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id="toc-Conquest_of_North_Africa_and_Nubia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Arabia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Arabia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Conquest of Arabia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Arabia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Syria_and_Upper_Mesopotamia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Syria_and_Upper_Mesopotamia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 Conquest of Syria and Upper Mesopotamia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Syria_and_Upper_Mesopotamia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Palestine_and_Transjordan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Palestine_and_Transjordan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.4 Conquest of Palestine and Transjordan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Palestine_and_Transjordan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_Crusade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_Crusade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.5 Third Crusade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_Crusade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quarrels_over_the_sultanate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quarrels_over_the_sultanate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Quarrels over the sultanate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quarrels_over_the_sultanate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disintegration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disintegration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Disintegration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disintegration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Loss_of_territories_and_ceding_of_Jerusalem" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_territories_and_ceding_of_Jerusalem"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.1 Loss of territories and ceding of Jerusalem </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_territories_and_ceding_of_Jerusalem-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syro-Egyptian_divide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syro-Egyptian_divide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.2 Syro-Egyptian divide </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syro-Egyptian_divide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restoration_of_unity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restoration_of_unity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.3 Restoration of unity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restoration_of_unity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Fall </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rise_of_the_Mamluks_and_fall_of_Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_the_Mamluks_and_fall_of_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.1 Rise of the Mamluks and fall of Egypt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_the_Mamluks_and_fall_of_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dominance_of_Aleppo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dominance_of_Aleppo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.2 Dominance of Aleppo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dominance_of_Aleppo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Karak_asserts_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karak_asserts_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.3 Karak asserts independence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karak_asserts_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongol_invasion_and_collapse_of_the_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_invasion_and_collapse_of_the_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.4 Mongol invasion and collapse of the empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_invasion_and_collapse_of_the_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remnants_of_the_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remnants_of_the_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Remnants of the dynasty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remnants_of_the_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Government </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Government subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Structure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seat_of_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seat_of_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Seat of government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seat_of_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feudal_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feudal_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Feudal system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feudal_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Demographics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Demographics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religion,_ethnicity_and_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion,_ethnicity_and_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Religion, ethnicity and language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion,_ethnicity_and_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Population </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Economy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Science and medicine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_and_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 General and cited references </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ayyubid dynasty</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 69 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-69" aria-hidden="true" > 69 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayyubiden" title="Ayyubiden – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Ayyubiden" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الدولة الأيوبية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الدولة الأيوبية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_ayub%C3%AD" title="Dinastía ayubí – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dinastía ayubí" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fyyubil%C9%99r" title="Əyyubilər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Əyyubilər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%B1" title="ایوبیلر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ایوبیلر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6" title="আইয়ুবীয় রাজবংশ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আইয়ুবীয় রাজবংশ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayyub_%C3%B4ng-ti%C3%A2u" title="Ayyub ông-tiâu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ayyub ông-tiâu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%B9%D2%AF%D0%B1%D0%B8%D2%99%D3%99%D1%80" title="Әйүбиҙәр – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Әйүбиҙәр" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%8E%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Аюбіды – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аюбіды" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%8E%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Аюбиди – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Аюбиди" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejubidska_dinastija" title="Ejubidska dinastija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ejubidska dinastija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_ai%C3%BAbida" title="Dinastia aiúbida – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dinastia aiúbida" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajj%C3%BAbovci" title="Ajjúbovci – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ajjúbovci" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayyubide-dynastiet" title="Ayyubide-dynastiet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ayyubide-dynastiet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayyubiden" title="Ayyubiden – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ayyubiden" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B2%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Αγιουβίδες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αγιουβίδες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_ayub%C3%AD" title="Dinastía ayubí – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dinastía ayubí" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajubidoj" title="Ajubidoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ajubidoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayyubtarren_dinastia" title="Ayyubtarren dinastia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ayyubtarren dinastia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ایوبیان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ایوبیان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayyoubides" title="Ayyoubides – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ayyoubides" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_ai%C3%BAbida" title="Dinastía aiúbida – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dinastía aiúbida" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EC%9D%B4%EC%9C%A0%EB%B8%8C_%EC%88%A0%ED%83%84%EA%B5%AD" title="아이유브 술탄국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아이유브 술탄국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Ayyubiyah" title="Dinasti Ayyubiyah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dinasti Ayyubiyah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayyubidi" title="Ayyubidi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ayyubidi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA" title="השושלת האיובית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="השושלת האיובית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wangsa_Ayyubiyyah" title="Wangsa Ayyubiyyah – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Wangsa Ayyubiyyah" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="აიუბიდები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აიუბიდები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D1%8E%D0%B1_%D3%99%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%96" title="Айюб әулеті – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Айюб әулеті" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanedana_Ey%C3%BBbiyan" title="Xanedana Eyûbiyan – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Xanedana Eyûbiyan" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastiya_Ayubi" title="Dinastiya Ayubi – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Dinastiya Ayubi" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayyubidae" title="Ayyubidae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ayyubidae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aij%C5%ABbidu_dinastija" title="Aijūbidu dinastija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Aijūbidu dinastija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajubidai" title="Ajubidai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ajubidai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajj%C3%BAbid%C3%A1k" title="Ajjúbidák – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ajjúbidák" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%98%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Ајубиди – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ајубиди" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aiobida" title="Aiobida – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Aiobida" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%82" title="അയ്യൂബി രാജവംശം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അയ്യൂബി രാജവംശം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="აიუბიდეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="აიუბიდეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86" title="الايوبيين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الايوبيين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86" title="ایوبیون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ایوبیون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Ayubiyyah" title="Dinasti Ayubiyyah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Dinasti Ayubiyyah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajjoebiden" title="Ajjoebiden – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ajjoebiden" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A6%E3%83%BC%E3%83%96%E6%9C%9D" title="アイユーブ朝 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アイユーブ朝" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajjubidedynastiet" title="Ajjubidedynastiet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ajjubidedynastiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajjubide-dynastiet" title="Ajjubide-dynastiet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ajjubide-dynastiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayyubiylar" title="Ayyubiylar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ayyubiylar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A_%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8D" title="ايوبي کورنۍ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ايوبي کورنۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajjubidzi" title="Ajjubidzi – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ajjubidzi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ayyubid%C4%83" title="Dinastia Ayyubidă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dinastia Ayyubidă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D1%8E%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Айюбиды – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Айюбиды" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ayyubid dynasty" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="ايوبي سلطنت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ايوبي سلطنت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajubidi" title="Ajubidi – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ajubidi" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawlada_ayuubiyiinta" title="Dawlada ayuubiyiinta – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Dawlada ayuubiyiinta" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%88%DA%B5%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%95%DB%8C%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="دەوڵەتی ئەییووبی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دەوڵەتی ئەییووبی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%98%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Ајубиди – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ајубиди" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajubidi" title="Ajubidi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ajubidi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aijubidit" title="Aijubidit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Aijubidit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayyubiderna" title="Ayyubiderna – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ayyubiderna" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="அய்யூப்பிய வம்சம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அய்யூப்பிய வம்சம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D1%8E%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%91%D0%BD" title="Айюбиён – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Айюбиён" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyy%C3%BBb%C3%AEler" title="Eyyûbîler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Eyyûbîler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%8E%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Аюбіди – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аюбіди" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="ایوبی سلطنت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ایوبی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_tri%E1%BB%81u_Ayyub" title="Vương triều Ayyub – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vương triều Ayyub" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%A4%E5%B8%83%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="阿尤布王朝 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="阿尤布王朝" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyubiyan" title="Eyubiyan – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Eyubiyan" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" 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.ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt</div><div class="ib-country-names"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>الأيوبيون (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>) al-Ayyūbīyūn</li><li>ئەیووبی (<a href="/wiki/Sorani_Kurdish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sorani Kurdish language">Sorani Kurdish</a>)</li><li>Eyûbî (<a href="/wiki/Kurmanji_Kurdish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurmanji Kurdish language">Kurmanji Kurdish</a>)</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1171–1260a/1341</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt (in pink) at the death of Saladin in 1193"><img alt="Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt (in pink) at the death of Saladin in 1193" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg/250px-Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg/375px-Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg/500px-Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2892" data-file-height="1698" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Ayyubid <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_Egypt" title="Sultan of Egypt">Sultanate of Egypt</a> (in pink) at the death of <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> in 1193</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data">Sovereign state (1171–1260)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> (1171–1174; 1218–1250)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> (1174–1218)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> (1250–1260)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hama</a> (until 1341)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> (majority of population,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1987164–167-1">[1]</a> poetry<a href="#cite_note-France122-123-2">[2]</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurmanji_Kurdish" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurmanji Kurdish">Northern Kurdish</a> (Dynastic, ruling class, Military, Nobility)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1987164–167-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÖpengin2021612-3">[3]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">New Persian</a> (Spoken by some Sultans)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1987164–167-1">[1]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a><a href="#cite_note-Magill809-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-France84-5">[5]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhab" class="mw-redirect" title="Madhab">School</a>: <a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'i">Shafi'i</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theology">Creed</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ash%27ari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash'ari">Ash'ari</a></li></ul> </div><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultanate</a> (princely confederation) under the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid caliph">Abbasid Caliphate</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson199636-8">[8]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultan</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1174–1193 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> (first)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1193–1198 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Al-Aziz_Uthman" title="Al-Aziz Uthman">Al-Aziz</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1198–1200 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur_Nasir_al-Din_Muhammad" title="Al-Mansur Nasir al-Din Muhammad">Al-Mansur</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1200–1218 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Al-Adil_I" title="Al-Adil I">Al-Adil I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1218–1238 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Al-Kamil" title="Al-Kamil">Al-Kamil</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1238–1240 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Al-Adil_II" title="Al-Adil II">Al-Adil II</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1240–1249 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/As-Salih_Ayyub" title="As-Salih Ayyub">As-Salih Ayyub</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1250–1250 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Shajar_al-durr" class="mw-redirect" title="Shajar al-durr">Shajar al-durr</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1250–1254 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Musa,_Sultan_of_Egypt" title="Al-Ashraf Musa, Sultan of Egypt">Al-Ashraf</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Saladin_in_Egypt" title="Saladin in Egypt">Established by Saladin</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1171</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Disestablished </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1260a/1341</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1190 est.<a href="#cite_note-TurchinAdamsHall223-9">[9]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2,000,000 km2 (770,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1200 est.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997495-10">[10]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">1,700,000 km2 (660,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 12th century </div></th><td class="infobox-data">7,200,000 (estimate)c</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Dinar" title="Dinar">Dinar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">Dirham</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Zengid_dynasty" title="Zengid dynasty">Zengid dynasty</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Zurayids" class="mw-redirect" title="Zurayids">Zurayids</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Kingdom of Georgia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Shah-Armens" title="Shah-Armens">Shah-Armens</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Artuqids" title="Artuqids">Artuqids</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Rasulid_dynasty" title="Rasulid dynasty">Rasulid dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Hasankeyf" title="Emirate of Hasankeyf">Emirate of Hasankeyf</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Donboli" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Donboli">Principality of Donboli</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_%C5%9Eirvan" title="Emirate of Şirvan">Emirate of Şirvan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Kilis" title="Emirate of Kilis">Emirate of Kilis</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Bing%C3%B6l" title="Emirate of Bingöl">Emirate of Bingöl</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="ib-country-fn">aA branch of the Ayyubid dynasty ruled <a href="/wiki/Hasankeyf" title="Hasankeyf">Hasankeyf</a> until the early 16th century. bFor details of the languages spoken by the Ayyubid rulers and their subjects, see <a href="#Religion,_ethnicity_and_language">§ Religion, ethnicity and language</a> below. cThe total population of the Ayyubid territories is unknown. This population figure only includes Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordan</a>. Other Ayyubid territories, including coastal areas of Yemen, the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a> are not included.