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</a> <button aria-controls="toc-Islamic_world_during_the_Abbasid_Caliphate-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Islamic world during the Abbasid Caliphate subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Islamic_world_during_the_Abbasid_Caliphate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Golden_Baghdad_Abbasids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Golden_Baghdad_Abbasids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Golden Baghdad Abbasids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Golden_Baghdad_Abbasids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_regional_powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_regional_powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Rise of regional powers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_regional_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_Baghdad_Abbasids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_Baghdad_Abbasids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 High Baghdad Abbasids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_Baghdad_Abbasids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Baghdad_Abbasids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Baghdad_Abbasids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Middle Baghdad Abbasids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Baghdad_Abbasids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Baghdad_Abbasids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Baghdad_Abbasids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Late Baghdad Abbasids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Baghdad_Abbasids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caliph_of_Cairo_(1261–1517)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caliph_of_Cairo_(1261–1517)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Caliph of Cairo (1261–1517) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caliph_of_Cairo_(1261–1517)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fatimid_Caliphate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fatimid_Caliphate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Fatimid Caliphate </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fatimid_Caliphate-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Fatimid Caliphate subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Fatimid_Caliphate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fatimid_caliphs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fatimid_caliphs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Fatimid caliphs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fatimid_caliphs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crusades" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crusades"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Crusades </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crusades-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ayyubid_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ayyubid_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Ayyubid dynasty </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ayyubid_dynasty-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ayyubid dynasty subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ayyubid_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sultans_of_Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sultans_of_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Sultans of Egypt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sultans_of_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sultans_and_Amirs_of_Damascus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sultans_and_Amirs_of_Damascus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Sultans and Amirs of Damascus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sultans_and_Amirs_of_Damascus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emirs_of_Aleppo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emirs_of_Aleppo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Emirs of Aleppo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emirs_of_Aleppo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongol_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Mongol period </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mongol_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mongol period subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mongol_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mongol_conquests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_conquests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Mongol conquests </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_conquests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_Mongol_empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_Mongol_empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Islamic Mongol empires </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_Mongol_empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timurid_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timurid_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Timurid Renaissance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timurid_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mamluk_Sultanate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mamluk_Sultanate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Mamluk Sultanate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mamluk_Sultanate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proto-Salafism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto-Salafism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Proto-Salafism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proto-Salafism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bahri_Sultans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bahri_Sultans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5.1 Bahri Sultans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bahri_Sultans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burji_Sultans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burji_Sultans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5.2 Burji Sultans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burji_Sultans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Al-Andalus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Al-Andalus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Al-Andalus </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Al-Andalus-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Al-Andalus subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Al-Andalus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emirs_of_Al-Andalus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emirs_of_Al-Andalus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Emirs of Al-Andalus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emirs_of_Al-Andalus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Caliphs_of_Al-Andalus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caliphs_of_Al-Andalus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1.1 Caliphs of Al-Andalus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caliphs_of_Al-Andalus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Almoravid_Ifriqiyah_and_Iberia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Almoravid_Ifriqiyah_and_Iberia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1.2 Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Almoravid_Ifriqiyah_and_Iberia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Almohad_caliphs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Almohad_caliphs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1.3 Almohad caliphs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Almohad_caliphs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam_in_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam_in_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Islam in Africa </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Islam_in_Africa-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Islam in Africa subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Islam_in_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maghreb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maghreb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Maghreb </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maghreb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Horn_of_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Horn_of_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Horn of Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Horn_of_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Lakes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Lakes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Great Lakes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Lakes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam_in_East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam_in_East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Islam in East Asia </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Islam_in_East_Asia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Islam in East Asia subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Islam_in_East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indian_subcontinent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_subcontinent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Indian subcontinent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_subcontinent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Southeast Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Early Modern period </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_Modern_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Early Modern period subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Early_Modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 Ottoman Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safavid_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safavid_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.2 Safavid Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safavid_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mughal_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mughal_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.3 Mughal Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mughal_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Modern period </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern period subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Empire_partition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Empire_partition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1 Ottoman Empire partition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Empire_partition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab–Israeli_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab–Israeli_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.2 Arab–Israeli conflict </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab–Israeli_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Islamic_affairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Islamic_affairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.3 Other Islamic affairs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_Islamic_affairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17.3 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 19 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of Islam</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 62 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-62" aria-hidden="true" > 62 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A" title="تاريخ إسلامي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ إسلامي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_islam" title="Historia del islam – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia del islam" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0slam%C4%B1n_tarixi" title="İslamın tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İslamın tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ইসলামের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইসলামের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Ислам тарихы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ислам тарихы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_islama" title="Historija islama – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Historija islama" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_la_civilitzaci%C3%B3_isl%C3%A0mica" title="Història de la civilització islàmica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de la civilització islàmica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_isl%C3%A1mu" title="Dějiny islámu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny islámu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islams_historie" title="Islams historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Islams historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politische_und_soziale_Geschichte_des_Islams" title="Politische und soziale Geschichte des Islams – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Politische und soziale Geschichte des Islams" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%90%DE%B0%DE%8D%DE%A7%DE%89%DE%A9_%DE%8C%DE%A7%DE%83%DE%A9%DE%9A%DE%AA" title="އިސްލާމީ ތާރީޚު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="އިސްލާމީ ތާރީޚު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_islam" title="Historia del islam – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia del islam" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_Islamo" title="Historio de Islamo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de Islamo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamaren_historia" title="Islamaren historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Islamaren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="تاریخ اسلام – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ اسلام" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27islam" title="Histoire de l'islam – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'islam" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_do_islam" title="Historia do islam – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia do islam" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EC%8A%AC%EB%9E%8C%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="이슬람의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이슬람의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%BD%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Իսլամի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իսլամի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="इस्लाम का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इस्लाम का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_islama" title="Povijest islama – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest islama" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Islamo" title="Historio di Islamo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Islamo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Islam" title="Sejarah Islam – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Islam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27Islam" title="Storia dell'Islam – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dell'Islam" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Ислам тарихы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ислам тарихы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%AEroka_%C3%AEslam%C3%AA" title="Dîroka îslamê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Dîroka îslamê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_temprana_de_la_muslimes" title="Istoria temprana de la muslimes – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Istoria temprana de la muslimes" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Az_iszl%C3%A1m_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nete" title="Az iszlám története – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Az iszlám története" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Историја на исламот – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на исламот" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%89" title="تاريخ اسلامى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تاريخ اسلامى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Islam" title="Sejarah Islam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah Islam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sijarah_Islam" title="Sijarah Islam – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Sijarah Islam" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%85%E1%80%B9%E1%80%85%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AC%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%9E%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="အစ္စလာမ် သမိုင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အစ္စလာမ် သမိုင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_de_islam" title="Geschiedenis van de islam – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van de islam" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islams_historie" title="Islams historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Islams historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B2ria_del_mond_islamic" title="Istòria del mond islamic – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Istòria del mond islamic" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islom_tarixi" title="Islom tarixi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Islom tarixi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਇਸਲਾਮ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਇਸਲਾਮ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="اسلام دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اسلام دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE" title="اسلامي تاريخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اسلامي تاريخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_do_Isl%C3%A3o" title="História do Islão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História do Islão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_islamului" title="Istoria islamului – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria islamului" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="История ислама – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История ислама" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_Islamit" title="Historia e Islamit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e Islamit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of Islam" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE" title="اسلام جي تاريخ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="اسلام جي تاريخ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejiny_islamu" title="Dejiny islamu – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dejiny islamu" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="مێژووی ئیسلام – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێژووی ئیسلام" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Историја ислама – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Историја ислама" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_islama" title="Historija islama – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historija islama" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamin_historia" title="Islamin historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Islamin historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islams_historia" title="Islams historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Islams historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="இசுலாமிய வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இசுலாமிய வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1" title="ประวัติศาสนาอิสลาม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประวัติศาสนาอิสลาม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0slam_tarihi" title="İslam tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İslam tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Історія ісламу – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія ісламу" 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/110px-Allah3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/165px-Allah3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/220px-Allah3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="294" data-file-height="313" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Iman_(Islam)" title="Iman (Islam)">Beliefs</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Oneness</a> of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Revealed Books</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Day of Resurrection</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Predestination</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Practices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Profession of Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Prayer</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Almsgiving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Fasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Pilgrimage</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Islamic_texts" title="List of Islamic texts">Texts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Foundations</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Sirah</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir (exegesis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqidah" title="Aqidah">Aqidah (creed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qisas_al-Anbiya" title="Qisas al-Anbiya">Qisas al-Anbiya ("Stories of the Prophets")</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathnawi" title="Mathnawi">Mathnawi</a> (Poems)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh (jurisprudence)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia (law)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Islamic history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">Muhammad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahabah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Imamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">society</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Academics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_(circumcision)" title="Khitan (circumcision)">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_diaspora" title="Muslim diaspora">Diaspora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Denominations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Islam" title="Education in Islam">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_possession_and_exorcism_in_Islam" title="Spirit possession and exorcism in Islam">Exorcism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_in_Islam" title="Morality in Islam">Moral teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawah" title="Dawah">Proselytizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_Islam" title="Sexuality in Islam">Sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_people_and_Islam" title="LGBTQ people and Islam">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">Concubinage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_humanity" title="Islam and humanity">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Related topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_hadith" title="Criticism of hadith">Hadith</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_violence" title="Islam and violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_war" title="Islam and war">war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">Jihad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jihadism" title="Jihadism">Jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_jihadism" title="Salafi jihadism">Salafi jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deobandi_jihadism" title="Deobandi jihadism">Deobandi jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Military laws</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Islam" title="Glossary of Islam">Glossary</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-top:0.1em;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.5em;"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-right:0.2em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam" title="Template:Islam"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islam" title="Template talk:Islam"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islam" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islam"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue_koran_sanaa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Blue_koran_sanaa.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="111" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="111" /></a><figcaption>Page from the <a href="/wiki/Sanaa_manuscript" title="Sanaa manuscript">Sanaa manuscript</a>, whose "subtexts" revealed using ultraviolet light are very different from contemporary standard editions of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>. The German palaeographer <a href="/wiki/Gerd_R._Puin" title="Gerd R. Puin">Gerd R. Puin</a> affirms that these variants indicate an evolving text.<a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_1999-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Three_Arabias_Excerpted_Partly_from_the_Arab_of_Nubia_Partly_from_Several_Other_Authors.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Map_of_the_Three_Arabias_Excerpted_Partly_from_the_Arab_of_Nubia_Partly_from_Several_Other_Authors.png/260px-Map_of_the_Three_Arabias_Excerpted_Partly_from_the_Arab_of_Nubia_Partly_from_Several_Other_Authors.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Map_of_the_Three_Arabias_Excerpted_Partly_from_the_Arab_of_Nubia_Partly_from_Several_Other_Authors.png/390px-Map_of_the_Three_Arabias_Excerpted_Partly_from_the_Arab_of_Nubia_Partly_from_Several_Other_Authors.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Map_of_the_Three_Arabias_Excerpted_Partly_from_the_Arab_of_Nubia_Partly_from_Several_Other_Authors.png/520px-Map_of_the_Three_Arabias_Excerpted_Partly_from_the_Arab_of_Nubia_Partly_from_Several_Other_Authors.png 2x" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Non-Islamic testimonies about Muhammad's life describe him as the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Saracens" class="mw-redirect" title="Saracens">Saracens</a>,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> believed to be descendants of <a href="/wiki/Ishmael" title="Ishmael">Ishmael</a>, that lived in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula_in_the_Roman_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian Peninsula in the Roman era">Roman-era provinces</a> of <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a> (West) and <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Deserta" title="Arabia Deserta">Arabia Deserta</a> (North). According to some sources, Muhammad is not a name but a title.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></figcaption></figure> The history of Islam concerns the <a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">political</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">social</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">economic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">military</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">cultural</a> developments of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic civilization</a>. Most historians<a href="#cite_note-Watt2003-4">[4]</a> believe that <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> originated with Muhammad's mission in <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a> at the start of the 7th century CE,<a href="#cite_note-Van-Ess_2017-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zimney_2009-6">[6]</a> although Muslims regard this time as a return to the original faith passed down by the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophets of Islam">prophets</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Adam_in_Islam" title="Adam in Islam">Adam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noah_in_Islam" title="Noah in Islam">Noah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam" title="Abraham in Islam">Abraham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moses_in_Islam" title="Moses in Islam">Moses</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_in_Islam" title="David in Islam">David</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solomon_in_Islam" title="Solomon in Islam">Solomon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Jesus</a>, with the submission (Islām) to the will of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Esposito2016-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Donner2000-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Peters2003-9">[9]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">traditional account</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Van-Ess_2017-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zimney_2009-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lewis1995a-10">[10]</a> the Islamic prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> began receiving what Muslims consider to be <a href="/wiki/Divine_revelation" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine revelation">divine revelations</a> in 610 CE, calling for submission to the one God, preparation for the imminent <a href="/wiki/Judgement_Day_in_Islam" title="Judgement Day in Islam">Last Judgement</a>, and charity for the poor and needy.<a href="#cite_note-Donner2000-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[Note 1]</a> As Muhammad's message <a href="/wiki/Timing_of_Sahabah_becoming_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Timing of Sahabah becoming Muslims">began to attract followers</a> (the ṣaḥāba) he also met with <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_by_Meccans" title="Persecution of Muslims by Meccans">increasing hostility and persecution from Meccan elites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Donner2000-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[Note 2]</a> In 622 CE Muhammad <a href="/wiki/Hegira" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegira">migrated to the city of Yathrib</a> (now known as <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>), where he began to unify the tribes of Arabia under Islam,<a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a> returning to Mecca to take control in 630<a href="#cite_note-Ramadan-178-15">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Haykal-438-16">[14]</a> and order the destruction of all pagan idols.<a href="#cite_note-Hitti-118-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ramadan-177-18">[16]</a> By the time Muhammad died <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 11 AH (632 CE), almost all the tribes of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> had converted to Islam,<a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a> but disagreement broke out over who would <a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">succeed him as leader of the Muslim community</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Van-Ess_2017-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Polk_2018-20">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Izutsu_2006-21">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lewis1995b-22">[20]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a> were responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">spread of Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Van-Ess_2017-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zimney_2009-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lewis1995a-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Polk_2018-20">[18]</a> By the 8th century CE, the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> extended from Iberian <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> in the west to the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a> in the east. Polities such as those ruled by the Umayyad and <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> caliphates (in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and later in <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Sicily">Southern Italy</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluks</a> were among the most influential powers in the world. Highly <a href="/wiki/Persianate_society" title="Persianate society">Persianized empires</a> built by the <a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghaznavid dynasty">Ghaznavids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurids</a> significantly contributed to technological and administrative developments. The <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> gave rise to many centers of culture and <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">science</a> and produced notable <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymaths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">astronomers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematics in medieval Islam">mathematicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">physicians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">philosophers</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Zimney_2009-6">[6]</a> By the early 13th century, the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> conquered the northern <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, while Turkic dynasties like the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Sultanate of Rum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artuqids" title="Artuqids">Artuqids</a> conquered much of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> throughout the 11th and 12th centuries. In the 13th and 14th centuries, destructive <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Mongol invasions</a>, along with the loss of population due to the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, greatly weakened the traditional centers of the Muslim world, stretching from Persia to Egypt, but saw the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Renaissance" title="Timurid Renaissance">Timurid Renaissance</a> and major economic powers such as the <a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal Sultanate</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-24">[22]</a> Following the deportation and enslavement of the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Sicily">Emirate of Sicily</a> and elsewhere <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">in southern Italy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> the Islamic Iberia was gradually conquered by Christian forces during the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>. Nonetheless, in the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_empires" title="Gunpowder empires">gunpowder empires</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a>—emerged as world powers. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, most of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> fell under the influence or direct control of the European <a href="/wiki/Great_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Powers">Great Powers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Zimney_2009-6">[6]</a> Some of their efforts to win independence and build modern nation-states over the course of the last two centuries continue to reverberate to the present day, as well as fuel conflict-zones in regions such as <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kashmir_conflict" title="Kashmir conflict">Kashmir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_conflict" title="Xinjiang conflict">Xinjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chechnya" title="Chechnya">Chechnya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_War" title="Bosnian War">Bosnia</a>, and Myanmar. The <a href="/wiki/Oil_boom" title="Oil boom">oil boom</a> stabilized the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Cooperation_Council" title="Gulf Cooperation Council">Arab States of the Gulf Cooperation Council</a> (comprising <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>), making them the world's largest oil producers and exporters, which focus on <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">tourism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_sources_and_historiography">Early sources and historiography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early sources and historiography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography of early Islam</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early social changes under Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Revisionist_school_of_Islamic_studies" title="Revisionist school of Islamic studies">Revisionist school of Islamic studies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Islam" title="Classical Islam">Classical Islam</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Icon-religion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Icon-religion.svg/200px-Icon-religion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Icon-religion.svg/300px-Icon-religion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Icon-religion.svg/400px-Icon-religion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="890" data-file-height="519" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founding figures</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> (<a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhartha_Gautama" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddhartha Gautama">Siddhartha Gautama</a> (<a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guru_Nanak" title="Guru Nanak">Guru Nanak</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroaster" title="Zoroaster">Zoroaster</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza_ibn_Ali" title="Hamza ibn Ali">Hamza ibn Ali</a> (<a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druzism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BCu%27ll%C3%A1h" title="Baháʼu'lláh">Baháʼu'lláh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Study_of_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Study of religion">Study of religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_gene" title="God gene">God gene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Timeline</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;;padding-top:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Religions of the ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Indo-European</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greco</a>-<a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> <a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Hellenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Dharmaization (Hindu-Buddhist Indianization)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamization</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Age of Discovery</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Modern day</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Age of Reason</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New religious movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Awakening" title="Great Awakening">Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Postmodernism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Religions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í Faith</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jainism" title="Timeline of Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sikhism" title="History of Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Far Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism" title="History of Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism#History" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinto#History" title="Shinto">Shinto</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neopagan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wicca" title="History of Wicca">Wicca</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_religion" title="Template:History of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_religion" title="Template talk:History of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The study of the earliest periods in Islamic history is made difficult by a lack of sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010628-28">[26]</a> For example, the most important historiographical source for the origins of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> is the work of <a href="/wiki/Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20106-29">[27]</a> While al-Tabari is considered an excellent historian by the standards of his time and place, he made liberal use of mythical, legendary, stereotyped, distorted, and polemical presentations of subject matter—which are however considered to be Islamically acceptable—and his descriptions of the beginning of Islam post-date the events by several generations, al-Tabari having died in 923 CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20102-30">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes201356-31">[29]</a> Differing views about how to deal with the available sources has led to the development of four different approaches to the history of early Islam. All four methods have some level of support today.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010633-32">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> <ul><li>The descriptive method uses the outlines of Islamic traditions, while being adjusted for the stories of miracles and faith-centred claims within those sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010629,_633-34">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Weil" title="Gustav Weil">Gustav Weil</a> represent some of the first historians following the descriptive method.</li> <li>On the <a href="/wiki/Source_criticism" title="Source criticism">source critical</a> method, a comparison of all the sources is sought in order to identify which informants to the sources are weak and thereby distinguish spurious material.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010630-35">[33]</a> The work of <a href="/wiki/William_Montgomery_Watt" class="mw-redirect" title="William Montgomery Watt">William Montgomery Watt</a> and that of <a href="/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung" title="Wilferd Madelung">Wilferd Madelung</a> are two source critical examples.</li> <li>On the <a href="/wiki/Tradition_criticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Tradition criticism">tradition critical</a> method, the sources are believed to be based on oral traditions with unclear origins and transmission history, and so are treated very cautiously.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010631-36">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Goldziher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignaz Goldziher">Ignaz Goldziher</a> was the pioneer of the tradition critical method, and <a href="/wiki/Uri_Rubin" title="Uri Rubin">Uri Rubin</a> gives a contemporary example.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Revisionist_school_of_Islamic_studies" title="Revisionist school of Islamic studies">skeptical</a> method doubts nearly all of the material in the traditional sources, regarding any possible historical core as too difficult to decipher from distorted and fabricated material.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010632-37">[35]</a> An early example of the sceptical method was the work of <a href="/wiki/John_Wansbrough" title="John Wansbrough">John Wansbrough</a>.</li></ul> Nowadays, the popularity of the different methods employed varies on the scope of the works under consideration. For overview treatments of the history of early Islam, the descriptive approach is more popular. For scholars who look at the beginnings of Islam in depth, the source critical and tradition critical methods are more often followed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010633-32">[30]</a> After the 8th century CE, the quality of sources improves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20109-38">[36]</a> Those sources which treated earlier times with a large temporal and cultural gap now begin to give accounts which are more contemporaneous, the quality of genre of available historical accounts improves, and new documentary sources—such as official documents, correspondence and poetry—appear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20109-38">[36]</a> For the time prior to the beginning of Islam—in the 6th century CE—sources are superior as well, if still of mixed quality. In particular, the sources covering the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian realm of influence</a> in the 6th century CE are poor, while the sources for <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine areas</a> at the time are of a respectable quality, and complemented by <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Syriac Christian">Syriac Christian</a> sources for Syria and Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20104–5-39">[37]</a> Until the early 1970s,<a href="#cite_note-FMDQiRS2008:30-40">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kafir" title="Kafir">Non-Muslim</a> scholars of Islamic studies—while not accepting accounts of divine intervention—did accept its origin story in most of its details.<a href="#cite_note-THItSotS2012:45-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FMDQiRS2008:29-42">[40]</a> On the dates said, historians called <a href="/wiki/Revisionist_school_of_Islamic_studies" title="Revisionist school of Islamic studies">Revisionist school of Islamic studies</a> began to use relevant <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Numismatics" title="Numismatics">numismatics</a> and contemporary non-Arabic literature<a href="#cite_note-YDNJKMQtIS2000:420-43">[41]</a> to crosscheck writings from 150 to 250 years after Muhammad.<a href="#cite_note-YDNJKMQtIS2000:422-6-44">[42]</a> The school included scholars such as <a href="/wiki/John_Wansbrough" title="John Wansbrough">John Wansbrough</a> and his students <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Rippin" title="Andrew Rippin">Andrew Rippin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norman_Calder" title="Norman Calder">Norman Calder</a>, <a href="/wiki/G._R._Hawting" title="G. R. Hawting">G. R. Hawting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Crone" title="Patricia Crone">Patricia Crone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Cook_(historian)" title="Michael Cook (historian)">Michael Cook</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_L%C3%BCling" title="Günter Lüling">Günter Lüling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yehuda_D._Nevo" title="Yehuda D. Nevo">Yehuda D. Nevo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Luxenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Christoph Luxenberg">Christoph Luxenberg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GSRQSaIC2008:8-45">[43]</a> These studies yielded the following results: <ul><li>Islam did not rise among polytheistic pagans in <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, but in a milieu where Jewish and Christian texts were well-known. The <a href="/wiki/Kafir" title="Kafir">infidels</a> or Kafirun described in the Qur'an were not pagan polytheists but rather Jews and Christians who were polemically deviated from monotheism.<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a> In the early period of Islam, Jews were "believers" and considered a part of the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">ummah</a>. Anti-Jewish texts, such as the story about the massacre of the Jewish tribe at <a href="/wiki/Banu_Qurayza" title="Banu Qurayza">Banu Qurayza</a>, appeared after Islam split from Judaism, long after Muhammad's death.<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> was not a settlement, nor an important commercial center for thousands of years before Islam as is claimed in traditional Islamic sources. In addition, the geographical descriptions in the Quran and later hadiths did not match Mecca. Rather, these sources pointed to somewhere in north-western Arabia, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Petra,_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Petra, Jordan">Petra</a> in Jordan.<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a></li> <li>The period that is today called early Islamic history was probably not an Islamic, religiously motivated conquest but a secular Arab invasion.<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rashidun_coin_Pseudo-Byzantine_types.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Rashidun_coin_Pseudo-Byzantine_types.jpg/230px-Rashidun_coin_Pseudo-Byzantine_types.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Rashidun_coin_Pseudo-Byzantine_types.jpg/345px-Rashidun_coin_Pseudo-Byzantine_types.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Rashidun_coin_Pseudo-Byzantine_types.jpg/460px-Rashidun_coin_Pseudo-Byzantine_types.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="387" /></a><figcaption>Coin of the Rāshidūn Caliphate (632–675 CE). Pseudo-Byzantine type with depictions of the Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Constans_II" title="Constans II">Constans II</a> holding the cross-tipped staff and globus cruciger.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan</a> (647–705), shaped the Islamic narrative to create a distinctive Islamic-Arab identity.<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> The word "Islam" does not appear in the records of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan's construction of the <a href="/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rock" title="Dome of the Rock">Dome of the Rock</a>, and Muslims referred to themselves simply as "believers". Coins containing symbols of various religions (<a href="/wiki/Fire_altar" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire altar">fire altar</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Christian cross">Christian cross</a>) were minted in the empire. Abd al-Malik also plays an important role in the reorganization of the text of the Qur'an.<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a></li> <li>Almost all of the traditional texts on the beginning of Islam were written products during the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> (750–1258) and through these texts, the Abbasids tried to legitimize their own rule.<a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline">Timeline</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Timeline">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_Islam" title="Timeline of the history of Islam">Timeline of the history of Islam</a></div> The following timeline can serve as a rough visual guide to the most important polities in the Islamic world prior to <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. It covers major historical centers of power and culture, including the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>), <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>), <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Israel/Palestine</a>), <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> (north-west Africa), the <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Swahili_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Swahili Coast">Swahili Coast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>), <a href="/wiki/Transoxania" class="mw-redirect" title="Transoxania">Transoxania</a> (<a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>), <a href="/wiki/Hindustan" title="Hindustan">Hindustan</a> (including modern-day <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>). It is necessarily an approximation, since rule over some regions was sometimes divided among different centers of power, and authority in larger polities was often distributed among several dynasties. For example, during the later stages of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>, even the capital city of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> was effectively ruled by other dynasties such as the <a href="/wiki/Buyyids" class="mw-redirect" title="Buyyids">Buyyids</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seljuq_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuq dynasty">Seljuks</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</a> commonly delegated executive authority over <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire">outlying provinces to local potentates</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_and_rulers_of_the_Regency_of_Algiers" title="List of governors and rulers of the Regency of Algiers">Deys of Algiers</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Beys_of_Tunis" class="mw-redirect" title="Beys of Tunis">Beys of Tunis</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Mamluks_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluks of Iraq">Mamluks of Iraq</a>. <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_m1gfwe6x10sstflg0360tsn097nzold"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" coords="312,165,437,186" title="Sultanate of Rum" alt="Sultanate of Rum" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" coords="596,151,671,172" title="Mughal Empire" alt="Mughal Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" coords="406,151,526,172" title="Delhi Sultanate" alt="Delhi Sultanate" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" coords="274,151,365,172" title="Ghaznavids" alt="Ghaznavids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/various" coords="607,138,682,158" title="various" alt="various" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mongols" coords="427,138,502,158" title="Mongols" alt="Mongols" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/various" coords="375,124,450,145" title="various" alt="various" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/various" coords="383,111,458,131" title="various" alt="various" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Khedivate" coords="713,96,799,117" title="Khedivate" alt="Khedivate" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Qajars" coords="687,70,756,90" title="Qajars" alt="Qajars" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Safavids" coords="558,70,638,90" title="Safavids" alt="Safavids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mongols" coords="420,56,495,77" title="Mongols" alt="Mongols" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ottomans" coords="610,28,690,49" title="Ottomans" alt="Ottomans" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mamluks" coords="442,28,517,49" title="Mamluks" alt="Mamluks" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ayyubids" coords="352,28,432,49" title="Ayyubids" alt="Ayyubids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Fatimids" coords="277,28,357,49" title="Fatimids" alt="Fatimids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" coords="148,23,279,44" title="Abbasid Caliphate" alt="Abbasid Caliphate" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Umayyads" coords="103,26,184,47" title="Umayyads" alt="Umayyads" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Rashidun" coords="58,31,138,52" title="Rashidun" alt="Rashidun" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_m1gfwe6x10sstflg0360tsn097nzold" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/m1gfwe6x10sstflg0360tsn097nzold.png" /></div> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>Dates are approximate, consult particular articles for details.</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_of_Islam">Origins of Islam</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins of Islam">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Pre-Islamic Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early Muslim conquests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Mecca" title="Muhammad in Mecca">Muhammad in Mecca</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Medina" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad in Medina">Muhammad in Medina</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ArabianpeninsulaAL.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/ArabianpeninsulaAL.PNG/220px-ArabianpeninsulaAL.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/ArabianpeninsulaAL.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="115" /></a><figcaption>Arabia united under Muhammad (7th century CE)</figcaption></figure> Early Islam arose within the historical, social, political, economic, and religious context of <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20109-38">[36]</a> The second half of the 6th century CE saw political disorder in the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">pre-Islamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a>, and communication routes were no longer secure.<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Religious divisions</a> played an important role in the crisis.<a href="#cite_note-Robin302-55">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> became the dominant religion of the <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Himyarite Kingdom</a> in Yemen after about 380 CE, while <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> took root in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Robin302-55">[53]</a> There was also a yearning for a more "spiritual form of religion", and "the choice of religion increasingly became an individual rather than a collective issue."<a href="#cite_note-Robin302-55">[53]</a> While some <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, those <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a> provided "the principal intellectual and spiritual reference points", and Jewish and Christian loanwords from <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a> began to replace the old pagan vocabulary of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> throughout the peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-Robin302-55">[53]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hanif" title="Hanif">Ḥanīf</a> ("renunciates"), a group of <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheists</a> that sought to separate themselves both from the foreign Abrahamic religions and the <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">traditional Arab polytheism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Rubin_2006-56">[54]</a> were looking for a new religious worldview to replace the pre-Islamic Arabian religions,<a href="#cite_note-Rubin_2006-56">[54]</a> focusing on "the all-encompassing father god <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a> whom they freely equated with the Jewish <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a> and the Christian <a href="/wiki/Jehovah" title="Jehovah">Jehovah</a>."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson2010-57">[55]</a> In their view, <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> was originally dedicated to this monotheistic faith that they considered to be the one true religion, established by the patriarch <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rubin_2006-56">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson2010-57">[55]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">traditional account</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Van-Ess_2017-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zimney_2009-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lewis1995a-10">[10]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_prophet" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic prophet">Islamic prophet</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> was born in <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, an important caravan trading center,<a href="#cite_note-Peters-1994-68-58">[56]</a> around the year 570 CE.<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> His family belonged to the Arab clan of <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a>, which was the chief tribe of Mecca and a dominant force in western Arabia.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis1995a-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Robin287-60">[58]</a> To counter the effects of anarchy (particularly raiding for booty between tribes), they upheld the institution of "sacred months" when all violence was forbidden and travel was safe.<a href="#cite_note-Robin301-61">[59]</a> The polytheistic <a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a> shrine in Mecca and the surrounding area was a popular pilgrimage destination for surrounding Arabs, which was a significant source of revenue for the city.<a href="#cite_note-Robin301-61">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zeitlin49-62">[60]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Birmingham_Quran_manuscript_-_closeup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Birmingham_Quran_manuscript_-_closeup.jpg/220px-Birmingham_Quran_manuscript_-_closeup.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Birmingham_Quran_manuscript_-_closeup.jpg/330px-Birmingham_Quran_manuscript_-_closeup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Birmingham_Quran_manuscript_-_closeup.jpg/440px-Birmingham_Quran_manuscript_-_closeup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="351" /></a><figcaption>Close-up of one leave showing chapter division and verse-end markings written in <a href="/wiki/Hijazi_script" title="Hijazi script">Hijazi script</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Quran_manuscript" title="Birmingham Quran manuscript">Birmingham Quran manuscript</a>, dated between c. 568 and 645, held by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a>.</figcaption></figure> Most likely Muhammad was "intimately aware of Jewish belief and practices," and acquainted with the Ḥanīf.