</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argillite" title="Argillite">Argillite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkose" title="Arkose">Arkose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banded_iron_formation" title="Banded iron formation">Banded iron formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breccia" title="Breccia">Breccia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcarenite" title="Calcarenite">Calcarenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">Chalk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chert" title="Chert">Chert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claystone" class="mw-redirect" title="Claystone">Claystone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conglomerate_(geology)" title="Conglomerate (geology)">Conglomerate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coquina" title="Coquina">Coquina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamictite" title="Diamictite">Diamictite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diatomite" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatomite">Diatomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(rock)" title="Dolomite (rock)">Dolomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporite" title="Evaporite">Evaporite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geyserite" title="Geyserite">Geyserite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greywacke" title="Greywacke">Greywacke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gritstone" title="Gritstone">Gritstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itacolumite" title="Itacolumite">Itacolumite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaspillite" title="Jaspillite">Jaspillite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laterite" title="Laterite">Laterite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lignite" title="Lignite">Lignite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">Limestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumachelle" title="Lumachelle">Lumachelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marl" title="Marl">Marl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudstone" title="Mudstone">Mudstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oolite" title="Oolite">Oolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorite" title="Phosphorite">Phosphorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">Sandstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">Shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siltstone" title="Siltstone">Siltstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvinite" title="Sylvinite">Sylvinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tillite" class="mw-redirect" title="Tillite">Tillite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travertine" title="Travertine">Travertine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tufa" title="Tufa">Tufa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidite" title="Turbidite">Turbidite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varve" title="Varve">Varve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wackestone" title="Wackestone">Wackestone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metamorphic_rock" title="Metamorphic rock">Metamorphic rock</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthracite" title="Anthracite">Anthracite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphibolite" title="Amphibolite">Amphibolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blueschist" title="Blueschist">Blueschist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclasite" title="Cataclasite">Cataclasite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclogite" title="Eclogite">Eclogite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gneiss" title="Gneiss">Gneiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granulite" title="Granulite">Granulite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenschist" title="Greenschist">Greenschist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hornfels" title="Hornfels">Hornfels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcflinta" title="Calcflinta">Calcflinta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itabirite" title="Itabirite">Itabirite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litchfieldite" title="Litchfieldite">Litchfieldite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">Marble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migmatite" title="Migmatite">Migmatite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mylonite" title="Mylonite">Mylonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapelite" class="mw-redirect" title="Metapelite">Metapelite</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metapsammite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metapsammite (page does not exist)">Metapsammite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyllite" title="Phyllite">Phyllite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudotachylite" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudotachylite">Pseudotachylite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartzite" title="Quartzite">Quartzite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schist" title="Schist">Schist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpentinite" title="Serpentinite">Serpentinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skarn" title="Skarn">Skarn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slate" title="Slate">Slate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suevite" title="Suevite">Suevite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talc_carbonate" title="Talc carbonate">Talc carbonate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soapstone" title="Soapstone">Soapstone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonite" title="Tectonite">Tectonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiteschist" title="Whiteschist">Whiteschist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific varieties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adamellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Adamellite">Adamellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appinite" title="Appinite">Appinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aphanite" title="Aphanite">Aphanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borolanite" title="Borolanite">Borolanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larvikite" title="Larvikite">Blue Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidosite" title="Epidosite">Epidosite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felsite" title="Felsite">Felsite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganister" title="Ganister">Ganister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gossan" title="Gossan">Gossan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyaloclastite" title="Hyaloclastite">Hyaloclastite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijolite" title="Ijolite">Ijolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jadeitite" title="Jadeitite">Jadeitite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jasperoid" title="Jasperoid">Jasperoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenyte" title="Kenyte">Kenyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">Lapis lazuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larvikite" title="Larvikite">Larvikite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litchfieldite" title="Litchfieldite">Litchfieldite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llanite" title="Llanite">Llanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxullianite" title="Luxullianite">Luxullianite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangerite" title="Mangerite">Mangerite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novaculite" title="Novaculite">Novaculite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietersite" title="Pietersite">Pietersite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrolite" title="Pyrolite">Pyrolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapakivi_granite" title="Rapakivi