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Ayyubid dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: الأيوبيون, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: al-Ayyūbīyūn; <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a>: ئەیووبییەکان, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Kurdish" title="Romanization of Kurdish">romanized</a>: Eyûbiyan), also known as the Ayyubid Sultanate, was the founding dynasty of the medieval <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_Egypt" title="Sultan of Egypt">Sultanate of Egypt</a> established by <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> in 1171, following his abolition of the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Muslim">Sunni Muslim</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurdish</a> origin,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson199636-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Humphreys1987-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ozoglu46-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bosworth73-13">[13]</a> Saladin had originally served the <a href="/wiki/Zengid_dynasty" title="Zengid dynasty">Zengid</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Nur_ad-Din_(died_1174)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nur ad-Din (died 1174)">Nur ad-Din</a>, leading Nur ad-Din's army in battle against the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_invasions_of_Egypt" title="Crusader invasions of Egypt">Crusaders in Fatimid Egypt</a>, where he was made <a href="/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">Vizier</a>. Following Nur ad-Din's death, Saladin was proclaimed as the first <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_Egypt" title="Sultan of Egypt">Sultan of Egypt</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>, and rapidly expanded the new sultanate beyond the frontiers of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Egypt</a> to encompass most of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> (including the former territories of Nur ad-Din), in addition to <a href="/wiki/Hijaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hijaz">Hijaz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Arabia">Yemen</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tripolitania" title="Tripolitania">Tarabulus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, and northern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Iraq</a>, the homeland of his Kurdish family. By virtue of his sultanate including Hijaz, the location of the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina, he was the first ruler to be hailed as the <a href="/wiki/Custodian_of_the_Two_Holy_Mosques" title="Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques">Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques</a>, a title that would be held by all subsequent sultans of Egypt until the Ottoman conquest of 1517.<a href="#cite_note-ArabNews-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eiselen89-15">[15]</a> Saladin's military campaigns in the first decade of his rule, aimed at uniting the various Arab and Muslim states in the region against the <a href="/wiki/Crusaders" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusaders">Crusaders</a>, set the general borders and sphere of influence of the sultanate of Egypt for the almost three and a half centuries of its existence. Most of the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a>, fell to Saladin after his victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hattin" title="Battle of Hattin">Battle of Hattin</a> in 1187. However, the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusaders</a> reconquered the coast of <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> in the 1190s. After Saladin's death in 1193, his sons contested control of the sultanate, but Saladin's brother <a href="/wiki/Al-Adil" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Adil">al-Adil</a> ultimately became the sultan in 1200. All of the later Ayyubid sultans of Egypt were his descendants. In the 1230s, the emirs of Syria attempted to assert their independence from Egypt and the Ayyubid realm remained divided until Sultan <a href="/wiki/As-Salih_Ayyub" title="As-Salih Ayyub">as-Salih Ayyub</a> restored its unity by subduing most of Syria, except <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, by 1247. By then, local Muslim dynasties had driven out the Ayyubids from Yemen, the Hijaz, and parts of Mesopotamia. After his death in 1249, as-Salih Ayyub was succeeded in Egypt by his son <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27azzam_Turanshah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mu'azzam Turanshah">al-Mu'azzam Turanshah</a>. However, the latter was soon overthrown by his <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk</a> generals who had repelled a Crusader invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a>. This effectively ended Ayyubid power in Egypt. Attempts by the emirs of Syria, led by <a href="/wiki/An-Nasir_Yusuf" title="An-Nasir Yusuf">an-Nasir Yusuf</a> of Aleppo, to wrest back Egypt failed. In 1260, the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongols</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Aleppo_(1260)" title="Siege of Aleppo (1260)">sacked Aleppo</a> and conquered the Ayyubids' remaining territories soon after. The Mamluks, who expelled the Mongols, maintained the Ayyubid principality of <a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hama</a> until deposing its last ruler in 1341. Despite their relatively short tenure, the Ayyubid dynasty had a transformative effect on the region, particularly Egypt. Under the Ayyubids, Egypt, which had previously been a formally Shi'a <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphate</a>, became the dominant Sunni political and military force, and the economic and cultural centre of the region, a status that it would retain until it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1517. Throughout the sultanate, Ayyubid rule ushered in an era of economic prosperity, and the facilities and patronage provided by the Ayyubids led to a resurgence in intellectual activity in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a>. This period was also marked by an Ayyubid process of vigorously strengthening <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Muslim">Sunni Muslim</a> dominance in the region by constructing numerous <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasas</a> (Islamic schools of law) in their major cities. Even after being toppled by the Mamluks, the sultanate built by Saladin and the Ayyubids would continue in Egypt, the Levant and the Hijaz for another 267 years. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name">edit</a>]</div> Medieval Arab historians such as <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Iyas" title="Ibn Iyas">ibn ilyas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Ibrahim_al-Khazraji" title="Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Khazraji">al-Khazrajî</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Maqrizi" title="Al-Maqrizi">al-Maqrizi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taghribirdi" title="Ibn Taghribirdi">Ibn Taghribirdi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">ibn khaldun</a> referred to the Ayyubid dynasty as the 'State of the Kurds' or 'Kurdish regime' 'Kurdish Kings/Kingdom', or 'Ayyubid Kurdish State' by <a href="/wiki/Taqi_al-Din_al-Subki" title="Taqi al-Din al-Subki">Taqi al-Din al-Subki</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: ملوک الأکراد ,دولة الأکراد,الدولة الأيوبية الکردية, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: Dawlat al-Akrād, Al-Dawlat Al-Ayyūbīya Al-Kurdīya, Mūlūk Al-Akrād).<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Ayyubid_rulers" title="List of Ayyubid rulers">List of Ayyubid rulers</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eagle_of_Saladin_Sketch_from_Cairo_Citadel.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Eagle_of_Saladin_Sketch_from_Cairo_Citadel.png/220px-Eagle_of_Saladin_Sketch_from_Cairo_Citadel.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Eagle_of_Saladin_Sketch_from_Cairo_Citadel.png 1.5x" data-file-width="313" data-file-height="402" /></a><figcaption>Late 19th-century sketch of the "<a href="/wiki/Eagle_of_Saladin" title="Eagle of Saladin">Eagle of Saladin</a>" on the walls of the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Citadel" title="Cairo Citadel">Cairo Citadel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. It was historically described as having two heads, now missing. It is commonly identified as Saladin's emblem, though historical sources do not confirm this.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERabbat199524-24">[24]</a></figcaption></figure> The progenitor of the Ayyubid dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Najm_ad-Din_Ayyub" class="mw-redirect" title="Najm ad-Din Ayyub">Najm ad-Din Ayyub ibn Shadhi</a>, belonged to the Kurdish Rawadiya tribe, itself a branch of the large <a href="/wiki/Hadhabani" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadhabani">Hadhabani</a> tribe.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Ayyub's ancestors settled in the town of <a href="/wiki/Dvin_(ancient_city)" title="Dvin (ancient city)">Dvin</a>, in northern <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys1987-11">[11]</a> The Rawadiya were the dominant Kurdish group in the Dvin district, forming part of the political-military elite of the town. Circumstances became unfavorable in Dvin when Turkish generals seized the town from its <a href="/wiki/Shaddadids#Emirs_in_Dvin_and_Ganja" title="Shaddadids">Kurdish prince</a>. Shadhi left with his two sons Ayyub and <a href="/wiki/Asad_ad-Din_Shirkuh" class="mw-redirect" title="Asad ad-Din Shirkuh">Asad ad-Din Shirkuh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys1987-11">[11]</a> His friend Mujahid ad-Din Bihruz—the military governor of northern Mesopotamia under the <a href="/wiki/Seljuks" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuks">Seljuks</a>—welcomed him and appointed him governor of <a href="/wiki/Tikrit" title="Tikrit">Tikrit</a>. After Shadhi's death, Ayyub succeeded him in governance of the city with the assistance of his brother Shirkuh. Together they managed the affairs of the city well, gaining them popularity from the local inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-Ali27-26">[26]</a> In the meantime, <a href="/wiki/Imad_ad-Din_Zengi" class="mw-redirect" title="Imad ad-Din Zengi">Imad ad-Din Zangi</a>, the ruler of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>, was defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasids</a> under Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustarshid" title="Al-Mustarshid">al-Mustarshid</a> and Bihruz. In his bid to escape the battlefield to Mosul via Tikrit, Zangi took shelter with Ayyub and sought his assistance in this task. Ayyub complied and provided Zangi and his companions boats to cross the <a href="/wiki/Tigris_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Tigris River">Tigris River</a> and safely reach Mosul.<a href="#cite_note-Ali28-27">[27]</a> As a consequence for assisting Zangi, the Abbasid authorities sought punitive measures against Ayyub. Simultaneously, in a separate incident, Shirkuh killed a close confidant of Bihruz on charges that he had sexually assaulted a woman in Tikrit. The Abbasid court issued arrest warrants for both Ayyub and Shirkuh, but before the brothers could be arrested, they departed Tikrit for Mosul in 1138.<a href="#cite_note-Ali28-27">[27]</a> When they arrived in Mosul, Zangi provided them with all the facilities they needed and he recruited the two brothers into his service. Ayyub was made commander of <a href="/wiki/Ba%27albek" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'albek">Ba'albek</a> and Shirkuh entered the service of Zangi's son, <a href="/wiki/Nur_ad-Din_Zangi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nur ad-Din Zangi">Nur ad-Din</a>. According to historian Abdul Ali, it was under the care and patronage of Zangi that the Ayyubid family rose to prominence.<a href="#cite_note-Ali28-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment_in_Egypt">Establishment in Egypt</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Establishment in Egypt">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Saladin_in_Egypt" title="Saladin in Egypt">Saladin in Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saladin_coin_obverse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Saladin_coin_obverse.jpg/220px-Saladin_coin_obverse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Saladin_coin_obverse.jpg/330px-Saladin_coin_obverse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Saladin_coin_obverse.jpg/440px-Saladin_coin_obverse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="794" data-file-height="778" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">dirham</a> coin in the name of <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>, dated 1215 CE. Likely minted in <a href="/wiki/Mayyafariqin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayyafariqin">Mayyafariqin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Similar coins were also minted during Saladin's lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sharbush" title="Sharbush">sharbush</a> headgear was a rallying sign for Saladin.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1164, Nur al-Din dispatched Shirkuh to lead an expeditionary force to prevent the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusaders</a> from establishing a strong presence in an increasingly anarchic <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Egypt</a>. Shirkuh enlisted Ayyub's son, <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>, as an officer under his command.<a href="#cite_note-Shillington438-31">[31]</a> They successfully drove out Dirgham, the <a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Fatimid_Caliphate)" title="Vizier (Fatimid Caliphate)">vizier of Egypt</a>, and reinstated his predecessor <a href="/wiki/Shawar" title="Shawar">Shawar</a>. After being reinstated, Shawar ordered Shirkuh to withdraw his forces from Egypt, but Shirkuh refused, claiming it was Nur al-Din's will that he remain.<a href="#cite_note-LyonsJackson8-32">[32]</a> Over the course of several years, Shirkuh and Saladin defeated the combined forces of the Crusaders and Shawar's troops, first at <a href="/wiki/Bilbais" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilbais">Bilbais</a>, then at a site near <a href="/wiki/Giza" title="Giza">Giza</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, where Saladin would stay to protect while Shirkuh pursued Crusader forces in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LyonsJackson14-33">[33]</a> Shawar died in 1169 and Shirkuh became vizier, but he too died later that year.<a href="#cite_note-LyonsJackson25-34">[34]</a> After Shirkuh's death, Saladin was appointed vizier by the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a> caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Adid" title="Al-Adid">al-Adid</a> because there was "no one weaker or younger" than Saladin, and "not one of the <a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">emirs</a> obeyed him or served him", according to medieval Muslim chronicler <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Athir" title="Ibn al-Athir">Ibn al-Athir</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LyonsJackson28-35">[35]</a> Saladin soon found himself more independent than ever before in his career, much to the dismay of Nur al-Din who attempted to influence events in Egypt. He permitted Saladin's elder brother, <a href="/wiki/Turan-Shah" title="Turan-Shah">Turan-Shah</a>, to supervise Saladin in a bid to cause dissension within the Ayyubid family and thus undermining its position in Egypt. Nur al-Din satisfied Saladin's request that he be joined by his father Ayyub. However, Ayyub was sent primarily to ensure that Abbasid suzerainty was proclaimed in Egypt, which Saladin was reluctant to undertake due to his position as the vizier of the Fatimids. Although Nur al-Din failed to provoke the Ayyubids into rivalry, the extended Ayyubid family, particularly a number of local governors in Syria, did not entirely back Saladin.<a href="#cite_note-Lev96-97-36">[36]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ayyubid_dynasty_battle_scene,_Fustat,_Cairo,_Egypt,_12-13th_century_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Ayyubid_dynasty_battle_scene%2C_Fustat%2C_Cairo%2C_Egypt%2C_12-13th_century_CE.jpg/220px-Ayyubid_dynasty_battle_scene%2C_Fustat%2C_Cairo%2C_Egypt%2C_12-13th_century_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Ayyubid_dynasty_battle_scene%2C_Fustat%2C_Cairo%2C_Egypt%2C_12-13th_century_CE.jpg/330px-Ayyubid_dynasty_battle_scene%2C_Fustat%2C_Cairo%2C_Egypt%2C_12-13th_century_CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Ayyubid_dynasty_battle_scene%2C_Fustat%2C_Cairo%2C_Egypt%2C_12-13th_century_CE.jpg/440px-Ayyubid_dynasty_battle_scene%2C_Fustat%2C_Cairo%2C_Egypt%2C_12-13th_century_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1872" data-file-height="1254" /></a><figcaption>Fatimid or Ayyubid dynasty battle scene, <a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fustat</a>, Cairo, Egypt, 12–13th century.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></figcaption></figure> Saladin consolidated his control in Egypt after ordering Turan-Shah to <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Blacks" title="Battle of the Blacks">put down a revolt</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> staged by the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_army" title="Fatimid army">Fatimid army</a>'s 50,000-strong <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubian</a> regiments. After this success, Saladin began granting his family members high-ranking positions in the country and increased Sunni Muslim influence in Shia Muslim-dominated Cairo by ordering the construction of a college for the <a href="/wiki/Maliki" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliki">Maliki</a> <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">school of jurisprudence</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a> in the city, and another for the <a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'i">Shafi'i</a> school, to which he belonged, in <a href="/wiki/Al-Fustat" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Fustat">al-Fustat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LyonsJackson41-40">[40]</a> In 1171, al-Adid died and Saladin took advantage of this power vacuum, effectively taking control of the country. Upon seizing power, he switched Egypt's allegiance to the <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>-based Abbasid Caliphate which adhered to Sunni Islam.<a href="#cite_note-Shillington438-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion">Expansion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Expansion">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conquest_of_North_Africa_and_Nubia">Conquest of North Africa and Nubia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Conquest of North Africa and Nubia">edit</a>]</div> Saladin went to Alexandria in 1171–72 and found himself facing the dilemma of having many supporters in the city, but little money. A family council was held there by the Ayyubid emirs of Egypt where it was decided that <a href="/wiki/Al-Muzaffar_Umar" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muzaffar Umar">al-Muzaffar Taqi al-Din Umar</a>, Saladin's nephew, would launch an expedition against the coastal region of <a href="/wiki/Barqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Barqa">Barqa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a>) west of Egypt with a force of 500 cavalry. In order to justify the raid, a letter was sent to the <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> tribes of Barqa, rebuking them for their robberies of travelers and ordering them to pay the alms-tax (<a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">zakat</a>). The latter was to be collected from their livestock.<a href="#cite_note-Lev101-41">[41]</a> In late 1172, <a href="/wiki/Aswan" title="Aswan">Aswan</a> was besieged by former Fatimid soldiers from <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> and the governor of the city, <a href="/wiki/Banu_Kanz#Conflict_with_the_Ayyubids" title="Banu Kanz">Kanz al-Dawla</a>—a former Fatimid loyalist—requested reinforcements from Saladin who complied. The reinforcements had come after the Nubians had already departed Aswan, but Ayyubid forces led by Turan-Shah advanced and conquered northern Nubia after capturing the town of <a href="/wiki/Qasr_Ibrim" title="Qasr Ibrim">Ibrim</a>. Turan-Shah and his Kurdish soldiers temporarily lodged there. From Ibrim, they raided the surrounding region, halting their operations after being presented with an armistice proposal from the <a href="/wiki/Moses_Georgios_of_Makuria" title="Moses Georgios of Makuria">Makurian king</a>. Although Turan-Shah's initial response was <a href="/wiki/War_hawk" title="War hawk">hawkish</a>, he later sent an envoy to Dongola, who upon returning, described the poverty of the city and of Nubia in general to Turan-Shah. Consequently, the Ayyubids, like their Fatimid predecessors, were discouraged from further southward expansion into Nubia due to the poverty of the region, but required Nubia to guarantee the protection of Aswan and <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lev100-42">[42]</a> The Ayyubid garrison in Ibrim withdrew to Egypt in 1175.<a href="#cite_note-Fage583-43">[43]</a> Throughout the 1170s, the Ayyubids continued to push west as well. <a href="/wiki/Sharaf_al-Din_Qaraqush" title="Sharaf al-Din Qaraqush">Sharaf al-Din Qaraqush</a>, a commander under al-Muzaffar Taqi al-Din Umar, led most of these expeditions on the frontier. He captured <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis" title="Siwa Oasis">Siwa</a> in 1172 and conquered <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a> before 1174.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015123–125-44">[44]</a> He subsequently conquered <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a> with an army of <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a> and Kurds, joined by Arab troops from some of the region's Bedouin tribes. The exact date of Tripoli's capture is uncertain, but happened sometime in the 1170s or early 1180s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015131,_137–138-45">[45]</a> While some Ayyubid forces fought the Crusaders in the Levant, Qaraqush's forces went on to capture most of <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>) from the <a href="/wiki/Almohads" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohads">Almohads</a> by 1185–1186. By this point, Qaraqush had also entered into alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Ghaniya" title="Banu Ghaniya">Banu Ghaniya</a>, led by Ali ibn Ghaniya, another enemy of the Almohads.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015141-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbun-Nasr198799-47">[47]</a> The Almohad caliph <a href="/wiki/Yaqub_al-Mansur" title="Yaqub al-Mansur">Yaqub al-Mansur</a> reconquered Ifriqiya from 1187 to 1188, defeating both of them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015142–146-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbun-Nasr1987100-49">[49]</a> The Ayyubids made no further attempts to intervene in the Maghreb after this.