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson2010-57">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHazleton2013"a_sense_of_kinship"-63">[61]</a> Like the Ḥanīf, Muhammad practiced <a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B8%A5annuth" title="Taḥannuth">Taḥannuth</a>, spending time in seclusion at mount Hira and "turning away from paganism."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBleeker196832-34-64">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> When he was about 40 years old, he began receiving at mount Hira' what Muslims regard as divine revelations delivered through the <a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">angel</a> <a href="/wiki/Gabriel#Islam" title="Gabriel">Gabriel</a>, which would later form the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>. These inspirations urged him to proclaim a strict <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheistic faith</a>, as the final expression of <a href="/wiki/Bible_prophecy" title="Bible prophecy">Biblical prophetism</a> earlier codified in the sacred texts of Judaism and Christianity; to warn his compatriots of the impending <a href="/wiki/Judgement_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgement Day">Judgement Day</a>; and to castigate social injustices of his city.<a href="#cite_note-Muhammad_p._363-66">[64]</a> Muhammad's message <a href="/wiki/Timing_of_Sahabah_becoming_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Timing of Sahabah becoming Muslims">won over a handful of followers</a> (the ṣaḥāba) and was met with <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_by_Meccans" title="Persecution of Muslims by Meccans">increasing persecution from Meccan notables</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Donner2000-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mecca._p._364-67">[65]</a> In 622 CE, a few years after losing protection with the death of his influential uncle <a href="/wiki/Abu_Talib_ibn_Abd_al-Muttalib" title="Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib">ʾAbū Ṭālib ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib</a>, Muhammad migrated to the city of Yathrib (subsequently called <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>) where he was joined by his followers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2010187-68">[66]</a> Later generations would count this event, known as the <a href="/wiki/Hegira" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegira">hijra</a>, as the start of the Islamic era.<a href="#cite_note-Hourani15-19-69">[67]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hijra_Abyssinia_(Rashid_ad-Din).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Hijra_Abyssinia_%28Rashid_ad-Din%29.jpg/350px-Hijra_Abyssinia_%28Rashid_ad-Din%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Hijra_Abyssinia_%28Rashid_ad-Din%29.jpg/525px-Hijra_Abyssinia_%28Rashid_ad-Din%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Hijra_Abyssinia_%28Rashid_ad-Din%29.jpg/700px-Hijra_Abyssinia_%28Rashid_ad-Din%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2086" data-file-height="862" /></a><figcaption>1314 manuscript illustration by <a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid ad-Din</a> depicting the <a href="/wiki/Negus" title="Negus">Negus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">medieval Abyssinia</a> declining a <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Meccan</a> delegation's request to surrender the <a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">early Muslims</a>.</figcaption></figure> In Yathrib, where he was accepted as an arbitrator among the different communities of the city under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Medina" title="Constitution of Medina">Constitution of Medina</a>, Muhammad began to lay the foundations of the new Islamic society, with the help of new Quranic verses which provided guidance on matters of law and religious observance.<a href="#cite_note-Hourani15-19-69">[67]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Surah" title="Surah">surahs</a> of this period emphasized his place among the <a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">long line of Biblical prophets</a>, but also differentiated the message of the Quran from the sacred texts of Christianity and Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-Hourani15-19-69">[67]</a> Armed conflict with the Arab Meccans and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Jewish tribes</a> of the Yathrib area soon broke out.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> After a series of military confrontations and political manoeuvres, Muhammad was able to <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Mecca" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Mecca">secure control of Mecca</a> and allegiance of the Quraysh in 629 CE.<a href="#cite_note-Hourani15-19-69">[67]</a> In the time remaining until <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Muhammad">his death</a> in 632 CE, <a href="/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia" title="Tribes of Arabia">tribal chiefs across the Arabian peninsula</a> entered into various agreements with him, some under terms of alliance, others acknowledging his claims of prophethood and agreeing to follow Islamic practices, including paying the <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">alms levy</a> to his government, which consisted of a number of deputies, an army of believers, and a public treasury.<a href="#cite_note-Hourani15-19-69">[67]</a> The real intentions of Muhammad regarding the spread of Islam, its political undertone, and his <a href="/wiki/Dawah" title="Dawah">missionary activity</a> (da'wah) during his lifetime are a contentious matter of debate, which has been extensively discussed both among <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Muslim scholars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kafir" title="Kafir">Non-Muslim</a> scholars within the academic field of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Poston_1992-71">[69]</a> Various authors, Islamic activists, and historians of Islam have proposed several understandings of Muhammad's intent and ambitions regarding his religio-political mission in the context of the pre-Islamic Arabian society and the founding of his own religion:<a href="#cite_note-Poston_1992-71">[69]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Was it in Muhammad's mind to produce a world religion or did his interests lie mainly within the confines of his homeland? Was he solely an <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arab</a> <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a>—a political genius intent upon uniting the proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia" title="Tribes of Arabia">tribal clans</a> under the banner of a new religion—or was his vision a truly international one, encompassing a desire to produce a reformed humanity in the midst of a new world order? These questions are not without significance, for a number of the proponents of contemporary da'wah activity in the West trace their inspiration to the prophet himself, claiming that he initiated a worldwide missionary program in which they are the most recent participants. [...] Despite the claims of these and other writers, it is difficult to prove that Muhammad intended to found a world-encompassing faith superseding the religions of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>. His original aim appears to have been the establishment of a succinctly Arab brand of <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a>, as indicated by his many references to the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Qurʾān</a> as an Arab book and by his accommodations to other monotheistic traditions.<a href="#cite_note-Poston_1992-71">[69]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rashidun_Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rashidun Caliphate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Military_campaigns_under_Caliph_Uthman" title="Military campaigns under Caliph Uthman">Military campaigns under Caliph Uthman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Political aspects of Islam</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG/250px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG" decoding="async" width="250" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG/375px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG/500px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>Empire of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rāshidūn Caliphate</a> at its peak under the third <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">rāshidūn</a> caliph <a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uthman ibn Affan">ʿUthmān</a> (654 CE) <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Strongholds of the Rāshidūn Caliphate</div></figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Muhammad">death of Muhammad</a> in 632 CE, his community needed to appoint a new leader, giving rise to the title of <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliph</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: خَليفة, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: khalīfa, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'successor').<a href="#cite_note-Van-Ess_2017-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lewis1995a-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Polk_2018-20">[18]</a> Thus, the subsequent Islamic empires were known as "<a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphates</a>",<a href="#cite_note-Van-Ess_2017-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lewis1995a-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pakatchi-Ahmadi_2017-72">[70]</a> and a series of four caliphs governed the early Islamic empire: <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abū Bakr</a> (632–634), <a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_al-Khattab" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar ibn al-Khattab">ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb</a> (Umar І, 634–644), <a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uthman ibn Affan">ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān</a> (644–656), and <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib</a> (656–661). These leaders are known as the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">rāshidūn</a> ("rightly-guided") caliphs in <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunnī Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis1995a-10">[10]</a> They oversaw the initial phase of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a>, advancing through <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Persia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">the Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_invasion_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim invasion of Egypt">Egypt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">North Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis1995a-10">[10]</a> Alongside the growth of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, the major political development within early Islam in this period was the sectarian split and political divide between <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunnī</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shīʿa</a> <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>; this had its roots in a dispute over the succession for the role of caliph.<a href="#cite_note-Van-Ess_2017-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Izutsu_2006-21">[19]</a> Sunnīs believed the caliph was elective and any Muslim from the Arab clan of <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a>, the tribe of Muhammad, might serve as one.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis1995b-22">[20]</a> Shīʿītes, on the other hand, believed the title of caliph should be hereditary in the <a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">bloodline of Muhammad</a>,<a href="#cite_note-jaarel_2015-73">[71]</a> and thus all the caliphs, with the exceptions of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib</a> and his firstborn son <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali" title="Hasan ibn Ali">Ḥasan</a>, were actually illegitimate <a href="/wiki/Usurper" title="Usurper">usurpers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis1995b-22">[20]</a> However, the Sunnī sect emerged as triumphant in most regions of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>, with the exceptions of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>. <a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Muhammad's closest companions</a> (ṣaḥāba), the four "<a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">rightly-guided</a>" caliphs who succeeded him, continued to expand the Islamic empire to encompass <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(636%E2%80%93637)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (636–637)">Jerusalem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ctesiphon_(637)" title="Siege of Ctesiphon (637)">Ctesiphon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_invasion_of_Damascus" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim invasion of Damascus">Damascus</a>, and sending Arab Muslim armies as far as the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">Sindh region</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> The early Islamic empire stretched from <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> (Muslim Iberia) to the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_invasion_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim invasion of India">Punjab region</a> under the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad dynasty</a>. <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_4i94ncd5qavc4t2kgaj8780ck2rzxv8"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muawiyah_I" coords="694,21,789,40" title="Muawiyah I" alt="Muawiyah I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib" coords="582,21,737,40" title="Ali ibn Abi Talib" alt="Ali ibn Abi Talib" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affan" coords="448,21,593,40" title="Uthman ibn Affan" alt="Uthman ibn Affan" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_al%2DKhattab" coords="258,21,423,40" title="Umar ibn al-Khattab" alt="Umar ibn al-Khattab" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" coords="202,21,282,40" title="Abu Bakr" alt="Abu Bakr" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muhammad" coords="106,21,181,40" title="Muhammad" alt="Muhammad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Rashidun" coords="420,8,505,27" title="Rashidun" alt="Rashidun" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Umayyad_accession" coords="688,-4,808,15" title="Umayyad accession" alt="Umayyad accession" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/First_Fitna" coords="614,-4,704,15" title="First Fitna" alt="First Fitna" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" coords="370,-4,505,15" title="Rashidun Caliphate" alt="Rashidun Caliphate" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ridda_wars" coords="198,-4,283,15" title="Ridda wars" alt="Ridda wars" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muhammad_after_the_conquest_of_Mecca" coords="162,-4,222,15" title="Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca" alt="Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Medina" coords="95,-4,160,15" title="Muhammad in Medina" alt="Muhammad in Medina" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_4i94ncd5qavc4t2kgaj8780ck2rzxv8" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/4i94ncd5qavc4t2kgaj8780ck2rzxv8.png" /></div> After Muhammad's death, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abū Bakr</a>, one of his closest associates, was chosen as the first <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliph</a> ("successor"). Although the office of caliph retained an aura of religious authority, it laid no claim to prophecy.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis1995a-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hourani22-75">[73]</a> A number of <a href="/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia" title="Tribes of Arabia">tribal Arab leaders</a> refused to extend the agreements made with Muhammad to Abū Bakr, ceasing payments of the alms levy and in some cases claiming to be prophets in their own right.<a href="#cite_note-Hourani22-75">[73]</a> Abū Bakr asserted his authority in a successful military campaign known as the <a href="/wiki/Ridda_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Ridda wars">Ridda wars</a>, whose momentum was carried into the lands of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> empires.<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> By the end of the reign of the second caliph <a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_al-Khattab" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar ibn al-Khattab">ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb</a>, the Arab Muslim armies, whose battle-hardened ranks were now swelled by the defeated rebels<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> and former imperial auxiliary troops,<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">invaded the eastern Byzantine provinces of Syria and Egypt</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">the Sasanids lost their western territories</a>, with the rest of Persia to follow soon afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-Hourani22-75">[73]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_Islamic_coins_by_caliph_Uthman-mohammad_adil_rais.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/First_Islamic_coins_by_caliph_Uthman-mohammad_adil_rais.jpg/230px-First_Islamic_coins_by_caliph_Uthman-mohammad_adil_rais.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/First_Islamic_coins_by_caliph_Uthman-mohammad_adil_rais.jpg/345px-First_Islamic_coins_by_caliph_Uthman-mohammad_adil_rais.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/First_Islamic_coins_by_caliph_Uthman-mohammad_adil_rais.jpg 2x" data-file-width="418" data-file-height="214" /></a><figcaption>The rāshidūn caliphs used symbols of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> (crescent-star, fire temple, depictions of the last Sasanian emperor <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a>) by adding the Arabic expression <a href="/wiki/Basmala" title="Basmala">bismillāh</a> on their coins, instead of designing new ones.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a></figcaption></figure> ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb improved the administration of the fledgling Islamic empire, ordering improvement of irrigation networks, and playing a role in foundation of cities like <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>. To be close to the poor, he lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every evening. After consulting with the poor, ʿUmar established the <a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-mal" title="Bayt al-mal">Bayt al-mal</a>,<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> a welfare institution for the Muslim and <a href="/wiki/Kafir" title="Kafir">Non-Muslim</a> poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rāshidūn Caliphate in the 7th century CE and continued through the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad period</a> and well into the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid era</a>. ʿUmar also introduced child benefit for the children and pensions for the elderly.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> When he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required administrative standards, he had him removed from his position.<a href="#cite_note-Brill_Archive-87">[85]</a> The expansion was partially halted between 638 and 639 CE during the years of great famine and plague in Arabia and the Levant, respectively, but by the end of ʿUmar's reign, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and much of Persia were incorporated into the early Islamic empire. Local populations of <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">indigenous Christians</a>, who lived as religious minorities and were forced to pay the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> tax under the Muslim rule in order to finance the wars with Byzantines and Sasanids, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> As new areas were conquered, they also benefited from free trade with other areas of the growing Islamic empire, where, to encourage commerce, taxes were applied to wealth rather than trade.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> The Muslims paid <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">zakat</a> on their wealth for the benefit of the poor. Since the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Medina" title="Constitution of Medina">Constitution of Medina</a>, drafted by the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_prophet" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic prophet">Islamic prophet</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws and had their own judges.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> In 639 CE, ʿUmar appointed <a href="/wiki/Muawiyah_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Muawiyah I">Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan</a> as the governor of <a href="/wiki/Muslim_invasion_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim invasion of Syria">Syria</a> after the previous governor died in a plague along with 25,000 other people.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab–Byzantine wars</a>, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy, with ships crewed by <a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysite Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copts" title="Copts">Egyptian Coptic Christians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jacobite_Syrian_Christian_Church" title="Jacobite Syrian Christian Church">Jacobite Syrian Christians</a> sailors and Muslim troops, which defeated the Byzantine navy at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Masts" title="Battle of the Masts">Battle of the Masts</a> in 655 CE, opening up the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> to Muslim ships.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantiumby650AD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Byzantiumby650AD.svg/270px-Byzantiumby650AD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="270" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Byzantiumby650AD.svg/405px-Byzantiumby650AD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Byzantiumby650AD.svg/540px-Byzantiumby650AD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="879" /></a><figcaption>Eastern territories of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> invaded by the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Arab Muslims</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab–Byzantine wars</a> (650 CE)</figcaption></figure> Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because ʿUmar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury, moving away from the worship of God, accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-Brill_Archive-87">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> Staying in these encampments away from the cities also ensured that there was no stress on the local populations which could remain autonomous. Some of these encampments later grew into cities like <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fustat</a> in Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> When ʿUmar was assassinated in 644 CE, <a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uthman ibn Affan">ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān</a>, second cousin and twice son-in-law of Muhammad, became the third caliph. As the Arabic language is written without vowels, speakers of <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">different Arabic dialects</a> and other languages recited the Quran with phonetic variations that could alter the meaning of the text. When ʿUthmān became aware of this, he ordered a standard copy of the Quran to be prepared. Begun during his reign, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Quran" title="History of the Quran">compilation of the Quran</a> was finished some time between 650 and 656 CE, and copies were sent out to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire.<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> After Muhammad's death, the old tribal differences between the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> started to resurface. Following the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman–Persian wars">Roman–Persian wars</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine-Sasanian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine-Sasanian wars">Byzantine-Sasanian wars</a>, deep-rooted differences between <a href="/wiki/Muslim_invasion_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim invasion of Iraq">Iraq</a> (formerly under the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_invasion_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim invasion of Syria">Syria</a> (formerly under the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>) also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic empire to be in their area.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> As ʿUthmān became very old, <a href="/wiki/Marwan_I" title="Marwan I">Marwan I</a>, a relative of Muawiyah slipped into the vacuum, becoming his secretary and slowly assuming more control. When ʿUthmān was assassinated in 656 CE, <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib</a>, cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq. Muawiyah I, the governor of Syria, and Marwan I demanded arrest of the culprits. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict, which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">first Muslim civil war</a> (the "First Fitna"). ʿAlī was assassinated by the <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a> in 661 CE. Six months later, ʿAlī's firstborn son <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali" title="Hasan ibn Ali">Ḥasan</a> made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I, in the interest of peace. In the <a href="/wiki/Hasan%E2%80%93Muawiya_treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasan–Muawiya treaty">Hasan–Muawiya treaty</a>, Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī handed over power to Muawiyah I on the condition that he would be just to the people and not establish a dynasty after his death.<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> Muawiyah I subsequently broke the conditions of the agreement and established the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a>, with a capital in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Ali" title="Husayn ibn Ali">Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī</a>, by then Muhammad's only surviving grandson, refused to swear allegiance to the Umayyads; he was killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Karbala" title="Battle of Karbala">Battle of Karbala</a> the same year, in an event still mourned by <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shīʿa Muslims</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Day_of_Ashura" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Ashura">Day of Ashura</a>. Political unrest called the <a href="/wiki/Second_Fitna" title="Second Fitna">second Muslim civil war</a> (the "Second Fitna") continued, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah I to <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, and expanded into <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. In 664 CE, Arab Muslim armies conquered <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>,<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> and in 665 CE pushed further into the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Umayyad_Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Umayyad Caliphate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Umayyad750ADloc.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Umayyad750ADloc.png/250px-Umayyad750ADloc.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Umayyad750ADloc.png/375px-Umayyad750ADloc.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Umayyad750ADloc.png/500px-Umayyad750ADloc.png 2x" data-file-width="1481" data-file-height="902" /></a><figcaption>Territories of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></figcaption></figure> The Umayyad dynasty (or Ommiads), whose name derives from <a href="/wiki/Umayya_ibn_Abd_Shams" title="Umayya ibn Abd Shams">Umayya ibn Abd Shams</a>, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled from 661 to 750 CE. Although the Umayyad family came from the city of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> was the capital. After the death of <a href="/wiki/Abdu%27l-Rahman_ibn_Abu_Bakr" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr">Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr</a> in 666,<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/Muawiyah_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Muawiyah I">Muawiyah I</a> consolidated his power. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus from <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>, which led to profound changes in the empire. In the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family to power. As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the <a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-mal" title="Bayt al-mal">Bayt al-mal</a> and the Welfare State expenses to assist the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled, increased, the Umayyads asked the new converts (mawali) to continue paying the poll tax. The Umayyad rule, with its wealth and luxury also seemed at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad.<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a> All this increased discontent.<a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a> The descendants of Muhammad's uncle <a href="/wiki/Abbas_ibn_Abd_al-Muttalib" title="Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib">Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib</a> rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general <a href="/wiki/Abu_Muslim" title="Abu Muslim">Abu Muslim</a>, inaugurating the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid dynasty</a> in 750, which moved the capital to <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a> A branch of the <a href="/wiki/Ummayad" class="mw-redirect" title="Ummayad">Ummayad</a> family fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>, which lasted until 1031 before falling due to the <a href="/wiki/Fitna_of_al-Andalus" title="Fitna of al-Andalus">Fitna of al-Andalus</a>. The Bayt al-mal, the Welfare State then continued under the Abbasids. At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than 5,000,000 square miles (13,000,000 km2) making it one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest empires</a> the world had yet seen,<a href="#cite_note-Blankinship-118">[116]</a> and the fifth <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires#Contiguous_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest contiguous empire</a> ever. Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a> drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Muslims</a> credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post-<a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil war</a> anarchy. However, <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Muslims</a> accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a>, fabricating self-aggrandizing <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresies</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a> slandering <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">the Prophet</a>'s family<a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> and even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan,_vue_d%27ensemble.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan%2C_vue_d%27ensemble.jpg/220px-Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan%2C_vue_d%27ensemble.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan%2C_vue_d%27ensemble.jpg/330px-Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan%2C_vue_d%27ensemble.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan%2C_vue_d%27ensemble.jpg/440px-Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan%2C_vue_d%27ensemble.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4620" data-file-height="3551" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mosque_of_Uqba" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosque of Uqba">Mosque of Uqba</a> (Great Mosque of Kairouan), founded by the Umayyad general Uqba Ibn Nafi in 670, is the oldest and most prestigious mosque in the Muslim West; its present form dates from the 9th century, <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>.</figcaption></figure>In 682, Yazid restored <a href="/wiki/Uqba_ibn_Nafi" title="Uqba ibn Nafi">Uqba ibn Nafi</a> as the governor of North Africa. Uqba won battles against the <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berbers</a> and Byzantines.<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> From there Uqba marched thousands of miles westward towards <a href="/wiki/Tangier" title="Tangier">Tangier</a>, where he reached the Atlantic coast, and then marched eastwards through the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Mountains" title="Atlas Mountains">Atlas Mountains</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a> With about 300 <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalrymen</a>, he proceeded towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala. Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslims from north Africa for a period.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> Weakened by the civil wars, the Umayyad lost supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>. Under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Yazid_I" title="Yazid I">Yazid I</a>, some Muslims in Kufa began to think that if <a href="/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Ali" title="Husayn ibn Ali">Husayn ibn Ali</a> the descendant of Muhammad was their ruler, he would have been more just. He was invited to Kufa but was later betrayed and killed. Imam Husain's son, Imam <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Husain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Husain">Ali ibn Husain</a>, was imprisoned along with Husain's sister and other ladies left in <a href="/wiki/Karbala" title="Karbala">Karbala</a> war. Due to opposition by public they were later released and allowed to go to their native place Medina. One Imam after another continued in the generation of Imam Husain but they were opposed by the Caliphs of the day as their rivals till Imam <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Mahdi_Billah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah">Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah</a> came in power as first Caliph of <a href="/wiki/Fatimid" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid">Fatimid</a> in North Africa when Caliphate and Imamate came to same person again after Imam Ali. These Imams were recognized by Shia Islam taking Imam Ali as first Caliph/Imam and the same is institutionalized by the <a href="/wiki/Safavids" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavids">Safavids</a> and many similar institutions named now as <a href="/wiki/Ismaili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ismaili">Ismaili</a>, <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver</a>, etc. The period under <a href="/wiki/Muawiya_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Muawiya II">Muawiya II</a> was marked by civil wars (<a href="/wiki/Second_Fitna" title="Second Fitna">Second Fitna</a>). This would ease in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan</a>, a well-educated and capable ruler. Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule, all important records were translated into Arabic. In his reign, a <a href="/wiki/Currency" title="Currency">currency</a> for the Muslim world was minted. This led to war with the Byzantine Empire under <a href="/wiki/Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sebastopolis" title="Battle of Sebastopolis">Battle of Sebastopolis</a>) in 692 in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>. The Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a>. The Islamic currency was then made the exclusive currency in the Muslim world.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] He reformed agriculture and commerce.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Abd al-Malik consolidated Muslim rule and extended it, made Arabic the state language, and organized a regular <a href="/wiki/Postal_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Postal service">postal service</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Saracen_Army_outside_Paris,_730-32_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/The_Saracen_Army_outside_Paris%2C_730-32_AD.png/220px-The_Saracen_Army_outside_Paris%2C_730-32_AD.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/The_Saracen_Army_outside_Paris%2C_730-32_AD.png/330px-The_Saracen_Army_outside_Paris%2C_730-32_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/The_Saracen_Army_outside_Paris%2C_730-32_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="430" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Umayyad army invades France after conquering the Iberian Peninsula</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_I" title="Al-Walid I">Al-Walid I</a> began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early Islamic empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> and across to the west of North Africa. Muslim armies under <a href="/wiki/Tariq_ibn_Ziyad" title="Tariq ibn Ziyad">Tariq ibn Ziyad</a> crossed the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar" title="Strait of Gibraltar">Strait of Gibraltar</a> and began to <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">conquer the Iberian Peninsula</a> using North African <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berber</a> armies. The <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> were defeated when the Umayyad conquered <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a>. The Iberian Peninsula was the farthest extent of Islamic control of Europe (they were stopped at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours</a>). In the east, Islamic armies under <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_al-Qasim" title="Muhammad ibn al-Qasim">Muhammad ibn al-Qasim</a> made it as far as the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley">Indus Valley</a>. Under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from the Iberian Peninsula to India. <a href="/wiki/Al-Hajjaj_ibn_Yusuf" title="Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf">Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf</a> played a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era. This tactic was crucial for the expansion to the Iberian Peninsula. His reign is considered to be the apex of Islamic power. <a href="/wiki/Sulayman_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik">Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik</a> was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed <a href="/wiki/Yazid_ibn_al-Muhallab" title="Yazid ibn al-Muhallab">Yazid ibn al-Muhallab</a> governor of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of <a href="/wiki/Al-Hajjaj_ibn_Yusuf" title="Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf">al-Hajjaj</a>, one of two prominent leaders (the other was <a href="/wiki/Qutayba_ibn_Muslim" title="Qutayba ibn Muslim">Qutayba ibn Muslim</a>) who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no threat. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move to <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> on becoming Caliph, remaining in <a href="/wiki/Ramla" title="Ramla">Ramla</a>. Sulayman sent <a href="/wiki/Maslama_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik">Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik</a> to attack the Byzantine capital (<a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%9318)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Constantinople (717–18)">siege of Constantinople</a>). The intervention of <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a> on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717. <a href="/wiki/Yazid_II" title="Yazid II">Yazid II</a> came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire.<a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> Yazid expanded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother, <a href="/wiki/Hisham_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik">Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik</a> ruled an empire with many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms introduced by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined with local restlessness to produce the <a href="/wiki/Berber_Revolt" title="Berber Revolt">Berber Revolt</a>. He was also faced with a revolt by <a href="/wiki/Zayd_ibn_Ali" title="Zayd ibn Ali">Zayd ibn Ali</a>. Hisham suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Akroinon" title="Battle of Akroinon">Battle of Akroinon</a>, a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a> Hisham died in 743. <a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_II" title="Al-Walid II">Al-Walid II</a> saw political intrigue during his reign. <a href="/wiki/Yazid_III" title="Yazid III">Yazid III</a> spoke out against his cousin Walid's "immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/Qays_and_Yaman_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Qays and Yaman tribes">Banu Qays Arabs against Yemenis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mawali" class="mw-redirect" title="Mawali">non-Arab Muslims</a>, and Yazid received further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>).<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> Walid was shortly thereafter deposed in a <a href="/wiki/Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Coup">coup</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a> Yazid disbursed funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph. He explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Book of God</a> and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he died. <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Walid" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Walid">Ibrahim ibn al-Walid</a>, named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in 744, before he abdicated. <a href="/wiki/Marwan_II" title="Marwan II">Marwan II</a> ruled from 744 until he was killed in 750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. His death signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I" title="Abd al-Rahman I">Abd al-Rahman</a> who escaped to the Iberian Peninsula and founded a dynasty there. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Islamic_world_during_the_Abbasid_Caliphate">Islamic world during the Abbasid Caliphate</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Islamic world during the Abbasid Caliphate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abbasids850.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Abbasids850.png/220px-Abbasids850.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Abbasids850.png/330px-Abbasids850.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Abbasids850.png/440px-Abbasids850.png 2x" data-file-width="1481" data-file-height="902" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> in the <a href="/wiki/850s" title="850s">850s</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid dynasty</a> rose to power in 750, consolidating the gains of the earlier <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphates</a>. Initially, they conquered <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Mediterranean" title="List of islands in the Mediterranean">Mediterranean islands</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Balearics" class="mw-redirect" title="Balearics">Balearics</a> and, after, in 827 the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Southern_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EoI-Islam-129">[127]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ruling_party" title="Ruling party">ruling party</a> had come to power on the wave of dissatisfaction with the Umayyads, cultivated by the Abbasid revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Abu_Muslim" title="Abu Muslim">Abu Muslim</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> Under the Abbasids Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">prose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">poetry</a>, termed by The Cambridge History of Islam as its "<a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Age of Islam">golden age</a>".<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> Commerce and industry (considered a <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Agricultural_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Agricultural Revolution">Muslim Agricultural Revolution</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic arts">arts</a> and sciences (considered a <a href="/wiki/Islamic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic science">Muslim Scientific Revolution</a>) also prospered under Abbasid caliphs <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a> (ruled 754–775), <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> (ruled 786–809), <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a> (ruled 809–813) and their immediate successors.<a href="#cite_note-B.a-d-133">[131]</a> Many non-Muslims, such as <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sabians" title="Sabians">Sabians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Brague_2009-134">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">contributed to the Islamic civilization</a> in various fields,<a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a> and the institution known as the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> employed <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_scientists_and_scholars_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world">Christian</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-modern_Iranian_scientists_and_scholars" title="List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars">Persian scholars</a> to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brague_2009-134">[132]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dinar_of_al-Mansur,_AH_136-158.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dinar_of_al-Mansur%2C_AH_136-158.jpg/220px-Dinar_of_al-Mansur%2C_AH_136-158.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dinar_of_al-Mansur%2C_AH_136-158.jpg/330px-Dinar_of_al-Mansur%2C_AH_136-158.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dinar_of_al-Mansur%2C_AH_136-158.jpg/440px-Dinar_of_al-Mansur%2C_AH_136-158.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gold_dinar" title="Gold dinar">Gold dinar</a> of Abbasid caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">Al-Mansur</a> (r. 754–775) the founder of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, patron of art and science</figcaption></figure> The capital was moved from Damascus to <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transoxania" class="mw-redirect" title="Transoxania">Transoxania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-B.a-d-133">[131]</a> At this time the caliphate showed signs of fracture amid the rise of regional dynasties. Although the Umayyad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family member, <a href="/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd ar-Rahman I">Abd ar-Rahman I</a>, escaped to Spain and established an independent caliphate there in 756. In the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>, Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab <a href="/wiki/Aghlabid" class="mw-redirect" title="Aghlabid">Aghlabids</a> as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognize central authority. Aghlabid rule was short-lived, and they were deposed by the <a href="/wiki/Shiite" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiite">Shiite</a> <a href="/wiki/Fatimid" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid">Fatimid</a> dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a capital there in 973 called "al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of victory", known today as <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>). During its decline, the Abbasid Caliphate disintegrated into minor states and dynasties, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tulunid" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulunid">Tulunid</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghaznavid">Ghaznavid dynasty</a>. The Ghaznavid dynasty was a Muslim dynasty established by <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a> slave-soldiers from another Islamic empire, the <a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid Empire</a>. In Persia the Ghaznavids snatched power from the Abbasids.<a href="#cite_note-B-I-138">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-AHGC-139">[137]</a> Abbasid influence had been consumed by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Seljuq_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Seljuq Empire">Great Seljuq Empire</a> (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia) by 1055.<a href="#cite_note-B.a-d-133">[131]</a> Two other Turkish tribes, the <a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Karahanids</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuks</a>, converted to Islam during the 10th century. Later, they were subdued by the Ottomans, who share the same origin and language. The Seljuks played an important role in the revival of Sunnism when Shi'ism increased its influence. The Seljuk military leader <a href="/wiki/Alp_Arslan" title="Alp Arslan">Alp Arslan</a> (1063 – 1072) financially supported sciences and literature and established the <a href="/wiki/Nezamiyeh" title="Nezamiyeh">Nezamiyeh</a> university in Baghdad.<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful <a href="/wiki/Dawah" title="Dawah">proselytising</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EoI-Islam-129">[127]</a> The first stage in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent">conquest of India</a> began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 to 1209) years later, the area up to the <a href="/wiki/Ganges_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges river">Ganges river</a> had fallen. In sub-Saharan West Africa, Islam was established just after the year 1000. Muslim rulers were in <a href="/wiki/Kanem_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanem Region">Kanem</a> starting from sometime between 1081 and 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of <a href="/wiki/Gao" title="Gao">Gao</a> as early as 1009. The <a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali</a> reached prominence in the 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity. Different sects of the Islamic faith and mosques, separated by doctrine, history, and practice, were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking the Umayyads' moral character and administration. According to <a href="/wiki/Ira_Lapidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ira Lapidus">Ira Lapidus</a>, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their <a href="/wiki/Mawali" class="mw-redirect" title="Mawali">Mawali</a>".<a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a> The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who remained outside the <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a>-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Islamic <a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">ecumenism</a>, promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a> in the literal meaning: that there was a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the <a href="/wiki/Shariah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shariah">Shariah</a> was codified, and the four <a href="/wiki/Madhabs" class="mw-redirect" title="Madhabs">Madhabs</a> were established. This era also saw the rise of classical <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a>. Religious achievements included completion of the canonical collections of <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sahih_Bukhari" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahih Bukhari">Sahih Bukhari</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> Islam recognized to a certain extent the validity of the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrahamic religion">Abrahamic religions</a>, the Quran identifying <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sabians" title="Sabians">Sabians</a> (commonly identified with the <a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a>) as "<a href="/wiki/People_of_the_book" class="mw-redirect" title="People of the book">people of the book</a>". Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages, the doctrines of the <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a>, two major <a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">denominations of Islam</a>, solidified and the <a href="/wiki/Divisions_of_the_world_in_Islam" title="Divisions of the world in Islam">divisions of the world</a> theologically would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods. Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamic <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Unitary_state" title="Unitary state">unitary system of government</a>.) The regional <a href="/wiki/Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate">Sultanate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emirate" title="Emirate">Emirate</a> governors' existence, validity, or legality were acknowledged for unity of the state.<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">early Islamic philosophy</a> of the <a href="#Al-Andalus">Iberian Umayyads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> presented an argument in The Decisive Treatise, providing a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from official <a href="/wiki/Ash%27ari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash'ari">Ash'ari</a> theology; thus, <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a> has been considered a precursor to modern <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Golden_Baghdad_Abbasids">Golden Baghdad Abbasids</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Golden Baghdad Abbasids">edit</a>]</div> Early Middle Ages <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_a7o5lb5ukh8e6zcilkjmg9coxbhfxn7"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DAmin" coords="730,27,788,48" title="Al-Amin" alt="Al-Amin" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Harun_al%2DRashid" coords="573,17,637,38" title="Harun al-Rashid" alt="Harun al-Rashid" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DHadi" coords="439,27,497,48" title="Al-Hadi" alt="Al-Hadi" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMahdi" coords="367,8,431,29" title="Al-Mahdi" alt="Al-Mahdi" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMansur" coords="193,17,262,38" title="Al-Mansur" alt="Al-Mansur" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/As%2DSaffah" coords="50,17,120,38" title="As-Saffah" alt="As-Saffah" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_a7o5lb5ukh8e6zcilkjmg9coxbhfxn7" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/a7o5lb5ukh8e6zcilkjmg9coxbhfxn7.png" /></div> According to Arab sources in the year 750, <a href="/wiki/Al-Saffah" title="Al-Saffah">Al-Saffah</a>, the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating the entire Umayyad family and achieving victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Zab" title="Battle of the Zab">Battle of the Zab</a>, Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid Caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ManuscriptAbbasid.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/ManuscriptAbbasid.jpg/220px-ManuscriptAbbasid.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/ManuscriptAbbasid.jpg/330px-ManuscriptAbbasid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/ManuscriptAbbasid.jpg/440px-ManuscriptAbbasid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="575" /></a><figcaption>An Arabic manuscript written under the second half of the Abbasid Era.</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">Al-Mansur</a>'s time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Islam. The Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order to continue the collection of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. Islam nearly doubled within its territory from 8% of residents in 750 to 15% by the end of Al-Mansur's reign. <a href="/wiki/Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">Al-Mahdi</a>, whose name means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's reign, becoming the world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia and as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. Like his father, <a href="/wiki/Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">Al-Hadi</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a> was open to his people and allowed citizens to address him in the palace at Baghdad. He was considered an "enlightened ruler", and continued the policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was plagued by military conflicts and internal intrigue. The military conflicts subsided as <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> ruled.<a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a> His reign was marked by scientific, cultural and religious prosperity. He established the library <a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-Hikma" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayt al-Hikma">Bayt al-Hikma</a> ("House of Wisdom"), and the arts and music flourished during his reign. The <a href="/wiki/Barmakid" class="mw-redirect" title="Barmakid">Barmakid</a> family played a decisive advisorial role in establishing the Caliphate, but declined during Rashid's rule.<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">Al-Amin</a> received the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid, but failed to respect the arrangements made for his brothers, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Fitna" title="Fourth Fitna">Fourth Fitna</a>. <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">Al-Ma'mun</a>'s general <a href="/wiki/Tahir_ibn_Husayn" title="Tahir ibn Husayn">Tahir ibn Husayn</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(812%E2%80%93813)" title="Siege of Baghdad (812–813)">took Baghdad</a>, executing Al-Amin.<a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a> The war led to a loss of prestige for the dynasty. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_regional_powers">Rise of regional powers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rise of regional powers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Anarchy_at_Samarra" title="Anarchy at Samarra">Anarchy at Samarra</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EditedStattering.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EditedStattering.png/220px-EditedStattering.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EditedStattering.png/330px-EditedStattering.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EditedStattering.png/440px-EditedStattering.png 2x" data-file-width="1199" data-file-height="584" /></a><figcaption>Regional powers born out of the fragmentation of the Abbasid caliphate</figcaption></figure> The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among <a href="/wiki/Copt" class="mw-redirect" title="Copt">Coptic</a> Arabs, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Persian">Indo-Persians</a>, and immigrant Turks.<a href="#cite_note-152">[150]</a> In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a> The Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs adhered to the Sunnite sect; the Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the princes in India were Shia. The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Under the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the <a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirids</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, which was founded during the caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">Al-Ma'mun</a>'s reign. Similar dynasties included the <a href="/wiki/Saffarids" class="mw-redirect" title="Saffarids">Saffarids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Samanids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seljuqs" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuqs">Seljuqs</a>. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.