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Correlates of crime - Wikipedia

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id="toc-Biosocial_criminology_and_other_analysis_of_environmental_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biosocial_criminology_and_other_analysis_of_environmental_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Biosocial criminology and other analysis of environmental factors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biosocial_criminology_and_other_analysis_of_environmental_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">penology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 1.0em 1.0em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/220px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/330px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/440px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="525" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken_windows_theory" title="Broken windows theory">Broken windows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_efficacy" title="Collective efficacy">Collective efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_analysis" title="Crime analysis">Crime analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization" title="Criminalization">Criminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">Differential association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">Labeling theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">Psychopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory_(criminology)" title="Rational choice theory (criminology)">Rational choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_and_actuarial_criminology" title="Risk and actuarial criminology">Risk and actuarial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_control_theory" title="Social control theory">Social control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">Social learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)" title="Strain theory (sociology)">Strain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">Subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_victimisation" title="Secondary victimisation">Secondary victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_blaming" title="Victim blaming">Victim blaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_rights" title="Victims&#39; rights">Victims' rights</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Types of <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li>Against <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_person" title="Offence against the person">Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Offence against the state">State</a></li></ul></li> <li>Class <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_crime" title="Blue-collar crime">Blue-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_crime" title="White-collar crime">White-collar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_case" title="Cold case">Cold case</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_crime" title="Perfect crime">Perfect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency" title="Juvenile delinquency">Juvenile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">Organized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public-order_crime" title="Public-order crime"><span class="nowrap">Public-order</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_crime" title="State crime">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-corporate_crime" title="State-corporate crime">State-corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_crime" title="Transnational crime">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimless_crime" title="Victimless crime">Victimless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offender_profiling" title="Offender profiling">Profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Crime_Reports" title="Uniform Crime Reports">Uniform Crime Reports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_prevention" title="Crime prevention">Crime prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice_reform" title="Criminal justice reform">reform</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sentencing_reform" title="Sentencing reform">sentencing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">Crime statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Justice_Statistics" title="Bureau of Justice Statistics">BJS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Incident-Based_Reporting_System" title="National Incident-Based Reporting System">NIBRS</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">Penology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denunciation_(penology)" title="Denunciation (penology)">Denunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(penology)" title="Deterrence (penology)">Deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incapacitation_(penology)" title="Incapacitation (penology)">Incapacitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">Prison</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prison_abolition_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison abolition movement">abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_prison" title="Open prison">open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_reform" title="Prison reform">reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners&#39; rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">Recidivism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a> in penology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;;padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_justice" title="Participatory justice">Participatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restorative_justice" title="Restorative justice">Restorative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformative_justice" title="Transformative justice">Transformative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice" title="Retributive justice">Retributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice#Utilitarian_justice" title="Justice">Utilitarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_confinement" title="Solitary confinement">Solitary confinement</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_criminology" title="Anarchist criminology">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_school_(criminology)" title="Classical school (criminology)">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_criminology" title="Integrative criminology">Integrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_of_criminology" title="Italian school of criminology">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_criminology" title="Marxist criminology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-classical_school_(criminology)" title="Neo-classical school (criminology)">Neo-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_populism" title="Penal populism">Populist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernist school">Postmodernist</a></li> <li>Realism <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left_realism" title="Left realism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_realism" title="Right realism">Right</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Subfields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Criminology" title="American