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015153-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conquest_of_Arabia">Conquest of Arabia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Conquest of Arabia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_trebuchet_circa_1170_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Arabic_trebuchet_circa_1170_CE.jpg/330px-Arabic_trebuchet_circa_1170_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Arabic_trebuchet_circa_1170_CE.jpg/495px-Arabic_trebuchet_circa_1170_CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Arabic_trebuchet_circa_1170_CE.jpg/660px-Arabic_trebuchet_circa_1170_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3748" data-file-height="2676" /></a><figcaption>Arabic <a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">trebuchet</a>, with its counterweight, in the Tabṣira by Murḍi Ibn cālī Ibn Murḍi al-Ṭarsūsī written for <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>, late Fāṭimid or early Ayyūbid Egypt, c.1170 CE (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bodleian_Library_MS_Huntington_264" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bodleian Library MS Huntington 264">Ms. Hunt.264</a>, f.117, Bodleian Library, Oxford, UK).<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1173, Saladin sent Turan-Shah to conquer <a href="/wiki/Southern_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Arabia">Yemen</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>. Muslim writers Ibn al-Athir and later <a href="/wiki/Al-Maqrizi" title="Al-Maqrizi">al-Maqrizi</a> wrote that the reasoning behind the conquest of Yemen was an Ayyubid fear that should Egypt fall to Nur al-Din, they could seek refuge in a faraway territory. In May 1174, Turan-Shah conquered <a href="/wiki/Zabid" title="Zabid">Zabid</a> and later that year captured <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HoutsmaWensinck884-52">[52]</a> Aden became the principal maritime port of the dynasty in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> and the principal city of Yemen,<a href="#cite_note-Margariti29-53">[53]</a> although the official capital of Ayyubid Yemen was <a href="/wiki/Ta%27iz" class="mw-redirect" title="Ta'iz">Ta'iz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-McLaughlin131-54">[54]</a> The advent of the Ayyubids marked the beginning of a period of renewed prosperity in the city which saw the improvement of its commercial infrastructure, the establishment of new institutions, and the minting of its own coins.<a href="#cite_note-Margariti29-53">[53]</a> Following this prosperity, the Ayyubids implemented a new tax which was collected by <a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">galleys</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lofgren181-55">[55]</a> Turan-Shah drove out the remaining <a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_sultans" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamdanid sultans">Hamdanid</a> rulers of <a href="/wiki/Sana%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Sana'a">Sana'a</a>, conquering the mountainous city in 1175.<a href="#cite_note-HoutsmaWensinck884-52">[52]</a> With the conquest of Yemen, the Ayyubids developed a coastal fleet, al-asakir al-bahriyya, which they used to guard the sea coasts under their control and protect them from pirate raids.<a href="#cite_note-DumperStanley10-56">[56]</a> The conquest held great significance for Yemen because the Ayyubids managed to unite the previous three independent states (Zabid, Aden, and Sana'a) under a single power. However, when Turan-Shah was transferred from his governorship in Yemen in 1176, uprisings broke out in the territory and were not quelled until 1182 when Saladin assigned his other brother <a href="/wiki/Tughtakin_ibn_Ayyub" title="Tughtakin ibn Ayyub">Tughtekin Sayf al-Islam</a> as governor of Yemen.<a href="#cite_note-HoutsmaWensinck884-52">[52]</a> The Ayyubid <a href="/wiki/Na%27ib" class="mw-redirect" title="Na'ib">na'ib</a> (deputy governor) of Yemen, Uthman al-Zandjili, conquered the greater part of <a href="/wiki/Hadramaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadramaut">Hadramaut</a> in 1180, upon Turan-Shah's return to Yemen.<a href="#cite_note-Brice338-57">[57]</a> From Yemen, as from Egypt, the Ayyubids aimed to dominate the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> trade routes which Egypt depended on and so sought to tighten their grip over the Hejaz, where an important trade stop, <a href="/wiki/Yanbu" title="Yanbu">Yanbu</a>, was located.<a href="#cite_note-Salibi55-58">[58]</a> To favor trade in the direction of the Red Sea, the Ayyubids built facilities along the Red Sea-<a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> trade routes to accompany merchants.<a href="#cite_note-DalyPetry217-218-59">[59]</a> The Ayyubids also aspired to back their claims of legitimacy within the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> by having sovereignty over the <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> holy cities of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Salibi55-58">[58]</a> The conquests and economic advancements undertaken by Saladin effectively established Egypt's hegemony in the region.<a href="#cite_note-DalyPetry217-218-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conquest_of_Syria_and_Upper_Mesopotamia">Conquest of Syria and Upper Mesopotamia</h4>[<a 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard plainlist" style="width:19.5em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Family</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Father and uncle</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Najm_ad-Din_Ayyub" class="mw-redirect" title="Najm ad-Din Ayyub">Najm ad-Din Ayyub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirkuh" title="Shirkuh">Shirkuh</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Siblings</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Adil_I" title="Al-Adil I">Al-Adil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turan-Shah" title="Turan-Shah">Turan-Shah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tughtakin_ibn_Ayyub" title="Tughtakin ibn Ayyub">Tughtakin</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Wife</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ismat_ad-Din_Khatun" title="Ismat ad-Din Khatun">Ismat ad-Din Khatun</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Children</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Aziz_Uthman" title="Al-Aziz Uthman">Al-Aziz Uthman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Az-Zahir_Ghazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Az-Zahir Ghazi">Al-Zahir Ghazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Afdal_ibn_Salah_ad-Din" title="Al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din">Al-Afdal</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Life</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Service under <a href="/wiki/Nur_al-Din_Zengi" title="Nur al-Din Zengi">Nur al-Din</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Babein" title="Battle of al-Babein">Battle of al-Babein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Alexandria_(1167)" title="Siege of Alexandria (1167)">Siege of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladin_in_Egypt" title="Saladin in Egypt">Taking power in Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Blacks" title="Battle of the Blacks">Battle of the Blacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-Fatimid_conspiracy_against_Saladin" title="Pro-Fatimid conspiracy against Saladin">Conspiracy of 1174</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Horns_of_Hama" title="Battle of the Horns of Hama">Battle of the Horns of Hama</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Wars with the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusaders</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montgisard" title="Battle of Montgisard">Battle of Montgisard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marj_Ayyun" title="Battle of Marj Ayyun">Battle of Marj Ayyun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jacob%27s_Ford" title="Siege of Jacob's Ford">Siege of Jacob's Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Belvoir_Castle" title="Battle of Belvoir Castle">Battle of Belvoir Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Fule" title="Battle of al-Fule">Battle of al-Fule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kerak" title="Siege of Kerak">Siege of Kerak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hattin" title="Battle of Hattin">Battle of Hattin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(1187)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (1187)">Capture of Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(1187)" title="Siege of Tyre (1187)">Siege of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Safed_(1188)" title="Siege of Safed (1188)">Siege of Safed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_(1189%E2%80%931191)" title="Siege of Acre (1189–1191)">Siege of Acre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arsuf" title="Battle of Arsuf">Battle of Arsuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jaffa_(1192)" title="Battle of Jaffa (1192)">Battle of Jaffa</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Adid" title="Al-Adid">Al-Adid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_al-Athir" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn al-Athir">Ali ibn al-Athir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baha_ad-Din_ibn_Shaddad" title="Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad">Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baha_al-Din_Qaraqush" title="Baha al-Din Qaraqush">Baha al-Din Qaraqush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Tuwayr" title="Ibn al-Tuwayr">Ibn al-Tuwayr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imad_ad-Din_al-Isfahani" class="mw-redirect" title="Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani">Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadi_al-Fadil" title="Qadi al-Fadil">Qadi al-Fadil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharaf_al-Din_Qaraqush" title="Sharaf al-Din Qaraqush">Sharaf al-Din Qaraqush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husam_al-Din_Abu%27l-Hayja" title="Husam al-Din Abu'l-Hayja">Husam al-Din Abu'l-Hayja</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Legacy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cairo_Citadel" title="Cairo Citadel">Cairo Citadel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cultural_depictions_of_Saladin" title="Category:Cultural depictions of Saladin">Cultural depictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_of_Saladin" title="Eagle of Saladin">Eagle of Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Saladin" title="Mausoleum of Saladin">Mausoleum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Saladin" title="Template:Saladin"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Saladin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Saladin (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Saladin" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Saladin"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Although still nominally a vassal of Nur al-Din, Saladin adopted an increasingly independent foreign policy. This independence became more publicly pronounced after Nur al-Din's death in 1174.<a href="#cite_note-Shillington438-31">[31]</a> Thereafter, Saladin set out to conquer Syria from the <a href="/wiki/Zengid_dynasty" title="Zengid dynasty">Zengids</a>; and on November 23 he was welcomed in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> by the governor of the city. By 1175, he had taken control of <a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> but failed to take <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> after besieging it.<a href="#cite_note-Lane-Poole141-60">[60]</a> Control of Homs was handed to the descendants of Shirkuh in 1179 and Hama was given to Saladin's nephew, al-Muzaffar Umar.<a href="#cite_note-Lane-Poole189476-61">[61]</a> Saladin's successes alarmed Emir <a href="/wiki/Ghazi_II_Saif_ud-Din" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghazi II Saif ud-Din">Saif al-Din</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>, the head of the Zengids at the time, who regarded Syria as his family's estate and was angered that it was being usurped by a former servant of Nur al-Din. He mustered an army to confront Saladin near Hama. Although heavily outnumbered, Saladin and his veteran soldiers decisively defeated the Zengids.<a href="#cite_note-Lane-Poole141-60">[60]</a> After his victory, Saladin proclaimed himself king and suppressed the name of <a href="/wiki/As-Salih_Ismail_al-Malik" title="As-Salih Ismail al-Malik">as-Salih Ismail al-Malik</a> (Nur al-Din's adolescent son) in <a href="/wiki/Friday_prayers" class="mw-redirect" title="Friday prayers">Friday prayers</a> and Islamic coinage, replacing it with his own name. The Abbasid caliph, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustadi" title="Al-Mustadi">al-Mustadi</a>, graciously welcomed Saladin's assumption of power and gave him the title of "Sultan of Egypt and Syria".<a href="#cite_note-Lane-Poole1906p142-146-62">[62]</a> In the spring of 1176, another major confrontation occurred between the Zengids and the Ayyubids, this time at the <a href="/wiki/Tell_Sultan" title="Tell Sultan">Sultan's Mound</a>, 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) from Aleppo. Saladin again emerged victorious, but Saif al-Din managed to narrowly escape. The Ayyubids proceeded to conquer other Syrian cities in the north, namely <a href="/wiki/Ma%27arat_al-Numan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'arat al-Numan">Ma'arat al-Numan</a>, <a href="/wiki/A%27zaz" class="mw-redirect" title="A'zaz">A'zaz</a>, Buza'a, and <a href="/wiki/Manbij" title="Manbij">Manbij</a>, but failed to capture Aleppo during a second siege. An agreement was laid out, however, whereby <a href="/wiki/Gumushtigin" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumushtigin">Gumushtigin</a>, the governor of Aleppo, and his allies at <a href="/wiki/Hisn_Kayfa" class="mw-redirect" title="Hisn Kayfa">Hisn Kayfa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mardin" title="Mardin">Mardin</a>, would recognize Saladin as the sovereign of the Ayyubids' possessions in Syria, while Saladin allowed for Gumushtigin and as-Salih al-Malik to continue their rule over Aleppo.<a href="#cite_note-Lane-Poole1906p146-148-63">[63]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:138px;max-width:138px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:233px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmer_Cup_ruler_(British_Museum).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Palmer_Cup_ruler_%28British_Museum%29.jpg/136px-Palmer_Cup_ruler_%28British_Museum%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="136" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Palmer_Cup_ruler_%28British_Museum%29.jpg/204px-Palmer_Cup_ruler_%28British_Museum%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Palmer_Cup_ruler_%28British_Museum%29.jpg/272px-Palmer_Cup_ruler_%28British_Museum%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="497" data-file-height="851" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:200px;max-width:200px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:233px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmer_cup_right_attendants_(British_Museum).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Palmer_cup_right_attendants_%28British_Museum%29.jpg/198px-Palmer_cup_right_attendants_%28British_Museum%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="198" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Palmer_cup_right_attendants_%28British_Museum%29.jpg/297px-Palmer_cup_right_attendants_%28British_Museum%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Palmer_cup_right_attendants_%28British_Museum%29.jpg/396px-Palmer_cup_right_attendants_%28British_Museum%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1208" data-file-height="1426" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Northern Mesopotamian illustrative art at the time of Ayyubid control: the <a href="/wiki/Palmer_Cup" title="Palmer Cup">Palmer Cup</a> (1200–1215).<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The ruler and attendants are similar to those found in the manuscript <a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Dariyaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Kitab al-Dariyaq">Kitab al-Dariyaq</a> or metalworks from the <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> or North <a href="/wiki/Jazira_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Jazira region">Jazira</a> area. They wear <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk</a>-type clothes,<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> together with the typical <a href="/wiki/Sharbush" title="Sharbush">sharbush</a> headgear.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></div></div></div></div> While Saladin was in Syria, his brother <a href="/wiki/Al-Adil" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Adil">al-Adil</a> governed Egypt,<a href="#cite_note-Lev22-68">[68]</a> and in 1174–75, <a href="/wiki/Kanz_al-Dawla" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanz al-Dawla">Kanz al-Dawla</a> of Aswan revolted against the Ayyubids with the intention of restoring Fatimid rule. His main backers were the local Bedouin tribes and the Nubians, but he also enjoyed the support of a multitude of other groups, including the <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>. Coincidental or possibly in coordination, was an uprising by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbas_ibn_Shadi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abbas ibn Shadi (page does not exist)">Abbas ibn Shadi</a> who overran <a href="/wiki/Qus" title="Qus">Qus</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Nile_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile River">Nile River</a> in central Egypt. Both rebellions were crushed by al-Adil.<a href="#cite_note-Lev100-101-69">[69]</a> For the rest of that year and throughout early 1176, Qaraqush continued his raids in western <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, bringing the Ayyubids into conflict with the Almohads who ruled the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lev101-41">[41]</a> In 1177, Saladin led a force of some 26,000 soldiers, according to Crusader chronicler <a href="/wiki/William_of_Tyre" title="William of Tyre">William of Tyre</a>, into southern <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> after hearing that most of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a>'s soldiers were besieging <a href="/wiki/Harem,_Syria" title="Harem, Syria">Harem, Syria</a> west of Aleppo. Suddenly attacked by the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Templars</a> under <a href="/wiki/Baldwin_IV_of_Jerusalem" title="Baldwin IV of Jerusalem">Baldwin IV of Jerusalem</a> near <a href="/wiki/Ramla" title="Ramla">Ramla</a>, the Ayyubid army was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montgisard" title="Battle of Montgisard">Battle of Montgisard</a>, with the majority of its troops killed. Saladin encamped at Homs the following year and a number of skirmishes between his forces, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Farrukh_Shah" title="Farrukh Shah">Farrukh Shah</a>, and the Crusaders occurred.<a href="#cite_note-Lane-Poole1906p155-156-70">[70]</a> Undeterred, Saladin invaded the Crusader states from the west and defeated Baldwin at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marj_Ayyun" title="Battle of Marj Ayyun">Battle of Marj Ayyun</a> in 1179. The following year, he destroyed the newly built Crusader castle of <a href="/wiki/Daughters_of_Jacob_Bridge" title="Daughters of Jacob Bridge">Chastellet</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jacob%27s_Ford" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jacob's Ford">Battle of Jacob's Ford</a>. In the campaign of 1182, he sparred with Baldwin again in the inconclusive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Belvoir_Castle_(1182)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Belvoir Castle (1182)">Battle of Belvoir Castle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kawkab_al-Hawa" title="Kawkab al-Hawa">Kawkab al-Hawa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smail35-36-71">[71]</a> In May 1182, Saladin captured Aleppo after a brief siege; the new governor of the city, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Imad_al-Din_Zangi_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Imad al-Din Zangi II (page does not exist)">Imad al-Din Zangi II</a>, had been unpopular with his subjects and surrendered Aleppo after Saladin agreed to restore Zangi II's previous control over <a href="/wiki/Sinjar" title="Sinjar">Sinjar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nusaybin" title="Nusaybin">Nusaybin</a>, which would thereafter serve as vassal territories of the Ayyubids.<a href="#cite_note-LyonsJackson195-72">[72]</a> Aleppo formally entered Ayyubid hands on 12 June. The day after, Saladin marched to Harim, near the Crusader-held <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> and captured the city when its garrison forced out their leader, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Surhak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Surhak (page does not exist)">Surhak</a>, who was then briefly detained and released by al-Muzaffar Umar.<a href="#cite_note-LyonsJackson202-203-73">[73]</a> The surrender of Aleppo and Saladin's allegiance with Zangi II had left <a href="/wiki/Izz_ad-Din_Mas%27ud" class="mw-redirect" title="Izz ad-Din Mas'ud">Izz al-Din al-Mas'ud</a> of Mosul the only major Muslim rival of the Ayyubids. Mosul had been subjected to a short siege in the autumn of 1182, but after mediation by the Abbasid caliph <a href="/wiki/An-Nasir" class="mw-redirect" title="An-Nasir">an-Nasir</a>, Saladin withdrew his forces. Mas'ud attempted to align himself with the <a href="/wiki/Artuqid" class="mw-redirect" title="Artuqid">Artuqids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mardin" title="Mardin">Mardin</a>, but they became allies of Saladin instead. In 1183, <a href="/wiki/Irbil" class="mw-redirect" title="Irbil">Irbil</a> too switched allegiance to the Ayyubids. Mas'ud then sought the support of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pahlawan_ibn_Muhammad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pahlawan ibn Muhammad (page does not exist)">Pahlawan ibn Muhammad</a>, the governor of <a href="/wiki/Whole_Azerbaijan" title="Whole Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, and although he did not usually intervene in the region, the possibility of Pahlawan's intervention made Saladin cautious about launching further attacks against Mosul.<a href="#cite_note-BosworthDonzelHeinrichsPellat781-74">[74]</a> An arrangement was negotiated whereby al-Adil was to administer Aleppo in the name of Saladin's son <a href="/wiki/Al-Afdal_ibn_Salah_ad-Din" title="Al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din">al-Afdal</a>, while Egypt would be governed by al-Muzaffar Umar in the name of Saladin's other son <a href="/wiki/Al-Aziz_Uthman" title="Al-Aziz Uthman">Uthman</a>. When the two sons were to come of age they would assume power in the two territories, but if any died, one of Saladin's brothers would take their place.