<a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_Baghdad_Abbasids">High Baghdad Abbasids</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: High Baghdad Abbasids">edit</a>]</div> Early Middle Ages <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_h5e5b47m533tv5bkd3480ixbpuqrcty"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ar%2DRadi" coords="736,17,794,38" title="Ar-Radi" alt="Ar-Radi" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DQahir" coords="710,27,774,48" title="Al-Qahir" alt="Al-Qahir" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMuqtadir" coords="613,4,694,25" title="Al-Muqtadir" alt="Al-Muqtadir" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMuktafi" coords="549,14,624,35" title="Al-Muktafi" alt="Al-Muktafi" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMu%27tadid" coords="498,27,578,48" title="Al-Mu'tadid" alt="Al-Mu'tadid" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMu%27tamid" coords="407,17,488,38" title="Al-Mu'tamid" alt="Al-Mu'tamid" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMuhtadi" coords="345,-6,420,15" title="Al-Muhtadi" alt="Al-Muhtadi" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMu%27tazz" coords="333,4,408,25" title="Al-Mu'tazz" alt="Al-Mu'tazz" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMusta%27in" coords="311,17,391,38" title="Al-Musta'in" alt="Al-Musta'in" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMuntasir" coords="297,27,377,48" title="Al-Muntasir" alt="Al-Muntasir" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMutawakkil" coords="249,4,340,25" title="Al-Mutawakkil" alt="Al-Mutawakkil" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DWathiq" coords="206,-6,275,15" title="Al-Wathiq" alt="Al-Wathiq" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMu%27tasim" coords="161,4,241,25" title="Al-Mu'tasim" alt="Al-Mu'tasim" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMa%27mun" coords="84,17,153,38" title="Al-Ma'mun" alt="Al-Ma'mun" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_h5e5b47m533tv5bkd3480ixbpuqrcty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/h5e5b47m533tv5bkd3480ixbpuqrcty.png" /></div> Upon Al-Amin's death, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">Al-Ma'mun</a> became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid empire's territory during his reign and dealt with rebellions.<a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a> Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor of his military services in order to assure his loyalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became powerful, frustrating Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the <a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid family</a> became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and other opponents. Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious scholars averred that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the <a href="/wiki/Mihna" title="Mihna">Mihna</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_inquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid inquisition">Abbasid inquisition</a> which he introduced in 833 four months before he died.<a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Ulama</a> emerged as a force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions. The Ulema and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun. In parallel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced. During the Al-Ma'mun regime, <a href="/wiki/List_of_border_conflicts" title="List of border conflicts">border wars</a> increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died while leading an expedition in <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a> His scientists originated <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Great Pyramid of Giza</a> to search for knowledge and treasure. Workers tunnelled in near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded by his half-brother, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">Al-Mu'tasim</a>, rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun. As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He faced Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of Babak Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory. <a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Byzantine emperor Theophilus</a> launched an attack against Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anzen" title="Battle of Anzen">Battle of Anzen</a>. On his return he became aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his successors to rely upon Turkish commanders and <a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">ghilman</a> slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a> system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abbasid_Dinar_-_Al-Mu%27tasim-225h.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Abbasid_Dinar_-_Al-Mu%27tasim-225h.jpg/250px-Abbasid_Dinar_-_Al-Mu%27tasim-225h.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Abbasid_Dinar_-_Al-Mu%27tasim-225h.jpg/375px-Abbasid_Dinar_-_Al-Mu%27tasim-225h.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Abbasid_Dinar_-_Al-Mu%27tasim-225h.jpg/500px-Abbasid_Dinar_-_Al-Mu%27tasim-225h.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1076" data-file-height="522" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gold_dinar" title="Gold dinar">Gold dinar</a> of Abbasid caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reign" title="Reign">r.</a> 833–842) the founder of <a href="/wiki/Samarra" title="Samarra">Samarra</a>, patron of art and science</figcaption></figure> During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid family continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tribute and oversight functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture against the opposition. Arab mathematician <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a> was employed by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra under the caliph's patronage.<a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq" title="Al-Wathiq">Al-Wathiq</a> succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in Baghdad. Using a famous sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups grew, as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have composed over one hundred songs.<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Mosque_of_Samarra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Great_Mosque_of_Samarra.jpg/220px-Great_Mosque_of_Samarra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="341" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Great_Mosque_of_Samarra.jpg/330px-Great_Mosque_of_Samarra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Great_Mosque_of_Samarra.jpg/440px-Great_Mosque_of_Samarra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="593" data-file-height="919" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Malwiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Malwiya">Minaret</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Samarra" title="Great Mosque of Samarra">Great Mosque of Samarra</a>.</figcaption></figure> When Al-Wathiq died of high fever, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">Al-Mutawakkil</a> succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for many reforms and is viewed as a golden age. He was the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty fell into decline. Al-Mutawakkil ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Samarra" title="Great Mosque of Samarra">Great Mosque of Samarra</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> as part of an extension of Samarra eastwards. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met famous Byzantine theologian <a href="/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius" class="mw-redirect" title="Saints Cyril and Methodius">Constantine the Philosopher</a>, who was sent to strengthen diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by <a href="/wiki/Michael_III" title="Michael III">Emperor Michael III</a>. Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his actions against minorities. The Shīʻi faced repression embodied in the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Imam_Husayn_Shrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Imam Husayn Shrine">shrine of Hussayn ibn ʻAlī</a>, an action that was ostensibly carried out to stop pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably capturing Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by a Turkish soldier. <a href="/wiki/Al-Muntasir" title="Al-Muntasir">Al-Muntasir</a> succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. During his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor, electing <a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27in" title="Al-Musta'in">Al-Musta'in</a>. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering their Caliphs. After the Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tazz" title="Al-Mu'tazz">Al-Mu'tazz</a> but was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasid Caliph to assume power. <table class="wikitable" style="float:left; clear:left; width: 250px; margin-right:1em;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background-color: #f8eaba;">High Abbasids Jurisprudence </th></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Four constructions of Islamite law</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifa" title="Abu Hanifa">Abu Hanifa</a> (Iraq teacher)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malik_ibn_Anas" title="Malik ibn Anas">Malik ibn Anas</a> (Medina Imam)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Idris_ash-Shafi%60i" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i">Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i</a> (Egyptian Imam)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a> (Baghdad teacher)</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background-color: #f8eaba;">Early Abbasids Literature and Science </th></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunayn_ibn_Ishaq" title="Hunayn ibn Ishaq">Hunayn ibn Ishaq</a>, physician, Greek translator;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Fadlan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Fadlan">Ibn Fadlan</a>, explorer;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Battani" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Battani">Al Battani</a>, astronomer;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Jarir_al-Tabari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari">Tabari</a>, historian and theologian;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi">Al-Razi</a>, philosopher, medic, chemist;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a>, chemist and philosopher;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Nasr_Mansur" title="Abu Nasr Mansur">Abu Nasr Mansur</a>, mathematician;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alhazen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a>, mathematician;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a>, mathematician, astronomer, physicist;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayy%C3%A1m" class="mw-redirect" title="Omar Khayyám">Omar Khayyám</a>, poet, mathematician, and astronomer;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansur_Al-Hallaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Mansur Al-Hallaj">Mansur Al-Hallaj</a>, Sufism mystic, writer and teacher</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters, but was surrounded by parties jealous of each other. At <a href="/wiki/Samarra" title="Samarra">Samarra</a>, the Turks were having problems with the "Westerns" (Berbers and <a href="/wiki/Moor_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moor (people)">Moors</a>), while the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal hatred. Al-Mu'tazz put his brothers Al-Mu'eiyyad and Abu Ahmed to death. The ruler spent recklessly, causing a revolt of Turks, Africans, and Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was brutally deposed shortly thereafter. <a href="/wiki/Al-Muhtadi" title="Al-Muhtadi">Al-Muhtadi</a> became the next Caliph. He was firm and virtuous compared to the earlier Caliphs, though the Turks held the power. The Turks killed him soon after his ascension. <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tamid" title="Al-Mu'tamid">Al-Mu'tamid</a> followed, holding on for 23 years, though he was largely a ruler in name only. After the <a href="/wiki/Zanj_Rebellion" title="Zanj Rebellion">Zanj Rebellion</a>, Al-Mu'tamid summoned <a href="/wiki/Al-Muwaffaq_(vizier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muwaffaq (vizier)">al-Muwaffak</a> to help him. Thereafter, Al-Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The <a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanid dynasty</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Hamdan_ibn_Hamdun" title="Hamdan ibn Hamdun">Hamdan ibn Hamdun</a> when he was appointed governor of <a href="/wiki/Mardin" title="Mardin">Mardin</a> in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. Al-Mu'tamid later transferred authority to his son, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid" title="Al-Mu'tadid">al-Mu'tadid</a>, and never regained power. The <a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunids</a> became the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during this time. Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'i, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's death, his son by a Turkish slave-girl, <a href="/wiki/Al-Muktafi" title="Al-Muktafi">Al-Muktafi</a>, succeeded to the throne. Al-Muktafi became a favourite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as the <a href="/wiki/Carmathians" class="mw-redirect" title="Carmathians">Carmathians</a>. Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadir" title="Al-Muqtadir">Al-Muqtadir</a>. Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall or assassination of another. His long reign brought the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul threw off its dependence, and the Greeks raided across the undefended border. The East continued to formally recognize the Caliphate, including those who virtually claimed independence. At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress <a href="/wiki/Zoe_Karbonopsina" title="Zoe Karbonopsina">Zoe Karbonopsina</a> pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner<a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a> while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother <a href="/wiki/Al-Qahir" title="Al-Qahir">al-Qahir</a>. He was even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison. His son <a href="/wiki/Al-Radi" title="Al-Radi">al-Radi</a> took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Raik" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Raik">Ibn Raik</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amir_al-umara" title="Amir al-umara">amir al-umara</a>; 'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the <a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbalis</a>, supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition'. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to discuss the questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of State; to distribute <a href="/wiki/Alms_and_Almsgiving" class="mw-redirect" title="Alms and Almsgiving">alms</a>, or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids. In the late mid-930s, the <a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidids</a> of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor (<a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Tughj_Al-Ikhshid" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid">Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid</a>) was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince". Also in the 930s, <a href="/wiki/%27Imad_al-Daula" class="mw-redirect" title="'Imad al-Daula">'Alī ibn Būyah</a> and his two younger brothers, <a href="/wiki/Rukn_al-Daula" class="mw-redirect" title="Rukn al-Daula">al-Hassan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mu%27izz_al-Daula" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'izz al-Daula">Aḥmad</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Būyid confederation</a>. Originally a soldier in the service of the <a href="/wiki/Ziyarids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ziyarids">Ziyārīds</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Ṭabaristān</a>, 'Alī was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> named Yāqūt in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad. The Būyids made large territorial gains. <a href="/wiki/Fars_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Fars Province">Fars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jibal" title="Jibal">Jibal</a> were conquered. Central Iraq submitted in 945, before the Būyids took <a href="/wiki/Kerman" title="Kerman">Kermān</a> (967), <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a> (967), the <a href="/wiki/Al_Jazira,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Jazira, Mesopotamia">Jazīra</a> (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and <a href="/wiki/Gorgan" title="Gorgan">Gorgan</a> (981). After this the Būyids went into slow decline, with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming de facto independent.<a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Baghdad_Abbasids">Middle Baghdad Abbasids</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Middle Baghdad Abbasids">edit</a>]</div> Early High Middle Ages <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_4kbyqmkeq7ehktvotbvn8joni596awg"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMuqtadi" coords="700,17,775,38" title="Al-Muqtadi" alt="Al-Muqtadi" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DQa%27im_(Abbasid_caliph_at_Baghdad)" coords="558,17,622,38" title="Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Baghdad)" alt="Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Baghdad)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DQadir" coords="362,17,426,38" title="Al-Qadir" alt="Al-Qadir" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/At%2DTa%27i" coords="232,17,290,38" title="At-Ta'i" alt="At-Ta'i" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMuti" coords="126,17,185,38" title="Al-Muti" alt="Al-Muti" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMustakfi" coords="45,29,126,50" title="Al-Mustakfi" alt="Al-Mustakfi" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMuttaqi" coords="34,5,109,26" title="Al-Muttaqi" alt="Al-Muttaqi" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_4kbyqmkeq7ehktvotbvn8joni596awg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/4kbyqmkeq7ehktvotbvn8joni596awg.png" /></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dirham_of_al-Muttaqi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Dirham_of_al-Muttaqi.jpg/220px-Dirham_of_al-Muttaqi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Dirham_of_al-Muttaqi.jpg/330px-Dirham_of_al-Muttaqi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Dirham_of_al-Muttaqi.jpg/440px-Dirham_of_al-Muttaqi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="242" /></a><figcaption>Dirham of Al-Muttaqi</figcaption></figure> At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of little importance. The amir al-umara <a href="/wiki/Bajkam" title="Bajkam">Bajkam</a> contented himself with dispatching his secretary to Baghdad to assemble local dignitaries to elect a successor. The choice fell on <a href="/wiki/Al-Muttaqi" title="Al-Muttaqi">Al-Muttaqi</a>. Bajkam was killed on a hunting party by marauding Kurds. In the ensuing anarchy in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mosul where he was welcomed by the Hamdanids. They assassinated Ibn Raik. Hamdanid <a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Dawla" title="Nasir al-Dawla">Nasir al-Dawla</a> advanced on Baghdad, where mercenaries and well-organised Turks repelled them. Turkish general <a href="/wiki/Tuzun_(amir_al-umara)" title="Tuzun (amir al-umara)">Tuzun</a> became amir al-umara. The Turks were staunch Sunnis. A fresh conspiracy placed the Caliph in danger. Hamdanid troops helped ad-Daula escape to Mosul and then to Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated. Al-Muttaqi was at <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, moving to Tuzun where he was deposed. Tuzun installed the blinded Caliph's cousin as successor, with the title of <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustakfi" title="Al-Mustakfi">Al-Mustakfi</a>. With the new Caliph, Tuzun attacked the <a href="/wiki/Buwayhid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Buwayhid dynasty">Buwayhid dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hamdanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamdanids">Hamdanids</a>. Soon after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu Ja'far. The Buwayhids then attacked Baghdad, and Abu Ja'far fled into hiding with the Caliph. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula assumed command forcing the Caliph into abject submission to the Amir. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed. The city fell into chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted.<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="float:left; clear:left; width: 250px; margin-right:1em;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background-color: #f8eaba;">Significant Middle Abbasid Muslims </th></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Rushd" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Rushd">Ibn Rushd</a> (<a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>), philosopher;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a>, Persian (Soghdian) philosopher;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutanebbi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mutanebbi">Al-Mutanebbi</a>, Arabic poet;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_S%C4%ABn%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sīnā">Abu Ali Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina</a> (<a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>), physician, philosopher, and scientist</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> Once the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad, <a href="/wiki/Al-Muti" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muti">Al-Muti</a> became caliph. The office was shorn of real power and Shi'a observances were established. The Buwayhids held on Baghdad for over a century. Throughout the Buwayhid reign the Caliphate was at its lowest ebb, but was recognized religiously, except in <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a>. Buwayhid Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mu%27izz_al-Dawla" title="Mu'izz al-Dawla">Mu'izz al-Dawla</a> was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by fear for his own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond.<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> The next Caliph, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ta%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ta'i">Al-Ta'i</a>, reigned over factional strife in Syria among the Fatimids, Turks, and Carmathians. The Hideaway dynasty also fractured. The Abbasid borders were the defended only by small border states. <a href="/wiki/Baha%27_al-Dawla" class="mw-redirect" title="Baha' al-Dawla">Baha' al-Dawla</a>, the Buyid amir of Iraq, deposed al-Ta'i in 991 and proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Al-Qadir" title="Al-Qadir">al-Qadir</a> the new caliph.<a href="#cite_note-Hanne-165">[163]</a> During al-Qadir's Caliphate, <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazni" title="Mahmud of Ghazni">Mahmud of Ghazni</a> looked after the empire. Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was friendly towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. Al-Qadir fostered the Sunni struggle against Shiʿism and outlawed heresies such as the <a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Manifesto" title="Baghdad Manifesto">Baghdad Manifesto</a> and the doctrine that the Quran was created. He outlawed the <a href="/wiki/Mu%CA%BFtazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Muʿtazila">Muʿtazila</a>, bringing an end to the development of rationalist Muslim philosophy. During this and the next period, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Islamic literature</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian literature</a>, flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids.<a href="#cite_note-muir-166">[164]</a> By 1000, the global Muslim population had climbed to about 4 percent of the world, compared to the Christian population of 10 percent. During <a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27im_(Abbasid_caliph_at_Baghdad)" title="Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Baghdad)">Al-Qa'im</a>'s reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained power. <a href="/wiki/Toghr%C3%BCl" class="mw-redirect" title="Toghrül">Toghrül</a> overran Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well-received both by chiefs and people. In <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, the Qarmatian state collapsed in <a href="/wiki/Al-Ahsa_Oasis" title="Al-Ahsa Oasis">Al-Hasa</a>. Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids. <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadi" title="Al-Muqtadi">Al-Muqtadi</a> was honoured by the Seljuq Sultan <a href="/wiki/Malik-Shah_I" title="Malik-Shah I">Malik-Shah I</a>, during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was critical of the Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids.<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Baghdad_Abbasids">Late Baghdad Abbasids</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Late Baghdad Abbasids">edit</a>]</div> Late High Middle Ages <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_lxajxw45xerh737f6wty383ievpqglb"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Seventh_Crusade" coords="725,32,778,53" title="Seventh Crusade" alt="Seventh Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Sixth_Crusade" coords="626,32,679,53" title="Sixth Crusade" alt="Sixth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Fifth_Crusade" coords="584,32,637,53" title="Fifth Crusade" alt="Fifth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" coords="514,32,567,53" title="Fourth Crusade" alt="Fourth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" coords="455,32,508,53" title="Third Crusade" alt="Third Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" coords="194,32,280,53" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem" alt="Kingdom of Jerusalem" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Second_Crusade" coords="273,32,325,53" title="Second Crusade" alt="Second Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/First_Crusade" coords="49,32,102,53" title="First Crusade" alt="First Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMusta%27sim" coords="704,2,790,23" title="Al-Musta'sim" alt="Al-Musta'sim" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMustansir_(Baghdad)" coords="634,2,720,23" title="Al-Mustansir (Baghdad)" alt="Al-Mustansir (Baghdad)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Az%2DZahir_(Abbasid_caliph)" coords="607,14,671,35" title="Az-Zahir (Abbasid caliph)" alt="Az-Zahir (Abbasid caliph)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/An%2DNasir" coords="506,2,570,23" title="An-Nasir" alt="An-Nasir" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMustadi" coords="380,2,455,23" title="Al-Mustadi" alt="Al-Mustadi" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMustanjid" coords="331,2,417,23" title="Al-Mustanjid" alt="Al-Mustanjid" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMuqtafi_(Abbasid_Caliph)" coords="262,2,337,23" title="Al-Muqtafi (Abbasid Caliph)" alt="Al-Muqtafi (Abbasid Caliph)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DRashid_(12th_century)" coords="209,14,279,35" title="Al-Rashid (12th century)" alt="Al-Rashid (12th century)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMustarshid" coords="159,2,251,23" title="Al-Mustarshid" alt="Al-Mustarshid" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMustazhir" coords="72,2,158,23" title="Al-Mustazhir" alt="Al-Mustazhir" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_lxajxw45xerh737f6wty383ievpqglb" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/lxajxw45xerh737f6wty383ievpqglb.png" /></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:413px;max-width:413px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="background-color:#f8eaba">Al-Aqsa Mosque</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:217px;max-width:217px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Page_99.Strange.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Page_99.Strange.jpg/215px-Page_99.Strange.jpg" decoding="async" width="215" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Page_99.Strange.jpg/323px-Page_99.Strange.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Page_99.Strange.jpg/430px-Page_99.Strange.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1375" data-file-height="911" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Plan of Al-Aqsa Mosque, year 985</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Dome_of_Al_Aqsa_Mousque.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/The_Dome_of_Al_Aqsa_Mousque.jpg/190px-The_Dome_of_Al_Aqsa_Mousque.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/The_Dome_of_Al_Aqsa_Mousque.jpg/285px-The_Dome_of_Al_Aqsa_Mousque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/The_Dome_of_Al_Aqsa_Mousque.jpg/380px-The_Dome_of_Al_Aqsa_Mousque.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2933" data-file-height="2200" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Dome of Al Aqsa Mosque</div></div></div></div></div> The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Crusade" title="Seventh Crusade">Seventh Crusade</a>. The first Caliph was <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustazhir" title="Al-Mustazhir">Al-Mustazhir</a>. He was politically irrelevant, despite civil strife at home and the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> in Syria. <a href="/wiki/Raymond_IV_of_Toulouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond IV of Toulouse">Raymond IV of Toulouse</a> attempted to attack Baghdad, losing at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" title="Battle of Manzikert">Battle of Manzikert</a>. The global Muslim population climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by 1100. <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> was captured by crusaders who massacred its inhabitants. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover the <a href="/wiki/Al-Aqsa" title="Al-Aqsa">Al-Aqsa Mosque compound</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> (European Crusaders). Crowds of exiles rallied for war against the <a href="/wiki/Infidel" title="Infidel">infidel</a>. Neither the Sultan nor the Caliph sent an army west.<a href="#cite_note-muir-166">[164]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustarshid" title="Al-Mustarshid">Al-Mustarshid</a> achieved more independence while the sultan <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_II_of_Great_Seljuq" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud II of Great Seljuq">Mahmud II of Great Seljuq</a> was engaged in war in the East. The <a href="/wiki/Bani_Assad" class="mw-redirect" title="Bani Assad">Banu Mazyad</a> (Mazyadid State) general, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dubays_ibn_Sadaqa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dubays ibn Sadaqa (page does not exist)">Dubays ibn Sadaqa</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a> (emir of <a href="/wiki/Al-Hilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Hilla">Al-Hilla</a>), plundered <a href="/wiki/Bosra" title="Bosra">Bosra</a> and attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of the sultan, <a href="/wiki/Ghiyath_ad-Din_Mas%27ud" title="Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud">Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud</a>. Dubays was crushed by a Seljuq army under <a href="/wiki/Imad_ad-Din_Zengi" class="mw-redirect" title="Imad ad-Din Zengi">Zengi</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Zengid_dynasty" title="Zengid dynasty">Zengid dynasty</a>. Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between his son Dawud, his nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East, stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays, where he was beaten. The Caliph then laid siege to Mosul for three months without success, resisted by Mas'ud and Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's military revival.<a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a> After the siege of Damascus (1134),<a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a> Zengi undertook <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Crusader_states#War_with_the_Zengids" title="Military history of the Crusader states">operations in Syria</a>. Al-Mustarshid attacked sultan Mas'ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered.<a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a> His son, <a href="/wiki/Al-Rashid_(12th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Rashid (12th century)">Al-Rashid</a> failed to gain independence from Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultanate. Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul. The Sultan regained power, a council was held, the Caliph was deposed, and his uncle, son of <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtafi_(Abbasid_Caliph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muqtafi (Abbasid Caliph)">Al-Muqtafi</a>, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a> and was killed by Hashshashins.<a href="#cite_note-muir-166">[164]</a> Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks allowed al-Muqtafi to maintain control in Baghdad and to extend it throughout Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to the <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestorian Church">Nestorian</a> patriarch <a href="/wiki/Abdisho_III" title="Abdisho III">Abdisho III</a>. While the Crusade raged, the Caliph successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1157)" title="Siege of Baghdad (1157)">Siege of Baghdad (1157)</a>. The Sultan and the Caliph dispatched men in response to Zengi's appeal, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their Amirs, dared resist the Crusaders. The next caliph, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustanjid" title="Al-Mustanjid">Al-Mustanjid</a>, saw <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> extinguish the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_dynasty" title="Fatimid dynasty">Fatimid dynasty</a> after 260 years, and thus the Abbasids again prevailed. <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustadi" title="Al-Mustadi">Al-Mustadi</a> reigned when Saladin became the sultan of Egypt and declared allegiance to the Abbasids. <a href="/wiki/An-Nasir" class="mw-redirect" title="An-Nasir">An-Nasir</a>, "The Victor for the Religion of God", attempted to restore the Caliphate to its ancient dominant role. He consistently held Iraq from Tikrit to the Gulf without interruption. His forty-seven-year reign was chiefly marked by ambitious and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous invocation of the Mongols, which ended his dynasty. His son, <a href="/wiki/Az-Zahir_(Abbasid_caliph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Az-Zahir (Abbasid caliph)">Az-Zahir</a>, was Caliph for a short period before his death and An-Nasir's grandson, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_(Baghdad)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mustansir (Baghdad)">Al-Mustansir</a>, was made caliph. Al-Mustansir founded the <a href="/wiki/Mustansiriya_Madrasah" title="Mustansiriya Madrasah">Mustansiriya Madrasah</a>. In 1236 <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei Khan</a> commanded to raise up <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorassan</a> and populated <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>. The Mongol military governors mostly made their camp in <a href="/wiki/Mughan_plain" title="Mughan plain">Mughan plain</a>, Azerbaijan. The rulers of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cilician_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilician Armenia">Cilician Armenia</a> surrendered. Chormaqan divided the <a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a> region into three districts based on military hierarchy.<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> In Georgia, the population were temporarily divided into eight <a href="/wiki/Tumen_(unit)" title="Tumen (unit)">tumens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia, excluding <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> Iraq and <a href="/wiki/Ismaili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ismaili">Ismaili</a> strongholds, and all of <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">Al-Musta'sim</a> was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. To the east, Mongol forces under <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu Khan</a> swept through the <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">Baghdad was sacked</a> and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed a powerless Abbasid Caliph in Cairo. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caliph_of_Cairo_(1261–1517)">Caliph of Cairo (1261–1517)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Caliph of Cairo (1261–1517)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a></div> The "shadow" caliph of Cairo Late Middle Ages <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_rm4k0pgfaetwi9q7l4gehaqtwulzzov"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ninth_Crusade" coords="75,27,172,47" title="Ninth Crusade" alt="Ninth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Eighth_Crusade" coords="71,17,168,37" title="Eighth Crusade" alt="Eighth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMutawakkil_III" coords="679,-5,793,15" title="Al-Mutawakkil III" alt="Al-Mutawakkil III" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMu%27tasim_(Cairo)" coords="378,-5,458,15" title="Al-Mu'tasim (Cairo)" alt="Al-Mu'tasim (Cairo)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMustansir_II_of_Cairo" coords="47,7,150,27" title="Al-Mustansir II of Cairo" alt="Al-Mustansir II of Cairo" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_rm4k0pgfaetwi9q7l4gehaqtwulzzov" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/rm4k0pgfaetwi9q7l4gehaqtwulzzov.png" /></div> The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> reigned under the tutelage of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Mamluk_sultans" title="List of Mamluk sultans">Mamluk sultans</a> and nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded <a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27in_(Cairo)" title="Al-Musta'in (Cairo)">Al-Musta'in</a> were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to even briefly hold political power. <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_III" title="Al-Mutawakkil III">Al-Mutawakkil III</a> was the last "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fatimid_Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Fatimid Caliphate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fatimid_Caliphate.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Fatimid_Caliphate.PNG/220px-Fatimid_Caliphate.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Fatimid_Caliphate.PNG/330px-Fatimid_Caliphate.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Fatimid_Caliphate.PNG/440px-Fatimid_Caliphate.PNG 2x" data-file-width="983" data-file-height="564" /></a><figcaption>Fatimid Caliphate in 1000</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Fatimids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimids">Fatimids</a> originated in <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> and eastern <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>). The dynasty was founded in 909 by <a href="/wiki/Ubayd_Allah_al-Mahdi_Billah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah">ʻAbdullāh al-Mahdī Billah</a>, who legitimized his claim through descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter <a href="/wiki/Fatimah" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimah">Fātima as-Zahra</a> and her husband <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Abi Talib">ʻAlī ibn-Abī-Tālib</a>, the first Shīʻa <a href="/wiki/Imam_(Shia_Islam)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imam (Shia Islam)">Imām</a>, hence the name al-Fātimiyyūn "Fatimid".<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> and Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beeson_24,_26–30-179">[177]</a> The Fatimids and the <a href="/wiki/Zaydis" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaydis">Zaydis</a> at the time, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-180">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-Arab-Israeli_Conflict_Page_917-181">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Iraq_Effect_Page_91-182">[180]</a> Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels in government based on ability.<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah">Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah</a>. The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in the <a href="/wiki/Khan_el-Khalili" title="Khan el-Khalili">Khan el-Khalili</a> area at Bin El-Quasryn street.<a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fatimid_caliphs">Fatimid caliphs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Fatimid caliphs">edit</a>]</div> Early and High Middle Ages <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_3wp4y5ntc1zyg5ym6luu5tr3plcf2qg"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" coords="639,18,725,38" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem" alt="Kingdom of Jerusalem" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Second_Crusade" coords="670,30,767,50" title="Second Crusade" alt="Second Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/First_Crusade" coords="530,30,627,50" title="First Crusade" alt="First Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2D%27%C4%80%E1%B8%8Did" coords="729,-5,804,15" title="al-'Āḍid" alt="al-'Āḍid" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DF%C4%81%27iz" coords="709,1,778,21" title="al-Fā'iz" alt="al-Fā'iz" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2D%E1%BA%92%C4%81fir" coords="688,12,769,32" title="al-Ẓāfir" alt="al-Ẓāfir" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DHafiz" coords="663,-5,727,15" title="al-Hafiz" alt="al-Hafiz" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DAmir" coords="600,-5,659,15" title="al-Amir" alt="al-Amir" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DMusta%27li" coords="540,-5,620,15" title="al-Musta'li" alt="al-Musta'li" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ma%27ad_al%2DMustansir_Billah" coords="448,-5,534,15" title="Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah" alt="Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ali_az%2DZahir" coords="358,-5,422,15" title="Ali az-Zahir" alt="Ali az-Zahir" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DHakim_bi%2DAmr_Allah" coords="303,-5,367,15" title="Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah" alt="Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abu_Mansoor_Nizar_al%2DAziz_Billah" coords="243,-5,301,15" title="Abu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah" alt="Abu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMuizz_Lideenillah" coords="181,-5,245,15" title="Al-Muizz Lideenillah" alt="Al-Muizz Lideenillah" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ismail_al%2DMansur" coords="133,12,214,32" title="Ismail al-Mansur" alt="Ismail al-Mansur" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muhammad_al%2DQa%27im_Bi%2DAmrillah" coords="115,1,179,21" title="Muhammad al-Qa'im Bi-Amrillah" alt="Muhammad al-Qa'im Bi-Amrillah" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ubayd_Allah_al%2DMahdi_Billah" coords="56,-5,137,15" title="Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah" alt="Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_3wp4y5ntc1zyg5ym6luu5tr3plcf2qg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/3wp4y5ntc1zyg5ym6luu5tr3plcf2qg.png" /></div> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>Also see: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_history#Caliph_of_Cairo_(1261–1517)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim history">Cairo Abbasid Caliphs</a> (above)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphs</a> claimed spiritual supremacy not only in Egypt, but also contested the religious leadership of Syria. At the beginning of the Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids faced severe persecution by the ruling party as they were a direct threat to the Caliphate. Owing to the Abbasid inquisitions, the forefathers opted for concealment of the Dawa's existence. Subsequently, they travelled towards the Iranian Plateau and distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political world. Al Mahdi's father, Al Husain al Mastoor returned to control the Dawa's affairs. He sent two Dai's to Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain died soon after the birth of his son, Al Mahdi. A system of government helped update Al Mahdi on the development which took place in North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosquee_al-akim_le_caire_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Mosquee_al-akim_le_caire_1.jpg/220px-Mosquee_al-akim_le_caire_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Mosquee_al-akim_le_caire_1.jpg/330px-Mosquee_al-akim_le_caire_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Mosquee_al-akim_le_caire_1.jpg/440px-Mosquee_al-akim_le_caire_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="827" data-file-height="546" /></a><figcaption> The <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_Mosque" title="Al-Hakim Mosque">Al-Hakim Mosque</a> Cairo, Egypt; south of <a href="/wiki/Bab_Al-Futuh" class="mw-redirect" title="Bab Al-Futuh">Bab Al-Futuh</a> <hr /> "Islamic Cairo" building was named after <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah">Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah</a>, built by Fatimid vizier <a href="/wiki/Gawhar_Al-Siqilli" class="mw-redirect" title="Gawhar Al-Siqilli">Gawhar Al-Siqilli</a>, and extended by <a href="/wiki/Badr_al-Jamali" title="Badr al-Jamali">Badr al-Jamali</a>.</figcaption></figure> Al Mahdi <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Mahdi_Billah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah">Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah</a> established the first <a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">Imam</a> of the Fatimid dynasty. He claimed genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail. Al Mahdi established his headquarters at Salamiyah and moved towards north-western Africa, under <a href="/wiki/Aghlabid" class="mw-redirect" title="Aghlabid">Aghlabid</a> rule. His success of laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi was instrumental among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe. Al Mahdi established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of <a href="/wiki/Al-Qayrawan" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Qayrawan">Al-Qayrawan</a> in Tunisia. In 920, Al Mahdi took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mahdiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mahdiyyah">Al-Mahdiyyah</a>. After his death, Al Mahdi was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a> At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the <a href="/wiki/Idrisids" class="mw-redirect" title="Idrisids">Idrisids</a>, as well as Egypt itself. The Fatimid Caliphate grew to include <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> and to stretch across <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> to <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeomans200644-187">[185]</a> Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>, an area consisting of the modern countries of <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, which he ruled from <a href="/wiki/Mahdia" title="Mahdia">Mahdia</a>, in Tunisia. Newly built capital <a href="/wiki/Mansouria,_Tunisia" title="Mansouria, Tunisia">Al-Mansuriya</a>,<a href="#cite_note-189">[Note 3]</a> or Mansuriyya (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: المنصوريه), near <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, was the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate during the rules of the Imams <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur_Billah" title="Al-Mansur Billah">Al-Mansur Billah</a> (r. 946–953) and <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27izz_li-Din_Allah" title="Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah">Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah</a> (r. 953–975). The Fatimid general Jawhar conquered Egypt in 969, and he built a new palace city there, near Fusṭāt, which he also called al-Manṣūriyya. Under <a href="/wiki/Al-Muizz_Lideenillah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muizz Lideenillah">Al-Muizz Lideenillah</a>, the Fatimids conquered the <a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_Wilayah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ikhshidid Wilayah">Ikhshidid Wilayah</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid Egypt">Fatimid Egypt</a>), founding a new capital at al-Qāhira (<a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>) in 969.<a href="#cite_note-Beeson_24,_26–30-179">[177]</a> The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer",<a href="#cite_note-190">[187]</a> which was prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as <a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fustat</a> until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer the surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimids</a>, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, Sicily, <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, Syria, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> coast of Africa, <a href="/wiki/Tihamah" title="Tihamah">Tihamah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-191">[188]</a> Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>, which eventually determined the economic course of Egypt during the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>. After the eighteenth Imam, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_Billah" title="Al-Mustansir Billah">al-Mustansir Billah</a>, the Nizari sect believed that his son <a href="/wiki/Nizar_(Fatimid_Imam)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizar (Fatimid Imam)">Nizar</a> was his successor, while another Ismāʿīlī branch known as the Mustaali (from whom the Dawoodi Bohra would eventually descend), supported his other son, <a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27li" title="Al-Musta'li">al-Musta'li</a>. The Fatimid dynasty continued with al-Musta'li as both Imam and Caliph, and that joint position held until the 20th Imam, <a href="/wiki/Al-Amir_bi-Ahkami_l-Lah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah">al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah</a> (1132). At the death of Imam Amir, one branch of the Mustaali faith claimed that he had transferred the imamate to his son <a href="/wiki/At-Tayyib_Abi_l-Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim">at-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim</a>, who was then two years old. After the decay of the Fatimid political system in the 1160s, the <a href="/wiki/Zengid" class="mw-redirect" title="Zengid">Zengid</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Nur_ad-Din_Zangi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nur ad-Din Zangi">Nūr ad-Dīn</a> had his general, <a href="/wiki/Shirkuh" title="Shirkuh">Shirkuh</a>, seize Egypt from the vizier <a href="/wiki/Shawar" title="Shawar">Shawar</a> in 1169. Shirkuh died two months after taking power, and the rule went to his nephew, <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-192">[189]</a> This began the <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid Dynasty">Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt and Syria</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crusades">Crusades</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Crusades">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saladin_and_Guy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Saladin_and_Guy.jpg/220px-Saladin_and_Guy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Saladin_and_Guy.jpg/330px-Saladin_and_Guy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Saladin_and_Guy.jpg/440px-Saladin_and_Guy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="931" /></a><figcaption> Saladin and <a href="/wiki/Guy_of_Lusignan" title="Guy of Lusignan">Guy of Lusignan</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hattin" title="Battle of Hattin">Battle of Hattin</a> <hr /> List of Crusades Early period · <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> 1095–1099 · <a href="/wiki/Second_Crusade" title="Second Crusade">Second Crusade</a> 1147–1149 · <a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a> 1187–1192 Low Period · <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> 1202–1204 · <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Crusade" title="Fifth Crusade">Fifth Crusade</a> 1217–1221 · <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Crusade" title="Sixth Crusade">Sixth Crusade</a> 1228–1229 Late period · <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Crusade" title="Seventh Crusade">Seventh Crusade</a> 1248–1254 · <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Crusade" title="Eighth Crusade">Eighth Crusade</a> 1270 · <a href="/wiki/Ninth_Crusade" class="mw-redirect" title="Ninth Crusade">Ninth Crusade</a> 1271–1272</figcaption></figure> Beginning in the 8th century, the <a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Iberian Christian kingdoms</a> had begun the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> aimed at retaking Al-Andalus from the Moors. In 1095, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</a>, inspired by the conquests in Spain by Christian forces and implored by the <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">eastern Roman emperor</a> to help defend Christianity in the East, called for the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> from Western Europe which captured <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">County of Tripoli</a> and Jerusalem.<a href="#cite_note-193">[190]</a> In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a> emerged and for a time controlled Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller <a href="/wiki/Crusader_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusader kingdoms">Crusader kingdoms</a> over the next 90 years formed part of the complicated politics of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, but did not threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers in the region. After <a href="/wiki/Shirkuh" title="Shirkuh">Shirkuh</a> ended Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with Syria, the Crusader kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his nephew Saladin reconquered most of the area in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.<a href="#cite_note-194">[191]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a> armies from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though Crusader states lingered for several decades, and other crusades followed. The Christian Reconquista continued in Al-Andalus, and was eventually completed with the <a href="/wiki/Granada_War" title="Granada War">fall of Granada</a> in 1492. During the low period of the Crusades, the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> was diverted from the Levant and instead took <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire (now the Byzantine Empire) further weakened in their long struggle against the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish peoples">Turkish peoples</a> to the east. However, the crusaders did manage to damage Islamic caliphates; according to <a href="/wiki/William_of_Malmesbury" title="William of Malmesbury">William of Malmesbury</a>, preventing them from further expansion into <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[192]</a> and being targets of the Mamluks and the Mongols. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frankokratia" title="Frankokratia">Frankokratia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ayyubid_dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ayyubid dynasty">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg/220px-Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg/330px-Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg/440px-Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2892" data-file-height="1698" /></a><figcaption>Ayyubid empire</figcaption></figure>The <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> and centered in Egypt. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan and conquered the Near East region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries, controlling Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. After Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself in 1200. In the 1230s, Syria's Ayyubid rulers attempted to win independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, by 1247. In 1250, the dynasty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by slave regiments. A number of attempts to recover it failed, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after.<a href="#cite_note-196">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sultans_of_Egypt">Sultans of Egypt</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sultans of Egypt">edit</a>]</div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_218pnn48yik285gdxvql98pxztgxrqn"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Seventh_Crusade" coords="729,40,781,60" title="Seventh Crusade" alt="Seventh Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Sixth_Crusade" coords="526,40,579,60" title="Sixth Crusade" alt="Sixth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Fifth_Crusade" coords="441,40,493,60" title="Fifth Crusade" alt="Fifth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" coords="297,40,349,60" title="Fourth Crusade" alt="Fourth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" coords="175,40,228,60" title="Third Crusade" alt="Third Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" coords="77,40,164,60" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem" alt="Kingdom of Jerusalem" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DAshraf_Musa" coords="732,7,802,27" title="Al-Ashraf Musa" alt="Al-Ashraf Musa" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMuazzam_Turanshah" coords="704,-5,779,15" title="Al-Muazzam Turanshah" alt="Al-Muazzam Turanshah" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/As%2DSalih_Ayyub" coords="665,-5,728,15" title="As-Salih Ayyub" alt="As-Salih Ayyub" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DAdil_II" coords="622,-5,697,15" title="Al-Adil II" alt="Al-Adil II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DKamil" coords="516,-5,580,15" title="Al-Kamil" alt="Al-Kamil" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DAdil" coords="348,-5,406,15" title="Al-Adil" alt="Al-Adil" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMansur_Muhammad" coords="264,-5,334,15" title="Al-Mansur Muhammad" alt="Al-Mansur Muhammad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DAziz_Uthman" coords="226,-5,285,15" title="Al-Aziz Uthman" alt="Al-Aziz Uthman" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Saladin" coords="110,-5,185,15" title="Saladin" alt="Saladin" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_218pnn48yik285gdxvql98pxztgxrqn" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/218pnn48yik285gdxvql98pxztgxrqn.png" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sultans_and_Amirs_of_Damascus">Sultans and Amirs of Damascus</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sultans and Amirs of Damascus">edit</a>]</div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_o566u6w072d1w8iw9er7we9psjlvwec"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Seventh_Crusade" coords="680,40,733,60" title="Seventh Crusade" alt="Seventh Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Sixth_Crusade" coords="492,40,545,60" title="Sixth Crusade" alt="Sixth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Fifth_Crusade" coords="412,40,465,60" title="Fifth Crusade" alt="Fifth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" coords="278,40,331,60" title="Fourth Crusade" alt="Fourth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" coords="165,40,218,60" title="Third Crusade" alt="Third Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" coords="73,40,159,60" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem" alt="Kingdom of Jerusalem" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/An%2DNasir_Yusuf" coords="708,-5,772,15" title="An-Nasir Yusuf" alt="An-Nasir Yusuf" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMuazzam_Turanshah" coords="660,7,746,27" title="Al-Muazzam Turanshah" alt="Al-Muazzam Turanshah" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/As%2DSalih_Ayyub" coords="641,-5,705,15" title="As-Salih Ayyub" alt="As-Salih Ayyub" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DSalih_Ismail" coords="597,-5,666,15" title="Al-Salih Ismail" alt="Al-Salih Ismail" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/As%2DSalih_Ayyub" coords="586,7,650,27" title="As-Salih Ayyub" alt="As-Salih Ayyub" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DAdil_II" coords="570,-17,645,3" title="Al-Adil II" alt="Al-Adil II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DKamil" coords="566,-5,630,15" title="Al-Kamil" alt="Al-Kamil" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/As%2DSalih_Ismail" coords="550,7,619,27" title="As-Salih Ismail" alt="As-Salih Ismail" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DAshraf" coords="521,-5,591,15" title="Al-Ashraf" alt="Al-Ashraf" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/An%2DNasir_Dawud" coords="482,-5,546,15" title="An-Nasir Dawud" alt="An-Nasir Dawud" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMu%27azzam" coords="428,-5,508,15" title="Al-Mu'azzam" alt="Al-Mu'azzam" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DAdil" coords="309,-5,367,15" title="Al-Adil" alt="Al-Adil" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DAfdal_ibn_Salah_al%2DDin" coords="202,-5,266,15" title="Al-Afdal ibn Salah al-Din" alt="Al-Afdal ibn Salah al-Din" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Saladin" coords="104,-5,179,15" title="Saladin" alt="Saladin" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_o566u6w072d1w8iw9er7we9psjlvwec" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/o566u6w072d1w8iw9er7we9psjlvwec.png" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emirs_of_Aleppo">Emirs of Aleppo</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Emirs of Aleppo">edit</a>]</div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_borm89kg828udkgyfv6qku18rijjnyg"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Seventh_Crusade" coords="680,40,733,60" title="Seventh Crusade" alt="Seventh Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Sixth_Crusade" coords="492,40,545,60" title="Sixth Crusade" alt="Sixth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Fifth_Crusade" coords="412,40,465,60" title="Fifth Crusade" alt="Fifth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" coords="278,40,331,60" title="Fourth Crusade" alt="Fourth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" coords="165,40,218,60" title="Third Crusade" alt="Third Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" coords="73,40,159,60" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem" alt="Kingdom of Jerusalem" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/An%2DNasir_Yusuf" coords="650,-5,713,15" title="An-Nasir Yusuf" alt="An-Nasir Yusuf" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DAziz_Mohammad" coords="468,-5,527,15" title="Al-Aziz Mohammad" alt="Al-Aziz Mohammad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Az%2DZahir_Ghazi" coords="285,-5,349,15" title="Az-Zahir Ghazi" alt="Az-Zahir Ghazi" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Saladin" coords="104,-5,179,15" title="Saladin" alt="Saladin" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_borm89kg828udkgyfv6qku18rijjnyg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/borm89kg828udkgyfv6qku18rijjnyg.png" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mongol_period">Mongol period</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Mongol period">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongol_conquests">Mongol conquests</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Mongol conquests">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Mongol invasions and conquests</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DiezAlbumsStudyingTheKoran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/DiezAlbumsStudyingTheKoran.jpg/230px-DiezAlbumsStudyingTheKoran.