Society of Criminology">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_criminology" title="Cultural criminology">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime"> Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_criminology" title="Experimental criminology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_criminology" title="Public criminology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_criminology" title="Radical criminology">Radical criminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Browse</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_criminology_articles" title="Index of criminology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_journals" title="Category:Criminology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_organizations" title="Category:Criminology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_criminologists" title="List of criminologists">People</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template talk:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>correlates of crime</b> explore the associations of specific non-criminal factors with specific crimes. </p><p>The field of <a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a> studies the dynamics of crime. Most of these studies use <a href="/wiki/Correlation_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlation (statistics)">correlational</a> data; that is, they attempt to identify various factors are associated with specific categories of criminal behavior. Such correlational studies led to hypotheses about the causes of these crimes. </p><p><i>The Handbook of Crime Correlates</i> (2009) is a systematic review of 5200 empirical studies on crime that have been published worldwide. A crime consistency score represents the strength of relationships. The scoring depends on how consistently a <a href="/wiki/Statistically_significant" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistically significant">statistically significant</a> relationship was identified across multiple studies. The authors claim that the review summarizes most of what is currently known about the variables associated with criminality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Writing in 2019, criminologist Greg Ridgeway argued that criminology was still trying to conclusively determine what causes crime.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sex_and_biology">Sex and biology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Sex and biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Genetics"></span> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Sex differences in crime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetics and crime">Genetics and crime</a></div> <p>Crime occurs most frequently during the second and third decades of life. Males commit more crime overall and more violent crime than females. They commit more property crime except <a href="/wiki/Shoplifting" title="Shoplifting">shoplifting</a>, which is about equally distributed between the genders. Males appear to be more likely to <a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">reoffend</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Serotonin">Serotonin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Serotonin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lower <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonergic</a> activity in the brain is associated with criminality. Serotonin levels can be estimated by measuring the levels of the metabolite <a href="/wiki/5-HIAA" class="mw-redirect" title="5-HIAA">5-HIAA</a> in the urine; offenders often have lower levels of 5-HIAA. An <a href="/wiki/5-HTTLPR" title="5-HTTLPR">5-HTTLPR</a> <a href="/wiki/Gene_polymorphism" title="Gene polymorphism">polymorphism</a>, which lowers serotonin levels, has been found to be associated with criminal behavior. In addition, a lower density of <a href="/wiki/Paroxetine" title="Paroxetine">paroxetine</a> <a href="/wiki/Binding_site" title="Binding site">binding sites</a>, which is associated with lower levels of serotonin transmission in the brain, is associated with greater criminality. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition, <a href="/wiki/CDH13" class="mw-redirect" title="CDH13">CDH13</a>, a gene previously tied to an increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance abuse</a>, has been tied to violent crime.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Low <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a> levels, slow <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heart rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/DHEA" class="mw-redirect" title="DHEA">DHEA</a>, <a href="/wiki/MHPG" class="mw-redirect" title="MHPG">MHPG</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blood_glucose" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood glucose">blood glucose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cortisol" title="Cortisol">cortisol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone">testosterone</a>, and blood <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> levels, and the ratio of <a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">tryptophan</a> to other <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> in the blood, have all also been connected to criminal behavior. <a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical attractiveness</a> has been found to be negatively correlated with criminality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> These tendencies are ostensibly related, as the majority of all individuals who commit severe violent crime <a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Finland" title="Crime in Finland">in Finland</a> do so under the influence of alcohol or drugs. The presence of the genetic profile is not determinative, although it increases the likelihood of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Delinquency" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Delinquency">delinquency</a> in cases where other factors are present. Ferguson stated, 'a large percentage of our behaviour in terms of violence or aggression is influenced by our biology - our genes - and our brain anatomy.'<sup id="cite_ref-bbc_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Schnupp stated, 'To call these alleles "genes for violence" would therefore be a massive exaggeration. In combination with many other factors these genes may make it a little harder for you to control violent urges, but they most emphatically do not predetermine you for a life of crime.'<sup id="cite_ref-bbc_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Race,_ethnicity_and_immigration"><span id="Race.2C_ethnicity_and_immigration"></span>Race, ethnicity and immigration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Race, ethnicity and immigration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Race_and_crime" title="Race and crime">Race and crime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_crime" title="Immigration and crime">Immigration and crime</a></div> <p>Associated factors include <a href="/wiki/Race_and_crime" title="Race and crime">race and crime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_crime" title="Immigration and crime">status as an immigrant</a>. In some countries, ethnically/racially diverse geographical areas have higher crime rates compared to homogeneous areas, and in other countries, it is the other way around. Some studies on <a href="/wiki/Immigrants" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigrants">immigrants</a> found higher rates of crime among these populations; these rates vary according to the country of origin (immigrants from some regions having lower crime rates than the native-born population).