<a href="#cite_note-LyonsJackson221-75">[75]</a> In the summer of 1183, after ravaging eastern <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>, Saladin's raids there culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Al-Fule_(1183)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Al-Fule (1183)">Battle of al-Fule</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Jezreel_Valley" title="Jezreel Valley">Jezreel Valley</a> between him and the Crusaders under <a href="/wiki/Guy_of_Lusignan" title="Guy of Lusignan">Guy of Lusignan</a>. The mostly hand-to-hand fighting ended indecisively. The two armies withdrew to a mile from each other and while the Crusaders discussed internal matters, Saladin captured the <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Plateau</a>, cutting the Crusaders off from their main supplies source. In October 1183 and then on 13 August 1184, Saladin and al-Adil besieged Crusader-held <a href="/wiki/Al_Karak" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Karak">Karak</a>, but were unable to capture it. Afterward, the Ayyubids raided <a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samaria</a>, burning down <a href="/wiki/Nablus" title="Nablus">Nablus</a>. Saladin returned to Damascus in September 1184 and a relative peace between the Crusader states and the Ayyubid empire subsequently ensued in 1184–1185.<a href="#cite_note-Lane-Poole1906p177-181-76">[76]</a> Saladin launched his last offensive against Mosul in late 1185, hoping for an easy victory over a presumably demoralized Mas'ud, but failed due to the city's unexpectedly stiff resistance and a serious illness which caused Saladin to withdraw to <a href="/wiki/Harran" title="Harran">Harran</a>. Upon Abbasid encouragement, Saladin and Mas'ud negotiated a treaty in March 1186 that left the Zengids in control of Mosul, but had to cede the eastern region beyond <a href="/wiki/Little_Zab" title="Little Zab">lesser Zab</a> to <a href="/wiki/Shahrizor" title="Shahrizor">Shahrizor</a> to direct Ayyubid control, and under the obligation to supply the Ayyubids with military support when requested.<a href="#cite_note-BosworthDonzelHeinrichsPellat781-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conquest_of_Palestine_and_Transjordan">Conquest of Palestine and Transjordan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Conquest of Palestine and Transjordan">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Cresson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Battle_of_Cresson.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Cresson.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Battle_of_Cresson.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Cresson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Battle_of_Cresson.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Cresson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1098" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Virtually the entire <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a> passed into Ayyubid hands after their victory against the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusaders</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hattin" title="Battle of Hattin">Battle of Hattin</a> in 1187; illustration from <a href="/wiki/Passages_d%E2%80%99outremer" class="mw-redirect" title="Passages d’outremer">Les Passages faits Outremer par les Français contre les Turcs et autres Sarrasins et Maures outremarins</a>, c. 1490</figcaption></figure> Saladin besieged <a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a> in the eastern Galilee on 3 July 1187 and the Crusader army attempted to attack the Ayyubids by way of <a href="/wiki/Kafr_Kanna" title="Kafr Kanna">Kafr Kanna</a>. After hearing of the Crusaders' march, Saladin led his guard back to their main camp at <a href="/wiki/Kafr_Sabt" title="Kafr Sabt">Kafr Sabt</a>, leaving a small detachment at Tiberias. With a clear view of the Crusader army, Saladin ordered al-Muzaffar Umar to block the Crusaders' entry from <a href="/wiki/Hittin" title="Hittin">Hattin</a> by taking a position near <a href="/wiki/Lubya" title="Lubya">Lubya</a>, while <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kb%C3%B6ri" title="Gökböri">Gökböri</a> and his troops were stationed at a hill near <a href="/wiki/Al-Shajara,_Palestine" title="Al-Shajara, Palestine">al-Shajara</a>. On 4 July the Crusaders advanced toward the <a href="/wiki/Horns_of_Hattin" title="Horns of Hattin">Horns of Hattin</a> and charged against the Muslim forces, but were overwhelmed and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hattin" title="Battle of Hattin">defeated decisively</a>. Four days after the battle, Saladin invited al-Adil to join him in the reconquest of <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a> and Lebanese coast. On 8 July the Crusader stronghold of <a href="/wiki/Acre,_Israel" title="Acre, Israel">Acre</a> was captured by Saladin, while his forces seized <a href="/wiki/Nazareth" title="Nazareth">Nazareth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saffuriya" class="mw-redirect" title="Saffuriya">Saffuriya</a>; other brigades took <a href="/wiki/Haifa" title="Haifa">Haifa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sebastia,_Nablus" title="Sebastia, Nablus">Sebastia</a> and Nablus, while al-Adil conquered <a href="/wiki/Migdal_Afek" title="Migdal Afek">Mirabel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jaffa" title="Jaffa">Jaffa</a>. On 26 July, Saladin returned to the coast and received the surrender of <a href="/wiki/Sarepta" title="Sarepta">Sarepta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jableh" title="Jableh">Jableh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lane-Poole1906p219-78">[78]</a> In August, the Ayyubids conquered <a href="/wiki/Ramla" title="Ramla">Ramla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deir_al-Balah" title="Deir al-Balah">Darum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bayt_Jibrin" title="Bayt Jibrin">Bayt Jibrin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Latrun" title="Latrun">Latrun</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ashkelon" title="Ashkelon">Ascalon</a> was taken on 4 September.<a href="#cite_note-Lane-Poole1906p223-79">[79]</a> In September–October 1187, the Ayyubids <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(1187)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (1187)">besieged Jerusalem</a>, taking possession of it on 2 October, after negotiations with <a href="/wiki/Balian_of_Ibelin" title="Balian of Ibelin">Balian of Ibelin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lane-Poole1906p230-80">[80]</a> Karak and <a href="/wiki/Montreal_(Crusader_castle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Montreal (Crusader castle)">Mont Real</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oultrejordain" title="Oultrejordain">Transjordan</a> soon fell, followed by <a href="/wiki/Safad" class="mw-redirect" title="Safad">Safad</a> in the northeastern Galilee. By the end of 1187 the Ayyubids were in control of virtually the entire Crusader kingdom in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a>, which held out under <a href="/wiki/Conrad_of_Montferrat" title="Conrad of Montferrat">Conrad of Montferrat</a>. In December 1187, an Ayyubid army consisting of the garrisons of Saladin and his brothers from Aleppo, Hama, and Egypt besieged Tyre. Half of the Muslim naval fleet was seized by Conrad's forces on 29 December, followed by an Ayyubid defeat on the shoreline of the city. On 1 January 1188, Saladin held a war council where a withdrawal from Tripoli was agreed.<a href="#cite_note-Lane-Poole1906p239-240-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Third_Crusade">Third Crusade</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Third Crusade">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VIII" title="Pope Gregory VIII">Pope Gregory VIII</a> called for a <a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a> against the Muslims in early 1189. <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa" title="Frederick Barbarossa">Frederick Barbarossa</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Augustus">Philip Augustus</a> of France, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England" title="Richard I of England">Richard the Lionheart</a> of England formed an alliance to reconquer Jerusalem. Meanwhile, the Crusaders and the Ayyubids fought near Acre that year and were joined by the reinforcements from Europe. From 1189 to 1191, Acre was besieged by the Crusaders, and despite initial Muslim successes, it fell to Crusader forces. A <a href="/wiki/Massacre_at_Ayyadieh" title="Massacre at Ayyadieh">massacre</a> of 2,700 Muslim prisoners of war ensued, and the Crusaders then made plans to take Ascalon in the south.<a href="#cite_note-Lane-Poole1906p289-307-82">[82]</a> As the Ayyubids faced a Crusader naval blockade in Acre and a steady flow of Crusader reinforcements arriving by sea, Saladin sought assistance from the Almohads, who had one of the largest navies in the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015146-83">[83]</a> In 1189–1190, he sent letters to Yaqub al-Mansur requesting naval support in Palestine, which the Almohad caliph declined. Various explanations for this refusal have been suggest by historians, including the Almohads' focus on <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>, ideological differences between the two Muslim states, and the distrust caused by <a href="/wiki/Almohad%E2%80%93Ayyubid_war_of_1187%E2%80%931188" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad–Ayyubid war of 1187–1188">Qaraqush's invasion of Ifriqiya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015146–153-84">[84]</a> The Crusaders, now under the unified command of Richard, defeated Saladin at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arsuf" title="Battle of Arsuf">Battle of Arsuf</a>, allowing for the Crusader conquest of Jaffa and much of coastal Palestine, but they were unable to recover the interior regions. Instead, Richard signed a <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Ramla" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Ramla">treaty</a> with Saladin in 1192, restoring the Kingdom of Jerusalem to a coastal strip between Jaffa and Beirut. It was the last major war effort of Saladin's career, as he died the next year, in 1193. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quarrels_over_the_sultanate">Quarrels over the sultanate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Quarrels over the sultanate">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maqama_09_Abu_Zayd_and_his_wife_before_the_Kadi_of_Alexandria,_Egypt_(Kadi_detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Maqama_09_Abu_Zayd_and_his_wife_before_the_Kadi_of_Alexandria%2C_Egypt_%28Kadi_detail%29.jpg/220px-Maqama_09_Abu_Zayd_and_his_wife_before_the_Kadi_of_Alexandria%2C_Egypt_%28Kadi_detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Maqama_09_Abu_Zayd_and_his_wife_before_the_Kadi_of_Alexandria%2C_Egypt_%28Kadi_detail%29.jpg/330px-Maqama_09_Abu_Zayd_and_his_wife_before_the_Kadi_of_Alexandria%2C_Egypt_%28Kadi_detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Maqama_09_Abu_Zayd_and_his_wife_before_the_Kadi_of_Alexandria%2C_Egypt_%28Kadi_detail%29.jpg/440px-Maqama_09_Abu_Zayd_and_his_wife_before_the_Kadi_of_Alexandria%2C_Egypt_%28Kadi_detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1165" data-file-height="1358" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">Qadi</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in 1200–1210, according to the <a href="/wiki/Maqamat_al-Hariri" title="Maqamat al-Hariri">Maqamat al-Hariri</a> (BNF 3929)</figcaption></figure> Rather than establishing a centralized empire, Saladin had established hereditary ownership throughout his lands, dividing his empire among his kinsmen, with family members presiding over semi-autonomous fiefs and principalities.<a href="#cite_note-Shillington438-31">[31]</a> Although these princes (emirs) owed allegiance to the Ayyubid sultan, they maintained relative independence in their own territories.<a href="#cite_note-MeriBacharach84-85">[85]</a> Upon Saladin's death, <a href="/wiki/Malik_az-Zahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Malik az-Zahir">az-Zahir</a> took Aleppo from al-Adil per the arrangement and <a href="/wiki/Al-Aziz_Uthman" title="Al-Aziz Uthman">al-Aziz Uthman</a> held Cairo, while his eldest son, al-Afdal retained Damascus,<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell240-86">[86]</a> which also included Palestine and much of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon" title="Mount Lebanon">Mount Lebanon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Burns179-87">[87]</a> Al-Adil then acquired <a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia">al-Jazira</a> (Upper Mesopotamia), where he held the Zengids of Mosul at bay. In 1193, Mas'ud of Mosul joined forces with Zangi II of Sinjar and together the Zengid coalition moved to conquer al-Jazira. However, before any major results could be achieved, Mas'ud fell ill and returned to Mosul, and al-Adil then compelled Zangi to make a quick peace before the Zengids suffered territorial losses at the hands of the Ayyubids.<a href="#cite_note-BosworthDonzelHeinrichsPellat781-74">[74]</a> Al-Adil's son <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27azzam_Isa" title="Al-Mu'azzam Isa">al-Mu'azzam</a> took possession of Karak and Transjordan.<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell240-86">[86]</a> Soon, however, Saladin's sons squabbled over the division of the empire. Saladin had appointed al-Afdal to the governorship of Damascus with the intention that his son should continue to see the city as his principal place of residence in order to emphasize the primacy of the <a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">jihad</a> (struggle) against the Crusader states. Al-Afdal, however, found that his attachment to Damascus contributed to his undoing. Several of his father's subordinate emirs left the city for Cairo to lobby Uthman to oust him on claims he was inexperienced and intended to oust the Ayyubid old guard. Al-Adil further encouraged Uthman to act in order prevent al-Afdal's incompetence putting the Ayyubid empire in jeopardy. Thus, in 1194, Uthman openly demanded the sultanate. Uthman's claim to the throne was settled in a series of assaults on Damascus in 1196, forcing al-Afdal to leave for a lesser post at <a href="/wiki/Salkhad" title="Salkhad">Salkhad</a>. Al-Adil established himself in Damascus as a lieutenant of Uthman, but wielded great influence within the empire.<a href="#cite_note-Burns179-87">[87]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;border-color:lightgrey"><div style="position:relative;width:300px;border:1px solid lightgray"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Ayyubid dynasty is located in Continental Asia"><img alt="Ayyubid dynasty is located in Continental Asia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/300px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/450px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/600px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3196" data-file-height="1840" /></a><div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Ayyubids.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Map_of_the_Ayyubids.png/300px-Map_of_the_Ayyubids.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Map_of_the_Ayyubids.png/450px-Map_of_the_Ayyubids.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Map_of_the_Ayyubids.png/600px-Map_of_the_Ayyubids.png 2x" data-file-width="3196" data-file-height="1840" /></a></div><div id="annotation_270x05" style="position:absolute; left:270px; top:05px; font-size:10px; font-weight:bold; font-size:10; line-height:12px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/1215_CE" class="mw-redirect" title="1215 CE">1215</a></div><div id="annotation_70x80" style="position:absolute; left:70px; top:80px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">KHWARAZMIAN EMPIRE</a></div><div id="annotation_40x45" style="position:absolute; left:40px; top:45px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Cumania" title="Cumania">CUMAN KHANATES</a></div><div id="annotation_20x25" style="position:absolute; left:20px; top:25px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">KIEVAN RUS'</a></div><div id="annotation_200x40" style="position:absolute; left:200px; top:40px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Khamag_Mongol" title="Khamag Mongol">MONGOL CONFEDERATION</a></div><div id="annotation_115x40" style="position:absolute; left:115px; top:40px; font-size:6.5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6.5; line-height:8.5px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Kimek%E2%80%93Kipchak_confederation" title="Kimek–Kipchak confederation">KIPCHACKS</a></div><div id="annotation_130x57" style="position:absolute; left:130px; top:57px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">QARA KHITAI</a></div><div id="annotation_162x70" style="position:absolute; left:162px; top:70px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Qocho" title="Qocho">QOCHO</a></div><div id="annotation_123x103" style="position:absolute; left:123px; top:103px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ghurid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghurid Empire">GHURIDS</a></div><div id="annotation_35x82" style="position:absolute; left:35px; top:82px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Zengids" class="mw-redirect" title="Zengids">ZENGIDS</a></div><div id="annotation_40x90" style="position:absolute; left:40px; top:90px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">ABBASID CALIPHATE</a></div><div id="annotation_135x125" style="position:absolute; left:135px; top:125px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Seuna_(Yadava)_dynasty" title="Seuna (Yadava) dynasty">YADAVAS</a></div><div id="annotation_235x70" style="position:absolute; left:235px; top:70px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">JIN DYNASTY</a></div><div id="annotation_210x70" style="position:absolute; left:210px; top:70px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">XI XIA</a></div><div id="annotation_230x100" style="position:absolute; left:230px; top:100px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Song_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Song Dynasty">SONG DYNASTY</a></div><div id="annotation_193x135" style="position:absolute; left:193px; top:135px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">PAGAN</a></div><div id="annotation_205x120" style="position:absolute; left:205px; top:120px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Dali_Kingdom" title="Dali Kingdom">DALI</a></div><div id="annotation_210x145" style="position:absolute; left:210px; top:145px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">KHMER</a></div><div id="annotation_2x100" style="position:absolute; left:2px; top:100px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">AYYUBID SULTANATE</a></div><div id="annotation_5x73" style="position:absolute; left:5px; top:73px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">SULTANATE OF RUM</a></div><div id="annotation_280x74" style="position:absolute; left:280px; top:74px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">GO- RYEO</a></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" title="File:Map Asia physical (continental).png">class=notpageimage| </a></div>The Ayyubid and contemporary Asian polities <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1215</div></div></div> When Uthman died in a hunting accident near Cairo, al-Afdal was again made sultan (although Uthman's son al-Mansur was the nominal ruler of Egypt), al-Adil having been absent in a campaign in the northeast. Al-Adil returned and managed to occupy the <a href="/wiki/Citadel_of_Damascus" title="Citadel of Damascus">Citadel of Damascus</a>, but then faced a strong assault from the combined forces of al-Afdal and his brother az-Zahir of Aleppo. These forces disintegrated under al-Afdal's leadership and in 1200, al-Adil resumed his offensive.<a href="#cite_note-Burns180-88">[88]</a> Upon Uthman's death, two clans of <a href="/wiki/Mamluks" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluks">mamluks</a> (slave soldiers) entered into conflict. They were the Asadiyya and Salahiyya, both of which Shirkuh and Saladin had purchased. The Salahiyya backed al-Adil in his struggles against al-Afdal. With their support, al-Adil conquered Cairo in 1200,<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell241-89">[89]</a> and forced al-Afdal to accept internal banishment.<a href="#cite_note-Burns180-88">[88]</a> He proclaimed himself Sultan of Egypt and Syria afterward and entrusted the governance of Damascus to al-Mu'azzam and al-Jazira to his other son <a href="/wiki/Al-Kamil" title="Al-Kamil">al-Kamil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell241-89">[89]</a> Also around 1200, a <a href="/wiki/Sharif" title="Sharif">sharif</a> (tribal head related to the Islamic prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>), <a href="/wiki/Qatada_ibn_Idris" title="Qatada ibn Idris">Qatada ibn Idris</a>, seized power in Mecca and was recognized as the emir of the city by al-Adil.<a href="#cite_note-Salibi55-58">[58]</a> Al-Afdal attempted unsuccessfully to take Damascus his final time. Al-Adil entered the city in triumph in 1201.<a href="#cite_note-Burns180-88">[88]</a> Thereafter, al-Adil's line, rather than Saladin's line, dominated the next 50 years of Ayyubid rule.<a href="#cite_note-Burns180-88">[88]</a> However, az-Zahir still held Aleppo and al-Afdal was given <a href="/wiki/Samosata" class="mw-redirect" title="Samosata">Samosata</a> in Anatolia.<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell241-89">[89]</a> Al-Adil redistributed his possessions between his sons: al-Kamil was to succeed him in Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Musa,_Emir_of_Damascus" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Damascus">al-Ashraf</a> received al-Jazira, and <a href="/wiki/Al-Awhad_Ayyub" title="Al-Awhad Ayyub">al-Awhad</a> was given <a href="/wiki/Diyar_Bakr" title="Diyar Bakr">Diyar Bakr</a>, but the latter territory shifted to al-Ashraf's domain after al-Awhad died.<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell241-89">[89]</a> Al-Adil aroused open hostility from the <a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbali</a> lobby in Damascus for largely ignoring the Crusaders, having launched only one campaign against them. Al-Adil believed that the Crusader army could not be defeated in a direct fight. Prolonged campaigns also involved the difficulties of maintaining a coherent Muslim coalition. The trend under al-Adil was the steady growth of the empire, mainly through the expansion of Ayyubid authority in al-Jazira and incorporation of <a href="/wiki/Shah-Armens" title="Shah-Armens">Shah-Armen</a> domains (in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Anatolia">eastern Anatolia</a>). The Abbasids eventually recognized al-Adil's role as sultan in 1207.<a href="#cite_note-Burns180-88">[88]</a> By 1208 <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Kingdom of Georgia</a> challenged Ayyubid rule in eastern Anatolia and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid%E2%80%93Georgian_wars&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ayyubid–Georgian wars (page does not exist)">besieged Khilat</a> (possessions of al-Awhad). In response al-Adil assembled and personally led large Muslim army that included the emirs of Homs, Hama and Baalbek as well as contingents from other Ayyubid principalities to support al-Awhad. During the siege, Georgian general <a href="/wiki/Ivane_Mkhargrdzeli" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivane Mkhargrdzeli">Ivane Mkhargrdzeli</a> accidentally fell into the hands of the al-Awhad on the outskirts of Khilat and was released in 1210, only after the Georgians agreed to sign a <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_Truce" title="Thirty Years' Truce">Thirty Years' Truce</a>. The truce ended the Georgian menace to Ayyubid Armenia,<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> leaving the <a href="/wiki/Lake_Van" title="Lake Van">Lake Van</a> region to the Ayyubids of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>. A Crusader military campaign was launched on 3 November 1217, beginning with an offensive towards Transjordan. Al-Mu'azzam urged al-Adil to launch a counter-attack, but he rejected his son's proposal.