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/DiezAlbumsStudyingTheKoran.jpg/345px-DiezAlbumsStudyingTheKoran.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/DiezAlbumsStudyingTheKoran.jpg/460px-DiezAlbumsStudyingTheKoran.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3538" data-file-height="4001" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> ruler, <a href="/wiki/Ghazan" title="Ghazan">Ghazan</a>, depicted studying the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> inside a <a href="/wiki/Yurt" title="Yurt">tent</a>. Illustration of Rashid-ad-Din, first quarter of the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Berlin_State_Library" title="Berlin State Library">Staatsbibliothek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>.</figcaption></figure> While the Abbasid Caliphate suffered a decline following the reign of <a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq" title="Al-Wathiq">Al-Wathiq</a> (842–847) and <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid" title="Al-Mu'tadid">Al-Mu'tadid</a> (892–902),<a href="#cite_note-197">[194]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> put an end to the Abbasid dynasty in 1258.<a href="#cite_note-198">[195]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> spread throughout <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Mongol_conquest_and_rule_(1219–1370)" title="History of Iran">Persia</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Findley_2005-199">[196]</a> the Persian city of <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a> had fallen to them by 1237.<a href="#cite_note-200">[197]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ilkhans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilkhans">Ilkhans</a> of <a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Chingisid descendence</a> claimed to be defenders of Islam, perhaps even the heirs of the Abbasid Caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-Peacock-201">[198]</a>(p59) Some <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi Muslim</a> writers, like <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aflaki&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aflaki (page does not exist)">Aflaki</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_Rumi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu Bakr Rumi (page does not exist)">Abu Bakr Rumi</a>, were favourably impressed by the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Mongols' conquest of Islamic states and subjugation of Muslim rulers to their military and political power</a>, considering their invasions and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">expansion</a> as a legitimate divine punishment from <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a>, as the Mongols and <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe" title="Eurasian Steppe">Eurasian Steppe</a> were regarded as more <a href="/wiki/Mumin" title="Mumin">pious</a> than the <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Muslim scholars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asceticism#Islam" title="Asceticism">ascetics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mufti" title="Mufti">muftis</a> of their time.<a href="#cite_note-Peacock-201">[198]</a>(p81) During this era, the Persian Sufi poet and mystic <a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Jalaluddin Rumi</a> (1207–1273) wrote his masterpiece, the <a href="/wiki/Masnavi" title="Masnavi">Masnavi</a>, which he believed to be "sent down" from God and understood it as the <a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">proper explanation of the Quran</a> (tafsīr).<a href="#cite_note-Peacock-201">[198]</a>(p97) Muslim scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a>, studied in the <a href="/wiki/Maragheh_observatory" title="Maragheh observatory">Maragheh observatory</a>, erected by <a href="/wiki/Hulegu_Khan" title="Hulegu Khan">Hulegu Khan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[199]</a> In the 13th to the 14th centuries, both <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunnī</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shīʿa</a> practices were intertwined, and historical figures commonly associated with the history of Shīʿa Islam, like <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_al-Sadiq" title="Ja'far al-Sadiq">Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq</a> (respectively, the first and sixth <a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Imams" class="mw-redirect" title="The Twelve Imams">Shīʿīte Imams</a>), played an almost universal role for Muslim believers to understand "<a href="/wiki/Al-Ghaib" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ghaib">the Unseen</a>" (al-Ghaib).<a href="#cite_note-Peacock-201">[198]</a>(p24) A sharp distinction between Sunnī, Shīʿa, and heterodox Islamic beliefs did not exist. Therefore, ideas from foreign cultures were easier to integrate into the Islamic worldview.<a href="#cite_note-Findley_2005-199">[196]</a> While many scholars had hold the opinion that Turks and Mongols converted to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> filtered through the mediation of <a href="/wiki/Persian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian culture">Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asian" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Asian">Central Asian</a> culture,<a href="#cite_note-Findley_2005-199">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nicholson_2018-203">[200]</a> as well as through the preaching of <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi Muslim</a> wandering ascetics and mystics (<a href="/wiki/Fakir" title="Fakir">fakirs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dervish" title="Dervish">dervishes</a>),<a href="#cite_note-Findley_2005-199">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amitai-Preiss_1999-204">[201]</a> this view has been challenged in recent years.<a href="#cite_note-Findley_2005-199">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dechant,_John_2011-205">[202]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talas" title="Battle of Talas">Battle of Talas</a> (752), Muslim <a href="/wiki/Heresiology" title="Heresiology">heresiographers</a> never mentioned Turkic or Mongolian beliefs as heretic.<a href="#cite_note-206">[203]</a> Despite doctrinal differences, some Muslim authors, such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Nuwayri" title="Al-Nuwayri">Al-Nuwayri</a>, stated that the Mongols had heavenly approval and would live in accordance with the strictions of Islamic law.<a href="#cite_note-207">[204]</a> Aflaki identifies the Turks and Mongols with the army of Muhammad's wrath mentioned in a hadith. He further casts the Mongols both as God's punishment from hell, as well as people who follow the will of the Creator in his Manaqib al-'Arifin, although inferior to the saints.<a href="#cite_note-Dechant,_John_2011-205">[202]</a> In the writings of Aflaki, a later disciple of Rumi, the Mongols are described as being so impressed by Rumi's devotion to God, that they believed an assault on Rumi would cause the wrath of God upon them.<a href="#cite_note-Dechant,_John_2011-205">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_Mongol_empires">Islamic Mongol empires</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Islamic Mongol empires">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goharshad2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Goharshad2.jpg/220px-Goharshad2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Goharshad2.jpg/330px-Goharshad2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Goharshad2.jpg/440px-Goharshad2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="458" data-file-height="503" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Goharshad_Mosque" title="Goharshad Mosque">Goharshad Mosque</a> built by the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></figcaption></figure> Ultimately, the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a> – three of the four principal Mongol khanates – embraced Islam.<a href="#cite_note-208">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[207]</a> In power in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, and further east, over the rest of the 13th century gradually all converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid rulers were replaced by the new Mongol power founded by <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> (himself a Muslim), who conquered Persia in the 1360s, and moved against the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> in India and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</a> in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>. Timur's ceaseless conquests were accompanied by displays of brutality matched only by <a href="/wiki/Chinggis_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinggis Khan">Chinggis Khan</a>, whose example Timur consciously imitated.<a href="#cite_note-Timur-211">[208]</a> <a href="/wiki/Samarqand" class="mw-redirect" title="Samarqand">Samarqand</a>, the cosmopolitan capital of Timur's empire, flourished under his rule as never before, while Iran and Iraq suffered large-scale devastation.<a href="#cite_note-Timur-211">[208]</a> The Middle East was still recovering from the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, which may have killed one third of the population in the region. The plague began in China, and reached <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in Egypt in 1347, spreading over the following years to most Islamic areas. The combination of the plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a seriously weakened position. The <a href="/wiki/Timurid_dynasty" title="Timurid dynasty">Timurid dynasty</a> would found many strong empires of Islam, including the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a> of India.<a href="#cite_note-212">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timurid_Renaissance">Timurid Renaissance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Timurid Renaissance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Renaissance" title="Timurid Renaissance">Timurid Renaissance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Persian_Tamerlane_Chess_Set.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Persian_Tamerlane_Chess_Set.png/220px-Persian_Tamerlane_Chess_Set.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Persian_Tamerlane_Chess_Set.png/330px-Persian_Tamerlane_Chess_Set.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Persian_Tamerlane_Chess_Set.png/440px-Persian_Tamerlane_Chess_Set.png 2x" data-file-width="835" data-file-height="522" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tamerlane_chess" title="Tamerlane chess">Tamerlane chess</a>, invented by Amir <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a>. The pieces approximate the appearance of the chess pieces in 14th century Persia.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a> based in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_dynasty" title="Timurid dynasty">Timurid dynasty</a> saw a tremendous increase in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Arts">arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Sciences">sciences</a>, spreading across both the eastern and western world.<a href="#cite_note-Journal1988-214">[211]</a> Remarkable was the invention of <a href="/wiki/Tamerlane_Chess" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamerlane Chess">Tamerlane Chess</a>, reconstruction of the city of <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, and substantial contributions made by the family of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Shah_Rukh" title="Shah Rukh">Shah Rukh</a>, which includes <a href="/wiki/Gawhar_Shad" title="Gawhar Shad">Gawhar Shad</a>, polymath <a href="/wiki/Ulugh_Begh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulugh Begh">Ulugh Begh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Husayn_Bayqara" title="Sultan Husayn Bayqara">Sultan Husayn Bayqara</a> in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and architecture. The empire received widespread support from multiple <a href="/wiki/Islamic_scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic scholars">Islamic scholars</a> and scientists. A number of Islamic learning centres and mosques were built, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Ulugh_Beg_Observatory" title="Ulugh Beg Observatory">Ulugh Beg Observatory</a>. The prosperity of the city of <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a> is said to have competed with those of <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>, the birthplace of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> as the center of a cultural rebirth.<a href="#cite_note-215">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[213]</a> The aspects of the Timurid Renaissance were later brought in <a href="/wiki/Mughal_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal India">Mughal India</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal Emperors">Mughal Emperors</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[216]</a> and served as a heritage of states of the other remaining <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Gunpowder_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Gunpowder empires">Islamic Gunpowder empires</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkey">Ottoman Turkey</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Iran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-220">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mamluk_Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Mamluk Sultanate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bahri_Dynasty_1250_-_1382_(AD).PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bahri_Dynasty_1250_-_1382_%28AD%29.PNG/280px-Bahri_Dynasty_1250_-_1382_%28AD%29.PNG" decoding="async" width="280" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bahri_Dynasty_1250_-_1382_%28AD%29.PNG/420px-Bahri_Dynasty_1250_-_1382_%28AD%29.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bahri_Dynasty_1250_-_1382_%28AD%29.PNG/560px-Bahri_Dynasty_1250_-_1382_%28AD%29.PNG 2x" data-file-width="821" data-file-height="440" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate</a> (in red) and the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Mongol Ilkhanate</a> (in blue) (1250–1382)</figcaption></figure> In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">slave regiments</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate</a> was born. Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Mongol invasions of the Levant</a>. In the 1260s, the Mongols sacked and controlled the Islamic Near East territories. The Mongol invaders were finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north of Jerusalem in 1260 at the pivotal <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut" title="Battle of Ain Jalut">Battle of Ain Jalut</a>.<a href="#cite_note-221">[218]</a> The Mamluks, who were <a href="/wiki/Slave-soldier" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave-soldier">slave-soldiers</a> predominantly of <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoples of the Caucasus">Caucasian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeastern European</a> origins<a href="#cite_note-222">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ayalon_1991-223">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[221]</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a>), forced out the Mongols (see <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut" title="Battle of Ain Jalut">Battle of Ain Jalut</a>) after the final destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty. The Mongols were again defeated by the Mamluks at the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Homs" title="First Battle of Homs">Battle of Hims</a> a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether.<a href="#cite_note-AHGC-139">[137]</a> With this, the Mamluks were able to concentrate their forces and to conquer the last of the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> in the Levant. Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest interval between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250–1517).<a href="#cite_note-Hourani-225">[222]</a> The Mamluks experienced a continual state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the "Muslim territory" (<a href="/wiki/Divisions_of_the_world_in_Islam#Dar_al-Islam" title="Divisions of the world in Islam">Dar al-Islam</a>) and "non-Muslim territory" (<a href="/wiki/Dar_al-Harb" class="mw-redirect" title="Dar al-Harb">Dar al-Harb</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Ayalon_1991-223">[220]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut" title="Battle of Ain Jalut">Battle of Ain Jalut</a> and the glorious <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marj_al-Saffar_(1303)" title="Battle of Marj al-Saffar (1303)">Battle of Marj al-Saffar (1303)</a>, the latter partly led by Imam <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Taymiyyah">Ibn Taymiyyah</a>, marked the end of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Mongol invasions of the Levant</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fatwa" title="Fatwa">Fatwas</a> given during these conflicts changed the course of <a href="/wiki/Political_Islam" title="Political Islam">Political Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-kadri--226">[223]</a> As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, the Mamluks sponsored many religious buildings, including mosques, <a href="/wiki/Madrasas" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasas">madrasas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khanqah" class="mw-redirect" title="Khanqah">khanqahs</a>. Though some construction took place in the provinces, the vast bulk of these projects expanded the capital. Many Mamluk buildings in Cairo have survived to this day, particularly in Old Cairo (for further informations, see <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_architecture" title="Mamluk architecture">Mamluk architecture</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proto-Salafism">Proto-Salafism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Proto-Salafism">edit</a>]</div> In scholasticism, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a> (1263–1328), who did not accept the Mongols' conversion to Sunnism,<a href="#cite_note-227">[224]</a> worried about the integrity of Islam and tried to establish a theological doctrine to purify Islam from its alleged alterations.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-228">[225]</a> Unlike contemporary scholarship, which relied on traditions and historical narratives from early Islam, Ibn Taymiyya's methodology was a mixture of the selective use of hadith and a literal understanding of the Quran.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-228">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÇakmak2017665-229">[226]</a> He rejected most philosophical approaches to Islam and proposed a clear, simple and dogmatic theology instead.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-228">[225]</a> Another major characteristic of his theological approach emphasized the significance of a theocratic state. While prevailing opinion held that religious wisdom was necessary for a state, Ibn Taymiyya regarded <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">political power</a> as necessary for religious excellence.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-228">[225]</a> He rejected many hadiths circulating among Muslims during his time and relied repeatedly on only <a href="/wiki/Sahih_Bukhari" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahih Bukhari">Sahih Bukhari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sahih_Muslim" title="Sahih Muslim">Sahih Muslim</a> to refute <a href="/wiki/Ash%CA%BFari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashʿari">Asharite</a> doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÇakmak2017665-229">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[227]</a> Feeling threatened by the <a href="/wiki/Crusaders" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusaders">Crusaders</a> and by the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Mongols</a>, Ibn Taymiyya stated it would be obligatory for Muslims to join a physical <a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">jihad</a> against non-Muslims. This not only included the invaders but also the heretics among the Muslims, including <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shias</a>, Asharites and "philosophers", who Ibn Taymiyya blamed for the deterioration of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceD-231">[228]</a> Nevertheless, his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime. He was repeatedly accused of blasphemy by anthropomorphizing God, and his disciple <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kathir" title="Ibn Kathir">Ibn Kathir</a> distanced himself from his mentor and negated that aspect of his teachings.<a href="#cite_note-232">[229]</a> Yet, some of Ibn Taymiyya's teaching probably influenced Ibn Kathir's methodology on exegesis in his Tafsir, which discounted much of the exegetical tradition since then.<a href="#cite_note-233">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[231]</a> The writings of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Kathir became important sources for Wahhabism and 21st century <a href="/wiki/Salafism" class="mw-redirect" title="Salafism">Salafi theology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceD-231">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-228">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÇakmak2017665-229">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeaman2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidisDgI0-0Ip4CpgPA632_632]-235">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bahri_Sultans">Bahri Sultans</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Bahri Sultans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bahri_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahri dynasty">Bahri dynasty</a></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_nmsdhe408mk1x5kwdsj5w3x7xm8rd9k"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ninth_Crusade" coords="132,36,230,56" title="Ninth Crusade" alt="Ninth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Eighth_Crusade" coords="125,27,222,47" title="Eighth Crusade" alt="Eighth Crusade" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hajji_II" coords="737,7,817,27" title="Hajji II" alt="Hajji II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Barquq" coords="724,-5,794,15" title="Barquq" alt="Barquq" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/as%2DSalih_Salah%2Dad%2DDin_Hajji_I" coords="709,-17,773,3" title="as-Salih Salah-ad-Din Hajji I" alt="as-Salih Salah-ad-Din Hajji I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DMansur_Ala%27a%2Dad%2DDin_Ali" coords="700,-5,753,15" title="al-Mansur Ala'a-ad-Din Ali" alt="al-Mansur Ala'a-ad-Din Ali" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DAshraf_Zayn%2Dad%2DDin_Abu_al%2DMali_Shaban" coords="643,16,713,36" title="al-Ashraf Zayn-ad-Din Abu al-Mali Shaban" alt="al-Ashraf Zayn-ad-Din Abu al-Mali Shaban" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DMansur_Salah%2Dad%2DDin_Muhammad" coords="600,7,680,27" title="al-Mansur Salah-ad-Din Muhammad" alt="al-Mansur Salah-ad-Din Muhammad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/an%2DNasir_Nasir%2Dad%2DDin_al%2DHasan" coords="585,-5,649,15" title="an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan" alt="an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/as%2DSalih_Salah%2Dad%2DDin_bin_Muhammad" coords="552,-15,632,5" title="as-Salih Salah-ad-Din bin Muhammad" alt="as-Salih Salah-ad-Din bin Muhammad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/an%2DNasir_Badr%2Dad%2DDin_Abu_al%2DMali_al%2DHasan" coords="542,-26,606,-6" title="an-Nasir Badr-ad-Din Abu al-Mali al-Hasan" alt="an-Nasir Badr-ad-Din Abu al-Mali al-Hasan" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DMuzaffar_Sayf%2Dad%2DDin_Hajji_I" coords="529,16,593,36" title="al-Muzaffar Sayf-ad-Din Hajji I" alt="al-Muzaffar Sayf-ad-Din Hajji I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DKamil_Saif_ad%2DDin_Shaban_I" coords="522,7,591,27" title="al-Kamil Saif ad-Din Shaban I" alt="al-Kamil Saif ad-Din Shaban I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/as%2DSalih_Imad%2Dad%2DDin_Ismail" coords="511,-5,581,15" title="as-Salih Imad-ad-Din Ismail" alt="as-Salih Imad-ad-Din Ismail" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Shihab_ad%2DDin_Ahmad" coords="507,-15,571,5" title="Shihab ad-Din Ahmad" alt="Shihab ad-Din Ahmad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kujuk" coords="504,-26,568,-6" title="Kujuk" alt="Kujuk" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Saif_ad%2DDin_Abu%2DBakr" coords="471,7,551,27" title="Saif ad-Din Abu-Bakr" alt="Saif ad-Din Abu-Bakr" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/an%2DNasir_Nasir%2Dad%2DDin_Muhammad" coords="410,-5,490,15" title="an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad" alt="an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Baibars_II" coords="325,-5,417,15" title="Baibars II" alt="Baibars II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/an%2DNasir_Nasir%2Dad%2DDin_Muhammad" coords="315,-17,395,3" title="an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad" alt="an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Lajin" coords="283,7,347,27" title="Lajin" alt="Lajin" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DAdil_Kitbugha" coords="262,-5,343,15" title="al-Adil Kitbugha" alt="al-Adil Kitbugha" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/an%2DNasir_Nasir%2Dad%2DDin_Muhammad" coords="252,-17,333,3" title="an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad" alt="an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DAshraf_Salah%2Dad%2DDin_Khalil" coords="233,7,302,27" title="al-Ashraf Salah-ad-Din Khalil" alt="al-Ashraf Salah-ad-Din Khalil" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Qalawun" coords="209,-5,284,15" title="Qalawun" alt="Qalawun" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Solamish" coords="179,-17,259,3" title="Solamish" alt="Solamish" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DSaid_Barakah" coords="168,7,243,27" title="Al-Said Barakah" alt="Al-Said Barakah" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Baibars" coords="128,-5,203,15" title="Baibars" alt="Baibars" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DMuzaffar_Sayf_ad%2DDin_Qutuz" coords="103,16,167,36" title="al-Muzaffar Sayf ad-Din Qutuz" alt="al-Muzaffar Sayf ad-Din Qutuz" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMansur_Ali" coords="78,7,147,27" title="Al-Mansur Ali" alt="Al-Mansur Ali" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DAshraf_Muzafar_ad%2DDin_Musa" coords="66,-4,146,16" title="al-Ashraf Muzafar ad-Din Musa" alt="al-Ashraf Muzafar ad-Din Musa" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DMuizz_Izz%2Dad%2DDin_Aybak" coords="58,-15,122,5" title="al-Muizz Izz-ad-Din Aybak" alt="al-Muizz Izz-ad-Din Aybak" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Shajar_al%2DDurr" coords="37,-26,107,-6" title="Shajar al-Durr" alt="Shajar al-Durr" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_nmsdhe408mk1x5kwdsj5w3x7xm8rd9k" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/nmsdhe408mk1x5kwdsj5w3x7xm8rd9k.png" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Burji_Sultans">Burji Sultans</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Burji Sultans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Burji_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Burji dynasty">Burji dynasty</a></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_mtot4pq7s3mf7ydbddv64146cw84sou"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Tuman_bay_II" coords="402,29,505,50" title="Tuman bay II" alt="Tuman bay II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DAshraf_Qansuh_al%2DGhawri" coords="394,17,463,38" title="al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri" alt="al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Tuman_bay_I" coords="371,36,468,57" title="Tuman bay I" alt="Tuman bay I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Janbalat" coords="365,23,445,44" title="Janbalat" alt="Janbalat" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/az%2DZahir_Qansuh" coords="362,7,432,28" title="az-Zahir Qansuh" alt="az-Zahir Qansuh" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/an%2DAshraf_Muhammad" coords="353,-4,422,17" title="an-Ashraf Muhammad" alt="an-Ashraf Muhammad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DAshraf_Sayf%2Dad%2DDin_Qait_Bay" coords="306,17,375,38" title="al-Ashraf Sayf-ad-Din Qait Bay" alt="al-Ashraf Sayf-ad-Din Qait Bay" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/az%2DZahir_Timurbugha" coords="262,36,354,57" title="az-Zahir Timurbugha" alt="az-Zahir Timurbugha" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/az%2DZahir_Sayf%2Dad%2DDin_Bilbay" coords="259,23,328,44" title="az-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Bilbay" alt="az-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Bilbay" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/az%2DZahir_Sayf%2Dad%2DDin_Khushqadam" coords="235,7,326,28" title="az-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Khushqadam" alt="az-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Khushqadam" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DMuayyad_Shihab%2Dad%2DDin_Ahmad" coords="230,-4,305,17" title="al-Muayyad Shihab-ad-Din Ahmad" alt="al-Muayyad Shihab-ad-Din Ahmad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DAshraf_Sayf%2Dad%2DDin_Inal" coords="222,29,292,50" title="al-Ashraf Sayf-ad-Din Inal" alt="al-Ashraf Sayf-ad-Din Inal" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DMansur_Fakhr%2Dad%2DDin_Uthman" coords="209,17,278,38" title="al-Mansur Fakhr-ad-Din Uthman" alt="al-Mansur Fakhr-ad-Din Uthman" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/az%2DZahir_Sayf%2Dad%2DDin_Jaqmaq" coords="187,5,251,26" title="az-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Jaqmaq" alt="az-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Jaqmaq" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DAziz_Jamal%2Dad%2DDin_Yusuf" coords="163,29,221,50" title="al-Aziz Jamal-ad-Din Yusuf" alt="al-Aziz Jamal-ad-Din Yusuf" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Barsbay" coords="128,17,203,38" title="Barsbay" alt="Barsbay" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/as%2DSalih_Nasir%2Dad%2DDin_Muhammad" coords="113,36,177,57" title="as-Salih Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad" alt="as-Salih Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/az%2DZahir_Sayf%2Dad%2DDin_Tatar" coords="108,23,172,44" title="az-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Tatar" alt="az-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Tatar" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DMuzaffar_Ahmad" coords="97,7,177,28" title="al-Muzaffar Ahmad" alt="al-Muzaffar Ahmad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DMuayyad_Sayf%2Dad%2DDin_Tatar" coords="82,-4,157,17" title="al-Muayyad Sayf-ad-Din Tatar" alt="al-Muayyad Sayf-ad-Din Tatar" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DMusta%27in_(Cairo)" coords="67,29,147,50" title="Al-Musta'in (Cairo)" alt="Al-Musta'in (Cairo)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/an%2DNasir_Nasir%2Dad%2DDin_Faraj" coords="63,17,127,38" title="an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Faraj" alt="an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Faraj" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DMansur_Izz%2Dad%2DDin_Abd%2Dal%2DAziz" coords="49,5,118,26" title="al-Mansur Izz-ad-Din Abd-al-Aziz" alt="al-Mansur Izz-ad-Din Abd-al-Aziz" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/an%2DNasir_Nasir%2Dad%2DDin_Faraj" coords="42,29,106,50" title="an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Faraj" alt="an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Faraj" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/az%2DZahir_Sayf_ad%2DDin_Barquq" coords="14,17,83,38" title="az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Barquq" alt="az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Barquq" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hajji_II" coords="-7,5,72,26" title="Hajji II" alt="Hajji II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/az%2DZahir_Sayf_ad%2DDin_Barquq" coords="-15,17,53,38" title="az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Barquq" alt="az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Barquq" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_mtot4pq7s3mf7ydbddv64146cw84sou" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/mtot4pq7s3mf7ydbddv64146cw84sou.png" /></div> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Islamic_Egypt#The_Mamluks_era_.281250–1517.29" class="mw-redirect" title="List of governors of Islamic Egypt">Islamic Egypt governors, Mamluks Era</a></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Al-Andalus">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adolf_Seel_Innenhof_der_Alhambra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Adolf_Seel_Innenhof_der_Alhambra.jpg/220px-Adolf_Seel_Innenhof_der_Alhambra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Adolf_Seel_Innenhof_der_Alhambra.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="285" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>The interiors of the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a> in <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a>, Spain decorated with <a href="/wiki/Arabesque_(Islamic_art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabesque (Islamic art)">arabesque</a> designs.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Umayyad conquest of Hispania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">Taifa</a></div> The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General <a href="/wiki/Tarik_ibn_Ziyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarik ibn Ziyad">Tarik ibn Ziyad</a>, first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Visigothic kingdom">Visigothic kingdom</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a>. Crossing the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar" title="Strait of Gibraltar">Strait of Gibraltar</a> (named after the General), it won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king <a href="/wiki/Roderic" title="Roderic">Roderic</a> was defeated and killed on 19 July at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalete" title="Battle of Guadalete">Battle of Guadalete</a>. Tariq's commander, <a href="/wiki/Musa_bin_Nusair" class="mw-redirect" title="Musa bin Nusair">Musa bin Nusair</a> crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. Some later Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a certain <a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AC%C4%81rif" class="mw-redirect" title="Ṭārif">Ṭārif</a> in 710 and also, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the <a href="/wiki/Chronicle_of_Alfonso_III" title="Chronicle of Alfonso III">Chronicle of Alfonso III</a>, refers to an Arab attack incited by <a href="/wiki/Erwig" title="Erwig">Erwig</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Wamba,_Visigothic_king" class="mw-redirect" title="Wamba, Visigothic king">Wamba</a> (672–80). The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.<a href="#cite_note-Collins2004139-236">[233]</a> The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of <a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">Emir</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_I" title="Al-Walid I">Al-Walid I</a> in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Abbasids" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasids">Abbasids</a> came to power, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III" title="Abd al-Rahman III">Abd al-Rahman III</a> took over the title of <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliph of Córdoba</a> (912–961).<a href="#cite_note-Hourani_1-237">[234]</a> Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a>. <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_II" title="Al-Hakam II">Al-Hakam II</a> succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,<a href="#cite_note-238">[235]</a> and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.<a href="#cite_note-239">[236]</a> Economic development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-240">[237]</a> The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of <a href="/wiki/Hicham_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Hicham II">Hicham II</a> who was ousted because of his indolence.<a href="#cite_note-241">[238]</a> Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of states called <a href="/wiki/Taifa_kings" class="mw-redirect" title="Taifa kings">taifa kingdoms</a> (Arabic, Muluk al-ṭawā'if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those <a href="/wiki/Petty_kingdom" title="Petty kingdom">petty kingdoms</a> weakened the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula vis-à-vis the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the taifas, such as that of Seville, were forced to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.<a href="#cite_note-242">[239]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Muslim_presence_in_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula">Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emirs_of_Al-Andalus">Emirs of Al-Andalus</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Emirs of Al-Andalus">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">Emirate of Córdoba</a></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_mbcmaioav65qtplz3vkzecd4lkooncn"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abd_ar%2DRahman_III" coords="701,-5,792,15" title="Abd ar-Rahman III" alt="Abd ar-Rahman III" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Muhammad" coords="629,-5,693,15" title="Abdallah ibn Muhammad" alt="Abdallah ibn Muhammad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DMundhir_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" coords="570,-5,645,15" title="al-Mundhir of Córdoba" alt="al-Mundhir of Córdoba" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muhammad_I_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" coords="486,-5,578,15" title="Muhammad I of Córdoba" alt="Muhammad I of Córdoba" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abd_ar%2DRahman_II" coords="356,-5,442,15" title="Abd ar-Rahman II" alt="Abd ar-Rahman II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/al%2DHakam_I" coords="251,-5,315,15" title="al-Hakam I" alt="al-Hakam I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hisham_I" coords="177,-5,247,15" title="Hisham I" alt="Hisham I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abd_ar%2DRahman_I" coords="88,-5,169,15" title="Abd ar-Rahman I" alt="Abd ar-Rahman I" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_mbcmaioav65qtplz3vkzecd4lkooncn" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/mbcmaioav65qtplz3vkzecd4lkooncn.png" /></div> <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I" title="Abd al-Rahman I">Abd al-Rahman I</a> and Bedr (a former Greek slave) escaped with their lives after the popular revolt known as the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a>. Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Rahman I was one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near <a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a>. Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have been sure whether he would be welcome. Following the <a href="/wiki/Berber_Revolt" title="Berber Revolt">Berber Revolt</a> (740s), the province was in a state of confusion, with the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a> torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian commanders – <a href="/w/index.php?title=Obeid_Allah_ibn_Uthman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Obeid Allah ibn Uthman (page does not exist)">Obeid Allah ibn Uthman</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abd_Allah_ibn_Khalid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abd Allah ibn Khalid (page does not exist)">Abd Allah ibn Khalid</a>, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in <a href="/wiki/Zaragoza" title="Zaragoza">Zaragoza</a>) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Rahman I would try to make himself emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of followers for Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at <a href="/wiki/Almu%C3%B1%C3%A9car" title="Almuñécar">Almuñécar</a> in al-Andalus, to the east of <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1laga" title="Málaga">Málaga</a>. During his brief time in Málaga, he quickly amassed local support. News of the prince's arrival spread throughout the peninsula. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he took advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to <a href="/wiki/Zaragoza#Moorish_Saraqusta" title="Zaragoza">control Zaragoza</a>. Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalus in a battle at the <a href="/wiki/Guadalquivir" title="Guadalquivir">Guadalquivir river</a>, just outside Córdoba on the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah). Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies from the field with parts of their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Córdoba, fighting off a <a href="/wiki/Counterattack" title="Counterattack">counterattack</a>, but negotiations ended the confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim the Muslim caliph, though.<a href="#cite_note-243">[240]</a> The last step was to have al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, garroted in Córdoba's jail. Al-Andalus was a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/safe_haven" class="extiw" title="wikt:safe haven">safe haven</a> for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.<a href="#cite_note-244">[241]</a> In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a> had planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his army confronted the Abbasids, killing most of the Abbasid army. The main Abbasid leaders were decapitated, their heads preserved in salt, with identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. He began the building of the great mosque [cordova], and formed ship-yards along the coast; he is moreover said to have been the first to transplant the palm and the pomegranate into the congenial climate of Spain: and he encouraged science and literature in his states. He died on 29 September 788, after a reign of thirty-four years and one month.<a href="#cite_note-245">[242]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lamezquitacordoba.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lamezquitacordoba.jpg/220px-Lamezquitacordoba.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lamezquitacordoba.jpg/330px-Lamezquitacordoba.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lamezquitacordoba.jpg/440px-Lamezquitacordoba.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The exterior of the Mezquita.</figcaption></figure> Rahman I's successor was his son <a href="/wiki/Hisham_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Hisham I">Hisham I</a>. Born in Córdoba, he built many <a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">mosques</a> and completed the <a href="/wiki/Mezquita" class="mw-redirect" title="Mezquita">Mezquita</a>. He called for a <a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">jihad</a> that resulted in a campaign against the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Kingdom of Asturias</a> and the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Toulouse" title="County of Toulouse">County of Toulouse</a>; in this second campaign he was defeated at Orange by <a href="/wiki/William_of_Gellone" title="William of Gellone">William of Gellone</a>, first cousin to <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>. His successor <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_I" title="Al-Hakam I">Al-Hakam I</a> came to power and was challenged by his uncles, other sons of Rahman I. One, Abdallah, went to the court of Charlemagne in <a href="/wiki/Aix-la-Chapelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Aix-la-Chapelle">Aix-la-Chapelle</a> to negotiate for aid. In the meantime Córdoba was attacked, but was defended. Hakam I spent much of his reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa and Mérida.<a href="#cite_note-246">[243]</a> <a href="/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_II" title="Abd ar-Rahman II">Abd ar-Rahman II</a> succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_II_of_Asturias" title="Alfonso II of Asturias">Alfonso II of Asturias</a>, whose southward advance he halted. Rahman II repulsed an assault by <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> who had disembarked in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a>, conquered <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> (with the exception of its <a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">citadel</a>) and attacked Córdoba. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval <a href="/wiki/Arsenal" title="Arsenal">arsenal</a> at <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> to repel future raids. He responded to <a href="/wiki/William_of_Septimania" title="William of Septimania">William of Septimania</a>'s requests of assistance in his struggle against <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bald" title="Charles the Bald">Charles the Bald</a>'s nominations.<a href="#cite_note-247">[244]</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_I_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Muhammad I of Córdoba">Muhammad I</a>'s reign was marked by the movements of the <a href="/wiki/Muwallad" class="mw-redirect" title="Muwallad">Muwallad</a> (ethnic Iberian Muslims) and <a href="/wiki/Mozarab" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozarab">Mozarabs</a> (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Al-Mundhir_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Al-Mundhir of Córdoba">Mundhir I</a>. During the reign of his father, Mundhir I commanded military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muwallad rebellions. At his father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two-year reign, Mundhir I fought against <a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_Hafsun" title="Umar ibn Hafsun">Umar ibn Hafsun</a>. He died in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his brother <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Muhammad_al-Umawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi">Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi</a>. Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muwallad. His power as emir was confined to the area of Córdoba, while the rest had been seized by rebel families. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter was in turn executed by Umawi's father, who named as successor <a href="/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd ar-Rahman III">Abd ar-Rahman III</a>, son of the killed son of Umawi.<a href="#cite_note-248">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[247]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caliphs_of_Al-Andalus">Caliphs of Al-Andalus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Caliphs of Al-Andalus">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_8r1u5t1es62xjimm7z0v4e3adodfmyr"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hisham_III" coords="737,24,829,45" title="Hisham III" alt="Hisham III" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muhammad_III_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" coords="690,34,793,55" title="Muhammad III of Córdoba" alt="Muhammad III of Córdoba" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abd_ar%2DRahman_V" coords="694,-6,774,15" title="Abd ar-Rahman V" alt="Abd ar-Rahman V" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abd_ar%2DRahman_IV" coords="657,4,743,25" title="Abd ar-Rahman IV" alt="Abd ar-Rahman IV" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Sulayman_ibn_al%2DHakam" coords="640,24,721,45" title="Sulayman ibn al-Hakam" alt="Sulayman ibn al-Hakam" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hisham_II" coords="603,34,689,55" title="Hisham II" alt="Hisham II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Sulayman_ibn_al%2DHakam" coords="595,-6,676,15" title="Sulayman ibn al-Hakam" alt="Sulayman ibn al-Hakam" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mohammed_II" coords="560,4,657,25" title="Mohammed II" alt="Mohammed II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hisham_II" coords="464,17,550,38" title="Hisham II" alt="Hisham II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DHakam_II" coords="301,17,381,38" title="Al-Hakam II" alt="Al-Hakam II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abd_ar%2DRahman_III" coords="129,17,221,38" title="Abd ar-Rahman III" alt="Abd ar-Rahman III" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_8r1u5t1es62xjimm7z0v4e3adodfmyr" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/8r1u5t1es62xjimm7z0v4e3adodfmyr.png" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Almoravid_Ifriqiyah_and_Iberia">Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid dynasty</a></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_s1luhpzj8euggqbggmkg5f5e708v5s6"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ishaq_ibn_Ali" coords="742,14,806,35" title="Ishaq ibn Ali" alt="Ishaq ibn Ali" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Tashfin" coords="728,4,803,25" title="Ibrahim ibn Tashfin" alt="Ibrahim ibn Tashfin" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Tashfin_ibn_Ali" coords="713,-6,788,15" title="Tashfin ibn Ali" alt="Tashfin ibn Ali" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Yusuf" coords="604,17,657,38" title="Ali ibn Yusuf" alt="Ali ibn Yusuf" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_Tashfin" coords="410,17,474,38" title="Yusuf ibn Tashfin" alt="Yusuf ibn Tashfin" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abu%2DBakr_Ibn%2DUmar" coords="247,17,328,38" title="Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar" alt="Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Yasin" coords="89,17,170,38" title="Abdallah ibn Yasin" alt="Abdallah ibn Yasin" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_s1luhpzj8euggqbggmkg5f5e708v5s6" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/s1luhpzj8euggqbggmkg5f5e708v5s6.png" /></div> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  Ifriqiyah, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  Iberian</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Almohad_caliphs">Almohad caliphs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Almohad caliphs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_bum5wp6bl268zowjk9r59yzykh3l4be"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Idris_II" coords="734,25,815,45" title="Idris II" alt="Idris II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Umar" coords="694,25,753,45" title="Umar" alt="Umar" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ali" coords="639,12,692,32" title="Ali" alt="Ali" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abd_al%2DWahid_II" coords="586,17,667,37" title="Abd al-Wahid II" alt="Abd al-Wahid II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Idris_I" coords="567,22,631,42" title="Idris I" alt="Idris I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Yahya" coords="556,-3,620,17" title="Yahya" alt="Yahya" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abdallah_al%2DAdil" coords="541,7,600,27" title="Abdallah al-Adil" alt="Abdallah al-Adil" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abd_al%2DWahid_I" coords="531,17,595,37" title="Abd al-Wahid I" alt="Abd al-Wahid I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abu_Ya%27qub_Yusuf_II" coords="496,25,577,45" title="Abu Ya'qub Yusuf II" alt="Abu Ya'qub Yusuf II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muhammad_an%2DNasir" coords="444,25,507,45" title="Muhammad an-Nasir" alt="Muhammad an-Nasir" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abu_Yusuf_Ya%27qub_al%2DMansur" coords="373,25,437,45" title="Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur" alt="Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abu_Ya%27qub_Yusuf_I" coords="283,25,352,45" title="Abu Ya'qub Yusuf I" alt="Abu Ya'qub Yusuf I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abd_al%2DMu%27min" coords="160,25,212,45" title="Abd al-Mu'min" alt="Abd al-Mu'min" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ibn_Tumart" coords="49,25,119,45" title="Ibn Tumart" alt="Ibn Tumart" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_bum5wp6bl268zowjk9r59yzykh3l4be" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/bum5wp6bl268zowjk9r59yzykh3l4be.png" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Islam_in_Africa">Islam in Africa</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Islam in Africa">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest of the Maghreb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_the_Sudan_region" title="Islamization of the Sudan region">Islamization of the Sudan region</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shirazi_era" title="Shirazi era">Shirazi era</a>, <a href="/wiki/Migration_to_Abyssinia" title="Migration to Abyssinia">Migration to Abyssinia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Swahili_coast" title="Swahili coast">Swahili coast</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of North Africa">Umayyad conquest of North Africa</a> continued the century of rapid Muslim military expansion following the death of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> in 632. By 640 the Arabs controlled <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, had invaded <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, and were concluding their conquest of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a>. <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> was the seat of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>. By the end of 641 all of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a> was in Arab hands. A subsequent attempt to conquer the <a href="/wiki/Nubians" title="Nubians">Nubian</a> kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a> was however repelled. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maghreb">Maghreb</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Maghreb">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kairouan%27s_Great_Mosque_courtyard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Kairouan%27s_Great_Mosque_courtyard.jpg/220px-Kairouan%27s_Great_Mosque_courtyard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Kairouan%27s_Great_Mosque_courtyard.jpg/330px-Kairouan%27s_Great_Mosque_courtyard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Kairouan%27s_Great_Mosque_courtyard.jpg/440px-Kairouan%27s_Great_Mosque_courtyard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4310" data-file-height="2868" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mosque_of_Uqba" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosque of Uqba">Great Mosque of Kairouan</a> also known as the Mosque of Uqba was established in 670 by the Arab general and conqueror Uqba ibn Nafi, it is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb, situated in the city of <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> was the first city founded by Muslims in the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>. Arab general <a href="/wiki/Uqba_ibn_Nafi" title="Uqba ibn Nafi">Uqba ibn Nafi</a> erected the city (in 670) and, in the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Mosque_of_Uqba" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosque of Uqba">Great Mosque of Kairouan</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[248]</a> considered as the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the western Islamic world.<a href="#cite_note-252">[249]</a> This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history. The <a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a> were the first Arab rulers in the western <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> (Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its first <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">sultan</a> <a href="/wiki/Idris_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Idris I">Idris I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-253">[250]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid dynasty</a> was a Berber dynasty from the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a> flourished over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> during the 11th century. Under this dynasty the <a href="/wiki/Moorish" class="mw-redirect" title="Moorish">Moorish</a> empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, <a href="/wiki/Tlemcen" title="Tlemcen">Tlemcen</a> (in Algeria) and a part of what is now <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a> in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.<a href="#cite_note-254">[251]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad Dynasty">Almohad Dynasty</a> or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the fifth <a href="/wiki/Moorish" class="mw-redirect" title="Moorish">Moorish</a> dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together with Al-Andalus.<a href="#cite_note-255">[252]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Horn_of_Africa">Horn of Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Horn of Africa">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zeila_ruins.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Zeila_ruins.jpeg/160px-Zeila_ruins.jpeg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Zeila_ruins.jpeg/240px-Zeila_ruins.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Zeila_ruins.jpeg/320px-Zeila_ruins.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="584" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of <a href="/wiki/Zeila" title="Zeila">Zeila</a> (Saylac), Somalia.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Ethiopia" title="Islam in Ethiopia">Islam in Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Somalia" title="Islam in Somalia">Islam in Somalia</a></div> The history of Islam in the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> is almost as old as the faith itself. Through extensive trade and social interactions with their converted Muslim trading partners on the other side of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a>, merchants and sailors in the Horn region gradually came under the influence of the new religion.<a href="#cite_note-Sct-256">[253]</a> Early Islamic disciples fled to the port city of <a href="/wiki/Zeila" title="Zeila">Zeila</a> in modern-day northern <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> to seek protection from the <a href="/wiki/Quraysh_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quraysh (tribe)">Quraysh</a> at the court of the <a href="/wiki/Aksumite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksumite Empire">Emperor of Aksum</a>. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have then settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had by then all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> and the Red Sea came under the sway of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Muslim Caliphs</a>. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.<a href="#cite_note-Sct-256">[253]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Lakes">Great Lakes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Great Lakes">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_105-DOA0232,_Deutsch-Ostafrika,_Arabische_Moschee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_105-DOA0232%2C_Deutsch-Ostafrika%2C_Arabische_Moschee.jpg/150px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_105-DOA0232%2C_Deutsch-Ostafrika%2C_Arabische_Moschee.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_105-DOA0232%2C_Deutsch-Ostafrika%2C_Arabische_Moschee.jpg/225px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_105-DOA0232%2C_Deutsch-Ostafrika%2C_Arabische_Moschee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_105-DOA0232%2C_Deutsch-Ostafrika%2C_Arabische_Moschee.jpg/300px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_105-DOA0232%2C_Deutsch-Ostafrika%2C_Arabische_Moschee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Kilwa" title="Great Mosque of Kilwa">Great Mosque of Kilwa</a></figcaption></figure> Islam came to the <a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> region of South Eastern Africa along existing trade routes.<a href="#cite_note-257">[254]</a> They learned from them the manners of the Muslims and this led to their conversion by the Muslim Arabs. Local Islamic governments centered in <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Tanzania" title="Islam in Tanzania">Tanzania</a> (then <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a>). The people of <a href="/wiki/Zayd" class="mw-redirect" title="Zayd">Zayd</a> were Muslims that immigrated to the Great Lakes region. In the pre-colonial period, the structure of Islamic authority here was held up through the <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">Ulema</a> (wanawyuonis, in <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili language</a>). These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in South East Africa before territorial boundaries were established. The chief <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">Qadi</a> there was recognized for having the final religious authority.<a href="#cite_note-258">[255]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Islam_in_East_Asia">Islam in East Asia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Islam in East Asia">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Indian subcontinent">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_South_Asia" title="Islam in South Asia">Islam in South Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_India" title="Islam in India">Islam in India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_rulers_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent">Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qutb_minar_ruins.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Qutb_minar_ruins.jpg/220px-Qutb_minar_ruins.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Qutb_minar_ruins.jpg/330px-Qutb_minar_ruins.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Qutb_minar_ruins.jpg/440px-Qutb_minar_ruins.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Qutub_Minar" class="mw-redirect" title="Qutub Minar">Qutub Minar</a> is the world's tallest brick <a href="/wiki/Minaret" title="Minaret">minaret</a>, commenced by <a href="/wiki/Qutb-ud-din_Aybak" class="mw-redirect" title="Qutb-ud-din Aybak">Qutb-ud-din Aybak</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Delhi)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)">Slave dynasty</a>; 1st dynasty of the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>.</figcaption></figure> On the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the peninsula, in today's <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> state. Arabs traded with <a href="/wiki/Malabar_(Northern_Kerala)" class="mw-redirect" title="Malabar (Northern Kerala)">Malabar</a> even before the birth of Muhammad. Native legends say that a group of <a href="/wiki/Sahaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahaba">Sahaba</a>, under <a href="/wiki/Malik_Bin_Deenar" class="mw-redirect" title="Malik Bin Deenar">Malik Ibn Deenar</a>, arrived on the <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a> and preached Islam. According to that legend, <a href="/wiki/Cheraman_Juma_Masjid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheraman Juma Masjid">the first mosque of India</a> was built by Second Chera King Cheraman Perumal, who accepted Islam and received the name Tajudheen. Historical records suggest that the <a href="/wiki/Cheraman_Juma_Masjid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheraman Juma Masjid">Cheraman Perumal Mosque</a> was built in around 629.<a href="#cite_note-BT-259">[256]</a> Islamic rule first came to the Indian subcontinent in the 8th century, when <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad bin Qasim">Muhammad bin Qasim</a> conquered <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a>, though this was a short-lived consolidation of Indian territory. Islamic conquests expanded under <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazni" title="Mahmud of Ghazni">Mahmud of Ghazni</a> in the 12th century CE, resulting in the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid Empire</a> in the Indus River basin and the subsequent prominence of <a href="/wiki/Lahore" title="Lahore">Lahore</a> as an eastern bastion of Ghaznavid culture and rule. Ghaznavid rule was eclipsed by the <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid Empire</a> of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_of_Ghor" title="Muhammad of Ghor">Muhammad of Ghor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghiyath_al-Din_Muhammad" title="Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad">Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad</a>, whose domain under the conquests of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Bakhtiyar_Khalji" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji">Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji</a> extended until the <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a>, where Indian <a href="/wiki/Islamic_missionary_activity" title="Islamic missionary activity">Islamic missionaries</a> achieved their greatest success in terms of <a href="/wiki/Dawah" title="Dawah">dawah</a> and number of converts to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-260">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[258]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Qutb-ud-din_Aybak" class="mw-redirect" title="Qutb-ud-din Aybak">Qutb-ud-din Aybak</a> conquered <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a> in 1206 and began the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>,<a href="#cite_note-262">[259]</a> a successive series of dynasties that synthesized Indian civilization with the wider commercial and cultural networks of Africa and Eurasia, greatly increased demographic and economic growth in India and deterred Mongol incursion into the prosperous <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic plain</a> and enthroned one of the few female Muslim rulers, <a href="/wiki/Razia_Sultana" title="Razia Sultana">Razia Sultana</a>. Many prominent sultanates and emirates administered various regions of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to the 16th centuries, such as the <a href="/wiki/Qutb_Shahi" class="mw-redirect" title="Qutb Shahi">Qutb Shahi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gujarat_Sultanate" title="Gujarat Sultanate">Gujarat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shah_Mir_dynasty" title="Shah Mir dynasty">Kashmir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adil_Shahi_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Adil Shahi dynasty">Bijapur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bahmani" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmani">Bahmani Sultanates</a>, but none rivaled the power and extensive reach of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> at its zenith.<a href="#cite_note-263">[260]</a> The Bengal Sultanate in particular was a major global trading nation in the world, described by the Europeans to be the "richest country to trade with",<a href="#cite_note-264">[261]</a> while the Shah Mir dynasty ensured the gradual conversion of <a href="/wiki/Kashmiris" title="Kashmiris">Kashmiris</a> to Islam. Persian culture, art, language, cuisine and literature grew in prominence in India due to Islamic administration and the immigration of soldiers, bureaucrats, merchants, Sufis, artists, poets, teachers and architects from Iran and Central Asia, resulting in the early development of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian culture</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southeast_Asia">Southeast Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Southeast Asia">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Masjid_demak.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Masjid_demak.jpg/200px-Masjid_demak.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Masjid_demak.jpg/300px-Masjid_demak.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Masjid_demak.jpg/400px-Masjid_demak.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>Grand Mosque of <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Demak" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Demak">Demak</a>, the first Muslim state in Java</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam_in_Indonesia" title="Spread of Islam in Indonesia">Spread of Islam in Indonesia</a></div> Islam first reached <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">Maritime Southeast Asia</a> through traders from Mecca in the 7th century,<a href="#cite_note-AHGC-139">[137]</a> particularly via the western part of what is now <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. Arab traders from Yemen already had a presence in Asia through trading and travelling by sea, serving as intermediary traders to and from Europe and Africa. They traded not only Arabian goods but also goods from Africa, India, and so on which included ivory, fragrances, spices, and gold.<a href="#cite_note-265">[262]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/T._W._Arnold" class="mw-redirect" title="T. W. Arnold">T. W. Arnold</a> in The Preaching of Islam, by the 2nd century of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic calendar</a>, Arab traders had been trading with the inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Ceylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceylon">Ceylon</a>, modern-day Sri Lanka. The same argument has been told by Dr. B.H. Burger and Dr. Mr. Prajudi in Sedjarah Ekonomis Sosiologis Indonesia (History of Socio Economic of Indonesia).<a href="#cite_note-266">[263]</a> According to an atlas created by the geographer Al-Biruni (973–1048), the Indian or Indonesian Ocean used to be called the Persian Ocean. After Western Imperialist rule, this name was changed to reflect the name used today; the Indian Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-267">[264]</a> Soon, many <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> missionaries translated classical <a href="/wiki/Sufi_literature" title="Sufi literature">Sufi literature</a> from Arabic and Persian into <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a>; a tangible product of this is the <a href="/wiki/Jawi_script" title="Jawi script">Jawi script</a>. Coupled with the composing of original <a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Islamic literature</a> in Malay, this led the way to the transformation of Malay into an Islamic language.<a href="#cite_note-268">[265]</a> By 1292, when <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> visited <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, most of the inhabitants had converted to Islam. The <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Malacca" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Malacca">Sultanate of Malacca</a> was founded on the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a> by <a href="/wiki/Parameswara_(sultan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parameswara (sultan)">Parameswara</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijayan</a> Prince. Through trade and commerce, Islam then spread to <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>. By the late 15th century, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Philippines" title="Islam in the Philippines">Islam</a> had been introduced to the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> via the southern island of <a href="/wiki/Mindanao" title="Mindanao">Mindanao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-269">[266]</a> The foremost[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] socio-cultural Muslim entities that resulted from this are the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sultanate of Sulu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Maguindanao" title="Sultanate of Maguindanao">Sultanate of Maguindanao</a>; Islamised kingdoms in the northern <a href="/wiki/Luzon" title="Luzon">Luzon</a> island, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Maynila" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Maynila">Kingdom of Maynila</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tondo" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Tondo">Kingdom of Tondo</a>, were later conquered and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Philippines" title="Christianity in the Philippines">Christianised</a> with the majority of the archipelago by <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish colonization of the Philippines">Spanish colonisers</a> beginning in the 16th century. As Islam spread, societal changes developed from the individual conversions, and five centuries later it emerged as a dominant cultural and political power in the region. Three main Muslim political powers emerged. The <a href="/wiki/Aceh_Sultanate" title="Aceh Sultanate">Aceh Sultanate</a> was the most important, controlling much of the area between Southeast Asia and India from its centre in northern <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>. The Sultanate also attracted <a href="/wiki/Sufi_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi poetry">Sufi poets</a>. The second Muslim power was the <a href="/wiki/Malacca_Sultanate" title="Malacca Sultanate">Sultanate of Malacca</a> on the Malay Peninsula. The <a href="/wiki/Demak_Sultanate" title="Demak Sultanate">Sultanate of Demak</a> on Java was the third power, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated the local <a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a> kingdom in the early 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-270">[267]</a> Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.<a href="#cite_note-AHGC-139">[137]</a> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese empire">Portuguese</a> forces captured Malacca in 1511 under naval general <a href="/wiki/Afonso_de_Albuquerque" title="Afonso de Albuquerque">Afonso de Albuquerque</a>. With Malacca subdued, the <a href="/wiki/Aceh_Sultanate" title="Aceh Sultanate">Aceh Sultanate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Empire">Bruneian Empire</a> established themselves as centres of Islam in Southeast Asia. The Sultanate's territory, although vastly diminished, remains intact to this day as the modern state of <a href="/wiki/Brunei_Darussalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Brunei Darussalam">Brunei Darussalam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AHGC-139">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: China">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Huaisheng_Mosque_Dec_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Huaisheng_Mosque_Dec_2007.jpg/220px-Huaisheng_Mosque_Dec_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Huaisheng_Mosque_Dec_2007.jpg/330px-Huaisheng_Mosque_Dec_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Huaisheng_Mosque_Dec_2007.jpg/440px-Huaisheng_Mosque_Dec_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1224" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Huaisheng_Mosque" title="Huaisheng Mosque">Huaisheng Mosque</a> of China, built by <a href="/wiki/Sa%27d_ibn_Abi_Waqqas" title="Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas">Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_China" title="History of Islam in China">History of Islam in China</a></div> In China, four Sahabas (Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas, Wahb Abu Kabcha, <a href="/wiki/Jafar_ibn_Abu_Talib" class="mw-redirect" title="Jafar ibn Abu Talib">Jafar ibn Abu Talib</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jahsh_ibn_Riyab" title="Jahsh ibn Riyab">Jahsh ibn Riyab</a>) preached in 616/17 and onwards after following the <a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a>–<a href="/wiki/Kamrup_region" title="Kamrup region">Kamrup</a>–<a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a> route after sailing from <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Abyssinia</a> in 615/16. After conquering Persia in 636, Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas went with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sa%27id_ibn_Zaid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sa'id ibn Zaid (page does not exist)">Sa'id ibn Zaid</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Qais_ibn_Sa%27d&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qais ibn Sa'd (page does not exist)">Qais ibn Sa'd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hassan_ibn_Thabit" title="Hassan ibn Thabit">Hassan ibn Thabit</a> to China in 637 taking the complete Quran. Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas headed for China for the third time in 650–51 after Caliph Uthman asked him to lead an embassy to China, which the Chinese emperor received.<a href="#cite_note-271">[268]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Modern_period">Early Modern period</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Early Modern period">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></div> In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires formed: the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_conquest_of_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman conquest of Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_conquest_of_the_Balkans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman conquest of the Balkans">Balkans</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Empire">Safavid Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>. These imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> and more efficient administration.<a href="#cite_note-Armstrong116-272">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Classical_Age_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire">Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">History of Turkey</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:I_Osman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/I_Osman.jpg/220px-I_Osman.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/I_Osman.jpg/330px-I_Osman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/I_Osman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="429" data-file-height="679" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a>, founder of the Ottoman Empire. <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Ottoman miniature</a>, 1579–1580, <a href="/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace" title="Topkapı Palace">Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>.</figcaption></figure> According to Ottoman historiography, the <a href="/wiki/Legitimation" title="Legitimation">legitimation</a> of a ruler is attributed to <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Edebali" title="Sheikh Edebali">Sheikh Edebali</a> who interpreted a dream of <a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman Gazi</a> as God's legitimation of his reign.<a href="#cite_note-273">[270]</a> Since <a href="/wiki/Murad_I" title="Murad I">Murad I</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_conquest_of_Adrianople" title="Ottoman conquest of Adrianople">conquest of Edirne</a> in 1362, the caliphate was claimed by the Turkish sultans of the empire.<a href="#cite_note-274">[271]</a> During the period of Ottoman growth, claims on caliphal authority were recognized in 1517 as <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a> became the "<a href="/wiki/Custodian_of_the_Two_Holy_Mosques" title="Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques">Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques</a>" in Mecca and Medina through the conquering and unification of Muslim lands, strengthening their claim to the caliphate in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-275">[272]</a> The Seljuq Turks declined in the second half of the 13th century, after the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Anatolia" title="Mongol conquest of Anatolia">Mongol invasion of Anatolia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-276">[273]</a> This resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish principalities, known as <a href="/wiki/Bey" title="Bey">beyliks</a>. <a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a>, the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottoman dynasty</a>, assumed leadership of one of these principalities (<a href="/wiki/S%C3%B6%C4%9F%C3%BCt" title="Söğüt">Söğüt</a>) at the end of the 13th century, succeeding his father <a href="/wiki/Ertu%C4%9Frul" title="Ertuğrul">Ertuğrul</a>. Osman I afterwards led it in a series of battles with the Byzantine Empire.<a href="#cite_note-277">[274]</a> By 1331, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</a> had captured <a href="/wiki/Nicaea" title="Nicaea">Nicaea</a>, the former Byzantine capital, under the leadership of Osman's son and successor, <a href="/wiki/Orhan_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Orhan I">Orhan I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-278">[275]</a> Victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo" title="Battle of Kosovo">Battle of Kosovo</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a> in 1389 then facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were established in the Balkans and Anatolia by the time <a href="/wiki/Bayezid_I" title="Bayezid I">Bayezid I</a> ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a growing empire.<a href="#cite_note-279">[276]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OttomanEmpireMain.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/OttomanEmpireMain.png/300px-OttomanEmpireMain.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/OttomanEmpireMain.png/450px-OttomanEmpireMain.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/OttomanEmpireMain.png/600px-OttomanEmpireMain.png 2x" data-file-width="3597" data-file-height="2581" /></a><figcaption>The Ottoman Empire and sphere of influence at its <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire">greatest extent</a> (1683)</figcaption></figure> Growth halted when Mongol warlord <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> (also known as "Tamerlane") captured Bayezid I in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ankara" title="Battle of Ankara">Battle of Ankara</a> in 1402, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum" title="Ottoman Interregnum">Ottoman Interregnum</a>. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to <a href="/wiki/Timurid_dynasty" title="Timurid dynasty">Timurid authority</a>. When a number of Ottoman territories regained independent status, ruin for the Empire loomed. However, the empire recovered as the youngest son of Bayezid I, <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_I" title="Mehmed I">Mehmed I</a>, waged offensive campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> and declaring himself sultan in 1413.<a href="#cite_note-AHGC-139">[137]</a> Around 1512 the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Ottoman naval fleet</a> developed under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a>,<a href="#cite_note-280">[277]</a> such that the Ottoman Turks were able to challenge the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Naval_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval power">naval power</a> which established its <a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">thalassocracy</a> alongside the other <a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian</a> <a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">maritime republics</a> upon the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Region">Mediterranean Region</a>.<a href="#cite_note-281">[278]</a> They also attempted to reconquer the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson, <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> (ruled 1444–1446; 1451–1481), the Ottomans could lay siege to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, the capital of Byzantium. A factor in this siege was the use of <a href="/wiki/Muskets" class="mw-redirect" title="Muskets">muskets</a> and large <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannons</a> introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">succumbed</a> in 1453, after 54 days of siege. Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated.<a href="#cite_note-AHGC-139">[137]</a> The future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend upon the exploitation of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Armstrong116-272">[269]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_the_S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque_from_the_Bosphorus_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/View_of_the_S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque_from_the_Bosphorus_%281%29.jpg/220px-View_of_the_S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque_from_the_Bosphorus_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/View_of_the_S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque_from_the_Bosphorus_%281%29.jpg/330px-View_of_the_S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque_from_the_Bosphorus_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/View_of_the_S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque_from_the_Bosphorus_%281%29.jpg/440px-View_of_the_S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque_from_the_Bosphorus_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque" title="Süleymaniye Mosque">Süleymaniye Mosque</a> (Süleymaniye Camii) in <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a> was built on the order of sultan <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_architecture" title="Ottoman architecture">Ottoman architect</a> <a href="/wiki/Mimar_Sinan" title="Mimar Sinan">Mimar Sinan</a> in 1557.</figcaption></figure> In the early 16th century, the Shiʿite <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid dynasty</a> assumed control in Persia under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">Shah</a> <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail I</a>, defeating the ruling <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkmen people">Turcoman</a> federation <a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a> (also called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman sultan <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a> sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaldiran" title="Battle of Chaldiran">Battle of Chaldiran</a> in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt, absorbing their territories in 1517. <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman I</a> (nicknamed "Suleiman the Magnificent"), Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus to the <a href="/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbeks</a> on the eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had fallen under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial, rivalling the Ottomans. Suleiman I advanced deep into Hungary following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs" title="Battle of Mohács">Battle of Mohács</a> in 1526 – <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna_(1529)" title="Siege of Vienna (1529)">reaching as far as the gates of Vienna</a> thereafter, and signed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">Francis I of France</a> against <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> 10 years later. While Suleiman I's rule (1520–1566) is often identified as the apex of Ottoman power, the empire continued to remain powerful and influential until a relative fall in its military strength in the second half of the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-282">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[280]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Safavid_Empire">Safavid Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Safavid Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Empire">Safavid Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Persianization" title="Persianization">Persianization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Safavid_Empire_1501_1722_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Safavid_Empire_1501_1722_AD.png/300px-Safavid_Empire_1501_1722_AD.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Safavid_Empire_1501_1722_AD.png/450px-Safavid_Empire_1501_1722_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Safavid_Empire_1501_1722_AD.png/600px-Safavid_Empire_1501_1722_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Empire">Safavid Empire</a> at its greatest extent under <a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">Shah</a> <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail I</a> (1501–1524)</figcaption></figure> The Shīʿīte <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid dynasty</a> rose to power in <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a> in 1501 and later conquered the rest of Iran.<a href="#cite_note-Matthee_2021-284">[281]</a> They were of mixed ancestry, originally <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish people">Kurdish</a>,<a href="#cite_note-R.M.-285">[282]</a> but during their rule intermarried with <a href="/wiki/Turkmens" title="Turkmens">Turcomans</a>,<a href="#cite_note-286">[283]</a> <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-287">[284]</a> <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYarshater2001493-288">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhanbaghi2006130-289">[286]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greeks" title="Pontic Greeks">Pontic Greeks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Anthony_Bryer_1975-290">[287]</a> The Safavid dynasty had its origin in the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_order" title="Safavid order">Safavid order</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Matthee_2021-284">[281]</a> while the Iranian population was largely composed by <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Muslims</a>.<a href="#cite_note-291">[288]</a> After their defeat at the hands of the Sunni Ottomans at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaldiran" title="Battle of Chaldiran">Battle of Chaldiran</a>, to unite the Persians behind him, <a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">Shah</a> <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail I</a> made conversion mandatory for the largely Sunni population of Iran to the <a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver sect of Shīʿa Islam</a> so that he could get them to fight against the Sunni Ottomans.<a href="#cite_note-292">[289]</a> This resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">Safavid conversion of Iran to Shīʿa Islam</a>. Iranian <a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydis</a>, the largest group amongst the Shīʿa Muslims before the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid rule</a>, were also forced to convert to the <a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver</a> denomination of Shīʿa Islam. The Zaydis at that time subscribed to the <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a> <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">jurisprudence</a>, as did most Sunnis, and there were good relations between them. <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Hanifah">Abu Hanifah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zayd_ibn_Ali" title="Zayd ibn Ali">Zayd ibn Ali</a> were also very good friends.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-180">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-Arab-Israeli_Conflict_Page_917-181">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Iraq_Effect_Page_91-182">[180]</a> The Safavid dynasty from <a href="/wiki/Azarbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Azarbaijan">Azarbaijan</a> ruled from 1501 to 1736; they <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_from_Sunnism_to_Shiism" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism">established Twelver Shīʿīsm as the official religion of Safavid Iran</a> and united its provinces under a single sovereignty, thereby reigniting the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Persian identity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-293">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-294">[291]</a> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg/220px-Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg/330px-Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg/440px-Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="419" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Suleiman_I_of_Persia" title="Suleiman I of Persia">Shah Suleiman I</a> and his courtiers, <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, 1670. Painter is <a href="/wiki/Aliquli_Jabbadar" title="Aliquli Jabbadar">Ali Qoli Jabbador</a>, and is kept at The <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a> Institute of Oriental Studies in Russia, ever since it was acquired by <a href="/wiki/Tsar_Nicholas_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsar Nicholas II">Tsar Nicholas II</a>. Note the two <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgian</a> figures with their names at the top left.</figcaption></figure> In 1524, <a href="/wiki/Tahmasp_I" title="Tahmasp I">Tahmasp I</a> acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts. <a href="/wiki/Persian_carpet" title="Persian carpet">Carpetmaking</a> became a major industry. The tradition of <a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">Persian miniature</a> painting in manuscripts reached its peak, until Tahmasp turned to strict religious observance in middle age, prohibiting the consumption of <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hashish" title="Hashish">hashish</a> and removing <a href="/wiki/Casino" title="Casino">casinos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tavern" title="Tavern">taverns</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brothel" title="Brothel">brothels</a>. Tahmasp's nephew <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Mirza" title="Ibrahim Mirza">Ibrahim Mirza</a> continued to patronize a last flowering of the arts until he was murdered, after which many artists were recruited by the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_dynasty" title="Mughal dynasty">Mughal dynasty</a>. Tahmasp's grandson, <a href="/wiki/Shah_Abbas_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Shah Abbas I">Shah Abbas I</a>, restored the shrine of the eighth Twelver Shīʿīte Imam, <a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Ridha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali al-Ridha">Ali al-Ridha</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mashhad" title="Mashhad">Mashhad</a>, and restored the dynastic shrine at <a href="/wiki/Ardabil" title="Ardabil">Ardabil</a>. Both shrines received jewelry, fine manuscripts, and Chinese porcelains. Abbas moved the capital to <a href="/wiki/Isfahan_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isfahan (city)">Isfahan</a>, revived old ports, and established thriving trade with Europeans. Amongst Abbas' most visible cultural achievements was the construction of <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Jahan_Square" title="Naqsh-e Jahan Square">Naqsh-e Jahan Square</a> ("Design of the World"). The plaza, located near a Friday mosque, covered 20 acres (81,000 m2).<a href="#cite_note-295">[292]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid dynasty</a> was toppled in 1722 by the <a href="/wiki/Hotaki_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Hotaki dynasty">Hotaki dynasty</a>, which ended their forceful conversion of Sunni areas to Twelver Shīʿīsm. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mughal_Empire">Mughal Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Mughal Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Mughal_Empire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/The_Mughal_Empire.jpg/220px-The_Mughal_Empire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/The_Mughal_Empire.jpg/330px-The_Mughal_Empire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/The_Mughal_Empire.jpg/440px-The_Mughal_Empire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2225" data-file-height="2185" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mughal_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal India">Mughal India</a> at its greatest extent, at the sharia apogee of <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir</a>.</figcaption></figure> Mughal Empire was a power that comprised almost all of <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, founded in 1526. It was established and ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_dynasty" title="Timurid dynasty">Timurid dynasty</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Turco-Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Turco-Mongol">Turco-Mongol</a> <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai</a> roots from <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, claiming direct descent from both <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> (through his son <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chagatai Khan</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Richards1995-296">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schimmel2004-297">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-Balabanlilar2012-298">[295]</a> and with significant Indian <a href="/wiki/Rajput" title="Rajput">Rajput</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> ancestry through marriage alliances;<a href="#cite_note-299">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-300">[297]</a> the first two <a href="/wiki/Mughal_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal emperors">Mughal emperors</a> had both parents of Central Asian ancestry, while successive emperors were of predominantly Rajput and Persian ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-301">[298]</a> The dynasty was <a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> in culture,<a href="#cite_note-r1-302">[299]</a> combining <a href="/wiki/Persianate_society" title="Persianate society">Persianate</a> culture<a href="#cite_note-persianatemogul-303">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[301]</a> with local <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">Indian cultural</a> influences<a href="#cite_note-r1-302">[299]</a> visible in its court culture and administrative customs.<a href="#cite_note-r4-305">[302]</a> The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder <a href="/wiki/Babur" title="Babur">Babur</a> over <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Lodi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibrahim Lodi">Ibrahim Lodi</a>, the last ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Panipat" title="First Battle of Panipat">First Battle of Panipat</a> (1526). During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Humayun" title="Humayun">Humayun</a>, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Sur_Empire" title="Sur Empire">Sur Empire</a> established by <a href="/wiki/Sher_Shah_Suri" title="Sher Shah Suri">Sher Shah Suri</a>, who re-established the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Trunk_Road" title="Grand Trunk Road">Grand Trunk Road</a> across the northern Indian subcontinent, initiated the <a href="/wiki/Rupee" title="Rupee">rupee</a> currency system and developed much of the foundations of the effective administration of Mughal rule. The "classic period" of the Mughal Empire began in 1556, with the ascension of <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a> to the throne. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, but most of them were subdued by Akbar. All Mughal emperors were <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a>; Akbar, however, propounded a syncretic religion in the latter part of his life called <a href="/wiki/Din-i-Ilahi" class="mw-redirect" title="Din-i-Ilahi">Dīn-i Ilāhī</a>, as recorded in historical books like <a href="/wiki/Ain-i-Akbari" title="Ain-i-Akbari">Ain-i-Akbari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dabist%C4%81n-i_Maz%C4%81hib" class="mw-redirect" title="Dabistān-i Mazāhib">Dabistān-i Mazāhib</a>.<a href="#cite_note-306">[303]</a> The Mughal Empire did not try to intervene in native societies during most of its existence, rather co-opting and pacifying them through concilliatory administrative practices<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008115-307">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobb200190–91-308">[305]</a> and a syncretic, inclusive ruling elite,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200617-309">[306]</a> leading to more systematic, centralized and uniform rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008152-310">[307]</a> Traditional and newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Confederacy" title="Maratha Confederacy">Marathas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rajputs" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajputs">Rajputs</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Pashtuns</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Jats" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu Jats">Hindu Jats</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Sikhs</a>, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.<a href="#cite_note-AsherTalbot2006-311">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-313">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200623–24-314">[311]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taj_Mahal_(Edited).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Taj_Mahal_%28Edited%29.jpeg/220px-Taj_Mahal_%28Edited%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Taj_Mahal_%28Edited%29.jpeg/330px-Taj_Mahal_%28Edited%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Taj_Mahal_%28Edited%29.jpeg/440px-Taj_Mahal_%28Edited%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2525" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Taj_Mahal" title="Taj Mahal">Taj Mahal</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum" title="Mausoleum">mausoleum</a> built by <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal Emperor">Mughal Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Shah_Jahan" title="Shah Jahan">Shah Jahan</a> to house the tomb of his favourite wife, <a href="/wiki/Mumtaz_Mahal" title="Mumtaz Mahal">Mumtaz Mahal</a>.</figcaption></figure> The reign of <a href="/wiki/Shah_Jahan" title="Shah Jahan">Shah Jahan</a> (1628–1658) represented the height of <a href="/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">Mughal architecture</a>, with famous monuments such as the <a href="/wiki/Taj_Mahal" title="Taj Mahal">Taj Mahal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moti_Masjid_(Agra_Fort)" title="Moti Masjid (Agra Fort)">Moti Masjid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Fort" title="Red Fort">Red Fort</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jama_Masjid,_Delhi" title="Jama Masjid, Delhi">Jama Masjid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lahore_Fort" title="Lahore Fort">Lahore Fort</a> being constructed during his reign. The <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a> reign of <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Muhammad Auranzgeb</a> witnessed the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Fatawa-e-Alamgiri" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatawa-e-Alamgiri">Fatawa-e-Alamgiri</a>.<a href="#cite_note-315">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[313]</a> Muslim <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> became the world's largest economy, valued 25% of world <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a>.<a href="#cite_note-317">[314]</a> Its richest province, <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">Bengal Subah</a>, which was a world leading economy and had better conditions than 18th century <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, showed signs of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, through the emergence of the period of <a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">proto-industrialization</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Numerous conflicts such as the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Mughal_War_(1686%E2%80%931690)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Mughal War (1686–1690)">Anglo-Mughal War</a> were also witnessed.<a href="#cite_note-318">[315]</a><a href="#cite_note-319">[316]</a> After the death of <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a>, which marks the end of Medieval India and beginning of the European colonialism in India, internal dissatisfaction arose due to the weakness of the empire's administrative and economic systems, leading to its break-up and declarations of independence of its former provinces by the <a href="/wiki/Nawab_of_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nawab of Bengal">Nawab of Bengal</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nawab_of_Awadh" title="Nawab of Awadh">Nawab of Awadh</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nizam_of_Hyderabad" title="Nizam of Hyderabad">Nizam of Hyderabad</a>, the major economic and military power known as <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Kingdom of Mysore</a> ruled by <a href="/wiki/Tipu_Sultan" title="Tipu Sultan">Tipu Sultan</a> and other small states. In 1739, the Mughals were crushingly defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Karnal" title="Battle of Karnal">Battle of Karnal</a> by the forces of <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a>, the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_dynasty" title="Afsharid dynasty">Afsharid dynasty</a> in Persia, and Delhi was <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Delhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sack of Delhi">sacked and looted</a>, drastically accelerating their decline. In 1757, the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> overtook <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">Bengal Subah</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a>. By the mid-18th century, the <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Confederacy" title="Maratha Confederacy">Marathas</a> had routed Mughal armies and won over several Mughal provinces from the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab region">Punjab</a> to <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-320">[317]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tipu_Sultan" title="Tipu Sultan">Tipu Sultan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Kingdom of Mysore</a> based in <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a>, which witnessed partial establishment of <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a> based economic and military policies i.e. <a href="/wiki/Fathul_Mujahidin" title="Fathul Mujahidin">Fathul Mujahidin</a>, replaced Bengal ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Nawabs_of_Bengal" title="Nawabs of Bengal">Nawabs of Bengal</a> as <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>'s foremost economic territory.<a href="#cite_note-mehta-321">[318]</a><a href="#cite_note-pande-322">[319]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Mysore_Wars" title="Anglo-Mysore Wars">Anglo-Mysore Wars</a> were fought between <a href="/wiki/Hyder_Ali" title="Hyder Ali">Hyder Ali</a>, his son <a href="/wiki/Tipu_Sultan" title="Tipu Sultan">Tipu</a> and their <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">French</a> allies, including <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> Bonaparte, and the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rocket_artillery" title="Rocket artillery">Rocket artillery</a> and the world's first iron-cased rockets, the <a href="/wiki/Mysorean_rockets" title="Mysorean rockets">Mysorean rockets</a>, were used during the war and the <a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">Jihad</a> based <a href="/wiki/Fathul_Mujahidin" title="Fathul Mujahidin">Fathul Mujahidin</a> was compiled. During the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, <a href="/wiki/Bahadur_Shah_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahadur Shah II">Bahadur Shah II</a>, had authority over only the city of <a href="/wiki/Shahjahanabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahjahanabad">Shahjahanabad</a>. Bahadur issued a <a href="/wiki/Firman" title="Firman">firman</a> supporting the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a>. Consequent to the rebellion's defeat he was tried by the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">authorities</a> for treason, imprisoned, and exiled to <a href="/wiki/Rangoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Rangoon">Rangoon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-323">[320]</a> The last remnants of the empire were formally taken over by the British, and the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">British parliament</a> passed the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1858" title="Government of India Act 1858">Government of India Act</a> to enable <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">the Crown</a> formally to <a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">nationalize</a> the East India Company and assume direct control of India in the form of the new <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_period">Modern period</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Modern period">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "Why do the Christian nations, which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies?"..."Because they have laws and rules invented by reason." </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Muteferrika" title="Ibrahim Muteferrika">Ibrahim Muteferrika</a>, Rational basis for the Politics of Nations (1731)</cite></div> </div> The modern age brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while the Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. The European <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a> globalized economically and colonized much of the region.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Empire_partition">Ottoman Empire partition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire partition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">Partition of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S29571,_T%C3%BCrkei,_Dardanellen,_MG-Stellung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S29571%2C_T%C3%BCrkei%2C_Dardanellen%2C_MG-Stellung.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S29571%2C_T%C3%BCrkei%2C_Dardanellen%2C_MG-Stellung.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S29571%2C_T%C3%BCrkei%2C_Dardanellen%2C_MG-Stellung.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S29571%2C_T%C3%BCrkei%2C_Dardanellen%2C_MG-Stellung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S29571%2C_T%C3%BCrkei%2C_Dardanellen%2C_MG-Stellung.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S29571%2C_T%C3%BCrkei%2C_Dardanellen%2C_MG-Stellung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>Ottoman army in World War I</figcaption></figure> By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had declined. The decision to back <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> meant they shared the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a>' defeat in that war. The defeat led to the overthrow of the Ottomans by Turkish nationalists led by the victorious general of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Gallipoli">Battle of Gallipoli</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Mustafa Kemal</a>, who became known to his people as Atatürk, "Father of the Turks." Atatürk was credited with renegotiating the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">treaty of Sèvres</a> (1920) which ended Turkey's involvement in the war and establishing the modern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Republic of Turkey</a>, which was recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne_(1923)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Lausanne (1923)">Treaty of Lausanne (1923)</a>. Atatürk went on to implement an ambitious program of modernization that emphasized economic development and <a href="/wiki/Secular" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular">secularization</a>. He transformed Turkish culture to reflect European laws, adopted <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>, separated the religious establishment from the state, and emancipated woman—even giving them the right to vote in parallel with <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">women's suffrage</a> in the west.<a href="#cite_note-324">[321]</a> During the First World War, the Allies cooperated with Arab partisans against the Ottoman Empire, both groups being united in opposition to a common enemy. The most prominent example of this was during the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a>, when the British, led by secret intelligence agent <a href="/wiki/T._E._Lawrence" title="T. E. Lawrence">T. E. Lawrence</a>—better known as "Lawrence of Arabia" cooperated with Arab <a href="/wiki/Guerilla_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerilla warfare">guerillas</a> against the Ottoman forces, eventually securing the withdrawal of all Ottoman troops from the region by 1918. Following the end of the war, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory outside of Asia Minor was handed over to the victorious European powers as <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorates</a>. However, many Arabs were left dismayed by the <a href="/wiki/Balfour_Declaration" title="Balfour Declaration">Balfour Declaration</a>, which directly contradicted the <a href="/wiki/McMahon%E2%80%93Hussein_Correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="McMahon–Hussein Correspondence">McMahon–Hussein Correspondence</a> publicized only a year earlier.<a href="#cite_note-325">[322]</a> Ottoman successor states include today's <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, Egypt, Greece, Iraq, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, Lebanon, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, Turkey, Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-326">[323]</a> Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> began to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and Turkey organized their governments and sought to develop national pride among their citizens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity and an inability to resolve age-old prejudices between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims. Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as Saudi Arabia, the government brought out religious expression in the re-emergence of the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as <a href="/wiki/Wahabism" class="mw-redirect" title="Wahabism">Wahabism</a>, which found its way into the <a href="/wiki/Saudi_royal_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Saudi royal family">Saudi royal family</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab–Israeli_conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Arab–Israeli conflict">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></div> The Arab–Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the modern <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">State of Israel</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a> <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>, the consequent <a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_exodus" class="mw-redirect" title="1948 Palestinian exodus">displacement</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Palestinians" title="Palestinians">Palestinian people</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_Arab_and_Muslim_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries">Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries</a>, as well as the adverse relationship between the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> and the State of Israel (see: <a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israeli–Palestinian conflict</a>). Despite at first involving only the Arab states bordering Israel, animosity has also developed between Israel and other predominantly <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim-majority countries</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Israeli Declaration of Independence">State of Israel came into existence on 14 May 1948</a> as a polity to serve as the <a href="/wiki/Homeland_for_the_Jewish_people" title="Homeland for the Jewish people">homeland for the Jewish people</a>. It was also defined in its declaration of independence as a "<a href="/wiki/Jewish_state" title="Jewish state">Jewish state</a>", a term that also appeared in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine" title="United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine">United Nations Partition Plan for British Palestine</a> in 1947. The related term of "<a href="/wiki/Jewish_and_democratic_state" title="Jewish and democratic state">Jewish and democratic state</a>" dates from a 1992 legislation by Israel's <a href="/wiki/Knesset" title="Knesset">Knesset</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a> of 5–10 June 1967, was fought between <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and the neighbouring states of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. The Arab countries closed the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> and it was followed in May 1970 by the closure of the "tapline" from <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> through Syria to <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>. These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, which is a short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe. In 1970, <a href="/wiki/Occidental_Petroleum" title="Occidental Petroleum">Occidental Petroleum</a> broke with other oil companies and accepted the Arab demands for price increases. In October 1973, a new war between Israel and its Muslim neighbours, known as the <a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a>, broke out just as the oil companies began meeting with the <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Arab_Petroleum_Exporting_Countries" title="Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries">Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries</a> (OAPEC). Its leaders had been emboldened by the success of <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Sadat" title="Anwar Sadat">Sadat's campaigns</a> and the war strengthened their unity. In response to the emergency resupply effort by the <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a> that enabled Israel to put up a resistance against the Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_embargo" class="mw-redirect" title="1973 oil embargo">1973 oil embargo</a> against the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the "front-line states", those that bordered Israel, in their struggle. The centrality of petroleum, the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a>, political and economic instability, and uncertainty about the future remain constant features of the politics of the region. Many countries, individuals, and <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-governmental organizations">non-governmental organizations</a> elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict for reasons such as cultural and religious ties with Islam, <a href="/wiki/Arab_culture" title="Arab culture">Arab culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a>, or for ideological, <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, or strategic reasons. Although some consider the Arab–Israeli conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a wider <a href="/wiki/Clash_of_civilizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Clash of civilizations">clash of civilizations</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>,<a href="#cite_note-327">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-328">[325]</a> others oppose this view.<a href="#cite_note-329">[326]</a> Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived supporters) of each side by supporters of the other side in many countries around the world. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_Islamic_affairs">Other Islamic affairs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Other Islamic affairs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:344px;max-width:344px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="background-color:#f8eaba">Modern Islamic world</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Islam_by_country.