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Notions about the propensity for immigrants to commit crime vary among geographical regions. Likewise, the propensity for immigrants to commit more or less crime than the native-born population also varies geographically. For instance within the United States, census data shows that immigrants are less likely to be incarcerated for a crime than residents who were born within the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The census includes both legal and illegal immigrants, as it counts the total number of people residing in an area regardless of citizenship status.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Associated factors include <a href="/wiki/Smoking_and_pregnancy" title="Smoking and pregnancy">maternal smoking during pregnancy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Low_birth_weight" title="Low birth weight">low birth weight</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perinatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Perinatal">perinatal</a> trauma/birth complications,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Monea2011_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monea2011-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">child maltreatment</a>, low parent-child attachment, marital discord/family discord, <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholism</a> and drug use in the family, low parental supervision/monitoring, family size and birth order,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nocturnal_enuresis" title="Nocturnal enuresis">nocturnal enuresis</a> or bed wetting, <a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">bullying</a>, school disciplinary problems, <a href="/wiki/Truancy" title="Truancy">truancy</a>, low <a href="/wiki/Grade_point_average" class="mw-redirect" title="Grade point average">grade point average</a>, dropping out of high school<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and childhood lead exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adult_behavior">Adult behavior</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Adult behavior"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Associated factors include high alcohol use, alcohol abuse and alcoholism, high illegal drug use and dependence, <a href="/wiki/Virginity#Early_loss_of_virginity" title="Virginity">early age of first sexual intercourse</a> and the number of sexual partners, social isolation, criminal peer groups and gang membership.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religiosity">Religiosity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Religiosity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A few studies have found a negative correlation between <a href="/wiki/Religiosity" title="Religiosity">religiosity</a> and criminality. A 2001 <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> found, "religious beliefs and behaviors exert a moderate deterrent effect on individuals' criminal behavior", but that "studies have systematically varied in their estimation of the religion-on-crime effect due to differences in both their conceptual and methodological approaches". This suggests that religiosity has been operationalized in varying ways, impacting the results of the findings.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Additionally, 1995 paper stated that "[a]lthough a few researchers have found that religion's influence is noncontingent, most have found support—especially among youths—for effects that vary by denomination, type of offense, and social and/or religious context," suggesting a complex relationship between religiosity and crime. They also "found that, among our religiosity measures, participation in religious activities was a persistent and noncontingent inhibiter of adult crime" when controlling for other factors, such as social ecology and secular constraints.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>An individual with high religious saliency (i.e. expressing the high importance of religion in their life) is less likely to be associated with criminal activities; similarly, an individual who regularly attends religious services or is highly involved in them tends to be less involved in criminality, with the exception of property damage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 108">&#58;&#8202;108&#8202;</span></sup> Other meta-analysis research suggests that those who subscribe to more orthodox religious beliefs are less likely to engage in criminal behavior than those who do not.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 112">&#58;&#8202;112&#8202;</span></sup> A 2012 study suggested that belief in hell decreases crime rates, while belief in heaven increases them, and indicated that these correlations were stronger than other correlates like national wealth or income inequality.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 1997 study of six public high schools found no statistically significant negative correlations between religiosity and crime, or religiosity and drug use, and the only relationship between religiosity and alcohol was statistically significant.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> A more recent review concludes that there are insufficient data to indicate any correlation between religiosity and crime.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Furthermore, any possible correlations may not apply universally to all relatively nonreligious groups, as there is some evidence self-identified atheists have had significantly lower incarceration rates than the general public in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Most studies examining correlation to date do not distinguish between different types of low religiosity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_ideology">Political ideology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Political ideology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2016 study found statistically significant evidence that <a href="/wiki/Political_ideology" class="mw-redirect" title="Political ideology">political ideology</a> is moderately correlated with involvement in non-violent crime, among white individuals and particularly among white women. It suggests that liberal self-classification can, among some groups, be positively associated with non-violent criminal behavior compared to conservative self-classification.