<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell297-91">[91]</a> In 1218, the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Damietta" title="Damietta">Damietta</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a> was <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Damietta_(1218)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Damietta (1218)">besieged</a> by the Crusaders. After two failed attempts, the fortress eventually capitulated on 25 August. Six days later al-Adil died of apparent shock at Damietta's loss.<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell300-92">[92]</a> Al-Kamil proclaimed himself sultan in Cairo, while his brother al-Mu'azzam claimed the throne in Damascus. Al-Kamil attempted to retake Damietta, but was forced back by <a href="/wiki/John_of_Brienne" title="John of Brienne">John of Brienne</a>. After learning of a conspiracy against him, he fled, leaving the Egyptian army leaderless. Panic ensued, but with the help of al-Mu'azzam, al-Kamil regrouped his forces. By then, however, the Crusaders had seized his camp. The Ayyubids offered to negotiate for a withdrawal from Damietta, offering the restoration of Palestine to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, with the exception of the forts of Mont Real and Karak.<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell301-93">[93]</a> This was refused by the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Crusade" title="Fifth Crusade">Fifth Crusade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pelagius_of_Albano" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagius of Albano">Pelagius of Albano</a>, and in 1221, the Crusaders were driven out of the Nile Delta after the Ayyubid victory at <a href="/wiki/El_Mansoura,_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="El Mansoura, Egypt">Mansura</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shillington438-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disintegration">Disintegration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Disintegration">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Loss_of_territories_and_ceding_of_Jerusalem">Loss of territories and ceding of Jerusalem</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Loss of territories and ceding of Jerusalem">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Kamil_Muhammad_al-Malik_and_Frederick_II_Holy_Roman_Emperor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Al-Kamil_Muhammad_al-Malik_and_Frederick_II_Holy_Roman_Emperor.jpg/170px-Al-Kamil_Muhammad_al-Malik_and_Frederick_II_Holy_Roman_Emperor.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Al-Kamil_Muhammad_al-Malik_and_Frederick_II_Holy_Roman_Emperor.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="191" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Al-Kamil" title="Al-Kamil">Al-Kamil</a> (right) and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a> signed a treaty restoring <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusaders</a> for ten years; from <a href="/wiki/Nuova_Cronica" title="Nuova Cronica">Nuova Cronica</a>, mid-14th century</figcaption></figure> In the east, the <a href="/wiki/Khw%C4%81razm-Sh%C4%81h_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwārazm-Shāh dynasty">Khwarezemids</a> under <a href="/wiki/Jalal_ad-Din_Mingburnu" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu">Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu</a> captured the town of <a href="/wiki/Ahlat" title="Ahlat">Khilat</a> from al-Ashraf,<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell315-94">[94]</a> while the traditionally loyalist <a href="/wiki/Rasulid_dynasty" title="Rasulid dynasty">Rasulids</a> began to encroach on Ayyubid holdings in <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>. In 1222 the Ayyubids appointed the Rasulid leader Ali ibn Rasul as governor of Mecca. Ayyubid rule in Yemen and the Hejaz was declining and the Ayyubid governor of Yemen, Mas'ud ibn Kamil, was forced to leave for Egypt in 1223. He appointed Nur ad-Din Umar as his deputy governor while he was absent.<a href="#cite_note-Ali84-95">[95]</a> In 1224 a local dynasty gained control of <a href="/wiki/Hadramaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadramaut">Hadramaut</a> from the Ayyubids, whose control of it had been weakened due to their troubled situation in Yemen proper.<a href="#cite_note-Brice338-57">[57]</a> Following Mas'ud ibn Kamil's death in 1229, Nur ad-Din Umar declared his independence and discontinued the annual tribute payment to the Ayyubids in Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-Ali84-95">[95]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Crusade" title="Sixth Crusade">Sixth Crusade</a> was launched, capitalizing on the ongoing strife between al-Kamil of Egypt and al-Mu'azzam of Syria.<a href="#cite_note-Shillington438-31">[31]</a> Subsequently, al-Kamil offered Jerusalem to Frederick to help prevent a Syrian invasion of Egypt, but Frederick refused. Al-Kamil's position was strengthened when al-Mu'azzam died in 1227 and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/An-Nasir_Dawud" title="An-Nasir Dawud">an-Nasir Dawud</a>. Al-Kamil continued negotiations with Frederick in Acre in 1228, leading to a truce signed in February 1229. The agreement gave the Crusaders control over an unfortified Jerusalem for over ten years, but also guaranteed Muslim control over Islamic holy places in the city.<a href="#cite_note-MeriBacharach84-85">[85]</a> Although the treaty held little military significance, an-Nasir Dawud used it as a pretext to provoke the sentiments of Syria's inhabitants. A Friday sermon by a popular preacher at the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque" title="Umayyad Mosque">Umayyad Mosque</a> "reduced the crowd to violent sobbing and tears".<a href="#cite_note-Burns184-96">[96]</a> The settlement with the Crusaders was accompanied by a proposed redistribution of the Ayyubid principalities whereby Damascus and its territories would by governed by al-Ashraf, who recognized al-Kamil's sovereignty. An-Nasir Dawud resisted, incensed by the Ayyubid-Crusader truce.<a href="#cite_note-Burns184-96">[96]</a> Al-Kamil's forces reached Damascus to enforce the proposed agreement in May 1229. The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Damascus_(1229)" title="Siege of Damascus (1229)">ensuing siege</a> levied significant pressure on the inhabitants, but they rallied to an-Nasir Dawud, having been supportive of his father's stable rule and angered at the treaty with Frederick. After one month, an-Nasir Dawud sued for peace and was granted a new principality, centered around Karak, while al-Ashraf, the governor of Diyar Bakr, assumed the governorship of Damascus.<a href="#cite_note-Burns185-97">[97]</a> Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Seljuq_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Seljuq Empire">Seljuks</a> were advancing towards al-Jazira.<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell322-98">[98]</a> The descendants of Qatada ibn Idris challenged Ayyubid rule in Mecca. The Rasulids took advantage of this to end Ayyubid suzerainty in the Hejaz and bring the region under their control, which they accomplished in 1238 when Nur al-Din Umar captured Mecca.<a href="#cite_note-Salibi55-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ali84-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Syro-Egyptian_divide">Syro-Egyptian divide</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Syro-Egyptian divide">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bassin_du_sultan_al-Adil_II_Abu_Bak_(Combat_scene).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bassin_du_sultan_al-Adil_II_Abu_Bak_%28Combat_scene%29.jpg/220px-Bassin_du_sultan_al-Adil_II_Abu_Bak_%28Combat_scene%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bassin_du_sultan_al-Adil_II_Abu_Bak_%28Combat_scene%29.jpg/330px-Bassin_du_sultan_al-Adil_II_Abu_Bak_%28Combat_scene%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bassin_du_sultan_al-Adil_II_Abu_Bak_%28Combat_scene%29.jpg/440px-Bassin_du_sultan_al-Adil_II_Abu_Bak_%28Combat_scene%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1308" data-file-height="1458" /></a><figcaption>Basin of Ayubbid Sultan <a href="/wiki/Al-Adil_II" title="Al-Adil II">Al-Adil II</a>, Syria, 1238-1240, combat scene.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></figcaption></figure> Al-Ashraf's rule in Damascus was stable, but he and the other emirs of Syria sought to assert their independence from Cairo. Amid these tensions, al-Ashraf died in August 1237 after a four-month illness and was succeeded by his brother <a href="/wiki/As-Salih_Ismail,_Emir_of_Damascus" class="mw-redirect" title="As-Salih Ismail, Emir of Damascus">as-Salih Ismail</a>. Two months later, al-Kamil's Egyptian army arrived and besieged Damascus, but as-Salih Ismail had destroyed the suburbs of the city to deny al-Kamil's forces shelter.<a href="#cite_note-Burns186-100">[100]</a> In 1232, al-Kamil installed his eldest son <a href="/wiki/As-Salih_Ayyub" title="As-Salih Ayyub">as-Salih Ayyub</a> to govern Hisn Kayfa, but upon al-Kamil's death in 1238, as-Salih Ayyub disputed the proclamation of younger brother <a href="/wiki/Al-Adil_II" title="Al-Adil II">al-Adil II</a> as sultan in Cairo. As-Salih Ayyub eventually occupied Damascus in December 1238, but his uncle Ismail retrieved the city in September 1239. Ismail's cousin an-Nasir Dawud had Ismail detained in Karak in a move to prevent the latter's arrest by al-Adil II. Ismail entered into an alliance with Dawud who released him the following year, allowing him to proclaim himself sultan in place of al-Adil II in May 1240. Throughout the early 1240s, as-Salih Ayyub carried out reprisals against those who supported al-Adil II, and he then quarreled with an-Nasir Dawud who had reconciled with as-Salih Ismail of Damascus. The rival sultans as-Salih Ayyub and Ismail attempted to ally with the Crusaders against the other.<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell328-101">[101]</a> In 1244, the breakaway Ayyubids of Syria allied with the Crusaders and confronted the coalition of as-Salih Ayyub and the Khwarizmids at <a href="/wiki/Hirbiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hirbiya">Hirbiya</a>, near Gaza. A large <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_La_Forbie" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of La Forbie">battle ensued</a>, resulting in a major victory for as-Salih Ayyub and the virtual collapse of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell330-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Restoration_of_unity">Restoration of unity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Restoration of unity">edit</a>]</div> In 1244–1245, as-Salih Ayyub had seized the area approximate to the modern-day <a href="/wiki/West_Bank" title="West Bank">West Bank</a> from an-Nasir Dawud; he gained possession of Jerusalem, then marched on to take Damascus, which fell with relative ease in October 1245.<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell330-102">[102]</a> Shortly afterward, Sayf al-Din Ali surrendered his exposed principality of <a href="/wiki/Ajlun" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajlun">Ajlun</a> and its fortress to as-Salih Ayyub. The rupture of the alliance between the Khwarizmids and as-Salih Ayyub ended with the virtual destruction of the former by <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur_Ibrahim" title="Al-Mansur Ibrahim">al-Mansur Ibrahim</a>, the Ayyubid emir of Homs, in October 1246.<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell330-102">[102]</a> With the Khwarizimid defeat, as-Salih Ayyub was able to complete the conquest of southern Syria.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys288-103">[103]</a> His general Fakhr ad-Din went on to subdue an-Nasir Dawud's territories. He sacked the lower town of Karak, then besieged its fortress. A stalemate followed with neither an-Nasir Dawud or Fakhr ad-Din strong enough to dislodge the other's forces. A settlement was eventually reached whereby an-Nasir Dawud would retain the fortress, but cede the remainder of his principality to as-Salih Ayyub. Having settled the situation in Palestine and Transjordan, Fakhr ad-Din moved north and marched to <a href="/wiki/Bosra" title="Bosra">Bosra</a>, the last place still held by Ismail. During the siege, Fakhr ad-Din fell ill, but his commanders continued the assault against the city, which fell in December 1246.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys290-104">[104]</a> By May 1247, as-Salih Ayyub was master of Syria south of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Homs" title="Lake Homs">Lake Homs</a>, having gained control over <a href="/wiki/Banias" title="Banias">Banyas</a> and Salkhad. With his fellow Ayyubid opponents subdued, except for Aleppo under <a href="/wiki/An-Nasir_Yusuf" title="An-Nasir Yusuf">an-Nasir Yusuf</a>, as-Salih Ayyub undertook a limited offensive against the Crusaders, sending Fakhr ad-Din to move against their territories in the Galilee. <a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a> fell on 16 June, followed by <a href="/wiki/Mount_Tabor" title="Mount Tabor">Mount Tabor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kawkab_al-Hawa" title="Kawkab al-Hawa">Kawkab al-Hawa</a> soon thereafter. Safad with its Templar fortress seemed out of reach, so the Ayyubids marched south to Ascalon. Facing stubborn resistance from the Crusader garrison, an Egyptian flotilla was sent by as-Salih Ayyub to support the siege and on 24 October, Fakhr ad-Din's troops stormed through a breach in the walls and killed or captured the entire garrison. The city was razed and left deserted.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys290-104">[104]</a> As-Salih Ayyub returned to Damascus to keep an eye on developments in northern Syria. <a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Musa,_Emir_of_Homs" title="Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Homs">Al-Ashraf Musa of Homs</a> had ceded the important stronghold of <a href="/wiki/Salamiyah" title="Salamiyah">Salamiyah</a> to as-Salih Ayyub the previous winter, perhaps to underline their patron-client relationship. This troubled the Ayyubids of Aleppo who feared it would be used as a base for a military take-over of their city. An-Nasir Yusuf found this intolerable and decided to annex Homs in the winter of 1248. The city surrendered in August and an-Nasir Yusuf's terms forced al-Ashraf Musa to hand over Homs, but he was allowed to retain nearby <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a> and Tell Bashir in the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a>. As-Salih Ayyub sent Fakhr ad-Din to recapture Homs, but Aleppo countered by sending an army to <a href="/wiki/Kafartab" title="Kafartab">Kafr Tab</a>, south of the city.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys293-295-105">[105]</a> An-Nasir Dawud left Karak for Aleppo to support an-Nasir Yusuf, but in his absence, his brothers al-Amjad Hasan and az-Zahir Shadhi detained his heir al-Mu'azzam Isa and then personally went to as-Salih Ayyub's camp at <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansourah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mansourah">al-Mansourah</a> in Egypt to offer him control of Karak in return for holdings in Egypt. As-Salih Ayyub agreed and sent the <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuch</a> Badr al-Din Sawabi to act as his governor in Karak.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys297-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall">Fall</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Fall">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rise_of_the_Mamluks_and_fall_of_Egypt">Rise of the Mamluks and fall of Egypt</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Rise of the Mamluks and fall of Egypt">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Basin,_Syria,_c._1240_AD,_brass_inlaid_with_silver_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC04710.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Basin%2C_Syria%2C_c._1240_AD%2C_brass_inlaid_with_silver_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC04710.jpg/220px-Basin%2C_Syria%2C_c._1240_AD%2C_brass_inlaid_with_silver_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC04710.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Basin%2C_Syria%2C_c._1240_AD%2C_brass_inlaid_with_silver_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC04710.jpg/330px-Basin%2C_Syria%2C_c._1240_AD%2C_brass_inlaid_with_silver_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC04710.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Basin%2C_Syria%2C_c._1240_AD%2C_brass_inlaid_with_silver_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC04710.jpg/440px-Basin%2C_Syria%2C_c._1240_AD%2C_brass_inlaid_with_silver_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC04710.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5223" data-file-height="3346" /></a><figcaption>Basin made for Ayyubid Sultan <a href="/wiki/As-Salih_Ayyub" title="As-Salih Ayyub">As-Salih Ayyub</a>, <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, Syria, 1247–1249. Brass inlaid with silver. Freer Gallery of Art.<a href="#cite_note-Basin-107">[107]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Basin,_Syria,_c._1240_AD,_brass_inlaid_with_silver_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_(horseman_playing_Polo).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Basin%2C_Syria%2C_c._1240_AD%2C_brass_inlaid_with_silver_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_%28horseman_playing_Polo%29.jpg/220px-Basin%2C_Syria%2C_c._1240_AD%2C_brass_inlaid_with_silver_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_%28horseman_playing_Polo%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Basin%2C_Syria%2C_c._1240_AD%2C_brass_inlaid_with_silver_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_%28horseman_playing_Polo%29.jpg/330px-Basin%2C_Syria%2C_c._1240_AD%2C_brass_inlaid_with_silver_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_%28horseman_playing_Polo%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Basin%2C_Syria%2C_c._1240_AD%2C_brass_inlaid_with_silver_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_%28horseman_playing_Polo%29.jpg/440px-Basin%2C_Syria%2C_c._1240_AD%2C_brass_inlaid_with_silver_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_%28horseman_playing_Polo%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="717" data-file-height="665" /></a><figcaption>Horseman playing <a href="/wiki/Polo" title="Polo">Polo</a> (detail). <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, Syria, 1247–1249. Brass inlaid with silver. Freer Gallery of Art.<a href="#cite_note-Basin-107">[107]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1248, a Crusader fleet of 1,800 boats and ships arrived in <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> with the intent of launching a <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Crusade" title="Seventh Crusade">Seventh Crusade</a> against the Muslims by conquering Egypt. Their commander, <a href="/wiki/Louis_IX" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis IX">Louis IX</a>, attempted to enlist the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongols</a> to launch a coordinated attack on Egypt, but when this failed to materialize, the Crusader force sailed to Damietta and the local population there fled as soon as they landed. When as-Salih Ayyub, who was in Syria at the time, heard of this, he rushed back to Egypt, avoiding Damietta, instead reaching Mansurah. There, he organized an army and raised a commando force which harassed the Crusaders.<a href="#cite_note-Ali35-108">[108]</a> As-Salih Ayyub was ill and his health deteriorated further due to the mounting pressure from the Crusader offensive. His wife <a href="/wiki/Shajar_al-Durr" title="Shajar al-Durr">Shajar al-Durr</a> called a meeting of all the war generals and thus became commander-in-chief of the Egyptian forces. She ordered the fortification of Mansurah and then stored large quantities of provisions and concentrated her forces there. She also organized a fleet of war galleys and scattered them at various strategic points along the Nile River. Crusader attempts to capture Mansurah were thwarted and King Louis found himself in a critical position. He managed to cross the Nile to launch a surprise attack against Mansurah. Meanwhile, as-Salih Ayyub died, but Shajar al-Durr and as-Salih Ayyub's <a href="/wiki/Bahri_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahri dynasty">Bahri Mamluk</a> generals, including <a href="/wiki/Baibars" class="mw-redirect" title="Baibars">Rukn al-Din Baybars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aybak" title="Aybak">Aybak</a>, countered the assault and inflicted heavy losses on the Crusaders. Simultaneously, Egyptian forces cut off the Crusader's line of supply from Damietta, preventing the arrival of reinforcements. As-Salih Ayyub's son and the newly proclaimed Ayyubid sultan <a href="/wiki/Al-Muazzam_Turanshah" title="Al-Muazzam Turanshah">al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah</a> reached Mansurah at this point and intensified <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mansurah_(1250)" title="Battle of Mansurah (1250)">the battle</a> against the Crusaders. The latter ultimately surrendered at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fariskur_(1250)" title="Battle of Fariskur (1250)">Battle of Fariskur</a>, and King Louis and his companions were arrested.<a href="#cite_note-Ali36-109">[109]</a> Al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah alienated the Mamluks soon after their victory at Mansurah and constantly threatened them and Shajar al-Durr. Fearing for their positions of power, the Bahri Mamluks revolted against the sultan and killed him in April 1250.<a href="#cite_note-MeriBacharach84-85">[85]</a> Aybak married Shajar al-Durr and subsequently took over the government in Egypt in the name of <a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Musa,_Sultan_of_Egypt" title="Al-Ashraf Musa, Sultan of Egypt">al-Ashraf II</a> who became sultan, but only nominally.<a href="#cite_note-RichardBirrell349-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dominance_of_Aleppo">Dominance of Aleppo</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Dominance of Aleppo">edit</a>]</div> Intent on restoring the supremacy of Saladin's direct descendants within the Ayyubid family,<a href="#cite_note-Tabbaa29-30-111">[111]</a> an-Nasir Yusuf was eventually able to enlist the backing of all of the Syria-based Ayyubid emirs in a common cause against Mamluk-dominated Egypt. By 1250, he took Damascus with relative ease and except for Hama and Transjordan, an-Nasir Yusuf's direct authority stood unbroken from the <a href="/wiki/Khabur_(Euphrates)" title="Khabur (Euphrates)">Khabur River</a> in northern Mesopotamia to the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a>. In December 1250, he attacked Egypt after hearing of al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah's death and the ascension of Shajar al-Durr. An-Nasir Yusuf's army was much larger and better-equipped than that of the Egyptian army, consisting of the forces of Aleppo, Homs, Hama, and those of Saladin's only surviving sons, Nusrat ad-Din and Turan-Shah ibn Salah ad-Din.