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Islam_by_country.png/340px-Islam_by_country.png" decoding="async" width="340" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Islam_by_country.png/510px-Islam_by_country.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Islam_by_country.png/680px-Islam_by_country.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="922" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Islam in the modern world <hr /> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> Islam</li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> Islam</li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  <a href="/wiki/Ibadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibadi">Ibadi</a> Islam</li></ul></div></div></div></div></div></div></div> In 1979 the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a> transformed <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> from a constitutional monarchy to a <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populist</a> <a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">theocratic</a> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic republic</a> under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Ayatollah" title="Ayatollah">Ayatollah</a> <a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a>, a Shi'i Muslim cleric and <a href="/wiki/Marja%27" title="Marja'">marja</a>. Following the Revolution, a new constitution was approved and a referendum established the government, electing Ruhollah Khomeini as <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Leader_of_Iran" title="Supreme Leader of Iran">Supreme Leader</a>. During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought each other, and the Islamics captured power. The development of the two opposite fringes, the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam</a>, the Twelver Shia version, and its reinforcement by the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Salafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Salafi">Salafi</a> in Saudi Arabia, coupled with the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_relations" title="Iran–Saudi Arabia relations">Iran–Saudi Arabia relations</a> resulted in these governments using sectarian conflict to enhance their political interests.<a href="#cite_note-330">[327]</a><a href="#cite_note-331">[328]</a> Gulf states such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait (despite being hostile to Iraq) encouraged <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> to invade Iran,<a href="#cite_note-332">[329]</a> which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a>, as they feared that an Islamic revolution would take place within their own borders. Certain Iranian exiles also helped convince Saddam that if he invaded, the fledgling Islamic republic would quickly collapse. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Islam" title="Education in Islam">Education in Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT in Islam">History of homosexuality in the Muslim world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">History of slavery in the Muslim world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_slave_trade" title="Arab slave trade">Arab slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houri" title="Houri">Houri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islamic views on slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery in the Ottoman Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_democracy" title="Islam and democracy">Islam and democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_modernity" title="Islam and modernity">Islam and modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_secularism" title="Islam and secularism">Islam and secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_violence" title="Islam and violence">Islam and violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_war" title="Islam and war">Islam and war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Islam by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Islamic attitudes towards science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Islamic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Islamic schools and branches</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">Schools of Islamic jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Schools of Islamic theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_military_leaders" title="List of Muslim military leaders">List of Muslim military leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_states_and_dynasties" title="List of Muslim states and dynasties">List of Muslim states and dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Political aspects of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy#Islamic_Political_Evolution" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy of the Islamic Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_quietism_in_Islam" title="Political quietism in Islam">Political quietism in Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Pre-Islamic Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence_among_Muslims" title="Sectarian violence among Muslims">Sectarian violence among Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Transformation of the Ottoman Empire">Transformation of the Ottoman Empire</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> "Key themes in these early recitations include the idea of the moral responsibility of man who was created by God and the idea of the judgment to take place on the day of resurrection. [...] Another major theme of Muhammad's early preaching, [... is that] there is a power greater than man's, and that the wise will acknowledge this power and cease their greed and suppression of the poor."<a href="#cite_note-Buhl1993-11">[11]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> "At first Muhammad met with no serious opposition [...] He was only gradually led to attack on principle the gods of Mecca. [...] Meccan merchants then discovered that a religious revolution might be dangerous to their fairs and their trade."<a href="#cite_note-Buhl1993-11">[11]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> The name Mansuriyya means "the victorious", after its founder Ismāʿīl Abu Tahir Ismail Billah, called al-Mansur, "the victor."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy2000234-188">[186]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Atlantic_1999-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Atlantic_1999_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLester1999" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Toby_Lester" title="Toby Lester">Lester, Toby</a> (1 January 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/01/what-is-the-koran/304024/">"What Is the Koran?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a>. Washington, D.C. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2151-9463">2151-9463</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/936540106">936540106</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120825233826/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/01/what-is-the-koran/304024/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 16 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=What+Is+the+Koran%3F&rft.date=1999-01-01&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F936540106&rft.issn=2151-9463&rft.aulast=Lester&rft.aufirst=Toby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F1999%2F01%2Fwhat-is-the-koran%2F304024%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> "Chapter 1. "A Prophet Has Appeared, Coming with the Saracens": Muhammad’s Leadership during the Conquest of Palestine According to Seventh- and Eighth-Century Sources". The Death of a Prophet: The End of Muhammad's Life and the Beginnings of Islam, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012, pp. 18-72. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812205138.18">https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812205138.18</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Volker Popp, Die frühe Islamgeschichte nach inschriftlichen und numismatischen Zeugnissen, in: Karl-Heinz Ohlig (ed.), Die dunklen Anfänge. Neue Forschungen zur Entstehung und frühen Geschichte des Islam, Berlin 2005, pp. 16–123 (here p. 63 ff.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Watt2003-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Watt2003_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatt2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._Montgomery_Watt" title="W. Montgomery Watt">Watt, W. Montgomery</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC">Islam and the Integration of Society</a>. Psychology Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5">5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17587-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17587-6"><bdi>978-0-415-17587-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+the+Integration+of+Society&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-415-17587-6&rft.aulast=Watt&rft.aufirst=W.+Montgomery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAQUZ6BGyohQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Van-Ess_2017-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Van-Ess_2017_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van-Ess_2017_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van-Ess_2017_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van-Ess_2017_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van-Ess_2017_5-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van-Ess_2017_5-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van-Ess_2017_5-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van-Ess_2017_5-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Ess2017" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">van Ess, Josef (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=viRoDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">"Setting the Seal on Prophecy"</a>. Theology and Society in the Second and Third Centuries of the Hijra, Volume 1: A History of Religious Thought in Early Islam. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1: The Near and Middle East. Vol. 116/1. Translated by O'Kane, John. Leiden: Brill. pp. 3–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004323384_002">10.1163/9789004323384_002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-32338-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-32338-4"><bdi>978-90-04-32338-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0169-9423">0169-9423</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Setting+the+Seal+on+Prophecy&rft.btitle=Theology+and+Society+in+the+Second+and+Third+Centuries+of+the+Hijra%2C+Volume+1%3A+A+History+of+Religious+Thought+in+Early+Islam&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Handbook+of+Oriental+Studies.+Section+1%3A+The+Near+and+Middle+East&rft.pages=3-7&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=0169-9423&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004323384_002&rft.isbn=978-90-04-32338-4&rft.aulast=van+Ess&rft.aufirst=Josef&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DviRoDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zimney_2009-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zimney_2009_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zimney_2009_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zimney_2009_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zimney_2009_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zimney_2009_6-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zimney_2009_6-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimney2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Zimney, Michelle (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PAxxi">"Introduction – What Is Islam?"</a>. In Campo, Juan E. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Islam. Encyclopedia of World Religions. New York: Facts on File. pp. xxi–xxxii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5454-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5454-1"><bdi>978-0-8160-5454-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+%E2%80%93+What+Is+Islam%3F&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Islam&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Encyclopedia+of+World+Religions&rft.pages=xxi-xxxii&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1&rft.aulast=Zimney&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOZbyz_Hr-eIC%26pg%3DPAxxi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Esposito2016-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Esposito2016_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Esposito" title="John Esposito">Esposito, John L.</a> (2016) [1988]. Islam: The Straight Path (5th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 9–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-063215-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-063215-1"><bdi>978-0-19-063215-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153364691">153364691</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+The+Straight+Path&rft.pages=9-12&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153364691%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=978-0-19-063215-1&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Donner2000-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Donner2000_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Donner2000_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Donner2000_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Donner2000_8-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonner2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Donner" title="Fred Donner">Donner, Fred M.</a> (2000) [1999]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=imw_KFD5bsQC&pg=PA5">"Muhammad and the Caliphate: Political History of the Islamic Empire Up to the Mongol Conquest"</a>. In Esposito, John L. (ed.). The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. pp. 5–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-510799-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-510799-3"><bdi>0-19-510799-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Muhammad+and+the+Caliphate%3A+Political+History+of+the+Islamic+Empire+Up+to+the+Mongol+Conquest&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Islam&rft.pages=5-10&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-19-510799-3&rft.aulast=Donner&rft.aufirst=Fred+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dimw_KFD5bsQC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peters2003-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Peters2003_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters2003" class="citation book cs1">Peters, F. E. 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Princeton University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/9">9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11553-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11553-5"><bdi>978-0-691-11553-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+A+Guide+for+Jews+and+Christians&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-691-11553-5&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamguideforjew00fepe%2Fpage%2F9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis1995a-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1995a_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1995a_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1995a_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1995a_10-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1995a_10-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1995a_10-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1995a_10-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1995a_10-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1995a_10-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, Bernard</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CjAABdA9z18C&pg=PA51">"Part III: The Dawn and Noon of Islam – Origins"</a>. 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The Concept of Belief in Islamic Theology: A Semantic Analysis of Imān and Islām. Tokyo: Institute of Cultural and Linguistic Studies at <a href="/wiki/Keio_University" title="Keio University">Keio University</a>. pp. 1–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/983-9154-70-2" title="Special:BookSources/983-9154-70-2"><bdi>983-9154-70-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Infidel+%28K%C4%81fir%29%3A+The+Kh%C4%81rijites+and+the+origin+of+the+problem&rft.btitle=The+Concept+of+Belief+in+Islamic+Theology%3A+A+Semantic+Analysis+of+Im%C4%81n+and+Isl%C4%81m&rft.place=Tokyo&rft.pages=1-20&rft.pub=Institute+of+Cultural+and+Linguistic+Studies+at+Keio+University&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=983-9154-70-2&rft.aulast=Izutsu&rft.aufirst=Toshihiko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPDxHG5MtLawC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis1995b-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1995b_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1995b_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1995b_22-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1995" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Bernard (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CjAABdA9z18C&pg=PA139">"Cross-Sections – The State"</a>. The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years. New York: Scribner. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83280-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83280-7"><bdi>978-0-684-83280-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cross-Sections+%E2%80%93+The+State&rft.btitle=The+Middle+East%3A+A+Brief+History+of+the+Last+2%2C000+Years&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-684-83280-7&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCjAABdA9z18C%26pg%3DPA139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Nanda, J. 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Scarecrow. p. 201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6402-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6402-3"><bdi>978-0-8108-6402-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Mali&rft.pages=201&rft.pub=Scarecrow&rft.date=2008-04-25&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-6402-3&rft.aulast=Imperato&rft.aufirst=Pascal+James&rft.au=Imperato%2C+Gavin+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzf6xAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Julie Taylor, Muslims in Medieval Italy: The Colony at Lucera, (Rowman & Littlefield, 2003), 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSampler_&_Eigner2008" class="citation book cs1">Sampler & Eigner (2008). Sand to Silicon: Going Global. United Arab Emirates: Motivate. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86063-254-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86063-254-9"><bdi>978-1-86063-254-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sand+to+Silicon%3A+Going+Global&rft.place=United+Arab+Emirates&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Motivate&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-86063-254-9&rft.au=Sampler+%26+Eigner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?view=production">"International – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)"</a>. eia.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=eia.gov&rft.atitle=International+%E2%80%93+U.S.+Energy+Information+Administration+%28EIA%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eia.gov%2Fcountries%2Findex.cfm%3Fview%3Dproduction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010628-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010628_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2010">Donner 2010</a>, p. 628. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20106-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson20106_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinson2010">Robinson 2010</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20102-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson20102_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinson2010">Robinson 2010</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes201356-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHughes201356_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHughes2013">Hughes 2013</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010633-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010633_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010633_32-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2010">Donner 2010</a>, p. 633. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> See also <a href="#CITEREFHughes2013">Hughes 2013</a>, pp. 6–7, who links the practice of source and tradition (or <a href="/wiki/Form_criticism" title="Form criticism">form</a>) criticism as one approach. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010629,_633-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010629,_633_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2010">Donner 2010</a>, pp. 629, 633. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010630-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010630_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2010">Donner 2010</a>, p. 630. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010631-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010631_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2010">Donner 2010</a>, p. 631. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010632-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010632_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2010">Donner 2010</a>, p. 632. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20109-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson20109_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson20109_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson20109_38-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinson2010">Robinson 2010</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20104–5-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson20104–5_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinson2010">Robinson 2010</a>, pp. 4–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FMDQiRS2008:30-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FMDQiRS2008:30_40-0">^</a> <a href="#FMDQiRS2008">Donner, "Quran in Recent Scholarship", 2008</a>: p.30 </li> <li id="cite_note-THItSotS2012:45-41"><a href="#cite_ref-THItSotS2012:45_41-0">^</a> <a href="#THItSotS2012">Holland, In the Shadow of the Sword, 2012</a>: p.45 </li> <li id="cite_note-FMDQiRS2008:29-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FMDQiRS2008:29_42-0">^</a> <a href="#FMDQiRS2008">Donner, "Quran in Recent Scholarship", 2008</a>: p.29 </li> <li id="cite_note-YDNJKMQtIS2000:420-43"><a href="#cite_ref-YDNJKMQtIS2000:420_43-0">^</a> <a href="#YDNJKMQtIS2000">Nevo & Koren, "Methodological Approaches to Islamic Studies", 2000</a>: p.420 </li> <li id="cite_note-YDNJKMQtIS2000:422-6-44"><a href="#cite_ref-YDNJKMQtIS2000:422-6_44-0">^</a> <a href="#YDNJKMQtIS2000">Nevo & Koren, "Methodological Approaches to Islamic Studies", 2000</a>: p.422-6 </li> <li id="cite_note-GSRQSaIC2008:8-45"><a href="#cite_ref-GSRQSaIC2008:8_45-0">^</a> <a href="#GSRQSaIC2008">Reynolds, "Quranic studies and its controversies", 2008</a>: p.8 </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> G. R. Hawting: The Idea of Idolatry and the Rise of Islam: From Polemic to History (1999); Fred Donner: Muhammad and the Believers. At the Origins of Islam (2010) p. 59 </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Fred Donner: Muhammad and the Believers. At the Origins of Islam (2010) pp. 68 ff.; cf. also Hans Jansen: Mohammed (2005/7) pp. 311-317 (German edition 2008) </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Patricia Crone / Michael Cook: Hagarism (1977) pp. 22-24; Patricia Crone: Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam (1987); and the private researcher Dan Gibson: Quranic Geography (2011) </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Robert G. Hoyland: In God's Path. The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire (2015) </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Donner, Muhammad and the Believers. At the Origins of Islam (Harvard University Press; 2010) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05097-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05097-6">978-0-674-05097-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the drahms of the Sasanian-style, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic inscriptions like besmellāh in the margins.<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-">https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Patricia Crone / Michael Cook: Hagarism (1977) p. 29; Yehuda D. Nevo: Crossroads to Islam: The Origins of the Arab Religion and the Arab State (2003) pp. 410-413; Karl-Heinz Ohlig (Hrsg.): Der frühe Islam. Eine historisch-kritische Rekonstruktion anhand zeitgenössischer Quellen (2007) pp. 336 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Patricia Crone: Slaves on Horses. The Evolution of the Islamic Polity (1980) pp. 7, 12, 15; auch Hans Jansen: Mohammed (2005/7) </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristian_Julien_Robin2012" class="citation book cs1">Christian Julien Robin (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA297">Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity</a>. OUP USA. pp. 297–99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533693-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533693-1"><bdi>978-0-19-533693-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabia+and+Ethiopia.+In+The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.pages=297-99&rft.pub=OUP+USA&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533693-1&rft.au=Christian+Julien+Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGKRybwb17WMC%26pg%3DPA297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robin302-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robin302_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robin302_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robin302_55-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robin302_55-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristian_Julien_Robin2012" class="citation book cs1">Christian Julien Robin (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA302">Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity</a>. OUP USA. p. 302. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533693-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533693-1"><bdi>978-0-19-533693-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabia+and+Ethiopia.+In+The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.pages=302&rft.pub=OUP+USA&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533693-1&rft.au=Christian+Julien+Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGKRybwb17WMC%26pg%3DPA302&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rubin_2006-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rubin_2006_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rubin_2006_56-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rubin_2006_56-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Uri_Rubin" title="Uri Rubin">Rubin, Uri</a> (2006). "Ḥanīf". In <a href="/wiki/Jane_Dammen_McAuliffe" title="Jane Dammen McAuliffe">McAuliffe, Jane Dammen</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n" title="Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān">Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān</a>. Vol. II. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00080">10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00080</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-14743-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-14743-0"><bdi>978-90-04-14743-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%B8%A4an%C4%ABf&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00080&rft.isbn=978-90-04-14743-0&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Uri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson2010-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogerson2010_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogerson2010_57-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogerson2010_57-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogerson2010">Rogerson 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Peters-1994-68-58"><a href="#cite_ref-Peters-1994-68_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters1994" class="citation book cs1">Peters, F. E. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0OrCo4VyvGkC&pg=PA68">Muhammad and the Origins of Islam</a>. SUNY series in Near Eastern Studies. <a href="/wiki/Albany,_New_York" title="Albany, New York">Albany, New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>. pp. 68–75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791418758" title="Special:BookSources/9780791418758"><bdi>9780791418758</bdi></a>. Retrieved 4 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muhammad+and+the+Origins+of+Islam&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.series=SUNY+series+in+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.pages=68-75&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9780791418758&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0OrCo4VyvGkC%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> "The very first question a biographer has to ask, namely when the person was born, cannot be answered precisely for Muhammad. [...] Muhammad's biographers usually make him 40 or sometimes 43 years old at the time of his call to be a prophet, which [...] would put the year of his birth at about 570 A.D." F. Buhl & A.T. Welch, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed., "Muhammad", vol. 7, p. 361. </li> <li id="cite_note-Robin287-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Robin287_60-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristian_Julien_Robin2012" class="citation book cs1">Christian Julien Robin (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA287">Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 287. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533693-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533693-1"><bdi>978-0-19-533693-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabia+and+Ethiopia.+In+The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=287&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533693-1&rft.au=Christian+Julien+Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGKRybwb17WMC%26pg%3DPA287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robin301-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robin301_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robin301_61-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristian_Julien_Robin2012" class="citation book cs1">Christian Julien Robin (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA301">Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 301. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533693-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533693-1"><bdi>978-0-19-533693-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabia+and+Ethiopia.+In+The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=301&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533693-1&rft.au=Christian+Julien+Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGKRybwb17WMC%26pg%3DPA301&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zeitlin49-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Zeitlin49_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrving_M._Zeitlin2007" class="citation book cs1">Irving M. Zeitlin (19 March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sbhJJ7AOLL4C&pg=PA30">The Historical Muhammad</a>. Polity. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3999-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3999-4"><bdi>978-0-7456-3999-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Muhammad&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Polity&rft.date=2007-03-19&rft.isbn=978-0-7456-3999-4&rft.au=Irving+M.+Zeitlin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsbhJJ7AOLL4C%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHazleton2013"a_sense_of_kinship"-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHazleton2013"a_sense_of_kinship"_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHazleton2013">Hazleton 2013</a>, p. "a sense of kinship". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBleeker196832-34-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBleeker196832-34_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBleeker1968">Bleeker 1968</a>, p. 32-34. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Sally Mallam, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://humanjourney.us/ideas-that-shaped-our-modern-world-section/mohammad-and-the-beginnings-of-islam-community-of-believers/">The Community of Believers</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Muhammad_p._363-66"><a href="#cite_ref-Muhammad_p._363_66-0">^</a> "Key themes in these early recitations include the idea of the moral responsibility of man who was created by God and the idea of the judgment to take place on the day of resurrection. [...] Another major theme of Muhammad's early preaching, [... is that] there is a power greater than man's, and that the wise will acknowledge this power and cease their greed and suppression of the poor." F. Buhl & A.T. Welch, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed., "Muhammad", vol. 7, p. 363. </li> <li id="cite_note-Mecca._p._364-67"><a href="#cite_ref-Mecca._p._364_67-0">^</a> "At first Muhammad met with no serious opposition [...] He was only gradually led to attack on principle the gods of Mecca. [...] Meccan merchants then discovered that a religious revolution might be dangerous to their fairs and their trade." F. Buhl & A.T. Welch, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed., "Muhammad", vol. 7, p. 364. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2010187-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2010187_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinson2010">Robinson 2010</a>, p. 187. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hourani15-19-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hourani15-19_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hourani15-19_69-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hourani15-19_69-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hourani15-19_69-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hourani15-19_69-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbert_Hourani2002" class="citation book cs1">Albert Hourani (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=egbOb0mewz4C&pg=PA15">A History of the Arab Peoples</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. pp. 15–19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01017-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01017-8"><bdi>978-0-674-01017-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Arab+Peoples&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=15-19&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01017-8&rft.au=Albert+Hourani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DegbOb0mewz4C%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._Montgomery_Watt1956" class="citation book cs1">W. Montgomery Watt (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/muhammadatmedina029655mbp">Muhammad at Medina</a>. Oxford at the Clarendon Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/muhammadatmedina029655mbp/page/n22">1</a>–17, 192–221.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muhammad+at+Medina&rft.pages=1-17%2C+192-221&rft.pub=Oxford+at+the+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1956&rft.au=W.+Montgomery+Watt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmuhammadatmedina029655mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Poston_1992-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Poston_1992_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Poston_1992_71-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Poston_1992_71-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoston1992" class="citation book cs1">Poston, Larry (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hzvnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11">"Daʻwah in the East: The Expansion of Islam from the First to the Twelfth Century, A.D."</a>. Islamic Daʻwah in the West: Muslim Missionary Activity and the Dynamics of Conversion to Islam. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 11–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507227-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507227-3"><bdi>978-0-19-507227-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/133165051">133165051</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Da%CA%BBwah+in+the+East%3A+The+Expansion+of+Islam+from+the+First+to+the+Twelfth+Century%2C+A.D.&rft.btitle=Islamic+Da%CA%BBwah+in+the+West%3A+Muslim+Missionary+Activity+and+the+Dynamics+of+Conversion+to+Islam&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=11-12&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F133165051&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507227-3&rft.aulast=Poston&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhzvnCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pakatchi-Ahmadi_2017-72"><a href="#cite_ref-Pakatchi-Ahmadi_2017_72-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPakatchiAhmadi2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pakatchi, Ahmad; Ahmadi, Abuzar (2017). "Caliphate". In Madelung, Wilferd; Daftary, Farhad (eds.). Encyclopaedia Islamica. Translated by Asatryan, Mushegh. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-9831_isla_COM_05000066">10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_05000066</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1875-9823">1875-9823</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caliphate&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Islamica&rft.place=Leiden+and+Boston&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1875-9831_isla_COM_05000066&rft.issn=1875-9823&rft.aulast=Pakatchi&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rft.au=Ahmadi%2C+Abuzar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jaarel_2015-73"><a href="#cite_ref-jaarel_2015_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoody2015" class="citation journal cs1">Foody, Kathleen (September 2015). Jain, Andrea R. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfv029">"Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Academy_of_Religion" title="Journal of the American Academy of Religion">Journal of the American Academy of Religion</a>. 83 (3). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Religion" title="American Academy of Religion">American Academy of Religion</a>: 599–623. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfv029">10.1093/jaarel/lfv029</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1477-4585">1477-4585</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7189">0002-7189</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24488178">24488178</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/sc76000837">sc76000837</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1479270">1479270</a>. <q>For Shiʿi Muslims, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> not only designated <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">ʿAlī</a> as his friend, but appointed him as his <a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">successor</a>—as the "lord" or "master" of the new <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Muslim community</a>. ʿAlī and <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Ali" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Ali">his descendants</a> would become known as <a href="/wiki/Imamah_(Shia_doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamah (Shia doctrine)">the Imams</a>, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted <a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">special insight into the Qurʾanic text</a>. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over <a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Islamic texts</a> and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the <a href="/wiki/Occultation_(Islam)" title="Occultation (Islam)">disappearance</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Mahdi" title="Muhammad al-Mahdi">twelfth and final Imam</a> in the ninth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Academy+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Interiorizing+Islam%3A+Religious+Experience+and+State+Oversight+in+the+Islamic+Republic+of+Iran&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=599-623&rft.date=2015-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24488178%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.eissn=1477-4585&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfv029&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1479270&rft.issn=0002-7189&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2Fsc76000837&rft.aulast=Foody&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fjaarel%252Flfv029&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://alcor.concordia.ca/~shannon/201Lec02images_files/image004.jpg">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050930020401/http://alcor.concordia.ca/~shannon/201Lec02images_files/image004.jpg">Archived</a> 30 September 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hourani22-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hourani22_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hourani22_75-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hourani22_75-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbert_Hourani2002" class="citation book cs1">Albert Hourani (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=egbOb0mewz4C&pg=PA15">A History of the Arab Peoples</a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 22–23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01017-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01017-8"><bdi>978-0-674-01017-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Arab+Peoples&rft.pages=22-23&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01017-8&rft.au=Albert+Hourani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DegbOb0mewz4C%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> "The immediate outcome of the Muslim victories was turmoil. Medina's victories led allied tribes to attack the non-aligned to compensate for their own losses. The pressure drove tribes [...] across the imperial frontiers. The Bakr tribe, which had defeated a Persian detachment in 606, joined forces with the Muslims and led them on a raid in southern Iraq [...] A similar spilling over of tribal raiding occurred on the Syrian frontiers. Abu Bakr encouraged these movements [...] What began as inter-tribal skirmishing to consolidate a political confederation in Arabia ended as a full-scale war against the two empires."<a href="#CITEREFLapidus2002">Lapidus (2002</a>, p. 32) </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> "In dealing with captured leaders Abu Bakr showed great clemency, and many became active supporters of the cause of Islam." W. Montgomery Watt, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed., "Abu Bakr", vol. 1, p. 110. "Umar's subsequent decision (reversing the exclusionary policy of Abu Bakr) to allow those tribes which had rebelled during the course of the Ridda wars and been subdued to participate in the expanding incursions into and attacks on the Fertile Crescent [...] incorporated the defeated Arabs into the polity as Muslims." <a href="#CITEREFBerkey2003">Berkey (2003</a>, p. 71) </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> [N]on-Muslim sources allow us to perceive an additional advantage, namely, that Arabs had been serving in the armies of Byzantium and Persia long before Islam; they had acquired valuable training in the weaponry and military tactics of the empires and had become to some degree acculturated to their ways. In fact, these sources hint that we should view many in Muhammad's west Arabian coalition, its settled members as well as its nomads, not so much as outsiders seeking to despoil the empires but as insiders trying to grab a share of the wealth of their imperial masters.<a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014</a>, p. 227) </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbumBatesFloor2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Album, Stephen; Bates, Michael L.; <a href="/wiki/Willem_Floor" title="Willem Floor">Floor, Willem</a> (30 December 2012) [15 December 1992]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-">"COINS AND COINAGE"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a>. Vol. VI/1. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>. pp. 14–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7783">10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7783</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2330-4804">2330-4804</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150517020427/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2022. <q>As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the drahms of the Sasanian emperors, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic inscriptions like besmellāh in the margins. [...] In the year 79/698 reformed Islamic dirhams with inscriptions and no images replaced the Sasanian types at nearly all mints. During this transitional period in the 690s specifically Muslim inscriptions appeared on the coins for the first time; previously Allāh (God) had been mentioned but not the prophet Moḥammad, and there had been no reference to any Islamic doctrines. Owing to civil unrest (e.g., the revolt of ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān b. Ašʿaṯ, q.v., against Ḥajjāj in 81/701), coins of Sasanian type continued to be issued at certain mints in Fārs, Kermān, and Sīstān, but by 84/703 these mints had either been closed down or converted to production of the new dirhams. The latest known Arab-Sasanian coin, an extraordinary issue, is dated 85/704-05, though some mints in the east, still outside Muslim control, continued producing imitation Arab-Sasanian types for perhaps another century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=COINS+AND+COINAGE&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=14-41&rft.pub=Columbia+University&rft.date=2012-12-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7783&rft.issn=2330-4804&rft.aulast=Album&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Bates%2C+Michael+L.&rft.au=Floor%2C+Willem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fcoins-and-coinage-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdul_Basit_Ahmad2001" class="citation book cs1">Abdul Basit Ahmad (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kWp8aeuqKaYC&pg=PT43">Umar bin Al Khattab – The Second Caliph of Islam</a>. Darussalam. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9960-861-08-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-9960-861-08-1"><bdi>978-9960-861-08-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Umar+bin+Al+Khattab+%E2%80%93+The+Second+Caliph+of+Islam&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Darussalam&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-9960-861-08-1&rft.au=Abdul+Basit+Ahmad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkWp8aeuqKaYC%26pg%3DPT43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhalid_Muhammad_KhalidMuhammad_Khali_Khalid2005" class="citation book cs1">Khalid Muhammad Khalid; Muhammad Khali Khalid (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T-uN7tDGSZMC&pg=PA20">Men Around the Messenger</a>. 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KPI. pp. 254–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7103-0333-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7103-0333-2"><bdi>978-0-7103-0333-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Administrative+Development%3A+An+Islamic+Perspective&rft.pages=254-&rft.pub=KPI&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-7103-0333-2&rft.au=Muhammad+Al-Buraey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHJE9AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA254&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> The challenge of Islamic renaissance by Syed Abdul Quddus </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuhammad_Al-Buraey1985" class="citation book cs1">Muhammad Al-Buraey (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lT8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA252">Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective</a>. KPI. pp. 252–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7103-0059-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7103-0059-1"><bdi>978-0-7103-0059-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Administrative+Development%3A+An+Islamic+Perspective&rft.pages=252-&rft.pub=KPI&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-7103-0059-1&rft.au=Muhammad+Al-Buraey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlT8OAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA252&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed_AkgündüzSaid_Öztürk2011" class="citation book cs1">Ahmed Akgündüz; Said Öztürk (1 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EnT_zhqEe5cC&pg=PA539">Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths</a>. 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Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 41: 1–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X00057761">10.1017/S0041977X00057761</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161485671">161485671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Sunnah+Jami%27ah%2C+pacts+with+the+Yathrib+Jews%2C+and+the+Tahrim+of+Yathrib%3A+analysis+and+translation+of+the+documents+comprised+in+the+so-called+%27Constitution+of+Medina%27&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=1-42&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X00057761&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161485671%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=R.+B.+Serjeant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._B._Serjeant1964" class="citation journal cs1">R. 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Indiana University Press. pp. 24–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-32082-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-32082-7"><bdi>978-0-253-32082-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Naval+and+Maritime+History%2C+300%E2%80%931500&rft.pages=24-&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-253-32082-7&rft.au=Archibald+Ross+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOzIRDbARyWIC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonard_Michael_Kroll2005" class="citation book cs1">Leonard Michael Kroll (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aAPc3mYwZpIC&pg=PA123">History of the Jihad: Islam Versus Civilization</a>. 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John Wiley & Sons. pp. 183–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-5997-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-5997-8"><bdi>978-1-4443-5997-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Byzantium&rft.pages=183-&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011-08-26&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-5997-8&rft.au=Timothy+E.+Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKIFJiOCSYc8C%26pg%3DPA183&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Weston2008" class="citation book cs1">Mark Weston (28 July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA61">Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present</a>. 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The Other Press. pp. 117–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-983-9154-73-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-983-9154-73-3"><bdi>978-983-9154-73-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Men+Around+the+Messenger&rft.pages=117-&rft.pub=The+Other+Press&rft.date=2005-02&rft.isbn=978-983-9154-73-3&rft.au=Khalid+Muhammad+Khalid&rft.au=Muhammad+Khali+Khalid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT-uN7tDGSZMC%26pg%3DPA117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._M._HoltPeter_Malcolm_HoltAnn_K._S._LambtonBernard_Lewis1977" class="citation book cs1">P. M. Holt; Peter Malcolm Holt; Ann K. S. Lambton; Bernard Lewis (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UfQWT_esc5cC&pg=PA605">The Cambridge History of Islam</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 605–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29138-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29138-5"><bdi>978-0-521-29138-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Islam&rft.pages=605-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29138-5&rft.au=P.+M.+Holt&rft.au=Peter+Malcolm+Holt&rft.au=Ann+K.+S.+Lambton&rft.au=Bernard+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUfQWT_esc5cC%26pg%3DPA605&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaulana_Muhammad_Ali2011" class="citation book cs1">Maulana Muhammad Ali (9 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=flg-UX6fOdkC&pg=PT101">The Early Caliphate</a>. eBookIt.com. pp. 101–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-934271-25-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-934271-25-4"><bdi>978-1-934271-25-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Caliphate&rft.pages=101-&rft.pub=eBookIt.com&rft.date=2011-08-09&rft.isbn=978-1-934271-25-4&rft.au=Maulana+Muhammad+Ali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dflg-UX6fOdkC%26pg%3DPT101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRahman1999">Rahman (1999</a>, p. 37) </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Schimmel, Annemarie; Barbar Rivolta (Summer, 1992). "Islamic Calligraphy". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series 50 (1): 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Iraq a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom War by Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi p. 32 </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilferd_Madelung1998" class="citation book cs1">Wilferd Madelung (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC">The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64696-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64696-3"><bdi>978-0-521-64696-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Succession+to+Muhammad%3A+A+Study+of+the+Early+Caliphate&rft.pages=232&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-64696-3&rft.au=Wilferd+Madelung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2QKBUwBUWWkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBukhari" class="citation web cs1">Bukhari, Sahih. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_3_49.php">"Sahih Bukhari: Book of "Peacemaking""</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sahih+Bukhari%3A+Book+of+%22Peacemaking%22&rft.aulast=Bukhari&rft.aufirst=Sahih&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sahih-bukhari.com%2FPages%2FBukhari_3_49.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolt1977a">Holt (1977a</a>, pp. 67–72) </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Roberts, J: History of the World. Penguin, 1994. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Dermenghem, E. (1958). Muhammad and the Islamic tradition. New York: Harper Brothers. p. 183. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate by Wilferd Madelung. p. 340. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Encyclopaedic ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia: A-I, Volume 1 edited by R. Khanam. p. 543 </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Islam and Politics John L. Esposito 1998 p. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Islamic Imperial Law: Harun-Al-Rashid's Codification Project by Benjamin Jokisch – 2007 p. 404 </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> The Byzantine And Early Islamic Near East Hugh N. Kennedy – 2006 p. 197 </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> A Chronology of Islamic History by H. U. Rahman pp. 106, 129 </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Voyages in World History by Josef W. Meri p. 248 </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2002">Lapidus (2002</a>, p. 56); <a href="#CITEREFLewis1993">Lewis (1993</a>, pp. 71–83) </li> <li id="cite_note-Blankinship-118"><a href="#cite_ref-Blankinship_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlankinship1994" class="citation book cs1">Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads. State University of New York Press. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1827-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1827-7"><bdi>978-0-7914-1827-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+the+Jihad+State%2C+the+Reign+of+Hisham+Ibn+%27Abd-al+Malik+and+the+collapse+of+the+Umayyads&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-1827-7&rft.aulast=Blankinship&rft.aufirst=Khalid+Yahya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap8.php">answering-ansar.org. ch 8.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110622044557/http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap8.php">Archived</a> 22 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap7.php">answering-ansar.org. ch 7.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110622045815/http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap7.php">Archived</a> 22 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Kokab wa Rifi Fazal-e-Ali Karam Allah Wajhu, Page 484, by Syed Mohammed Subh-e-Kashaf AlTirmidhi, Urdu translation by Syed Sharif Hussein Sherwani Sabzawari, Published by Aloom AlMuhammed, number B12 Shadbagh, Lahore, 1 January 1963. p. 484. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> History of the Arab by Philip K Hitti </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> History of Islam by prof.Masudul Hasan </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> The Empire of the Arabs by sir John Glubb </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> In the Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula), North Africa and in the east populations revolted. In A.H. 102 (720–721) in Ifriqiyah, the harsh governor Yazid ibn Muslim was overthrown and Muhammad ibn Yazid, the former governor, restored to power. The caliph accepted this and confirmed Muhammad ibn Yazid as governor of Ifriqiyah. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> *Eggenberger, David (1985). An Encyclopedia of Battles: Accounts of Over 1,560 Battles from 1479 BC. to the Present. Courier Dover Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-24913-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-24913-1">0-486-24913-1</a> p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> von Ess, "Kadar", Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd Ed. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Theophilus. Quoted Robert Hoyland, Seeing Islam as Others Saw It (Darwin Press, 1998), 660 </li> <li id="cite_note-EoI-Islam-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EoI-Islam_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EoI-Islam_129-1">b</a> J. Jomier. Islam: Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. accessdate=2007-05-02 </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis1993">Lewis 1993</a>, p. 84 </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolt1977a">Holt 1977a</a>, p. 105 </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolt1977b">Holt 1977b</a>, pp. 661–63 </li> <li id="cite_note-B.a-d-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-B.a-d_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-B.a-d_133-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-B.a-d_133-2">c</a> "Abbasid Dynasty", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005) </li> <li id="cite_note-Brague_2009-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brague_2009_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brague_2009_134-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrague2009" class="citation book cs1">Brague, Rémi (2009). The Legend of the Middle Ages: Philosophical Explorations of Medieval Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. University of Chicago Press. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226070803" title="Special:BookSources/9780226070803"><bdi>9780226070803</bdi></a>. <q>Neither were there any Muslims among the Ninth-Century translators. Amost all of them were Christians of various Eastern denominations: Jacobites, Melchites, and, above all, Nestorians... A few others were Sabians.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legend+of+the+Middle+Ages%3A+Philosophical+Explorations+of+Medieval+Christianity%2C+Judaism%2C+and+Islam&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780226070803&rft.aulast=Brague&rft.aufirst=R%C3%A9mi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Hill, Donald. Islamic Science and Engineering. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-0455-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-0455-3">0-7486-0455-3</a>, p.4 </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Rémi Brague, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm">Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130927015958/http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm">Archived</a> 2013-09-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&pg=PA304">"Medieval Islamic Civilization". Vol. 1 Index A–K</a>. 