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychological_traits">Psychological traits</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Psychological traits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Associated factors include childhood <a href="/wiki/Conduct_disorder" title="Conduct disorder">conduct disorder</a>, adult <a href="/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder" title="Antisocial personality disorder">antisocial personality disorder</a> (also associated with each other),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WilsonPetersilia2002_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilsonPetersilia2002-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a> (ADHD), minor <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>, clinical depression, depression in the family, suicidal tendencies and <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>'s 1995 report <i>Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns</i> stated that the correlation between <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">intelligence quotient</a> (IQ) and crime was -0.2. This association is generally regarded as small and prone to disappear or be substantially reduced after controlling for the proper covariates, being much smaller than typical sociological correlates.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_g_Factor:_The_Science_of_Mental_Ability" title="The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability">The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability</a></i> (1998), Arthur Jensen cited data which showed that IQ was generally negatively associated with crime among people of all races, peaking between 80 and 90. Learning disability is a substantial discrepancy between IQ and academic performance and is associated with crime. Slow reading development may be particularly relevant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> It has also been shown, however, that the effect of IQ is heavily dependent on socioeconomic status and that it cannot be easily controlled away, with many methodological considerations being at play.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Indeed, there is evidence that the small relationship is mediated by well-being, substance abuse, and other confounding factors that prohibit simple causal interpretation.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> A recent meta-analysis has shown that the relationship is only observed in higher risk populations such as those in poverty without direct effect, but without any causal interpretation.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> A nationally representative longitudinal study has shown that this relationship is entirely mediated by school performance.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several personality traits are associated with criminality: <a href="/wiki/Impulsivity" title="Impulsivity">impulsivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychoticism" title="Psychoticism">psychoticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sensation-seeking" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensation-seeking">sensation-seeking</a>, low <a href="/wiki/Self_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Self control">self control</a>, childhood <a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">aggression</a>, low <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a> and low <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Socioeconomic_factors">Socioeconomic factors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Socioeconomic factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">Socioeconomic status</a> (usually measured using the three variables income or wealth, occupational level, and years of education) correlates negatively with criminality, except for self-reported illegal drug use. Higher parental socioeconomic status probably has an inverse relationship with crime. Unstable employment and high frequency of unemployment correlate positively with criminality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Low socioeconomic status is thought to be positively correlated with higher levels of stress, and therefore the mental and psychological ill-effects of stress.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Indeed, higher stress levels have been positively associated with a propensity to commit crime.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Somewhat inconsistent evidence indicates a positive relationship between low income levels, the percentage of population under the poverty line, low education levels, and high <a href="/wiki/Income_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Income inequality">income inequality</a> in an area with more crime in said area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> A 2013 study from Sweden argued that there was little effect of neighbourhood deprivation on criminality per se and rather that the higher rates of crime were due to observed and unobserved family and individual level factors, indicating that high-risk individuals were being selected into economically deprived areas.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> study said, “Crime rates and inequality are positively correlated within countries and, particularly, between countries, and this correlation reflects causation from inequality to crime rates, even after controlling for other crime determinants.”<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers in criminology have argued the effect of poverty upon crime is contextual:<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>As Levi (1997: 860) noted, macrolevel accounts ‘seldom generate anything close to a causal account which makes sense of nonviolence as well as of violence’. Put another way, the vast majority of individuals who live in conditions of poverty or disadvantage do not resort to violence at any time. Hence, in order to understand the patterns of violence that actually occur, it is imperative to study the social experiences of those who engage in it (Athens 1992).</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_factors">Geographic factors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Geographic factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Associated factors include areas with population size, neighborhood quality, residential mobility, tavern and alcohol density, gambling and tourist density, proximity to the equator,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> temperature (<a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">weather</a> and season). The higher crime rate in the southern US largely disappears after controlling for non-climatic factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller2009_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller2009-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parent–child_relationships"><span id="Parent.E2.80.93child_relationships"></span>Parent–child relationships</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Parent–child relationships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Children whose parents did not want children are more likely to commit crimes. Such children are less likely to succeed in school, and are more likely to live in poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-Monea2011_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monea2011-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> They tend to have lower mother&#8205;&#8211;&#8205;child relationship quality.