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys316-112">[112]</a> Nonetheless, it suffered a major defeat at the hands of Aybak's forces. An-Nasir Yusuf subsequently returned to Syria, which was slowly slipping out of his control.<a href="#cite_note-Tabbaa29-30-111">[111]</a> The Mamluks forged an alliance with the Crusaders in March 1252 and agreed to jointly launch a campaign against an-Nasir Yusuf. King Louis, who had been released after al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah's murder, led his army to Jaffa, while Aybak intended to send his forces to Gaza. Upon hearing of the alliance, an-Nasir Yusuf immediately dispatched a force to <a href="/wiki/Tell_al-Ajjul" class="mw-redirect" title="Tell al-Ajjul">Tell al-Ajjul</a>, just outside Gaza, in order to prevent the junction of the Mamluk and Crusader armies. Meanwhile, the rest of the Ayyubid army was stationed in the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_Valley_(Middle_East)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jordan Valley (Middle East)">Jordan Valley</a>. Realizing that a war between them would greatly benefit the Crusaders, Aybak and an-Nasir Yusuf accepted Abbasid mediation via Najm ad-Din al-Badhirai. In April 1253, a treaty was signed whereby the Mamluks would retain control over all of Egypt and Palestine up to, but not including, Nablus, while an-Nasir Yusuf would be confirmed as the ruler of Muslim Syria. Thus, Ayyubid rule was officially ended in Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys322-323-113">[113]</a> After conflict arose between the Mamluks and the Ayyubids reignited, al-Badhirai arranged another treaty, this time giving an-Nasir Yusuf control of the Mamluks' territories in Palestine and <a href="/wiki/Al-Arish" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Arish">al-Arish</a> in Sinai. Instead of placing Ayyubids in charge, however, an-Nasir Yusuf handed Jerusalem to a Mamluk named Kutuk while Nablus and <a href="/wiki/Jenin" title="Jenin">Jenin</a> were given to Baibars.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys328-114">[114]</a> For over a year after the settlement with the Mamluks, calm settled over an-Nasir Yusuf's reign, but on 11 December 1256 he sent two envoys to the Abbasids in Baghdad seeking formal investiture from the caliph, <a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">al-Musta'sim</a>, for his role as "Sultan". This request was connected to an-Nasir's rivalry with Aybak, as the title would be useful in future disputes with the Mamluks. However, the Mamluks had sent their envoys to Baghdad previously to precisely ensure that an-Nasir Yusuf would not gain the title, putting al-Musta'sim in a difficult position.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys328-114">[114]</a> In early 1257, Aybak was killed in a conspiracy, and was succeeded by his 15-year-old son, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur_Ali" title="Al-Mansur Ali">al-Mansur Ali</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Qutuz" title="Qutuz">Saif ad-Din Qutuz</a> held an influential position. Soon after al-Mansur Ali's ascendancy rumors of another conspiracy to which an-Nasir Yusuf had an alleged connection emerged. The accused conspirator, al-Mansur Ali's vizier, Sharaf ad-Din al-Fa'izi, was strangled by Egyptian authorities. The Bahri Mamluks in Syria led by Baibars pressured an-Nasir Yusuf to intervene by invading Egypt, but he would not act, fearing the Bahri dynasty would usurp his throne if they gained Egypt. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Karak_asserts_independence">Karak asserts independence</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Karak asserts independence">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ayyubids_1257.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Ayyubids_1257.png/200px-Ayyubids_1257.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Ayyubids_1257.png/300px-Ayyubids_1257.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Ayyubids_1257.png/400px-Ayyubids_1257.png 2x" data-file-width="430" data-file-height="311" /></a><figcaption>Ayyubid territories in 1257. Area in bright red controlled by <a href="/wiki/An-Nasir_Yusuf" title="An-Nasir Yusuf">an-Nasir Yusuf</a>, while the area under dark red was under the nominal control of al-Mughith Umar of Kerak</figcaption></figure> Relations between an-Nasir Yusuf and the Bahri Mamluks grew tense after the former refused to invade Egypt. In October 1257, Baibars and his fellow Mamluks left Damascus or were expelled from the city and together they moved south to Jerusalem. When the governor Kutuk refused to aid them against an-Nasir Yusuf, Baibars deposed him and had al-Mugith Umar, the emir of Karak, pronounced in the <a href="/wiki/Khutba" class="mw-redirect" title="Khutba">khutba</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Al-Aqsa_Mosque_(building)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Aqsa Mosque (building)">al-Aqsa Mosque</a>; over the years, al-Mugith Umar had allowed the political dissidents of Cairo and Damascus, who sought protection from either the Mamluk and Ayyubid authorities, a safe haven within his territory.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys330-31-115">[115]</a> Soon after gaining Jerusalem, Baibars conquered Gaza and an-Nasir Yusuf sent his army to Nablus in response. A battle ensued and the Mamluks ultimately fled across the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_River" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Balqa_(region)" title="Balqa (region)">Balqa</a> area. From there they reached <a href="/wiki/Zoara" title="Zoara">Zughar</a> at the southern tip of the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a> where they sent their submission to Karak. Al-Mughith Umar's new relationship with Baibars solidified his independence from an-Nasir Yusuf's Syria. To ensure his independence, al-Mughith Umar began to distribute the territories of Palestine and Transjordan among the Bahri Mamluks.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys330-31-115">[115]</a> The new allies assembled a small army and headed for Egypt. In spite of initial gains in Palestine and al-Arish, they withdrew after seeing how overwhelmingly outnumbered they were by the Egyptian army. Al-Mughith Umar and Baibars were not discouraged, however, and launched an army 1,500 regular cavalry to Sinai at the beginning of 1258, but again were defeated by the Mamluks of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys332-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mongol_invasion_and_collapse_of_the_empire">Mongol invasion and collapse of the empire</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Mongol invasion and collapse of the empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Mongol invasions of the Levant</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mongol_raids_in_Syria_and_Palestine_1260.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mongol_raids_in_Syria_and_Palestine_1260.svg/250px-Mongol_raids_in_Syria_and_Palestine_1260.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mongol_raids_in_Syria_and_Palestine_1260.svg/375px-Mongol_raids_in_Syria_and_Palestine_1260.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mongol_raids_in_Syria_and_Palestine_1260.svg/500px-Mongol_raids_in_Syria_and_Palestine_1260.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="657" data-file-height="901" /></a><figcaption>The Mongol conquest of Ayyubid Syria</figcaption></figure> The Ayyubids had been under the nominal sovereignty of the Mongol Empire after a Mongol force targeted Ayyubid territories in Anatolia in 1244. An-Nasir Yusuf sent an embassy to the Mongol capital <a href="/wiki/Karakorum" title="Karakorum">Karakorum</a> in 1250, shortly after assuming power. These understandings did not last, however, and the Mongol Great Khan, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan" title="Möngke Khan">Möngke</a>, issued a directive to his brother <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu</a> to extend the realms of the empire to the Nile River. The latter raised an army of 120,000 and in 1258, sacked Baghdad and slaughtered its inhabitants, including Caliph al-Musta'sim and most of his family after the Ayyubids failed to assemble an army to protect the city.<a href="#cite_note-Burns195-196-117">[117]</a> That same year the Ayyubids lost Diyar Bakr to the Mongols.<a href="#cite_note-DumperStanley128-118">[118]</a> An-Nasir Yusuf sent a delegation to Hulagu afterward, repeating his protestations to submission. Hulagu refused to accept the terms and so an-Nasir Yusuf called on Cairo for aid. This plea coincided with a successful coup by the Cairo-based Mamluks against the remaining symbolic Ayyubid leadership in Egypt, with strongman <a href="/wiki/Qutuz" title="Qutuz">Qutuz</a> officially taking power. Meanwhile, an Ayyubid army was assembled at <a href="/wiki/Barzeh,_Syria" title="Barzeh, Syria">Birzeh</a>, just north of Damascus to defend the city against the Mongols who were now marching towards northern Syria. <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Aleppo_(1260)" title="Siege of Aleppo (1260)">Aleppo was soon besieged</a> within a week and in January 1260 it fell to the Mongols. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Aleppo" title="Great Mosque of Aleppo">Great Mosque</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Citadel_of_Aleppo" title="Citadel of Aleppo">Citadel of Aleppo</a> were razed and most of the inhabitants were killed or sold <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ayyubid_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Ayyubid Sultanate">into slavery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Burns197-119">[119]</a> The destruction of Aleppo caused panic in Muslim Syria; The Ayyubid emir of Homs, al-Ashraf Musa, offered to ally with Mongols at the approach of their army and was allowed to continue governance of the city by Hulagu. Hama also capitulated without resisting, but did not join forces with the Mongols.<a href="#cite_note-Grousset362-120">[120]</a> An-Nasir Yusuf opted to flee Damascus to seek protection in Gaza.<a href="#cite_note-Burns197-119">[119]</a> Hulagu departed for Karakorum and left <a href="/wiki/Kitbuqa" title="Kitbuqa">Kitbuqa</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestorian Christian">Nestorian Christian</a> general, to continue the Mongol conquest. Damascus capitulated after the arrival of the Mongol army, but was not sacked like other captured Muslim cities. However, from Gaza, an-Nasir Yusuf managed to rally the small garrison he left in the Citadel of Damascus to rebel against the Mongol occupation. The Mongols retaliated by launching a massive artillery assault on the citadel and when it became apparent that an-Nasir Yusuf was unable to relieve the city with a newly assembled army, the garrison surrendered.<a href="#cite_note-Burns197-119">[119]</a> The Mongols proceeded by conquering Samaria, killing most of the Ayyubid garrison in Nablus, and then advanced south, as far as Gaza, unhindered. An-Nasir Yusuf was soon captured by the Mongols and used to persuade the garrison at Ajlun to capitulate. Afterward, the junior Ayyubid governor of <a href="/wiki/Banias" title="Banias">Banyas</a> allied with the Mongols,<a href="#cite_note-Grousset362-120">[120]</a> who had now gained control of most of Syria and al-Jazira, effectively ending Ayyubid power in the region. On 3 September 1260, the Egypt-based Mamluk army led by Qutuz and <a href="/wiki/Baibars" class="mw-redirect" title="Baibars">Baibars</a> challenged Mongol authority and decisively defeated their forces in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut" title="Battle of Ain Jalut">Battle of Ain Jalut</a>, outside of <a href="/wiki/Zir%27in" title="Zir'in">Zir'in</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Jezreel_Valley" title="Jezreel Valley">Jezreel Valley</a>. Five days later, the Mamluks took Damascus and within a month, most of Syria was in Bahri Mamluk hands.<a href="#cite_note-Burns197-119">[119]</a> Meanwhile, an-Nasir Yusuf was killed in captivity.<a href="#cite_note-AbulafiaMcKitterickFouracre616-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Remnants_of_the_dynasty">Remnants of the dynasty</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Remnants of the dynasty">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Hasankeyf" title="Emirate of Hasankeyf">Emirate of Hasankeyf</a></div> Many of the Ayyubid emirs of Syria were discredited by Qutuz for collaborating with the Mongols, but since al-Ashraf Musa defected and fought alongside the Mamluks at Ain Jalut, he was allowed to continue his rule over Homs. Al-Mansur of Hama had fought alongside the Mamluks from the start of their conquest and because of this,<a href="#cite_note-AbulafiaMcKitterickFouracre616-121">[121]</a> Hama continued to be ruled by the Ayyubid descendants of al-Muzaffar Umar. After al-Ashraf Musa's death in 1262, the new Mamluk sultan, Baibars, annexed Homs. The next year, al-Mughith Umar was tricked into surrendering Karak to Baibars and was executed soon after for having previously sided with the Mongols.<a href="#cite_note-AbulafiaMcKitterickFouracre616-121">[121]</a> The last Ayyubid ruler of Hama died in 1299 and Hama briefly passed through direct Mamluk suzerainty. However, in 1310, under the patronage of the Mamluk sultan <a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir_Muhammad" title="Al-Nasir Muhammad">al-Nasir Muhammad</a>, Hama was restored to the Ayyubids under the well-known geographer and author <a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Fida" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Fida">Abu al-Fida</a>. The latter died in 1331 and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Al-Afdal_Muhammad" title="Al-Afdal Muhammad">al-Afdal Muhammad</a>, who eventually lost the favor of his Mamluk overlords. He was removed from his post in 1341 and Hama was formally placed under Mamluk rule.<a href="#cite_note-DumperStanley163-122">[122]</a> In southeastern Anatolia, the Ayyubids continued to rule the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Hasankeyf" title="Emirate of Hasankeyf">principality of Hisn Kayfa</a> and managed to remain an autonomous entity, independent of the Mongol <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a>, which ruled northern Mesopotamia until the 1330s. After the breakup of the Ilkhanate, their former vassals in the area, the <a href="/wiki/Artuqid" class="mw-redirect" title="Artuqid">Artuqids</a>, waged war against the Ayyubids of Hisn Kayfa in 1334, but were decisively defeated, with the Ayyubids gaining the Artuqids' possessions on the left bank of the <a href="/wiki/Tigris_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Tigris River">Tigris River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Singh203-204-123">[123]</a> In the 14th century, the Ayyubids rebuilt the castle of Hisn Kayfa which served as their stronghold. The Ayyubids of Hisn Kayfa were vassals of the Mamluks and later the <a href="/wiki/Dulkadirids" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulkadirids">Dulkadirids</a> until being supplanted by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in the early 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-AyliffeDubinGawthropRichardson913-124">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Military">edit</a>]</div> Fundamentally, <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin's</a> army, which grew out of <a href="/wiki/Nur_al-Din_Zengi" title="Nur al-Din Zengi">Nur ad-Din's</a> army, was mainly based on Kurdo-Turkic troops, alongside some Fatimid and Arab tribal contingents. Kurds made up one-third of Saladin's army and were mostly organized in tribal units and corps, such as al-Hakkariyya (the largest and most powerful), al-Mehraniyya (branch of <a href="/wiki/Hadhabani_(tribe)" title="Hadhabani (tribe)">Hadhbāni</a>), al-Humaydiyya and al-Zarzariyya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1987164–167-1">[1]</a> In 1181, Saladin's Egyptian army was composed of 111 amirs, 6,976 tawashi (cavalrymen) and 1,153 qara-ghulams (second grade cavalrymen). In addition to the dominant contribution of Egypt, each urban centre in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Jazira</a> maintained contingents depending on its resources, which were called by Saladin when needed. The estimated total of 16,000 regular cavalry were directly subject to Saladin’s command, in addition to 4000 troops which the <a href="/wiki/Zengid_dynasty" title="Zengid dynasty">Zengids</a> of Mosul and the other Zengid principalities supplied. It was with the large bulk of this army, some 12,000 cavalrymen, that Saladin defeated the Crusader forces at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hattin" title="Battle of Hattin">Hattin</a> and achieved his later victories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977416-125">[125]</a> Not much is known about how the Ayyubids graded their officer corps. A number of military titles appear in inscriptions on some Ayyubid buildings, including <a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">amir</a>, amir al-kabir, <a href="/wiki/Ispahsalar" title="Ispahsalar">supasalar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amirspasalar" title="Amirspasalar">amir supasalar</a>. These might refer to different ranks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977373-126">[126]</a> The Ayyubid army largely consisted of free-born soldiers, but the sultan, princes and amirs also acquired their own personal <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a> contingents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977416-125">[125]</a> These included, for instance, the Asadiyya (named after <a href="/wiki/Shirkuh" title="Shirkuh">Asad ad-Din Shirkuh</a>), the Salahiyya (after Saladin), the 'Adiliyya (after <a href="/wiki/Al-Adil_I" title="Al-Adil I">Adil I</a>) , the Kamiliyya (after <a href="/wiki/Al-Kamil" title="Al-Kamil">al-Kamil</a>), and others. The lack of unity and the rivalries between these contingents eventually weakened the Ayyubid army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys197729–30-127">[127]</a> Furthermore, a few traces of ethnic hostility may have existed between <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurds</a>, who were free-born, and <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turks</a> who generally made up the Mamluk contingents. Although the army was paid by a monthly salary called jāmakiyya, the amirs were often assigned an <a href="/wiki/Iqta%27" title="Iqta'">iqta'</a> (fiefdom) by the sultan or other rulers. From the income of these iqta, they were required to provide a specific number of fully equipped and trained cavalrymen when the sultan called them to arms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977373-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Government">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Ayyubid_rulers" title="List of Ayyubid rulers">List of Ayyubid rulers and related family trees</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure">Structure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Structure">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ayyubid_Az_Zahir_1204_Aleppo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Ayyubid_Az_Zahir_1204_Aleppo.jpg/220px-Ayyubid_Az_Zahir_1204_Aleppo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Ayyubid_Az_Zahir_1204_Aleppo.jpg/330px-Ayyubid_Az_Zahir_1204_Aleppo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Ayyubid_Az_Zahir_1204_Aleppo.jpg/440px-Ayyubid_Az_Zahir_1204_Aleppo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="874" data-file-height="869" /></a><figcaption>An Ayyubid coin minted in Aleppo bearing the name of Emir <a href="/wiki/Az-Zahir_Ghazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Az-Zahir Ghazi">al-Zahir</a> </figcaption></figure> Saladin structured the Ayyubid empire around the concept of collective sovereignty i.e. a confederation of principalities held together by the idea of family rule. Under this arrangement there existed numerous "petty sultans" while one family member, as-Sultan al-Mu'azzam, reigned supreme. After the death of Saladin, this coveted position became open to whoever was strong enough to seize it. Subsequent rivalry between the Ayyubids of Syria and Egypt reached a point where the rulers of each territory would at times collude with Crusaders against the other.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson36-128">[128]</a> Ayyubid rule differed in these two regions. In Syria, each major city was ruled as a relatively independent principality under an Ayyubid family member, while in Egypt the long tradition of centralized rule enabled the Ayyubids to maintain direct control over the province from Cairo.<a href="#cite_note-HouraniRuthven131-129">[129]</a> It was <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, seat of the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>, however, that exercised cultural and political hegemony over the Ayyubid territories, particularly those in <a href="/wiki/Southwest_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest Asia">Southwest Asia</a>. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">qadi</a> ("chief justice") of Damascus was still appointed by the Abbasids during Ayyubid rule.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson36-128">[128]</a> Political power was concentrated in the Ayyubid household which was not necessarily characterized only by blood relation; slaves and intimates could acquire great, and even supreme power within it. It was a common occurrence for the mothers of young Ayyubid rulers to act as independent powers or in a few cases, rulers in their own right. <a href="/wiki/Eunuch_(court_official)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunuch (court official)">Eunuchs</a> exercised substantial power under the Ayyubids, serving as attendants and <a href="/wiki/Atabeg" title="Atabeg">atabegs</a> within the household or as emirs, governors, and army commanders outside the household. One of Saladin's most important supporters was the eunuch <a href="/wiki/Baha_ad-Din_ibn_Shaddad" title="Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad">Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad</a> who helped him depose the Fatimids, dispossess their properties, and construct the wall of Cairo's citadel. Following the death of al-Aziz Uthman, he became the regent of his son al-Mansur and effectively ruled over Egypt for a short time before the arrival of al-Adil. Later sultans appointed eunuchs as deputy sultans and even awarded them sovereignty over certain cities, such as Shams al-Din Sawab who was given the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Jaziran</a> cities of <a href="/wiki/Amid" class="mw-redirect" title="Amid">Amid</a> and Diyar Bakr in 1239.<a href="#cite_note-DalyPetry239-240-130">[130]</a> The Ayyubids had three principal means of recruiting the educated elites whom they needed to administer their cities and towns. Some of these local leaders, known as <a href="/wiki/Shaykh" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaykh">shaykhs</a>, entered the service of an Ayyubid ruling household and thus their bids for power were supported from Ayyubid household revenues and influence. Others were paid directly out of revenues made from the <a href="/wiki/Divan" title="Divan">diwan</a>, a high governmental body of the state. The third method was assignment to the shaykhs of the revenues of charitable endowments, known as <a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">waqfs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DalyPetry231-131">[131]</a> The Ayyubids, like their various predecessors in the region, had relatively few state agencies by which they could penetrate their cities and towns. To link themselves with the educated elite of their cities, they relied on the political usage of patronage practices. The assignment of waqf revenue to this elite was similar to the assignment of fiefs (iqta'at) to the commanders and generals of the army. In both cases, it enabled the Ayyubids to recruit a dependent, but not administratively subordinate elite.