2006, p. 304. </li> <li id="cite_note-B-I-138"><a href="#cite_ref-B-I_138-0">^</a> "Islam", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005) </li> <li id="cite_note-AHGC-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AHGC_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHGC_139-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHGC_139-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHGC_139-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHGC_139-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHGC_139-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHGC_139-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFApplied_History_Research_Group" class="citation web cs1">Applied History Research Group. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070410125136/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index2.html">"The Islamic World to 1600"</a>. University of Calagary. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index2.html">the original</a> on 10 April 2007. Retrieved 18 April 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Islamic+World+to+1600&rft.pub=University+of+Calagary&rft.au=Applied+History+Research+Group&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucalgary.ca%2Fapplied_history%2Ftutor%2Fislam%2Findex2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Andreas Graeser Zenon von Kition: Positionen u. Probleme <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a> 1975 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-004673-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-004673-1">978-3-11-004673-1</a> p. 260 </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2002">Lapidus 2002</a>, p. 54 </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNasr2003">Nasr 2003</a>, p. 121 </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKhaddūrī2002">Khaddūrī 2002</a>, pp. 21–22 </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Abdel Wahab El Messeri. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/tvtk/ch21.htm">Episode 21: Ibn Rushd</a>, Everything you wanted to know about Islam but was afraid to Ask, Philosophia Islamica. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090628121624/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2501/is_n2_v18/ai_18627295/pg_13">The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt</a>, Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ). </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> for more, see <a href="/wiki/As-Saffah#As-Saffah's_Caliphate" class="mw-redirect" title="As-Saffah">As-Saffah's Caliphate</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> An universal history: from the earliest accounts to the present time, Volume 2 By George Sale, George Psalmanazar, Archibald Bower, George Shelvocke, John Campbell, John Swinton. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=taoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA319">p. 319</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Chamber's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge, Volume 5. W. & R. Chambers, 1890. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WlYWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA567">p. 567</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Johannes P. Schadé (ed.). Encyclopedia of World Religions. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Jarir_al-Tabari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari">Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari</a> History volume xxxi, "The War Between Brothers," transl. Michael Fishbein, SUNY, Albany, 1992 </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNasr2003">Nasr 2003</a>, pp. 121–22 </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2002">Lapidus 2002</a>, p. 129 </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_Spencer_Baynes1878" class="citation book cs1">Thomas Spencer Baynes (1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VtpTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA578">The Encyclopædia Britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature</a>. A. and C. Black. pp. 578–.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%3A+a+dictionary+of+arts%2C+sciences%2C+and+general+literature&rft.pages=578-&rft.pub=A.+and+C.+Black&rft.date=1878&rft.au=Thomas+Spencer+Baynes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVtpTAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA578&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Hindu rebellions in Sindh were put down, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan. There were disturbances in Iraq during the first several years of Al-Ma'mun's reign. Egypt continued to be unquiet. Sindh was rebellious, but Ghassan ibn Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem for Al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin. In 214 Babak routed a Caliphate army, killing its commander Muhammad ibn Humayd. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> The Mihna subjected traditionalist scholars with social influence and intellectual quality to imprisonment, religious tests, and loyalty oaths. Al-Ma'mun introduced the Mihna with the intention to centralize religious power in the caliphal institution and test the loyalty of his subjects. The Mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the state of the creation of the Qur'an: if the person interrogated stated he believed the Qur'an to be created, he was free to leave and continue his profession. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Had he been victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun would have made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over of a copy of the "Almagest". </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, History v. 32 "The Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate," SUNY, Albany, 1987; v. 33 "Storm and Stress along the Northern frontiers of the Abbasid Caliphate," transl. C.E. Bosworth, SUNY, Albany, 1991 </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Jarir_al-Tabari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari">Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari</a> History v. 34 "Incipient Decline," transl. Joel L. Kramer, SUNY, Albany, 1989. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88706-875-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-88706-875-8">0-88706-875-8</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-875-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-875-1">978-0-88706-875-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> Its minarets were spiraling cones 55 metres (180 ft) high with a spiral ramp, and it had 17 aisles with walls paneled with mosaics of dark blue glass. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> A sum of 120,000 golden pieces was paid for the freedom of the captives. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Examples of the former include the loss of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> in 990, and the loss of Ṭabaristān and Gurgān in 997. An example of the latter is the <a href="/wiki/Kakuyids" title="Kakuyids">Kakūyid</a> dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahān</a>, whose fortunes rose with the decline of the Būyids of northern Iran. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowen1928" class="citation book cs1">Bowen, Harold (1928). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TZM3AAAAIAAJ">The Life and Times of ʿAlí Ibn ʿÍsà: The Good Vizier</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 385.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Times+of+%CA%BFAl%C3%AD+Ibn+%CA%BF%C3%8Ds%C3%A0%3A+The+Good+Vizier&rft.pages=385&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1928&rft.aulast=Bowen&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTZM3AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> R. N. Frye (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume Four: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20093-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20093-8">0-521-20093-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hanne-165"><a href="#cite_ref-Hanne_165-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanne2007" class="citation book cs1">Hanne, Eric, J. (2007). Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8386-4113-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8386-4113-2"><bdi>978-0-8386-4113-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Putting+the+Caliph+in+His+Place%3A+Power%2C+Authority%2C+and+the+Late+Abbasid+Caliphate&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Fairleigh+Dickinson+Univ+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8386-4113-2&rft.aulast=Hanne&rft.aufirst=Eric%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-muir-166">^ <a href="#cite_ref-muir_166-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-muir_166-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-muir_166-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuir2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Muir" title="William Muir">Muir, William</a> (2000). The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-20901-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-20901-4"><bdi>978-0-415-20901-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Caliphate%3A+Its+Rise%2C+Decline%2C+and+Fall&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-415-20901-4&rft.aulast=Muir&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Oxford History of the Crusades, (Oxford University Press, 2002), 213. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> ʻIzz al-Dīn Ibn al-Athīr, Donald Sidney Richards, The chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr for the crusading period from al-Kāmil fī'l-ta'rīkh: The years 491–541/1097–1146 : the coming of the Franks and the Muslim response. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin_Sicker2000" class="citation book cs1">Martin Sicker (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xlWsMcwZ9vEC">The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-96892-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-96892-2"><bdi>978-0-275-96892-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Islamic+World+in+Ascendancy%3A+From+the+Arab+Conquests+to+the+Siege+of+Vienna&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-275-96892-2&rft.au=Martin+Sicker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxlWsMcwZ9vEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard1979" class="citation book cs1">Richard, Jean (1979). The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. Vol. 1. Translated by Shirley, Janet. North-Holland Publishing Company. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-85092-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-85092-8"><bdi>978-0-444-85092-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Latin+Kingdom+of+Jerusalem&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=North-Holland+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-444-85092-8&rft.aulast=Richard&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> It is supposed by an emissary of the <a href="/wiki/Hashshashins" class="mw-redirect" title="Hashshashins">Hashshashins</a>, who had no love for the Caliph. Modern historians have suspected that Mas'ud instigated the murder although the two most important historians of the period Ibn al-Athir and Ibn al-Jawzi did not speculate on this matter. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrigor_of_Akanc1949" class="citation journal cs1">Grigor of Akanc (December 1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2718096.pdf">"The history of the nation of archers"</a> (PDF). Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 12 (3/4). Translated by Blake, R.P.; Frye, Richard N.: 303. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718096">2718096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+history+of+the+nation+of+archers&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=303&rft.date=1949-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2718096%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Grigor+of+Akanc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fpdf%2F2718096.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Kalistriat Salia-History of the Georguan Nation, p. 210 </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_T._Allsen" title="Thomas T. Allsen">Thomas T. Allsen</a> (2004) Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-60270-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-60270-X">0-521-60270-X</a>, p. 84 </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Bernard Lewis (1991). The Political Language of Islam. University of Chicago Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnn_K._S._Lambton1981" class="citation book cs1">Ann K. S. Lambton (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SJRBU66I4MQC&pg=PA138">State and Government in Medieval Islam: An Introduction to the Study of Islamic Political Theory: the Jurists</a>. Psychology Press. pp. 138–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-713600-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-713600-3"><bdi>978-0-19-713600-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=State+and+Government+in+Medieval+Islam%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Study+of+Islamic+Political+Theory%3A+the+Jurists&rft.pages=138-&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-19-713600-3&rft.au=Ann+K.+S.+Lambton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSJRBU66I4MQC%26pg%3DPA138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Arthur Goldschmidt, Jr. A Concise History of the Middle East. </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commune-mahdia.gov.tn/ENG/presentation_ville/histoire_de_la_ville.htm">Mahdia: Historical Background</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131109154752/http://www.commune-mahdia.gov.tn/ENG/presentation_ville/histoire_de_la_ville.htm">Archived</a> 9 November 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". Commune-mahdia.gov.tn. </li> <li id="cite_note-Beeson_24,_26–30-179">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beeson_24,_26–30_179-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beeson_24,_26–30_179-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeeson1969" class="citation journal cs1">Beeson, Irene (September–October 1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930163720/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196905/cairo-a.millennial.htm">"Cairo, a Millennial"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Aramco_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Saudi Aramco World">Saudi Aramco World</a>: 24, 26–30. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196905/cairo-a.millennial.htm">the original</a> on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 9 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Saudi+Aramco+World&rft.atitle=Cairo%2C+a+Millennial&rft.pages=24%2C+26-30&rft.date=1969-09%2F1969-10&rft.aulast=Beeson&rft.aufirst=Irene&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.saudiaramcoworld.com%2Fissue%2F196905%2Fcairo-a.millennial.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.com-180">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_180-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_180-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahmoud_A._El-Gamal2006" class="citation book cs1">Mahmoud A. El-Gamal (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2ElRUvoVRxYC&pg=PA122">Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 122–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-45716-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-45716-3"><bdi>978-1-139-45716-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Finance%3A+Law%2C+Economics%2C+and+Practice&rft.pages=122-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-139-45716-3&rft.au=Mahmoud+A.+El-Gamal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2ElRUvoVRxYC%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arab-Israeli_Conflict_Page_917-181">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arab-Israeli_Conflict_Page_917_181-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arab-Israeli_Conflict_Page_917_181-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuckerRoberts2008" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917">The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History</a>. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 917. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-842-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-842-2"><bdi>978-1-85109-842-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+the+Arab-Israeli+Conflict%3A+A+Political%2C+Social%2C+and+Military+History&rft.pages=917&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-842-2&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Spencer+C.&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Priscilla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYAd8efHdVzIC%26pg%3DPA917&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Iraq_Effect_Page_91-182">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Iraq_Effect_Page_91_182-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Iraq_Effect_Page_91_182-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91">The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War</a>. Rand Corporation. 2010. pp. 91–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-4788-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-4788-5"><bdi>978-0-8330-4788-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iraq+Effect%3A+The+Middle+East+After+the+Iraq+War&rft.pages=91-&rft.pub=Rand+Corporation&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8330-4788-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di-3LAlfW7DIC%26pg%3DPA91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Lane, J.-E., Redissi, H., & Ṣaydāwī, R. (2009). Religion and politics: Islam and Muslim civilization. Farnham, England: Ashgate Pub. Company. Page 83 </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oldroads.org/pastblogs/pastsingles2007/Cairo_of_the_mind.htm">Cairo_of_the_mind, oldroads.org</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080907092655/http://www.oldroads.org/pastblogs/pastsingles2007/Cairo_of_the_mind.htm">Archived</a> 7 September 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_Melvill_GwatkinJames_Pounder_WhitneyJoseph_Robson_TannerCharles_William_Previté-Orton1913" class="citation book cs1">Henry Melvill Gwatkin; James Pounder Whitney; Joseph Robson Tanner; Charles William Previté-Orton; Zachary Nugent Brooke (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgemediev00broogoog">The Cambridge Medieval History</a>. Macmillan. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgemediev00broogoog/page/n409">379</a>–.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Medieval+History&rft.pages=379-&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1913&rft.au=Henry+Melvill+Gwatkin&rft.au=James+Pounder+Whitney&rft.au=Joseph+Robson+Tanner&rft.au=Charles+William+Previt%C3%A9-Orton&rft.au=Zachary+Nugent+Brooke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgemediev00broogoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.mumineen.org/awliya/aimmat/e_imamqaim.html">al-Qaim bi-Amrillah</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060210105748/http://archive.mumineen.org/awliya/aimmat/e_imamqaim.html">Archived</a> 10 February 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. archive.mumineen.org </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeomans200644-187"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYeomans200644_187-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYeomans2006">Yeomans 2006</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy2000234-188"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETracy2000234_188-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTracy2000">Tracy 2000</a>, p. 234. </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160521030532/http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/link-suggestion/wpcd_2008-09_augmented/wp/c/Cairo.htm">"Cairo"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/link-suggestion/wpcd_2008-09_augmented/wp/c/Cairo.htm/">the original</a> on 21 May 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cairo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.mcgill.ca%2F~rwest%2Flink-suggestion%2Fwpcd_2008-09_augmented%2Fwp%2Fc%2FCairo.htm%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988">> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Jennifer A. Pruitt, Building the Caliphate: Construction, Destruction, and Sectarian Identity in Early Fatimid Architecture (New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 2020). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-24682-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-24682-X">0-300-24682-X</a>, 9780300246827 </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmin_Maalouf1984" class="citation book cs1">Amin Maalouf (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crusadesthrougha00maal_0/page/160">The Crusades Through Arab Eyes</a>. Al Saqi Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crusadesthrougha00maal_0/page/160">160–70</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-0898-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-0898-6"><bdi>978-0-8052-0898-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crusades+Through+Arab+Eyes&rft.pages=160-70&rft.pub=Al+Saqi+Books&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-8052-0898-6&rft.au=Amin+Maalouf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcrusadesthrougha00maal_0%2Fpage%2F160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_Hallam1870" class="citation book cs1">Henry Hallam (1870). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz4QAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49">View of the State of Europe During the Middle Ages</a>. Vol. 1. W. J. Widdleton. pp. 49–.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=View+of+the+State+of+Europe+During+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=49-&rft.pub=W.+J.+Widdleton&rft.date=1870&rft.au=Henry+Hallam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDz4QAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qjHZAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA133">The Literary Era: A Monthly Repository of Literary and Miscellaneous Information</a>. Vol. 5. 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Ashgate. pp. 19–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0649-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0649-9"><bdi>978-0-7546-0649-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gateway+to+the+Heavenly+City%3A+Crusader+Jerusalem+and+the+Catholic+West+%281099%E2%80%931187%29&rft.pages=19-&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-0649-9&rft.au=Sylvia+Schein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaaqY_g4i_ukC%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Lock2013" class="citation book cs1">Peter Lock (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AkCKZ9Hs4-QC&pg=PA180+">The Routledge Companion to the Crusades</a>. Routledge. pp. 180–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-13137-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-13137-1"><bdi>978-1-135-13137-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Companion+to+the+Crusades&rft.pages=180-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-135-13137-1&rft.au=Peter+Lock&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAkCKZ9Hs4-QC%26pg%3DPA180%2B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Anthony Parel, Ronald C. Keith Comparative Political Philosophy: Studies Under the Upas Tree Lexington Books, 2003 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0610-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0610-5">978-0-7391-0610-5</a> p. 186 </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Abbasid Dynasty". 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The Turks in World History. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 56–66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517726-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517726-8"><bdi>978-0-19-517726-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54529318">54529318</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islam+and+Empire+from+the+Seljuks+through+the+Mongols&rft.btitle=The+Turks+in+World+History&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=56-66&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54529318&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517726-8&rft.aulast=Findley&rft.aufirst=Carter+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DToAjDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html">The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Il-Khanate)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131015081646/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html">Archived</a> 15 October 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. ucalgary.ca </li> <li id="cite_note-Peacock-201">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peacock_201-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peacock_201-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peacock_201-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peacock_201-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeacock2019" class="citation book cs1">Peacock, A.C.S. (2019). Islam, Literature and Society in Mongol Anatolia. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108582124">10.1017/9781108582124</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-58212-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-58212-4"><bdi>978-1-108-58212-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211657444">211657444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%2C+Literature+and+Society+in+Mongol+Anatolia&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211657444%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108582124&rft.isbn=978-1-108-58212-4&rft.aulast=Peacock&rft.aufirst=A.C.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> Kuru, A. T. (2019). Islam, Authoritarianism, and Underdevelopment: A Global and Historical Comparison. Vereinigtes Königreich: Cambridge University Press. p. 128 </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicholson_2018-203"><a href="#cite_ref-Nicholson_2018_203-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM.L.D.2018" class="citation book cs1">M.L.D. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A09WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1533">"Türkic religion"</a>. In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). <a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Dictionary_of_Late_Antiquity" title="The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity">The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity</a>. Vol. II. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 1533–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662778.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-881625-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-881625-6"><bdi>978-0-19-881625-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2017955557">2017955557</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=T%C3%BCrkic+religion&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=1533-4&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2017955557&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662778.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-881625-6&rft.au=M.L.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA09WDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1533&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Amitai-Preiss_1999-204"><a href="#cite_ref-Amitai-Preiss_1999_204-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmitai-Preiss1999" class="citation journal cs1">Amitai-Preiss, Reuven (January 1999). "Sufis and Shamans: Some Remarks on the Islamization of the Mongols in the Ilkhanate". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 42 (1). <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>: 27–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1568520991445605">10.1163/1568520991445605</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1568-5209">1568-5209</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3632297">3632297</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Sufis+and+Shamans%3A+Some+Remarks+on+the+Islamization+of+the+Mongols+in+the+Ilkhanate&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27-46&rft.date=1999-01&rft.issn=1568-5209&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3632297%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1568520991445605&rft.aulast=Amitai-Preiss&rft.aufirst=Reuven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dechant,_John_2011-205">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dechant,_John_2011_205-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dechant,_John_2011_205-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dechant,_John_2011_205-2">c</a> Dechant, John. "Depictions of the Islamization of the Mongols in the" Manāqib al-ʿārifīn" and the Foundation of the Mawlawī Community." Mawlana Rumi Review 2 (2011): 135-164. </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Denise Aigle The Mongol Empire between Myth and Reality: Studies in Anthropological History <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>, 28 October 2014 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0042-8064-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0042-8064-9">978-9-0042-8064-9</a> p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> Armstrong, Lyall. "The Making of a Sufi: al-Nuwayri's Account of the Origin of Genghis Khan (MSR X. 2, 2006)." (2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Encyclopedia Americana, Grolier Incorporated, p. 680 </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> The spread of Islam: the contributing factors By Abū al-Faz̤l ʻIzzatī, A. Ezzati, p. 274 </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> Islam in Russia: the four seasons By Ravilʹ Bukharaev, p. 145 </li> <li id="cite_note-Timur-211">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Timur_211-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Timur_211-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Tamerlane, or Timur". Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. 2014. <q>While Timur's capital, Samarqand, became a cosmopolitan imperial city that flourished as never before, Iran and Iraq suffered devastation at a greater degree than that caused by the Mongols. [...] Timur's conquests also consciously aimed to restore the Mongol Empire, and the deliberate devastation that accompanied them was a conscious imitation of the Mongol onslaught.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tamerlane%2C+or+Timur&rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+Civilization%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS._Starr2014" class="citation book cs1">S. Starr, S. Frederick (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A5llAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT411">Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane</a>. HarperCollins Publishers India. p. 411. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5136-186-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5136-186-2"><bdi>978-93-5136-186-2</bdi></a>. <q>Timur's ceaseless conquests were accompanied by a level of brutality matched only by Chinggis Khan himself. At Isfahan his troops dispatched some 70,000 defenders, while at Delhi his soldiers are reported to have systematically killed 100,000 Indians.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+Enlightenment%3A+Central+Asia%27s+Golden+Age+from+the+Arab+Conquest+to+Tamerlane&rft.pages=411&rft.pub=HarperCollins+Publishers+India&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-93-5136-186-2&rft.aulast=S.+Starr&rft.aufirst=S.+Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA5llAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT411&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> Elliot, Sir H. M.; edited by Dowson, John. <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_India,_as_Told_by_Its_Own_Historians._The_Muhammadan_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period">The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period</a>; published by London Trubner Company 1867–77. (Online Copy: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0">The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929125948/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0">Archived</a> 29 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – This online copy has been posted by: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp">The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929132016/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp">Archived</a> 29 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> Richards, John F. (1996). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-Journal1988-214"><a href="#cite_ref-Journal1988_214-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubtelny1988" class="citation journal cs1">Subtelny, Maria Eva (November 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D">"Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage under the Later Timurids"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 20 (4): 479–505. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800053861">10.1017/S0020743800053861</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162411014">162411014</a>. Retrieved 7 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Socioeconomic+Bases+of+Cultural+Patronage+under+the+Later+Timurids&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=479-505&rft.date=1988-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800053861&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162411014%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Subtelny&rft.aufirst=Maria+Eva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Finternational-journal-of-middle-east-studies%2Farticle%2Fsocioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids%2F2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> Periods of World History: A Latin American Perspective – Page 129 </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia – Page 465 </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> Strange Parallels: Volume 2, Mainland Mirrors: Europe, Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands: Southeast Asia in Global Context, C.800-1830 by Victor Lieberman Page 712 </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> Imperial Identity in the Mughal Empire by Lisa Page 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Sufism and Society: Arrangements of the Mystical in the Muslim World, 1200–1800 edited by John Curry, Erik Ohlander, Page 141 </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> The Silk Road: A Very Short Introduction by James A. Millward. </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> Tschanz, David W. (July/August 2007). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070912161811/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200704/history.s.hinge.ain.jalut.htm">History's Hinge: 'Ain Jalut</a>". Saudi Aramco World. </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStowasser1984" class="citation journal cs1">Stowasser, Karl (1984). "Manners and Customs at the Mamluk Court". <a href="/wiki/Muqarnas_(journal)" title="Muqarnas (journal)">Muqarnas</a>. 2 (The Art of the Mamluks). <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>: 13–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1523052">10.2307/1523052</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0732-2992">0732-2992</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523052">1523052</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191377149">191377149</a>. <q>The Mamluk slave warriors, with an empire extending from <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, remained for the next two hundred years the most formidable power of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> – champions of <a href="/wiki/Sunni_orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni orthodoxy">Sunni orthodoxy</a>, guardians of <a href="/wiki/Holiest_sites_in_Islam" title="Holiest sites in Islam">Islam's holy places</a>, their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Mongol upheaval in the East</a> or drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemies">Ptolemies</a>. [...] They ruled as a <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>, aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of the <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">sultan</a> himself or of one of the Mamluk <a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">emirs</a> were eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became the awlād al-nās, the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the non-Mamluk ḥalqa troops. Some two thousand slaves were imported annually: <a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Qipchaq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azeris" class="mw-redirect" title="Azeris">Azeris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbec Turks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Avars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulgars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albanians" title="Albanians">Albanians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbs" title="Serbs">Serbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarians" title="Hungarians">Hungarians</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Muqarnas&rft.atitle=Manners+and+Customs+at+the+Mamluk+Court&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=The+Art+of+the+Mamluks&rft.pages=13-20&rft.date=1984&rft.issn=0732-2992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A191377149%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1523052%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1523052&rft.aulast=Stowasser&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ayalon_1991-223">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ayalon_1991_223-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ayalon_1991_223-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyalon2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Ayalon" title="David Ayalon">Ayalon, David</a> (2012) [1991]. "Mamlūk". In <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Edmund_Bosworth" title="Clifford Edmund Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E. J.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Wolfhart_Heinrichs" title="Wolfhart Heinrichs">Heinrichs, W. P.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" title="Encyclopaedia of Islam">Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. Vol. 6. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_0657">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0657</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08112-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08112-3"><bdi>978-90-04-08112-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maml%C5%ABk&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_0657&rft.isbn=978-90-04-08112-3&rft.aulast=Ayalon&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoliak2005" class="citation book cs1">Poliak, A. N. (2005) [1942]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YVGdl09xAp4C&pg=PA27">"The Influence of C̱ẖingiz-Ḵẖān's Yāsa upon the General Organization of the Mamlūk State"</a>. In Hawting, Gerald R. (ed.). Muslims, Mongols, and Crusaders: An Anthology of Articles Published in the "Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies". Vol. 10. <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 27–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X0009008X">10.1017/S0041977X0009008X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1393-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1393-6"><bdi>978-0-7007-1393-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/609130">609130</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155480831">155480831</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Influence+of+C%CC%B1%E1%BA%96ingiz-%E1%B8%B4%E1%BA%96%C4%81n%27s+Y%C4%81sa+upon+the+General+Organization+of+the+Maml%C5%ABk+State&rft.btitle=Muslims%2C+Mongols%2C+and+Crusaders%3A+An+Anthology+of+Articles+Published+in+the+%22Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies%22&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=27-41&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X0009008X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155480831%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F609130%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1393-6&rft.aulast=Poliak&rft.aufirst=A.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYVGdl09xAp4C%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Hourani-225"><a href="#cite_ref-Hourani_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHourani2003">Hourani 2003</a>, p. 85 </li> <li id="cite_note-kadri--226"><a href="#cite_ref-kadri-_226-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKadri2012" class="citation book cs1">Kadri, Sadakat (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ztCRZOhJ10wC&q=Heaven+on+Earth:+A+Journey+Through+Shari%27a+Law">Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia ...</a> macmillan. p. 187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-952327-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-952327-7"><bdi>978-0-09-952327-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heaven+on+Earth%3A+A+Journey+Through+Shari%27a+Law+from+the+Deserts+of+Ancient+Arabia+...&rft.pages=187&rft.pub=macmillan&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-09-952327-7&rft.aulast=Kadri&rft.aufirst=Sadakat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DztCRZOhJ10wC%26q%3DHeaven%2Bon%2BEarth%3A%2BA%2BJourney%2BThrough%2BShari%2527a%2BLaw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> Paul Salem Bitter Legacy: Ideology and Politics in the Arab World <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press" title="Syracuse University Press">Syracuse University Press</a>, 1994 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2629-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2629-9">978-0-8156-2629-9</a> p. 117 </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-228">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_228-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_228-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_228-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_228-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_228-4">e</a> Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a> 2013 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-91332-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-91332-7">978-1-136-91332-7</a> pp. 270–271 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÇakmak2017665-229">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÇakmak2017665_229-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÇakmak2017665_229-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÇakmak2017665_229-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFÇakmak2017">Çakmak (2017)</a>, p. 665. </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> Jonathan Brown The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a> 2007 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-474-2034-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-474-2034-7">978-90-474-2034-7</a> p. 313 </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceD-231">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceD_231-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceD_231-1">b</a> Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a> 2013 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7103-1356-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7103-1356-0">978-0-7103-1356-0</a> p. 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpevack2014" class="citation book cs1">Spevack, Aaron (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ">The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri</a>. <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>. pp. 129–130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-5371-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-5371-2"><bdi>978-1-4384-5371-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archetypal+Sunni+Scholar%3A+Law%2C+Theology%2C+and+Mysticism+in+the+Synthesis+of+al-Bajuri&rft.pages=129-130&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-5371-2&rft.aulast=Spevack&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhtx8BAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Karen Bauer Gender Hierarchy in the Qur'an: Medieval Interpretations, Modern Responses <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a> 2015 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-24005-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-24005-2">978-1-316-24005-2</a> p. 115 </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> Aysha A. Hidayatullah Feminist Edges of the Qur'an <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> 2014 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-199-35957-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-199-35957-8">978-0-199-35957-8</a> p. 25 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeaman2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidisDgI0-0Ip4CpgPA632_632]-235"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeaman2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidisDgI0-0Ip4CpgPA632_632]_235-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeaman2006">Leaman (2006)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=isDgI0-0Ip4C&pg=PA632">632</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Collins2004139-236"><a href="#cite_ref-Collins2004139_236-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollins2004">Collins 2004</a>, p. 139 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hourani_1-237"><a href="#cite_ref-Hourani_1_237-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHourani2003">Hourani 2003</a>, p. 41 </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlubb1966" class="citation book cs1">Glubb, John Bagot (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/courseofempirear0000glub">The course of empire: The Arabs and their successors</a>. Prentice-Hall. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/courseofempirear0000glub/page/128">128</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+course+of+empire%3A+The+Arabs+and+their+successors&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Glubb&rft.aufirst=John+Bagot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcourseofempirear0000glub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlick2005" class="citation book cs1">Glick, Thomas F. (2005). Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages. BRILL. p. 102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-14771-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-14771-3"><bdi>978-90-04-14771-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+and+Christian+Spain+in+the+early+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-04-14771-3&rft.aulast=Glick&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuscombeJonathan_Riley-Smith2004" class="citation book cs1">Luscombe, David Edward; Jonathan Riley-Smith (2004). The new Cambridge medieval history. Cambridge University Press. p. 599. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-41410-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-41410-4"><bdi>978-0-521-41410-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+new+Cambridge+medieval+history&rft.pages=599&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-41410-4&rft.aulast=Luscombe&rft.aufirst=David+Edward&rft.au=Jonathan+Riley-Smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Callaghan1983" class="citation book cs1">O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (1983). A History of Medieval Spain. Cornell University Press. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9264-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9264-8"><bdi>978-0-8014-9264-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Medieval+Spain&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-9264-8&rft.aulast=O%27Callaghan&rft.aufirst=Joseph+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConstable1997" class="citation book cs1">Constable, Olivia Remie (1997). "The Political Dilemma of a Granadan Ruler". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medievaliberiare00cons">Medieval Iberia: Readings from Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medievaliberiare00cons/page/n132">103</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1569-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1569-4"><bdi>978-0-8122-1569-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Political+Dilemma+of+a+Granadan+Ruler&rft.btitle=Medieval+Iberia%3A+Readings+from+Christian%2C+Muslim%2C+and+Jewish+Sources&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-1569-4&rft.aulast=Constable&rft.aufirst=Olivia+Remie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmedievaliberiare00cons&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> This was likely because al-Andalus was a land besieged by many different loyalties, and the proclamation of caliph would have likely caused much unrest. Abd al-Rahman's progeny would, however, take up the title of caliph. </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> Michael Hamilton Morgan. Lost History: The Enduring Legacy of Muslim Scientists, Thinkers, and Artists. National Geographic Books, 2008. </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ns5PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA385">The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge</a>. Vol. 15–16. C. Knight. 1839. pp. 385–.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penny+Cyclop%C3%A6dia+of+the+Society+for+the+Diffusion+of+Useful+Knowledge&rft.pages=385-&rft.pub=C.+Knight&rft.date=1839&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dns5PAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA385&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> P<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._M._HoltPeter_Malcolm_HoltAnn_K._S._LambtonBernard_Lewis1977" class="citation book cs1">P. M. Holt; Peter Malcolm Holt; Ann K. S. Lambton; Bernard Lewis (21 April 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y99jTbxNbSAC&pg=PA411">The Cambridge History of Islam</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 411–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29137-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29137-8"><bdi>978-0-521-29137-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Islam&rft.pages=411-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977-04-21&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29137-8&rft.au=P.+M.+Holt&rft.au=Peter+Malcolm+Holt&rft.au=Ann+K.+S.+Lambton&rft.au=Bernard+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy99jTbxNbSAC%26pg%3DPA411&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFierro2005" class="citation book cs1">Fierro, Maribel (2005). Abd-al-Rahman III of Córdoba. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-384-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-384-0"><bdi>978-1-85168-384-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abd-al-Rahman+III+of+C%C3%B3rdoba&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-85168-384-0&rft.aulast=Fierro&rft.aufirst=Maribel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Ibn" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Idhari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Idhari">Ibn Idhari</a> (1860) [Composed c. 1312]. <a href="/wiki/Al-Bayan_al-Mughrib" title="Al-Bayan al-Mughrib">Al-Bayan al-Mughrib</a> (in Spanish). 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Granada: Francisco Ventura y Sabatel. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/557028856">557028856</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Bayan+al-Mughrib&rft.place=Granada&rft.pub=Francisco+Ventura+y+Sabatel&rft.date=1860&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F557028856&rft.au=Ibn+Idhari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Lan94" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Lane-Poole" title="Stanley Lane-Poole">Lane-Poole, Stanley</a> (1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mohammedandynas00lanegoog">The Mohammedan Dynasties: Chronological and Genealogical Tables with Historical Introductions</a>. Westminster: Archibald Constable and Company. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1199708">1199708</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mohammedan+Dynasties%3A+Chronological+and+Genealogical+Tables+with+Historical+Introductions&rft.place=Westminster&rft.pub=Archibald+Constable+and+Company&rft.date=1894&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1199708&rft.aulast=Lane-Poole&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmohammedandynas00lanegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121102061328/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=1176">"Kairouan Capital of Political Power and Learning in the Ifriqiya"</a>. Muslim Heritage. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=1176">the original</a> on 2 November 2012. Retrieved 18 February 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kairouan+Capital+of+Political+Power+and+Learning+in+the+Ifriqiya&rft.pub=Muslim+Heritage&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuslimheritage.com%2Ftopics%2Fdefault.cfm%3FArticleID%3D1176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClifford_Edmund_Bosworth2007" class="citation book cs1">Clifford Edmund Bosworth (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA264">Historic Cities of the Islamic World</a>. 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Venice, A Maritime Republic. <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>: <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. pp. 224–240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-1460-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-1460-0"><bdi>978-0-8018-1460-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/617914">617914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Contests+for+Power%3A+The+Fifteenth+Century&rft.btitle=Venice%2C+A+Maritime+Republic&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=224-240&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F617914&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-1460-0&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=Frederic+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7nVq0BLfVT4C%26pg%3DPA224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁgostonMasters2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce, eds. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC">"Introduction"</a>. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Facts_on_File" class="mw-redirect" title="Facts on File">Facts on File</a>. p. xxxii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6259-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6259-1"><bdi>978-0-8160-6259-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008020716">2008020716</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=xxxii&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008020716&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQjzYdCxumFcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhi1994" class="citation book cs1">Faroqhi, Suraiya (1994). "Crisis and Change, 1590–1699". In İnalcık, Halil; Donald Quataert (eds.). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 553. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57456-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57456-3"><bdi>978-0-521-57456-3</bdi></a>. <q>In the past fifty years, scholars have frequently tended to view this decreasing participation of the sultan in political life as evidence for "Ottoman decadence", which supposedly began at some time during the second half of the sixteenth century. But recently, more note has been taken of the fact that the Ottoman Empire was still a formidable military and political power throughout the seventeenth century, and that noticeable though limited economic recovery followed the crisis of the years around 1600; after the crisis of the 1683–99 war, there followed a longer and more decisive economic upswing. Major evidence of decline was not visible before the second half of the eighteenth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Crisis+and+Change%2C+1590%E2%80%931699&rft.btitle=An+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=553&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57456-3&rft.aulast=Faroqhi&rft.aufirst=Suraiya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Matthee_2021-284">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Matthee_2021_284-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matthee_2021_284-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaltacıoğlu-Brammer2021" class="citation book cs1">Baltacıoğlu-Brammer, Ayşe (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gWBCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15">"The emergence of the Safavids as a mystical order and their subsequent rise to power in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries"</a>. In Matthee, Rudi (ed.). The Safavid World. Routledge Worlds (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 15–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003170822">10.4324/9781003170822</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-17082-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-003-17082-2"><bdi>978-1-003-17082-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236371308">236371308</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+emergence+of+the+Safavids+as+a+mystical+order+and+their+subsequent+rise+to+power+in+the+fourteenth+and+fifteenth+centuries&rft.btitle=The+Safavid+World&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.series=Routledge+Worlds&rft.pages=15-36&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236371308%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781003170822&rft.isbn=978-1-003-17082-2&rft.aulast=Baltac%C4%B1o%C4%9Flu-Brammer&rft.aufirst=Ay%C5%9Fe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgWBCEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-R.M.-285"><a href="#cite_ref-R.M._285-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ebn-bazzaz">"RM Savory. Ebn Bazzaz"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=RM+Savory.+Ebn+Bazzaz.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Febn-bazzaz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> Encyclopædia Iranica </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <ul><li>Roemer, H.R. (1986). "The Safavid Period" in Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence. The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge University Press. pp. 214, 229</li> <li>Blow, David (2009). Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend. I.B.Tauris. p. 3</li> <li>Savory, Roger M.; Karamustafa, Ahmet T. (1998) ESMĀʿĪL I ṢAFAWĪ. Encyclopaedia Iranica Vol. VIII, Fasc. 6, pp. 628-636</li> <li>Ghereghlou, Kioumars (2016). ḤAYDAR ṢAFAVI. Encyclopaedia Iranica</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhanbaghi2006" class="citation book cs1">Khanbaghi, Aptin (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early. London & New York: IB Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84511-056-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-84511-056-0"><bdi>1-84511-056-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fire%2C+the+Star+and+the+Cross%3A+Minority+Religions+in+Medieval+and+Early&rft.place=London+%26+New+York&rft.pub=IB+Tauris&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-84511-056-0&rft.aulast=Khanbaghi&rft.aufirst=Aptin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988">, pp. 130–1 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYarshater2001493-288"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYarshater2001493_288-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYarshater2001">Yarshater 2001</a>, p. 493. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhanbaghi2006130-289"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhanbaghi2006130_289-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKhanbaghi2006">Khanbaghi 2006</a>, p. 130. </li> <li id="cite_note-Anthony_Bryer_1975-290"><a href="#cite_ref-Anthony_Bryer_1975_290-0">^</a> Anthony Bryer. "Greeks and Türkmens: The Pontic Exception", Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 29 (1975), Appendix II "Genealogy of the Muslim Marriages of the Princesses of Trebizond" </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> Peter B. Golden (2002) "An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples"; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara, p. 321 </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> "Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> Why is there such confusion about the origins of this important dynasty, which reasserted Iranian identity and established an independent Iranian state after eight and a half centuries of rule by foreign dynasties? RM Savory, Iran under the Safavids (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1980), p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> Alireza Shapur Shahbazi (2005), "The History of the Idea of Iran", in Vesta Curtis ed., Birth of the Persian Empire, IB Tauris, London, p. 108: "Similarly the collapse of Sassanian Eranshahr in AD 650 did not end Iranians' national idea. The name "Iran" disappeared from official records of the Saffarids, Samanids, Buyids, Saljuqs and their successor. But one unofficially used the name Iran, Eranshahr, and similar national designations, particularly Mamalek-e Iran or "Iranian lands", which exactly translated the old Avestan term Ariyanam Daihunam. On the other hand, when the Safavids (not Reza Shah, as is popularly assumed) revived a national state officially known as Iran, bureaucratic usage in the Ottoman empire and even Iran itself could still refer to it by other descriptive and traditional appellations". </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBloomBlair2000">Bloom & Blair 2000</a>, pp. 199–204 </li> <li id="cite_note-Richards1995-296"><a href="#cite_ref-Richards1995_296-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichards1995" class="citation cs2">Richards, John F. (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC">The Mughal Empire</a>, Cambridge University Press, p. 6, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56603-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56603-2"><bdi>978-0-521-56603-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mughal+Empire&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56603-2&rft.aulast=Richards&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHHyVh29gy4QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schimmel2004-297"><a href="#cite_ref-Schimmel2004_297-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchimmel2004" class="citation cs2">Schimmel, Annemarie (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N7sewQQzOHUC">The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture</a>, Reaktion Books, p. 22, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-185-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-185-3"><bdi>978-1-86189-185-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Empire+of+the+Great+Mughals%3A+History%2C+Art+and+Culture&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-86189-185-3&rft.aulast=Schimmel&rft.aufirst=Annemarie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN7sewQQzOHUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Balabanlilar2012-298"><a href="#cite_ref-Balabanlilar2012_298-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalabanlilar2012" class="citation cs2">Balabanlilar, Lisa (15 January 2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7PS6PrH3rtkC">Imperial Identity in Mughal Empire: Memory and Dynastic Politics in Early Modern Central Asia</a>, I.B.Tauris, p. 2, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84885-726-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84885-726-1"><bdi>978-1-84885-726-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Identity+in+Mughal+Empire%3A+Memory+and+Dynastic+Politics+in+Early+Modern+Central+Asia&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2012-01-15&rft.isbn=978-1-84885-726-1&rft.aulast=Balabanlilar&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7PS6PrH3rtkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> Jeroen Duindam (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ky2CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA105">Dynasties: A Global History of Power, 1300–1800, p. 105</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohammada2007" class="citation book cs1">Mohammada, Malika (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dwzbYvQszf4C&pg=PA300">The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India</a>. Aakar Books. p. 300. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-89833-18-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-89833-18-3"><bdi>978-81-89833-18-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Foundations+of+the+Composite+Culture+in+India&rft.pages=300&rft.pub=Aakar+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-81-89833-18-3&rft.aulast=Mohammada&rft.aufirst=Malika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdwzbYvQszf4C%26pg%3DPA300&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDirk_Collier2016" class="citation book cs1">Dirk Collier (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT15">The Great Mughals and their India</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hay_House" title="Hay House">Hay House</a>. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-84544-98-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-84544-98-0"><bdi>978-93-84544-98-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Mughals+and+their+India&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Hay+House&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-93-84544-98-0&rft.au=Dirk+Collier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D40ywDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-r1-302">^ <a href="#cite_ref-r1_302-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-r1_302-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090923222924/http://www.soas.ac.uk/southasia/research/nilc/indopersian/">"Indo-Persian Literature Conference: SOAS: North Indian Literary Culture (1450–1650)"</a>. SOAS. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soas.ac.uk/southasia/research/nilc/indopersian/">the original</a> on 23 September 2009. Retrieved 28 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indo-Persian+Literature+Conference%3A+SOAS%3A+North+Indian+Literary+Culture+%281450%E2%80%931650%29&rft.pub=SOAS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.soas.ac.uk%2Fsouthasia%2Fresearch%2Fnilc%2Findopersian%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-persianatemogul-303"><a href="#cite_ref-persianatemogul_303-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Walbridge" class="citation book cs1">John Walbridge. God and Logic in Islam: The Caliphate of Reason. p. 165. <q>Persianate Mogul Empire.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God+and+Logic+in+Islam%3A+The+Caliphate+of+Reason&rft.pages=165&rft.au=John+Walbridge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Barrett_Kelly" class="citation book cs1">John Barrett Kelly. 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Potomac Books, Inc. pp. 66–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59797-499-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59797-499-8"><bdi>978-1-59797-499-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Three+Circles+of+War%3A+Understanding+the+Dynamics+of+Conflict+in+Iraq&rft.pages=66-&rft.pub=Potomac+Books%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59797-499-8&rft.au=Heather+S.+Gregg&rft.au=Hy+S.+Rothstein&rft.au=John+Arquilla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfqRgDU1kKi0C%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-331"><a href="#cite_ref-331">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaid_Amir_Arjomand2009" class="citation book cs1">Said Amir Arjomand (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mx9Tdoz6axoC&pg=PA195">After Khomeini: Iran Under His Successors</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 195–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974576-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974576-0"><bdi>978-0-19-974576-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Khomeini%3A+Iran+Under+His+Successors&rft.pages=195-&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-974576-0&rft.au=Said+Amir+Arjomand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMx9Tdoz6axoC%26pg%3DPA195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-332"><a href="#cite_ref-332">^</a> Farrokh, Kaveh. Iran at War: 1500–1988. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78096-221-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78096-221-4">978-1-78096-221-4</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> Books, articles, and journals <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-BalādhurīHitti1916" class="citation book cs1">al-Balādhurī, A. Y.; Hitti, P. K. (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z5FCAAAAYAAJ">The origins of the Islamic state: Being a translation from the Arabic accompanied with annotations, geographic and historic notes of the Kitâbfutûḥ al-buldân of al-Imâm abu l'Abbâs Aḥmad ibn-Jâbir al-Balâdhuri</a>. New York.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+origins+of+the+Islamic+state%3A+Being+a+translation+from+the+Arabic+accompanied+with+annotations%2C+geographic+and+historic+notes+of+the+Kit%C3%A2bfut%C3%BB%E1%B8%A5+al-buld%C3%A2n+of+al-Im%C3%A2m+abu+l%27Abb%C3%A2s+A%E1%B8%A5mad+ibn-J%C3%A2bir+al-Bal%C3%A2dhuri&rft.pub=New+York&rft.date=1916&rft.aulast=al-Bal%C4%81dhur%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=A.+Y.&rft.au=Hitti%2C+P.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz5FCAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnkerl2000" class="citation book cs1">Ankerl, Guy (2000). Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INUPress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-88155-004-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-88155-004-1"><bdi>978-2-88155-004-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coexisting+Contemporary+Civilizations%3A+Arabo-Muslim%2C+Bharati%2C+Chinese%2C+and+Western&rft.pub=INUPress&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-2-88155-004-1&rft.aulast=Ankerl&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmstrong2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karen_Armstrong" title="Karen Armstrong">Armstrong, Karen</a> (2000). Islam: A Short History. Modern Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-64040-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-64040-0"><bdi>978-0-679-64040-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+A+Short+History&rft.pub=Modern+Library&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-679-64040-0&rft.aulast=Armstrong&rft.aufirst=Karen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsherTalbot2008" class="citation cs2">Asher, C. B.; Talbot, C. (2008), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51750-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51750-8"><bdi>978-0-521-51750-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+Before+Europe&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51750-8&rft.aulast=Asher&rft.aufirst=C.+B.&rft.au=Talbot%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBentleyZiegler2006" class="citation book cs1">Bentley, Jerry H.; Ziegler, Herbert F. (2006). Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past. New York: <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill">McGraw-Hill</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Traditions+and+Encounters%3A+A+Global+Perspective+on+the+Past&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Bentley&rft.aufirst=Jerry+H.&rft.au=Ziegler%2C+Herbert+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerkey2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Berkey" title="Jonathan Berkey">Berkey, Jonathan Porter</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/formationofislam0000berk">The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800</a>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Formation+of+Islam%3A+Religion+and+Society+in+the+Near+East%2C+600%E2%80%931800&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Berkey&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+Porter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fformationofislam0000berk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloomBlair2000" class="citation book cs1">Bloom; Blair (2000). Islam:A Thousand Years of Faith and Power.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3AA+Thousand+Years+of+Faith+and+Power&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Bloom&rft.au=Blair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBleeker1968" class="citation cs2">Bleeker, C.J. (1968), Fasting in the Koran, BRILL Archive</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fasting+in+the+Koran&rft.pub=BRILL+Archive&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Bleeker&rft.aufirst=C.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÇakmak2017" class="citation book cs1">Çakmak, Cenap (2017). Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia. 4 volumes. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-217-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-217-5"><bdi>978-1-61069-217-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+A+Worldwide+Encyclopedia&rft.series=4+volumes&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-217-5&rft.aulast=%C3%87akmak&rft.aufirst=Cenap&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2004" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain 409–711. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405149662" title="Special:BookSources/9781405149662"><bdi>9781405149662</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visigothic+Spain+409%E2%80%93711&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons+Ltd&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781405149662&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonner2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Donner, Fred M. (2010). "Modern approaches to early Islamic history". In Robinson, Chase F. (ed.). The New Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries. Cambridge University Press. pp. 625–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83823-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83823-8"><bdi>978-0-521-83823-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Modern+approaches+to+early+Islamic+history&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+History+of+Islam&rft.pages=625-47&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83823-8&rft.aulast=Donner&rft.aufirst=Fred+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Esposito" title="John Esposito">Esposito, John</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john">Oxford History of Islam</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510799-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510799-9"><bdi>978-0-19-510799-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+History+of+Islam&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-510799-9&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordhistoryofi00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart1978" class="citation book cs1">Hart, Michael (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/10000mich_0">The 100:Ranking of the most influential persons in history</a>. New York: Carol Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8065-1057-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8065-1057-6"><bdi>978-0-8065-1057-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+100%3ARanking+of+the+most+influential+persons+in+history&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Carol+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-8065-1057-6&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F10000mich_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHazleton2013" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Lesley_Hazleton" title="Lesley Hazleton">Hazleton, Lesley</a> (2013), The First Muslim: The Story of Muhammad, Atlantic Books</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Muslim%3A+The+Story+of+Muhammad&rft.pub=Atlantic+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Hazleton&rft.aufirst=Lesley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolt1977a" class="citation book cs1">P. M. Holt; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a> (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29136-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29136-1"><bdi>978-0-521-29136-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+Islam%2C+Vol.+1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29136-1&rft.au=P.+M.+Holt&rft.au=Bernard+Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolt1977b" class="citation book cs1">P. M. Holt; Ann K. S. Lambton; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a> (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29137-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29137-8"><bdi>978-0-521-29137-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+Islam%2C+Vol.+2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29137-8&rft.au=P.+M.+Holt&rft.au=Ann+K.+S.+Lambton&rft.au=Bernard+Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHourani2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Hourani" title="Albert Hourani">Albert Hourani</a>; <a href="/wiki/Malise_Ruthven" title="Malise Ruthven">Malise Ruthven</a> (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01017-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01017-8"><bdi>978-0-674-01017-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Arab+Peoples&rft.pub=Belknap+Press%3B+Revised+edition&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01017-8&rft.au=Albert+Hourani&rft.au=Malise+Ruthven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHourani2002" class="citation book cs1">Hourani, Albert (2002). A History of the Arab Peoples. 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Garnet & Ithaca Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85964-154-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85964-154-5"><bdi>978-1-85964-154-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+art+and+architecture+of+islamic+cairo&rft.pub=Garnet+%26+Ithaca+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-85964-154-5&rft.aulast=Yeomans&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsNVBbTuPcPkC%26pg%3DPA53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaydānMargoliouth1907" class="citation book cs1">Zaydān, J.; Margoliouth, D. S. (1907). "Being the fourth part of Jurjí Zaydán's history of Islamic civilization.". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DRByAAAAMAAJ">Umayyads and ʻAbbásids</a>. Leyden: E.J. Brill, imprimerie orientale.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Being+the+fourth+part+of+Jurj%C3%AD+Zayd%C3%A1n%27s+history+of+Islamic+civilization.&rft.btitle=Umayyads+and+%CA%BBAbb%C3%A1sids&rft.place=Leyden&rft.pub=E.J.+Brill%2C+imprimerie+orientale&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Zayd%C4%81n&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Margoliouth%2C+D.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_DRByAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IYXNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA136">"Islam Aflame with Revolt"</a>. The World's work. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 1900.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islam+Aflame+with+Revolt&rft.btitle=The+World%27s+work&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Doubleday%2C+Page+%26+Co&rft.date=1900&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIYXNAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li></ul> Encyclopedias <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._J._BearmanTh._BianquisC._E._BosworthE._van_Donzel" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/P._J._Bearman" class="mw-redirect" title="P. J. Bearman">P. J. Bearman</a>; Th. Bianquis; <a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">C. E. Bosworth</a>; E. van Donzel; <a href="/wiki/W._P._Heinrichs" class="mw-redirect" title="W. P. Heinrichs">W. P. Heinrichs</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" title="Encyclopaedia of Islam">Encyclopaedia of Islam Online</a>. Brill Academic Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912">1573-3912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam+Online&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.issn=1573-3912&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._J._BearmanTh._BianquisC._E._BosworthE._van_Donzel" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/P._J._Bearman" class="mw-redirect" title="P. J. Bearman">P. J. Bearman</a>; Th. Bianquis; <a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">C. E. Bosworth</a>; E. van Donzel; <a href="/wiki/W._P._Heinrichs" class="mw-redirect" title="W. P. Heinrichs">W. P. Heinrichs</a> (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition (1954-2005). Brill Academic Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+New+Edition+%281954-2005%29&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeillBentleyChristian2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/berkshireencyclo0004unse_k2y1">Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History</a>. Vol. 4. Berkshire Publishing Group. 2005. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9743091-0-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9743091-0-1"><bdi>978-0-9743091-0-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Berkshire+Encyclopedia+of+World+History&rft.pub=Berkshire+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-9743091-0-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fberkshireencyclo0004unse_k2y1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated; Rev Ed edition. 2005. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-236-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-236-9"><bdi>978-1-59339-236-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Incorporated%3B+Rev+Ed+edition&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-59339-236-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Baynes, T. S. (1888). The Encyclopædia Britannica: A dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature. New York, N.Y: H.G. Allen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BZ0MAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA545">pp. 545–606</a> .</li> <li>In Pace, E. A. (1922). The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline and History of the Catholic Church. New York: Encyclopedia Press. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RmoQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA424">Mohammed and Mohammedanism.</a>". pp. 424–28</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYarshater2001" class="citation book cs1">Yarshater, Ehsan (2001). Encyclopædia Iranica. Routledge & Kegan Paul. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0933273566" title="Special:BookSources/978-0933273566"><bdi>978-0933273566</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0933273566&rft.aulast=Yarshater&rft.aufirst=Ehsan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁgoston2021" class="citation book cs1">Ágoston, Gábor (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mXALEAAAQBAJ">The Last Muslim Conquest: The Ottoman Empire and Its Wars in Europe</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Woodstock,_Oxfordshire" title="Woodstock, Oxfordshire">Woodstock, Oxfordshire</a>: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv1b3qqdc">10.2307/j.ctv1b3qqdc</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-20538-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-20538-0"><bdi>978-0-691-20538-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1b3qqdc">j.ctv1b3qqdc</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2020046920">2020046920</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1224042619">1224042619</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:243417695">243417695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Muslim+Conquest%3A+The+Ottoman+Empire+and+Its+Wars+in+Europe&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey+and+Woodstock%2C+Oxfordshire&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv1b3qqdc%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv1b3qqdc&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1224042619&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2020046920&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A243417695%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=978-0-691-20538-0&rft.aulast=%C3%81goston&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A1bor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmXALEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony2020" class="citation book cs1">Anthony, Sean W. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RSzJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">"Introduction: The Making of the Historical Muhammad – Part I: Muhammad the Merchant"</a>. Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The Making of the Prophet of Islam. <a href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oakland,_California" title="Oakland, California">Oakland</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. pp. 1–84. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2F9780520974524-004">10.1525/9780520974524-004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-34041-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-34041-1"><bdi>978-0-520-34041-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2019035331">2019035331</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1153189160">1153189160</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240957346">240957346</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+The+Making+of+the+Historical+Muhammad+%E2%80%93+Part+I%3A+Muhammad+the+Merchant&rft.btitle=Muhammad+and+the+Empires+of+Faith%3A+The+Making+of+the+Prophet+of+Islam&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Oakland&rft.pages=1-84&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240957346%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2F9780520974524-004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1153189160&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2019035331&rft.isbn=978-0-520-34041-1&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=Sean+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRSzJDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2014" class="citation book cs1">Black, Antony (2014) [2001]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TjWrBgAAQBAJ">History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>: <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_University_Press" title="Edinburgh University Press">Edinburgh University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-8878-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-8878-4"><bdi>978-0-7486-8878-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/855017249">855017249</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Islamic+Political+Thought%3A+From+the+Prophet+to+the+Present&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F855017249&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-8878-4&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Antony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTjWrBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConradJabbur1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Conrad" title="Lawrence Conrad">Conrad, Lawrence I.</a>; Jabbur, Suhayl J., eds. (1995). The Bedouins and the Desert: Aspects of Nomadic Life in the Arab East. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. <a href="/wiki/Albany,_New_York" title="Albany, New York">Albany, New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-2852-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-2852-8"><bdi>978-0-7914-2852-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bedouins+and+the+Desert%3A+Aspects+of+Nomadic+Life+in+the+Arab+East&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.series=SUNY+Series+in+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-2852-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaider2019" class="citation book cs1">Haider, Najam (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QtGoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">"Modeling Islamic Historical Writing"</a>. 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Comparative Studies in Religion and Society (Updated ed.). <a href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. pp. 1–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2F9780520929753-002">10.1525/9780520929753-002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92975-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92975-3"><bdi>978-0-520-92975-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Context%3A+Globalization%2C+Fragmentation%2C+and+Disorder&rft.btitle=The+Challenge+of+Fundamentalism%3A+Political+Islam+and+the+New+World+Disorder&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.series=Comparative+Studies+in+Religion+and+Society&rft.pages=1-19&rft.edition=Updated&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2F9780520929753-002&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92975-3&rft.aulast=Tibi&rft.aufirst=Bassam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFGAcU6GB1EUC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYılmaz2018" class="citation book cs1">Yılmaz, Hüseyin (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N8mXDwAAQBAJ">Caliphate Redefined: The Mystical Turn in Ottoman Political Thought</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Woodstock,_Oxfordshire" title="Woodstock, Oxfordshire">Woodstock, Oxfordshire</a>: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvc77bv4">10.2307/j.ctvc77bv4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8804-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8804-7"><bdi>978-1-4008-8804-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvc77bv4">j.ctvc77bv4</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2017936620">2017936620</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1203056833">1203056833</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caliphate+Redefined%3A+The+Mystical+Turn+in+Ottoman+Political+Thought&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey+and+Woodstock%2C+Oxfordshire&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctvc77bv4%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctvc77bv4&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1203056833&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2017936620&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-8804-7&rft.aulast=Y%C4%B1lmaz&rft.aufirst=H%C3%BCseyin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN8mXDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islam" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islam&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Islam" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Islam" title="Template:History of Islam"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Islam" title="Template talk:History of Islam"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Islam" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Islam"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Islam" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Islam</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_religious_leaders" title="Islamic religious leaders">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Islamic history">Timeline of Islamic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Shi'a Imams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography of early Islam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">600–700 AD</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Islamic civil war (Fitna)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Fitna" title="Second Fitna">Second Islamic civil war (Fitna)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shi%27a_Century" title="Shi'a Century">Shi'a Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Revival" title="Sunni Revival">Sunni Revival</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Muslim conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinid_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Marinid Sultanate">Marinid Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty" title="Nasrid dynasty">Nasrid dynasty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Revolt" title="Berber Revolt">Berber Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rustamid_dynasty" title="Rustamid dynasty">Rustamid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aghlabids" class="mw-redirect" title="Aghlabids">Aghlabids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhallabids" title="Muhallabids">Muhallabids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Sicily" title="Muslim Sicily">Muslim Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafsid_dynasty" title="Hafsid dynasty">Hafsid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinid_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Marinid Sultanate">Marinid Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wattasid_dynasty" title="Wattasid dynasty">Wattasid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Saadi dynasty">Saadi dynasty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Early Islamic Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uqaylid_dynasty" title="Uqaylid dynasty">Uqaylid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zengid_dynasty" title="Zengid dynasty">Zengid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahri_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahri dynasty">Bahri dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burji_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Burji dynasty">Burji dynasty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)">Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathiri" title="Kathiri">Kathiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahra_Sultanate" title="Mahra Sultanate">Mahra Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_South_Arabia" title="Federation of South Arabia">Federation of South Arabia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Intermezzo" title="Iranian Intermezzo">Iranian Intermezzo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran" title="Alid dynasties of northern Iran">Alavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziyarid_dynasty" title="Ziyarid dynasty">Ziyarid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuq_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuq dynasty">Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarazmian dynasty">Khwarazmian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzaffarids_(Iran)" title="Muzaffarids (Iran)">Muzaffarids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chobanids" title="Chobanids">Chobanids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalairid_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalairid Sultanate">Jalairid Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_dynasty" title="Timurid dynasty">Timurid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara_Koyunlu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kara Koyunlu">Kara Koyunlu (Black Sheep Turkomans)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu (White Sheep Turkomans)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotak" title="Hotak">Hotak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_dynasty" title="Afsharid dynasty">Afsharid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi dynasty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Sultanate of Rum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_beyliks" title="Anatolian beyliks">Anatolian beyliks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe" title="Ottoman wars in Europe">Expansion into Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe" title="Ottoman wars in Europe">Bosnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Southern Italy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Kara-Khanid Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarazmian dynasty">Khwarazmian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nogai_Horde" title="Nogai Horde">Nogai Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Khanate" title="Kazakh Khanate">Kazakh Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan" title="Khanate of Kazan">Khanate of Kazan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khanate of Khiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Sibir" title="Khanate of Sibir">Khanate of Sibir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_rulers_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent">Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deccan_sultanates" title="Deccan sultanates">Deccan sultanates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahmani_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmani Sultanate">Bahmani Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaunpur_Sultanate" title="Jaunpur Sultanate">Jaunpur Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzaffarids_(Gujarat)" title="Muzaffarids (Gujarat)">Muzaffarids (Gujarat)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarat_Sultanate" title="Gujarat Sultanate">Gujarat Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sultans_on_the_Comoros" title="List of sultans on the Comoros">Sultans on the Comoros</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southeast Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam_in_Southeast_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia">Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam_in_Indonesia" title="Spread of Islam in Indonesia">Spread of Islam in Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah_Sultanate" title="Kedah Sultanate">Kedah Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Empire">Brunei Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johor_Sultanate" title="Johor Sultanate">Johor Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malacca_Sultanate" title="Malacca Sultanate">Malacca Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aceh_Sultanate" title="Aceh Sultanate">Aceh Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banten_Sultanate" title="Banten Sultanate">Banten Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Maguindanao" title="Sultanate of Maguindanao">Maguindanao Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sulu Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Ternate" title="Sultanate of Ternate">Ternate Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mataram_Sultanate" title="Mataram Sultanate">Mataram Sultanate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angoche_Sultanate" title="Angoche Sultanate">Angoche Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Aussa" title="Sultanate of Aussa">Sultanate of Aussa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dar_Sila" title="Dar Sila">Dar Sila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Dahlak" title="Sultanate of Dahlak">Sultanate of Dahlak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funj_Sultanate" title="Funj Sultanate">Funj Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Ifat" title="Sultanate of Ifat">Sultanate of Ifat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Bagirmi" title="Sultanate of Bagirmi">Sultanate of Bagirmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Adal" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Adal">Sultanate of Adal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Darfur" title="Sultanate of Darfur">Sultanate of Darfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Zanzibar" title="Sultanate of Zanzibar">Sultanate of Zanzibar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" title="History of the Islamic Republic of Iran">Islamic Republic of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Movement" title="Pakistan Movement">Pakistan Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Oman" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Oman">Sultanate of Oman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islam_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam_topics" title="Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islam_topics" title="Template talk:Islam topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islam_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islam_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Islam" title="Outline of Islam">Outline of Islam</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God in Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">In Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Revelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Qadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Judgement Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiest_sites_in_Islam" title="Holiest sites in Islam">Holiest sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Shahada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Salah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Sawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_religious_leaders" title="Islamic religious leaders">Leaders</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_Islam" title="Timeline of the history of Islam">Timeline of the history of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Shi'a Imams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Religious texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Seerah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qisas_Al-Anbiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Qisas Al-Anbiya">Story of Prophets</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Denominations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazili" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazili">Mu'tazili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Bektashi Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhakkima" title="Muhakkima">Muhakkima</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azariqa" title="Azariqa">Azariqa</a></li> <li>Moderate Kharijites <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azzabas" title="Azzabas">Azzabas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukkari" title="Nukkari">Nukkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam#Wahbi_school" title="Ibadi Islam">Wahbi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufri" title="Sufri">Sufri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdat" title="Najdat">Najdat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lahore_Ahmadiyya_Movement_for_the_Propagation_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam">Lahori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Life</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_clothing" title="Islamic clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_flags" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_in_Islam" title="Morality in Islam">Moral teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Political aspects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qurban_(Islamic_ritual_sacrifice)" title="Qurban (Islamic ritual sacrifice)">Qurbani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_humanity" title="Islam and humanity">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT in Islam">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Islam by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="LawJurisprudence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukuk" title="Sukuk">Sukuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takaful" title="Takaful">Takaful</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murabaha" title="Murabaha">Murabaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">Riba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Hygiene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghusl" title="Ghusl">Ghusl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miswak" title="Miswak">Miswak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najis" title="Najis">Najis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayammum" title="Tayammum">Tayammum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_toilet_etiquette" title="Islamic toilet etiquette">Toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wudu" title="Wudu">Wudu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_family_jurisprudence" title="Islamic family jurisprudence">Family</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marital_jurisprudence" title="Islamic marital jurisprudence">Marriage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_sexual_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic sexual jurisprudence">Sex</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haya_(Islam)" title="Haya (Islam)">Haya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marriage_contract" title="Islamic marriage contract">Marriage contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahr" title="Mahr">Mahr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahram" title="Mahram">Mahram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Islam" title="Marriage in Islam">Nikah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikah_mut%27ah" title="Nikah mut'ah">Nikah mut'ah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zina" title="Zina">Zina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baligh" title="Baligh">Baligh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Cleanliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_criminal_jurisprudence" title="Islamic criminal jurisprudence">Criminal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_blasphemy" title="Islam and blasphemy">Blasphemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Islam" title="Capital punishment in Islam">Death penalty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhabihah" title="Dhabihah">Dhabiĥa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Dhimmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Islam" title="Divorce in Islam">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws" title="Islamic dietary laws">Diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adab_(Islam)" title="Adab (Islam)">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maisir" title="Maisir">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">Gender segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_honorifics" title="Islamic honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudud" title="Hudud">Hudud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_inheritance_jurisprudence" title="Islamic inheritance jurisprudence">Inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war in Islam">POWs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_sharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sources of sharia">Sources of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_theological_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theological jurisprudence">Theological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">Schools of islamic jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Islamic_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_rug" title="Oriental rug">Carpets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Theological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_evolution" title="Islamic views on evolution">Creationism (evolution)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Liberalism and progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu%27ubiyya" title="Shu'ubiyya">Shu'ubiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_non-Islamic_places_of_worship_into_mosques" title="Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques">Conversion to mosques</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Mormonism" title="Islam and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Islam" title="Protestantism and Islam">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze#Relationship_with_Muslims" title="Druze">Druzism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Jainism" title="Islam and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Sikhism" title="Islam and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam_by_country" title="Apostasy in Islam by country">Apostasy in Islam by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-Muslims" title="Ex-Muslims">Ex-Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_Muslims" title="List of former Muslims">List of former Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ex-Muslim_organisations" title="List of ex-Muslim organisations">List of ex-Muslim organisations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism of Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Muslim">Cultural Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islamism" title="Criticism of Islamism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Islamism" title="Post-Islamism">Post-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutbism" title="Qutbism">Qutbism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism" title="Islamic extremism">Islamic extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">Islamic terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_miracles" title="Islamic view of miracles">Islamic view of miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_domestic_violence" title="Islam and domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_in_Islam" title="Nursing in Islam">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quran_and_miracles" class="mw-redirect" title="Quran and miracles">Quran and miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_Islam" title="Symbols of Islam">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_religions" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_religions" title="Template:History of religions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_religions" title="Template talk:History of religions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_religions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of religions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">List of religions and spiritual traditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">Major groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="History of the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rastafari" title="History of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Amerindian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Inca_Empire" title="Religion in the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Confucianism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism" title="History of Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shintoism#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Shintoism">Shinto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jainism" title="History of Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sikhism" title="History of Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism#History" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism#Origins" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Neopaganism">Neopaganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wicca" title="History of Wicca">Wicca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Thought" title="History of New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Kardecist spiritism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Religions of the ancient Near East">Near East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic religion">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Illyro-thracian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic Hinduism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Evolution of morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Evolutionary origin of religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atheism" title="History of atheism">History of atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_theology" title="History of theology">History of theology (Greco-Abrahamic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_School_(history_of_religion)" title="Roman School (history of religion)">Roman School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q642379#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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[\"CITEREFBalabanlilar2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaltacıoğlu-Brammer2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeeson1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBentleyZiegler2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerkey2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBinita_Mehta2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlankinship1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBleeker1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloomBlair2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowen1928\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrague2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuhlEhlertNothSchimmel2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBukhari\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurjor_Avari2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCatherine_Ella_Blanshard_AsherCynthia_Talbot2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapra2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristian_Julien_Robin2012\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFClifford_Edmund_Bosworth2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollins2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConradJabbur1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConstable1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDirk_Collier2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonner2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonner2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrews2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErinn_Banting2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaroqhi1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFierro2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFindley2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoody2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlick2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlubb1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrigor_of_Akanc1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaider2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanne2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHart1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHasan1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHazleton2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeather_S._GreggHy_S._RothsteinJohn_Arquilla2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenry_Hallam1870\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenry_Melvill_GwatkinJames_Pounder_WhitneyJoseph_Robson_TannerCharles_William_Previté-Orton1913\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHitti1946\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolden1895\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolt1977a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolt1977b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoltLambtonLewis1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHourani2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHourani2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoyland2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHusayn_Haykal2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFImperatoImperato2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIrving1868\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIrving_M._Zeitlin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIzutsu2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Barrett_Kelly\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Capper1918\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Walbridge\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKadri2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhaddūrī2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhalid_Muhammad_KhalidMuhammad_Khali_Khalid2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKhanbaghi2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhatab2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoprulu1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKurzman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLane1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLapidus2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLe1900\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeaman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeonard_Michael_Kroll2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLester1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1995\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLuscombeJonathan_Riley-Smith2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM.L.D.2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahmoud_A._El-Gamal2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark_Weston2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin_Sicker2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaulana_Muhammad_Ali2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMcNeillBentleyChristian2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilani2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMohammada2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuhammad_Al-Buraey1985\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMuir1877\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuir2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasr2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNimtz1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Callaghan1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOliver-Dee2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP._J._BearmanTh._BianquisC._E._BosworthE._van_Donzel\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFP._M._HoltPeter_Malcolm_HoltAnn_K._S._LambtonBernard_Lewis1977\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPakatchiAhmadi2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeacock2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Lock2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeters1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeters2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoliak2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolk2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoston1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR._B._Serjeant1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR._B._Serjeant1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRahman1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRahman1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamadan2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRichard1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichards1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobb2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogerson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenthal1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoy_Choudhury\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFS._Starr2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSahner2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaid_Amir_Arjomand2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaikal2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSailendra_Nath_Sen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalePsalmanazarBowerShelvocke779\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSami_Ayad_HannaGeorge_H._Gardner1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSampler_\u0026amp;_Eigner2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchimmel2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoleimani2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSonn2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpencer_Tucker2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpevack2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSrivastava1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStowasser1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSubtelny1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSylvia_Schein2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas_Spencer_Baynes1878\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTibi2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimothy_E._Gregory2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTracy2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuckerRoberts2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaugn2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFW._Montgomery_Watt1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatt2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilferd_Madelung1998\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1904\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYarshater2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYeomans2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYılmaz2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZaydānMargoliouth1907\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimney2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFal-BalādhurīHitti1916\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Ess2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÁgoston2021\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFÁgostonMasters2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÇakmak2017\"] = 1,\n [\"Ibn\"] = 1,\n [\"Lan94\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 8,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 154,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 15,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 10,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Color box\"] = 2,\n [\"Colour box\"] = 7,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 3,\n [\"Div col\"] = 2,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 7,\n [\"Google books\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 5,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 22,\n [\"Harvtxt\"] = 9,\n [\"History of Islam\"] = 1,\n [\"History of religion\"] = 1,\n [\"History of religions\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 21,\n [\"Islam\"] = 1,\n [\"Islam topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 2,\n [\"Legend\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 30,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 2,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Rp\"] = 4,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 29,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 4,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Tlit\"] = 1,\n [\"Unbulleted list\"] = 1,\n [\"Use Oxford spelling\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Verify source\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 13,\n [\"Wikibooks\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","440","22.0"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","340","17.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","10.0"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","180","9.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","4.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","80","4.0"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","60","3.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","60","3.0"],["type","40","2.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","40","2.0"],["[others]","480","24.0"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c59558b9d-l5884","timestamp":"20241130110015","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of Islam","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_Islam","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q642379","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q642379","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors 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