granite">Rapakivi granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhomb_porphyry" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhomb porphyry">Rhomb porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodingite" title="Rodingite">Rodingite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shonkinite" title="Shonkinite">Shonkinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taconite" title="Taconite">Taconite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachylite" title="Tachylite">Tachylite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teschenite" title="Teschenite">Teschenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theralite" title="Theralite">Theralite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unakite" title="Unakite">Unakite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variolite" title="Variolite">Variolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wad_(mineral)" title="Wad (mineral)">Wad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Volcanoes521" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Volcanoes" title="Template:Volcanoes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Volcanoes" title="Template talk:Volcanoes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Volcanoes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Volcanoes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Volcanoes521" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">Volcanoes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caldera" title="Caldera">Caldera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinder_cone" title="Cinder cone">Cinder cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_volcano" title="Complex volcano">Complex volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryovolcano" title="Cryovolcano">Cryovolcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptoexplosion" title="Cryptoexplosion">Cryptovolcanic structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissure_vent" title="Fissure vent">Fissure vent</a></li> <li>Lava cone</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_dome" title="Lava dome">Lava dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maar" title="Maar">Maar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud_volcano" title="Mud volcano">Mud volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_cone" title="Parasitic cone">Parasitic cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_cone" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyroclastic cone">Pyroclastic cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_shield" title="Pyroclastic shield">Pyroclastic shield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rootless_cone" title="Rootless cone">Rootless cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield_volcano" title="Shield volcano">Shield volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somma_volcano" title="Somma volcano">Somma volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratovolcano" title="Stratovolcano">Stratovolcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subglacial_volcano" title="Subglacial volcano">Subglacial volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano">Supervolcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tossol" title="Tossol">Tossol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_cone" title="Volcanic cone">Volcanic cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic_tremor" title="Harmonic tremor">Harmonic tremor</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg/90px-Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg/135px-Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg/180px-Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="845" data-file-height="578" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_rock" title="Volcanic rock">Volcanic rocks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agglomerate" title="Agglomerate">Agglomerate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andesite" title="Andesite">Andesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">Basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basaltic_andesite" title="Basaltic andesite">Basaltic andesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benmoreite" title="Benmoreite">Benmoreite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blairmorite" title="Blairmorite">Blairmorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scoria" title="Scoria">Cinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacite" title="Dacite">Dacite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felsite" title="Felsite">Felsite</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ignimbrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komatiite" title="Komatiite">Komatiite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapilli" title="Lapilli">Lapilli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latite" title="Latite">Latite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leucitite" title="Leucitite">Leucitite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephelinite" title="Nephelinite">Nephelinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">Obsidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonolite" title="Phonolite">Phonolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonotephrite" title="Phonotephrite">Phonotephrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">Pumice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyodacite" title="Rhyodacite">Rhyodacite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">Rhyolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra">Tephra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephriphonolite" title="Tephriphonolite">Tephriphonolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachyandesite" title="Trachyandesite">Trachyandesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachybasalt" title="Trachybasalt">Trachybasalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachyte" title="Trachyte">Trachyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">Tuff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_fall" title="Pyroclastic fall">Pyroclastic fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">Pyroclastic flow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Lists and groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">Hotspot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_volcanoes" title="Lists of volcanoes">Lists of volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanic_eruptions_by_death_toll" title="List of volcanic eruptions by death toll">Eruptions by death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decade_Volcanoes" title="Decade Volcanoes">Decade Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_belt" title="Volcanic belt">Volcanic belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_field" title="Volcanic field">Volcanic field</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monogenetic_volcanic_field" title="Monogenetic volcanic field">monogenetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygenetic_volcanic_field" title="Polygenetic volcanic field">polygenetic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Volcanoes" title="Category:Volcanoes">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Volcanoes" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Volcanoes">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Volcanoes" title="Portal:Volcanoes">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Volcanoes" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Volcanoes">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&oldid=1267131608">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ignimbrite&oldid=1267131608</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tephra" title="Category:Tephra">Tephra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Volcanic_rocks" title="Category:Volcanic rocks">Volcanic rocks</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> 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