<a href="#cite_note-DalyPetry232-132">[132]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Governor_of_Rahba._Maqamat_of_al-Hariri,_Baghdad_1237.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Governor_of_Rahba._Maqamat_of_al-Hariri%2C_Baghdad_1237.jpg/220px-Governor_of_Rahba._Maqamat_of_al-Hariri%2C_Baghdad_1237.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Governor_of_Rahba._Maqamat_of_al-Hariri%2C_Baghdad_1237.jpg/330px-Governor_of_Rahba._Maqamat_of_al-Hariri%2C_Baghdad_1237.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Governor_of_Rahba._Maqamat_of_al-Hariri%2C_Baghdad_1237.jpg/440px-Governor_of_Rahba._Maqamat_of_al-Hariri%2C_Baghdad_1237.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1681" data-file-height="2820" /></a><figcaption>The Governor of <a href="/wiki/Al-Rahba" title="Al-Rahba">al-Rahba</a>. Ayyubid period. <a href="/wiki/Maqamat_of_al-Hariri" class="mw-redirect" title="Maqamat of al-Hariri">Maqamat of al-Hariri</a>, Baghdad (1237). The red beard denotes foreigness.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></figcaption></figure> Following their conquest of Jerusalem in 1187, the Ayyubids under Saladin may have been the first to establish the position of <a href="/wiki/Amir_al-hajj" title="Amir al-hajj">amir al-hajj</a> (commander of the pilgrimage) to protect the annual <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a> caravans leaving Damascus for <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> with the appointment of Tughtakin ibn Ayyub to the office.<a href="#cite_note-Sato134-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seat_of_government">Seat of government</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Seat of government">edit</a>]</div> The seat of Ayyubid government from Saladin's rule from the 1170s up to al-Adil's reign in 1218 had been Damascus. The city provided a strategic advantage in the constant war with the Crusaders and allowed the sultan to keep an eye on his relatively ambitious vassals in Syria and al-Jazira. Cairo was too remote to serve as a base of operations, but had always served as the economic foundation of the empire. This rendered the city a critical constituent in the repertoire of the Ayyubid possessions.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson36-128">[128]</a> When Saladin was proclaimed sultan in Cairo in 1171, he chose the Fatimid-built Lesser Western Palace (part of a larger palace complex in Cairo isolated from the urban sprawl) as the seat of government. Saladin himself resided in the former Fatimid vizier palace, Turan-Shah took up a former Fatimid prince's living quarter, and their father occupied the Pearl Pavilion which was situated outside of Cairo overlooking the city's canal. The successive Ayyubid sultans of Egypt would live in the Lesser Western Palace.<a href="#cite_note-Lev11-135">[135]</a> After al-Adil I seized the throne in Cairo and with it the sultanate of the Ayyubid oligarchy, the period of rivalry between Damascus and Cairo to become capital of the Ayyubid empire commenced. Under al-Adil and al-Kamil, Damascus continued as an autonomous province whose ruler reserved the right to designate his own heir, but during as-Salih Ayyub's rule, military campaigns against Syria reduced Damascus to a vassal of Cairo.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson37-136">[136]</a> In addition, Ayyub established new rules both in administration and government in order to centralize his regime; he conferred the most prominent positions of the state to his close confidants, instead of his Ayyubid relatives. His wife Shajar al-Durr, for example, managed the affairs of Egypt while he was in Syria. Ayyub officially delegated his authority to his dead son Khalil and made al-Durr act formally on Khalil's behalf.<a href="#cite_note-VermeulenDeSmetVanSteenbergen211-212-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feudal_system">Feudal system</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Feudal system">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iqta%27" title="Iqta'">Iqta'</a></div> Saladin established the iqta' system that remained in practice until the end of Ayyubid rule. The iqta system of the Ayyubids was modeled after the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk</a> system, but was more centralized. An Ayyubid fief holder had two different kinds of fiefs: a special one (khassa), for his own personal needs, and another one called iqta', for the maintenance of his troops. Ayyubid <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> differed from the feudal system in the other parts of the sultanate (<a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira_(caliphal_province)" title="Al-Jazira (caliphal province)">Al-Jazirah</a>), as the Ayyubid feudal lords in Syria had more power and independence than their Egyptian counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> The iqta' was held mainly by Ayyubid dynasty members, Kurds or Mamluks. The Kurdish fief holders consisted of four tribes, the al-Hakkariyya, al-Humaydiyya, al-Mihraniyya and al-Zarzariyya. However, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Al-Salih_Ayyub" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Salih Ayyub">al-Salih Ayyub</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Qaymariyya_(tribe)" title="Qaymariyya (tribe)">al-Qaymariyya</a> became the dominant Kurdish tribe within the Ayyubid military oligarchy.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Demographics">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion,_ethnicity_and_language">Religion, ethnicity and language</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Religion, ethnicity and language">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Minaret_of_the_Aleppo_Citadel_Mosque_Aleppo_Syria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Minaret_of_the_Aleppo_Citadel_Mosque_Aleppo_Syria.jpg/220px-Minaret_of_the_Aleppo_Citadel_Mosque_Aleppo_Syria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Minaret_of_the_Aleppo_Citadel_Mosque_Aleppo_Syria.jpg/330px-Minaret_of_the_Aleppo_Citadel_Mosque_Aleppo_Syria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Minaret_of_the_Aleppo_Citadel_Mosque_Aleppo_Syria.jpg/440px-Minaret_of_the_Aleppo_Citadel_Mosque_Aleppo_Syria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption>Minaret of the Great Mosque of the Aleppo Citadel, built by <a href="/wiki/Az-Zahir_Ghazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Az-Zahir Ghazi">az-Zahir Ghazi</a> in 1214</figcaption></figure> By the 12th century, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> was the dominant religion in the Middle East. It is not certain, however, if it was the religion of the majority outside the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>. Arabic was the language of high culture and of the urban population, although other languages dating to pre-Islamic rule were still being used to a certain extent.<a href="#cite_note-HouraniRuthven96-97-140">[140]</a> Most Egyptians were speaking Arabic by the time the Ayyubids took power there.<a href="#cite_note-Goldschmidt48-141">[141]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a> was the mother tongue of the early Ayyubids, at the time of their departure from Dvin. Sultan Saladin spoke both Arabic and <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a>, and likely <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> as well.<a href="#cite_note-Magill809-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-France84-5">[5]</a> There was a strong ethnic consciousness between the Ayyubids and other Kurds. According to the historian <a href="/wiki/R._Stephen_Humphreys" title="R. Stephen Humphreys">R. Stephen Humphreys</a>, Saladin obtained the Fatimid vizierate partly on the strength of it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys197729–30-127">[127]</a> Kurdish ethnic consciousness was reinforced by the existence of ethnic friction. After Shirkuh's death, Saladin's close associate Diya' al-Din Isa al-Hakkari, a Kurd, visited the leaders of each faction contending for power to try to win them over to the election of Saladin, and to one Kurdish emir, Qutb al-Din Khusrau ibn al-Talal, he used the following argument: "Verily, everybody is for Saladin except you and al-Yaruqi [a Turkmen amir from the north Syrian Yürük tribe]. What is needed now, above all, is an understanding between you and Saladin, especially because of his Kurdish origin, so that the command does not go from him to the Turks." Within a few months of Saladin's election, all the Turkish amirs had returned to Syria save those in the late Shirkuh's Asadiyya corps.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> According to Yasser Tabbaa, an anthropologist specializing in medieval Islamic culture, the Ayyubid rulers who reigned in the late 12th-century were far removed from their Kurdish origins, and unlike their Seljuq predecessors and their Mamluk successors, they were firmly "Arabized."<a href="#cite_note-Tabbaa31-143">[143]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic culture">Arabic culture</a> and language<a href="#cite_note-Angold391-144">[144]</a> formed the main component of their identity instead of their Kurdish heritage.<a href="#cite_note-FageOliver37-38-145">[145]</a> Arabic surnames were much more prevalent among the Ayyubids, a tribe that had already been partially assimilated into the Arabic-speaking world before its members came to power, than non-Arabic names. Some Iranic romanticism can be detected in such names borne by the Ayyubids, such as <a href="/wiki/Nur_ad-Din_Shahanshah" title="Nur ad-Din Shahanshah">Shahan-Shah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bahramshah" title="Bahramshah">Bahram-Shah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Farrukh_Shah" title="Farrukh Shah">farrukh-Shah</a> and<a href="/wiki/Turan-Shah" title="Turan-Shah">Turan-Shah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Most of the Ayyubid rulers spoke fluent Arabic and a number of them, such as az-Zahir Ghazi, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27azzam_Isa" title="Al-Mu'azzam Isa">al-Mu'azzam Isa</a> and the minor emirs of Hama, composed <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic poetry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys189-190-147">[147]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Salih_Ayyub" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Salih Ayyub">Al-Salih Ayyub</a>, however, did not write poetry, but was a patron of two great Arab poets, <a href="/wiki/Baha_al-Din_Zuhayr" title="Baha al-Din Zuhayr">Baha al-Din Zuhayr</a> and Ibn Matrouh.<a href="#cite_note-France122-123-2">[2]</a> Kurds and free born Kurdish mercenaries<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> dominated the cavalry and nomadic <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkmen people">Turcomans</a> and Arabs filled the ranks of the infantry. These groups typically settled in the pastoral areas outside of the cities, the centers of cultural life, and as such they were relatively isolated from the Arabic-dominant urban environment. This isolation allowed them to preserve their traditions.<a href="#cite_note-Tabbaa31-143">[143]</a> Like their Fatimid predecessors, the Ayyubid rulers of Egypt maintained a substantial force of <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">mamluks</a> (military slaves). By the first half of the 13th century mamluks were mostly drawn from <a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Kipchak</a> Turks and <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a> and there is strong evidence that these forces continued to speak <a href="/wiki/Kipchak_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kipchak language">Kipchak Turkish</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Catlos425-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Flinterman16-17-150">[150]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coptic_Gospel,_Damietta,_Egypt,_1179-80.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Coptic_Gospel%2C_Damietta%2C_Egypt%2C_1179-80.jpg/220px-Coptic_Gospel%2C_Damietta%2C_Egypt%2C_1179-80.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Coptic_Gospel%2C_Damietta%2C_Egypt%2C_1179-80.jpg/330px-Coptic_Gospel%2C_Damietta%2C_Egypt%2C_1179-80.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Coptic_Gospel%2C_Damietta%2C_Egypt%2C_1179-80.jpg/440px-Coptic_Gospel%2C_Damietta%2C_Egypt%2C_1179-80.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3476" data-file-height="3228" /></a><figcaption>Miniatures from a <a href="/wiki/Copts" title="Copts">Coptic</a> Gospel, Damietta, Egypt, Ayyubid period, 1179-80</figcaption></figure> In Egypt, there were large communities of <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic Christian">Coptic Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melkite" title="Melkite">Melkites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Black_African" class="mw-redirect" title="Black African">Black Africans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lev192-151">[151]</a> Coptic Christians, who had formed the majority of Egypt's population during the early Islamic period, remained a substantial minority.<a href="#cite_note-:0-152">[152]</a> The native <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic language</a> had by this point largely ceased to be spoken but continued as a literary and liturgical language.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-152">[152]</a> The translation of <a href="/wiki/Coptic_literature" title="Coptic literature">Coptic literature</a> into Arabic, which had begun in preceding centuries, also accelerated during the 13th century, engendering a "Coptic Renaissance" that enabled Coptic identity to be preserved within a wider Arabic cultural environment.<a href="#cite_note-:0-152">[152]</a> Under the Fatimids, non-Muslims in Egypt generally prospered, with the exception of Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah">al-Hakim</a>'s reign. However, with Shirkuh's ascendancy to the vizier position, a number edicts were enacted against the non-Muslim population. With the advent of the Syrian expeditionary force (consisting of <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Oghuz Turks</a> and Kurds) into Egypt, waves of maltreatment of minorities occurred, irrespective of religion.<a href="#cite_note-Lev192-151">[151]</a> These incidents occurred while Shirkuh and Saladin were viziers to the Fatimid caliph.<a href="#cite_note-Lev192-151">[151]</a> At the beginning of Saladin's reign as sultan in Egypt, upon the encouragement of his adviser, <a href="/wiki/Qadi_al-Fadil" title="Qadi al-Fadil">Qadi al-Fadil</a>, Christians were prohibited from employment in the fiscal administration, but various Ayyubid emirs continued to allow Christians to serve in their posts. A number of other regulations were imposed, including the bans on alcohol consumption, religious processions, and the ringing of church bells. Conversion of formerly high-ranking Christians and their families to Islam took place throughout the early period of Ayyubid rule.<a href="#cite_note-Lev187-189-154">[154]</a> According to historian Yaakov Lev, the <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_non-Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of non-Muslims">persecution of non-Muslims</a> had some permanent effects on them, but nonetheless, the effects were local and contained.<a href="#cite_note-Lev192-151">[151]</a> To manage Mediterranean trade, the Ayyubids permitted <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europeans</a>—mainly <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a>, but also <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catalan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalan people">Catalans</a>—to settle in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in large numbers. However, in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Crusade" title="Fifth Crusade">Fifth Crusade</a>, 3,000 merchants from the area were arrested or expelled.<a href="#cite_note-DalyPetry231-131">[131]</a> The majority of Syria's population in the 12th century consisted of <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Muslim">Sunni Muslims</a>, typically from Arab or Kurdish backgrounds. There were also sizable Muslim communities of <a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver Shia">Twelver Shias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druzes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alawite" class="mw-redirect" title="Alawite">Alawites</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Ismaili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ismaili">Ismaili</a> presence was small and most were of <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> origin, having migrated from <a href="/wiki/Alamut" title="Alamut">Alamut</a>. They mostly resided in the mountainous area near the northern Syrian coastline.<a href="#cite_note-Willey41-155">[155]</a> Large Christian communities existed in northern Syria, Palestine, Transjordan and Upper Mesopotamia. They were <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a>-speaking and indigenous to the area, mostly belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Syriac Orthodox Church</a>. They lived in villages of Christian or mixed Christian and Muslim population, monasteries, and in small towns where they appear to have been on friendly terms with their Muslim neighbors. Ideologically, they were led by the <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Antioch" title="Patriarch of Antioch">Patriarch of Antioch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Baer2-3-156">[156]</a> In Yemen and Hadramaut, much of the population adhered to <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a> in its <a href="/wiki/Zaydi" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaydi">Zaydi</a> form. The inhabitants of Upper Mesopotamia were made up of Sunni Muslim Kurds and Turks, although there was a significant <a href="/wiki/Yazidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazidi">Yazidi</a> minority in that region as well. <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a> were spread throughout the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a> and most Ayyubid cities had Jewish communities due to the important roles Jews played in trade, manufacture, finance, and medicine. In Yemen and some parts of Syria, Jews also lived in rural towns. The Ayyubid emir of Yemen in 1197–1202, al-Malik Mu'izz Isma'il, attempted to forcibly convert the Jews of Aden, but this process ceased after his death in 1202. Within the Jewish community, particularly in Egypt and Palestine, there existed a minority of <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HouraniRuthven96-97-140">[140]</a> The Ayyubids generally employed Kurds, Turks, and people from the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> for the higher-ranking posts of the military and bureaucratic fields. Not much is known about the foot soldiers of the Ayyubid army, but the numbers of cavalrymen are known to have fluctuated between 8,500 and 12,000. The cavalry was largely composed of free-born Kurds and Turks whom Ayyubid emirs and sultans purchased as military slaves or mamluks; in the early days of the Ayyubids, there was also a large contingent of <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkmen people">Turkomans</a>. In addition, there existed Arab auxiliaries, former Fatimid units such as the <a href="/wiki/Nubian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nubian people">Nubians</a>, and separate Arab contingents—notably from the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Kinanah" class="mw-redirect" title="Banu Kinanah">Kinaniyya tribe</a>, who were largely devoted to the defense of Egypt. Rivalry between Kurdish and Turkish troops occurred occasionally when leading positions were at stake and towards the end of Ayyubid rule, Turks outnumbered Kurds in the army. Despite their Kurdish background, the sultans remained impartial to both groups.<a href="#cite_note-DalyPetry226-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population">Population</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Population">edit</a>]</div> There is no accurate figure for the population of the various territories under Ayyubid rule. Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones suggest that in the 12th century, Syria had a population of 2.7 million, Palestine and Transjordan had 500,000 inhabitants, and Egypt had a population of under 5 million.<a href="#cite_note-Shatzmiller57-58-158">[158]</a> Josiah C. Russel states that in this same period there were 2.4 million people in Syria living in 8,300 villages, leaving a population of 230,000–300,000 living in ten cities, eight of which were Muslim cities under Ayyubid control. The largest were <a href="/wiki/Edessa,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Edessa, Mesopotamia">Edessa</a> (pop. 24,000), Damascus (pop. 15,000), Aleppo (pop. 14,000), and Jerusalem (pop. 10,000). Smaller cities included Homs, Hama, Gaza, and <a href="/wiki/Hebron" title="Hebron">Hebron</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shatzmiller59-60-159">[159]</a> Russel estimated the Egyptian village population to be 3.3 million in 2,300 villages, a high density for rural populations in the time period. He attributes it to the high productivity of Egyptian soil which allowed for increased agricultural growth. The urban population was much lower, 233,100, consisting of 5.7% of the total Egyptian population. The largest cities were Cairo (pop. 60,000), Alexandria (pop. 30,000), <a href="/wiki/Qus" title="Qus">Qus</a> (pop. 25,000), Damietta (pop. 18,000), <a href="/wiki/Fayyum" class="mw-redirect" title="Fayyum">Fayyum</a> (pop. 13,000), and <a href="/wiki/Bilbeis" title="Bilbeis">Bilbeis</a> (pop. 10,000). Numerous smaller cities dotted the Nile River. Among the latter were <a href="/wiki/Damanhur" title="Damanhur">Damanhur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asyut" title="Asyut">Asyut</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tanta" title="Tanta">Tanta</a>. Cities in Egypt were also densely populated, mainly because of greater urbanization and industrialization than elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-Shatzmiller59-60-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Economy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siria,_damasco,_versatoio_in_rame_incrostato_d%27oro_e_argento_firmato_husayn_ibn_muhammad_al_mawsili_(reworked).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Siria%2C_damasco%2C_versatoio_in_rame_incrostato_d%27oro_e_argento_firmato_husayn_ibn_muhammad_al_mawsili_%28reworked%29.jpg/220px-Siria%2C_damasco%2C_versatoio_in_rame_incrostato_d%27oro_e_argento_firmato_husayn_ibn_muhammad_al_mawsili_%28reworked%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Siria%2C_damasco%2C_versatoio_in_rame_incrostato_d%27oro_e_argento_firmato_husayn_ibn_muhammad_al_mawsili_%28reworked%29.jpg/330px-Siria%2C_damasco%2C_versatoio_in_rame_incrostato_d%27oro_e_argento_firmato_husayn_ibn_muhammad_al_mawsili_%28reworked%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Siria%2C_damasco%2C_versatoio_in_rame_incrostato_d%27oro_e_argento_firmato_husayn_ibn_muhammad_al_mawsili_%28reworked%29.jpg/440px-Siria%2C_damasco%2C_versatoio_in_rame_incrostato_d%27oro_e_argento_firmato_husayn_ibn_muhammad_al_mawsili_%28reworked%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1988" data-file-height="2868" /></a><figcaption>Ayyubid inlaid metal ewer, in the name of Ayyubid Sultan <a href="/wiki/An-Nasir_Yusuf" title="An-Nasir Yusuf">al-Malik al-Nasir Salah al-din Yusuf</a>. 