<sup id="cite_ref-HP2020FP_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HP2020FP-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biosocial_criminology_and_other_analysis_of_environmental_factors">Biosocial criminology and other analysis of environmental factors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Biosocial criminology and other analysis of environmental factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental criminology</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> field that aims to explain crime and antisocial behavior by exploring both biological factors and environmental factors. While contemporary criminology has been dominated by <a href="/wiki/Sociological" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological">sociological</a> theories, biosocial criminology also recognizes the potential contributions of fields such as <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">neuropsychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Asghate2011_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asghate2011-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aggressive behavior has been associated with abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin systems</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catecholamine" title="Catecholamine">catecholamine systems</a>,</li> <li>and the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical_axis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis">hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis</a>.</li></ul> <p>Abnormalities in these systems also are known to be induced by <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a>, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In environmental terms, the <a href="/wiki/Lead_and_crime_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead and crime hypothesis">theory that crime rates and lead exposure</a> are connected, with increases in the latter causing increases in the former, has attracted much scientific analysis. In 2011, a report published by the official United Nations News Centre remarked, "Ridding the world of leaded petrol, with the United Nations leading the effort in developing countries, has resulted in $2.4 trillion in annual benefits, 1.2 million fewer premature deaths, higher overall intelligence and 58 million fewer crimes". The <a href="/wiki/California_State_University" title="California State University">California State University</a> did the specific study. Then <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">U.N. Environment Programme</a> (UNEP) executive director <a href="/wiki/Achim_Steiner" title="Achim Steiner">Achim Steiner</a> argued, "Although this global effort has often flown below the radar of media and global leaders, it is clear that the elimination of leaded petrol is an immense achievement on par with the global elimination of major deadly diseases."<sup id="cite_ref-UN_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UN-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_sexual_violence" title="Causes of sexual violence">Causes of sexual violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">Crime statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_and_crime_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead and crime hypothesis">Lead and crime hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Sex differences in crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_differences_in_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial differences in crime">Racial differences in crime</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_1-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllisBeaverWright2009">Ellis, Beaver &amp; Wright 2009</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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"Unintended pregnancy and associated maternal preconception, prenatal and postpartum behaviors". <i>Contraception</i>. <b>79</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">194–</span>198. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.contraception.2008.09.009">10.1016/j.contraception.2008.09.009</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19185672">19185672</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Contraception&amp;rft.atitle=Unintended+pregnancy+and+associated+maternal+preconception%2C+prenatal+and+postpartum+behaviors&amp;rft.volume=79&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E194-%3C%2Fspan%3E198&amp;rft.date=2009-03&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.contraception.2008.09.009&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19185672&amp;rft.aulast=Cheng&amp;rft.aufirst=Diana&amp;rft.au=Schwarz%2C+Eleanor+B.&amp;rft.au=Douglas%2C+Erika&amp;rft.au=Horon%2C+Isabelle&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACorrelates+of+crime" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKostLandryDarroch1998" class="citation journal cs1">Kost, Kathryn; Landry, David J.; Darroch, Jacqueline E. (March 1998). "Predicting Maternal Behaviors During Pregnancy: Does Intention Status Matter?". <i>Family Planning Perspectives</i>. <b>30</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">79–</span>88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2991664">10.2307/2991664</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2991664">2991664</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9561873">9561873</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Family+Planning+Perspectives&amp;rft.atitle=Predicting+Maternal+Behaviors+During+Pregnancy%3A+Does+Intention+Status+Matter%3F&amp;rft.volume=30&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E79-%3C%2Fspan%3E88&amp;rft.date=1998-03&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9561873&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2991664%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2991664&amp;rft.aulast=Kost&amp;rft.aufirst=Kathryn&amp;rft.au=Landry%2C+David+J.&amp;rft.au=Darroch%2C+Jacqueline+E.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACorrelates+of+crime" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD&#39;AngeloGilbertRochatSantelli2004" class="citation journal cs1">D'Angelo, Denise V.; Gilbert, Brenda Colley; Rochat, Roger W.; Santelli, John S.; Herold, Joan M. (2004). "Differences Between Mistimed and Unwanted Pregnancies Among Women Who Have Live Births". <i>Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health</i>. <b>36</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">192–</span>197. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1363%2F3619204">10.1363/3619204</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15519961">15519961</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Sexual+and+Reproductive+Health&amp;rft.atitle=Differences+Between+Mistimed+and+Unwanted+Pregnancies+Among+Women+Who+Have+Live+Births&amp;rft.volume=36&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E192-%3C%2Fspan%3E197&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1363%2F3619204&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15519961&amp;rft.aulast=D%27Angelo&amp;rft.aufirst=Denise+V.&amp;rft.au=Gilbert%2C+Brenda+Colley&amp;rft.au=Rochat%2C+Roger+W.&amp;rft.au=Santelli%2C+John+S.&amp;rft.au=Herold%2C+Joan+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACorrelates+of+crime" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Asghate2011-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Asghate2011_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalshBeaver2013" class="citation book cs1">Walsh, Anthony; Beaver, Kevin M (28 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V9KhAgAAQBAJ">"Biosocial Criminology"</a>. <i>The Ashgate Research Companion to Biosocial Theories of Crime</i>. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-9470-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-9470-6"><bdi>978-1-4094-9470-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Biosocial+Criminology&amp;rft.btitle=The+Ashgate+Research+Companion+to+Biosocial+Theories+of+Crime&amp;rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&amp;rft.date=2013-01-28&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4094-9470-6&amp;rft.aulast=Walsh&amp;rft.aufirst=Anthony&amp;rft.au=Beaver%2C+Kevin+M&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV9KhAgAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACorrelates+of+crime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaltonLevitsky2003" class="citation journal cs1">Walton, Kenneth G.; Levitsky, Debra K. (11 August 2003). "Effects of the Transcendental Meditation Program on Neuroendocrine Abnormalities Associated with Aggression and Crime". <i>Journal of Offender Rehabilitation</i>. <b>36</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">67–</span>87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1300%2FJ076v36n01_04">10.1300/J076v36n01_04</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144374302">144374302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Offender+Rehabilitation&amp;rft.atitle=Effects+of+the+Transcendental+Meditation+Program+on+Neuroendocrine+Abnormalities+Associated+with+Aggression+and+Crime&amp;rft.volume=36&amp;rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&amp;rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E67-%3C%2Fspan%3E87&amp;rft.date=2003-08-11&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1300%2FJ076v36n01_04&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144374302%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Walton&amp;rft.aufirst=Kenneth+G.&amp;rft.au=Levitsky%2C+Debra+K.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACorrelates+of+crime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UN-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UN_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2011/10/393292-phase-out-leaded-petrol-brings-huge-health-and-cost-benefits-un-backed-study">"Phase-out of leaded petrol brings huge health and cost benefits – UN–backed study"</a>. United Nations News Centre. 27 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Phase-out+of+leaded+petrol+brings+huge+health+and+cost+benefits+%E2%80%93+UN%E2%80%93backed+study&amp;rft.pub=United+Nations+News+Centre&amp;rft.date=2011-10-27&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.un.org%2Fen%2Fstory%2F2011%2F10%2F393292-phase-out-leaded-petrol-brings-huge-health-and-cost-benefits-un-backed-study&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACorrelates+of+crime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllisBeaverWright2009" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, Lee; Beaver, Kevin M.; Wright, John (1 April 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eD0ttBXoMvQC"><i>Handbook of Crime Correlates</i></a>. Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780123736123" title="Special:BookSources/9780123736123"><bdi>9780123736123</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Crime+Correlates&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2009-04-01&amp;rft.isbn=9780123736123&amp;rft.aulast=Ellis&amp;rft.aufirst=Lee&amp;rft.au=Beaver%2C+Kevin+M.&amp;rft.au=Wright%2C+John&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeD0ttBXoMvQC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACorrelates+of+crime" class="Z3988"></span> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Race_and_crime67" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Race_and_crime" title="Template:Race and crime"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Race_and_crime" title="Template talk:Race and crime"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Race_and_crime" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Race and crime"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Race_and_crime67" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Race_and_crime" title="Race and crime">Race and crime</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_intentional_homicide_rate" title="List of countries by intentional homicide rate">Homicide rate by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_crime_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Race and crime in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_crime_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Race and crime in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_crime_in_the_United_States" title="Race and crime in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Race_in_the_United_States_criminal_justice_system" title="Race in the United States criminal justice system">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Race and capital punishment in the United States">Race and capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_the_war_on_drugs" title="Race and the war on drugs">Race and the war on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By race</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure#Black_male_incarceration_and_mortality" title="African-American family structure">Black male incarceration and mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">Criminal stereotype of African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians_and_crime" title="Indigenous Australians and crime">Indigenous Australians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_the_prison%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Native Americans and the prison–industrial complex">Native Americans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_correlations_of_criminal_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical correlations of criminal behaviour">Statistical correlations of criminal behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_crime" title="Immigration and crime">Immigration and crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_hoax" title="Racial hoax">Racial hoax</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_Apartheid" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime of Apartheid">Crime of Apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">Institutional racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_row" title="Death row">Death row</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Innocence_Protection_Act" title="Innocence Protection Act">Innocence Protection Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_profiling" title="Racial profiling">Racial profiling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Katheryn_Russell-Brown" title="Katheryn Russell-Brown">Katheryn Russell-Brown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Civil_Liberties_Association" title="British Columbia Civil Liberties Association">British Columbia Civil Liberties Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Civil_Liberties_Association" title="Canadian Civil Liberties Association">Canadian Civil Liberties Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Civil_Liberties" class="mw-redirect" title="National Council for Civil Liberties">National Council for Civil 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