1258–1259, <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, Syria. <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egyptian_vase_MBA_Lyon_1939-10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Egyptian_vase_MBA_Lyon_1939-10.jpg/220px-Egyptian_vase_MBA_Lyon_1939-10.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Egyptian_vase_MBA_Lyon_1939-10.jpg/330px-Egyptian_vase_MBA_Lyon_1939-10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Egyptian_vase_MBA_Lyon_1939-10.jpg/440px-Egyptian_vase_MBA_Lyon_1939-10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2363" data-file-height="2700" /></a><figcaption>An example of Ayyubid pottery from Egypt</figcaption></figure> Having pushed the Crusaders out of most of Syria, the Ayyubids generally adopted a policy of peace with them. The war with the Crusaders did not prevent Muslims under Ayyubid governance from developing good commercial relations with <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> states. This led to fruitful interaction between both sides in different fields of economic activity, particularly in agriculture and trade.<a href="#cite_note-Ali37-160">[160]</a> Numerous measures were undertaken by the Ayyubids to increase agricultural production. Canals were dug to facilitate the irrigation of agricultural lands throughout the empire. Cultivation of <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a> was officially encouraged to meet the great demand of it by both the local inhabitants and the Europeans. Meanwhile, as a result of the Crusades, several new plants were introduced to Europe, including <a href="/wiki/Sesame" title="Sesame">sesame</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carob" title="Carob">carob</a>, millet, rice, lemons, melons, <a href="/wiki/Apricot" title="Apricot">apricots</a>, and shallots.<a href="#cite_note-Ali37-160">[160]</a> The main factor which boosted industry and trade under the Ayyubids was the new interests Europeans developed when they came into contact with the Muslims. Commodities included incense, scents, fragrant oils, and aromatic plants from <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a> and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, as well as ginger, <a href="/wiki/Alum" title="Alum">alum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aloe" title="Aloe">aloes</a>. Likewise, Europeans developed new tastes in the matter of fashions, clothing, and home furnishing. Rugs, carpets, and tapestries manufactured in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> were introduced to the <a href="/wiki/West" title="West">West</a> through Crusader-Ayyubid interaction. Christian pilgrims visiting Jerusalem returned with Arab reliquaries for the keeping of relics. In addition, eastern works of art in glass, pottery, gold, silver, etc., were highly prized in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Ali37-160">[160]</a> The European demand for agricultural products and industrial commodities stimulated maritime activity and international trade to an unprecedented extent. The Ayyubids played a leading role in this as they controlled sea-trade routes which passed through the ports of Yemen and Egypt via the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ali37-160">[160]</a> The trade policy of the Ayyubids placed them in a position of great advantage; although they cooperated with the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetians</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>, they prevented them from having access to the Red Sea. Thus, they kept the trade of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> exclusively in their hands. In the Mediterranean trade, the Ayyubids also profited through taxes and commissions levied upon <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italian</a> merchants.<a href="#cite_note-Ali38-161">[161]</a> Upon the development of international trade, the elementary principles of credit and banking were developed. Both <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jewish</a> and Italian merchants had regular banking agents in Syria, who transacted business on behalf of their masters. Bills of exchange were also used by them in their dealings with one another and money was deposited in various banking centers throughout Syria. The encouragement of trade and industry provided the Ayyubid sultans with the funds needed for military expenditure as well as for developmental and everyday lifestyle works. Special attention was made to the economic state of the empire under al-Adil and al-Kamil. The latter maintained a strict control over expenditure; it is said that on his death he left a treasury which was equivalent to the budget of one full year.<a href="#cite_note-Ali38-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a>]</div> Being well-educated themselves, the Ayyubid rulers became munificent patrons of learning and educational activity. Different <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasa</a>-type schools were built by them throughout the empire, not only for education, but also to popularize knowledge of Sunni Islam. According to <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Jubayr" title="Ibn Jubayr">Ibn Jubayr</a>, under Saladin, Damascus had 30 schools, 100 baths, and a large number of <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> <a href="/wiki/Dervish" title="Dervish">dervish</a> monasteries. He also built several schools in Aleppo, Jerusalem, Cairo, Alexandria, and in various cities in the Hejaz. Similarly, many schools were built by his successors also. Their wives and daughters, commanders, and nobles established and financed numerous educational institutions as well.<a href="#cite_note-Ali38-161">[161]</a> Although the Ayyubids were from the <a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'i">Shafi'i</a> denomination, they built schools for imparting instruction in all four of the Sunni systems of religious-juridical thought. Before the Ayyubid takeover, there were no schools for the Hanbali and Maliki denominations in Syria, but the Ayyubids founded separate schools for them. In the mid-13th century, <a href="/wiki/Baha_ad-Din_ibn_Shaddad" title="Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad">Ibn Shaddad</a> counted in Damascus 40 Shafi'i, 34 <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a>, 10 Hanbali, and three Maliki schools.<a href="#cite_note-Ali39-162">[162]</a> When Saladin restored Sunni orthodoxy in Egypt, 10 madrasas were established in Cairo during his reign, and an additional 25 during the entire Ayyubid period of rule. Each of their locations had religious, political, and economic significance, in particular those in al-Fustat. Most of the schools were dedicated to the Shafi'i denomination, but others belonged to the Maliki and Hanafi <a href="/wiki/Madhab" class="mw-redirect" title="Madhab">madhabs</a>. The madrasas built near the <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Imam_al-Shafi%27i" title="Mausoleum of Imam al-Shafi'i">tomb</a> of <a href="/wiki/Al-Shafi%E2%80%98i" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Shafi‘i">Imam al-Shafi'i</a> were located adjacent to the important centers of pilgrimage and were a major focus of Sunni devotion.<a href="#cite_note-Yeomans111-163">[163]</a> About 26 schools were built in Egypt, Jerusalem and Damascus by high-ranking government officials, and unusual for the time, commoners also founded in Egypt about 18 schools, including two medical institutions.<a href="#cite_note-Ali39-162">[162]</a> Most schools were residential whereby both teachers and students resided as a rule. The teachers appointed were jurists, theologians, and traditionalists who received their salary from endowments to the institutions they taught in. Each student was offered a lodging where he would resort, a teacher to instruct him in whatever art he requested, and regular grants to cover all his needs. Madrasas were considered prestigious institutions in society. Under the Ayyubids, it was not possible to obtain a job in the government without receiving an education from a madrasa.<a href="#cite_note-Ali39-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science_and_medicine">Science and medicine</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Science and medicine">edit</a>]</div> The facilities and patronage provided by the Ayyubids led to a resurgence in intellectual activity in different branches of knowledge and learning throughout the territories they controlled. They took special interest in the fields of medicine, pharmacology, and botany. Saladin built and maintained two hospitals in Cairo emulating the well-known Nuri Hospital in Damascus which not only treated patients, but also provided medical schooling. Many scientists and physicians flourished in this period in Egypt, Syria, and <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. Among them were <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Jami&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Jami (page does not exist)">Ibn Jami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Latif_al-Baghdadi_(medieval_writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (medieval writer)">Abdul Latif al-Baghdadi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Dakhwar" title="Al-Dakhwar">al-Dakhwar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_al-Suri" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashidun al-Suri">Rashidun al-Suri</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Baitar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Baitar">Ibn al-Baitar</a>. Some of these scholars served the Ayyubid household directly, becoming the personal physicians of sultans.<a href="#cite_note-Ali39-41-164">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Architecture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aleppo_Madrasa_Firdows_0207.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Aleppo_Madrasa_Firdows_0207.jpg/220px-Aleppo_Madrasa_Firdows_0207.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Aleppo_Madrasa_Firdows_0207.jpg/330px-Aleppo_Madrasa_Firdows_0207.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Aleppo_Madrasa_Firdows_0207.jpg/440px-Aleppo_Madrasa_Firdows_0207.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Firdaws_Madrasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Firdaws Madrasa">Firdaws Madrasa</a> was built in 1236 under the patronage of <a href="/wiki/Dayfa_Khatun" title="Dayfa Khatun">Dayfa Khatun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a></figcaption></figure> Military architecture was the supreme expression of the Ayyubid period, as well as an eagerness to fortify the restoration of Sunni Islam, especially in a previously <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a>-dominated Egypt by constructing <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> madrasas. The most radical change Saladin implemented in Egypt was the enclosure of Cairo and al-Fustat within one city wall.<a href="#cite_note-Yeomans104-105-165">[165]</a> Some of the techniques of fortification were learned from the <a href="/wiki/Crusaders" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusaders">Crusaders</a>, such as curtain walls following the natural topography. Many were also inherited from the Fatimids like <a href="/wiki/Machicolations" class="mw-redirect" title="Machicolations">machicolations</a> and round towers, while other techniques were developed simultaneously by the Ayyubids, particularly concentric planning.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson26-166">[166]</a> Muslim women, particularly those from the Ayyubid family, the families of local governors, and the families of the <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">ulema</a> ("religious scholars") took an active role in Ayyubid architecture. Damascus witnessed the most sustained patronage of religious architecture by women. They were responsible for the construction of 15 madrasas, six Sufi hospices, and 26 religious and charitable institutions. In Aleppo, the <a href="/wiki/Firdaws_Madrasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Firdaws Madrasa">Firdaws Madrasa</a>, known as the most impressive Ayyubid building in Syria, had regent queen <a href="/wiki/Dayfa_Khatun" title="Dayfa Khatun">Dayfa Khatun</a> as its patron.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ayyubid_Wall_Al-Azhar_Park_Cairo_01-2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ayyubid_Wall_Al-Azhar_Park_Cairo_01-2006.jpg/220px-Ayyubid_Wall_Al-Azhar_Park_Cairo_01-2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ayyubid_Wall_Al-Azhar_Park_Cairo_01-2006.jpg/330px-Ayyubid_Wall_Al-Azhar_Park_Cairo_01-2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ayyubid_Wall_Al-Azhar_Park_Cairo_01-2006.jpg/440px-Ayyubid_Wall_Al-Azhar_Park_Cairo_01-2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1088" /></a><figcaption>The Ayyubid wall in Cairo, uncovered during construction of <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_Park" title="Al-Azhar Park">Al-Azhar Park</a>, January 2006</figcaption></figure> In September 1176, construction of the <a href="/wiki/Citadel_of_Cairo" class="mw-redirect" title="Citadel of Cairo">Cairo Citadel</a> began under Saladin's orders. According to <a href="/wiki/Al-Maqrizi" title="Al-Maqrizi">al-Maqrizi</a>, Saladin chose the <a href="/wiki/Mokattam" title="Mokattam">Muqattam Hills</a> to build the citadel because the air there was fresher than anywhere else in the city, but its construction was not so much determined by the salubrious atmosphere; rather it was out of defensive necessity and example of existing fortresses and citadels in Syria. The walls and towers of the northern section of the citadel are largely the works of Saladin and al-Kamil.<a href="#cite_note-Yeomans104-105-165">[165]</a> Al-Kamil completed the citadel; he strengthened and enlarged some of the existing towers (such as two of Saladin's towers that were enlarged by totally encasing them in semi-circular units), and also added a number of square towers which served as self-contained keeps. According to Richard Yeomans, the most impressive of al-Kamil's structures was the series of massive rectangular keeps which straddled the walls of the northern enclosure.<a href="#cite_note-Yeomans109-110-168">[168]</a> All of al-Kamil's fortifications can be identified by their embossed, rusticated masonry, whereas Saladin's towers have smooth dressed stones. This heavier rustic style became a common feature in other Ayyubid fortifications, and can be seen in the <a href="/wiki/Citadel_of_Damascus" title="Citadel of Damascus">Citadel of Damascus</a> and that of <a href="/wiki/Bosra" title="Bosra">Bosra</a> in Syria.<a href="#cite_note-Yeomans111-163">[163]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ayyubid_wall_cyark_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Ayyubid_wall_cyark_2.jpg/220px-Ayyubid_wall_cyark_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Ayyubid_wall_cyark_2.jpg/330px-Ayyubid_wall_cyark_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Ayyubid_wall_cyark_2.jpg/440px-Ayyubid_wall_cyark_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1596" data-file-height="948" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/3D_scanner" class="mw-redirect" title="3D scanner">3D laser scan</a> data image of the <a href="/wiki/Bab_al-Barqiyya" title="Bab al-Barqiyya">Bab al-Barqiyya</a> Gate in the 12th century Ayyubid Wall that borders <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_Park" title="Al-Azhar Park">Al-Azhar Park</a>. This fortified gate was constructed with interlocking volumes that surrounded the entrant in such a way as to provide greater security and control than typical city wall gates; image from the <a href="/wiki/Aga_Khan_Foundation" title="Aga Khan Foundation">Aga Khan Foundation</a>/<a href="/wiki/CyArk" title="CyArk">CyArk</a> research partnership</figcaption></figure> Aleppo underwent major transformations in the Ayyubid period, specifically during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Malik_az-Zahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Malik az-Zahir">az-Zahir Ghazi</a>. Ayyubid architectural achievements focused on four areas: the <a href="/wiki/Citadel_of_Aleppo" title="Citadel of Aleppo">citadel</a>, the waterworks, fortifications, and the extramural developments. The total rebuilding of the city enclosure began when az-Zahir Ghazi removed the <a href="/wiki/Vallum" title="Vallum">vallum</a> of Nur ad-Din—which by then outlived its temporary need—and rebuilt the northern and northwestern walls—the most susceptible to outside attack—from <a href="/wiki/Bab_al-Jinan" title="Bab al-Jinan">Bab al-Jinan</a> to <a href="/wiki/Bab_al-Nasr_(Aleppo)" title="Bab al-Nasr (Aleppo)">Bab al-Nasr</a>. He parceled out the building of the towers on this stretch of the wall to his princes and military officers; each tower was identified with a particular prince who inscribed his name into it. Later, az-Zahir Ghazi extended the eastern wall to the south and east, reflecting his desire to incorporate a dilapidated fortress, Qala'at al-Sharif, outside the city into Aleppo's enclosure.<a href="#cite_note-Tabbaa19-169">[169]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bab_Qinnasrin" title="Bab Qinnasrin">Bab Qinnasrin</a> was completely rebuilt by an-Nasir Yusuf in 1256. This gate stands today as a masterpiece of medieval Syrian military architecture.<a href="#cite_note-Tabbaa21-22-170">[170]</a> Cumulatively, Ayyubid architecture left a lasting impression in <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>. The citadel was rebuilt, the water network was expanded, and streets and quarters were provided fountains and baths. In addition, dozens of shrines, mosques, madrasas, and mausoleums were built throughout the city.<a href="#cite_note-Tabbaa26-171">[171]</a> The Ayyubid period in Jerusalem following its conquest by Saladin was marked by a huge investment in the construction of houses, markets, public bathes, and pilgrim hostels. Numerous works were undertaken at the <a href="/wiki/Temple_Mount" title="Temple Mount">Temple Mount</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DumperStanley209-172">[172]</a> Saladin ordered all the inner walls and pillars of the <a href="/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rock" title="Dome of the Rock">Dome of the Rock</a> to be covered in <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a> and he initiated the renovation of the mosaics on the dome's drum. The <a href="/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">mihrab</a> of the al-Aqsa Mosque was repaired and in 1217, al-Mu'azzam Isa built the northern porch of the mosque with three gates.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dome_of_the_Ascension" title="Dome of the Ascension">Dome of the Ascension</a> was also built and restoration work was done to the existing free-standing domes of the Temple Mount.<a href="#cite_note-leStrange154-155-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kurdish_dynasties_and_countries" title="List of Kurdish dynasties and countries">List of Kurdish dynasties and countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sunni_dynasties" title="List of Sunni dynasties">List of Sunni dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kurds_in_Sudan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kurds in Sudan (page does not exist)">Kurds in Sudan</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1987164–167-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1987164–167_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1987164–167_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1987164–167_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1987164–167_1-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFHumphreys1987">Humphreys 1987</a>, p. 164–167. </li> <li id="cite_note-France122-123-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-France122-123_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-France122-123_2-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrance1998">France 1998</a>, pp. 122–123 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÖpengin2021612-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÖpengin2021612_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFÖpengin2021">Öpengin 2021</a>, p. 612. </li> <li id="cite_note-Magill809-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Magill809_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Magill809_4-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMagill1998">Magill 1998</a>, p. 809 </li> <li id="cite_note-France84-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-France84_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-France84_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrance1998">France 1998</a>, p. 84 </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAhmed2018" class="citation book cs1">Ahmed, Rumee (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qs90DwAAQBAJ&q=ayyubid+shafi%27i&pg=PA311">The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 311. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-166826-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-166826-5"><bdi>978-0-19-166826-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Islamic+Law&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-19-166826-5&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Rumee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQs90DwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dayyubid%2Bshafi%2527i%26pg%3DPA311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEliade1987" class="citation journal cs1">Eliade, Mircea (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qyIkAAAAYAAJ&q=ayyubid+ash%27ari">"Kalam"</a>. 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Retrieved 27 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Arab+News&rft.atitle=Story+behind+the+king%27s+title&rft.date=2015-01-27&rft.aulast=Fakkar&rft.aufirst=Galal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arabnews.com%2Fsaudi-arabia%2Fnews%2F695351&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eiselen89-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Eiselen89_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEiselen1907">Eiselen 1907</a>, p. 89 </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCahen1940" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cahen, Claude (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ec5mAAAAMAAJ&q=T%C3%A2r%C3%AEkh+dawlat+al-akr%C3%A2d+wa%E2%80%99l-atr%C3%A2k">La Syrie du nord à l'époque des croisades et la principauté franque d'Antioche</a> (in French). P. Geuthner. p. 68.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Syrie+du+nord+%C3%A0+l%27%C3%A9poque+des+croisades+et+la+principaut%C3%A9+franque+d%27Antioche&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=P.+Geuthner&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Cahen&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dec5mAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DT%25C3%25A2r%25C3%25AEkh%2Bdawlat%2Bal-akr%25C3%25A2d%2Bwa%25E2%2580%2599l-atr%25C3%25A2k&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFالحنفى2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">الحنفى, ابن اياس، محمد بن احمد بن اياس (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ISBN9789774196232">بدائع الزهور فى وقائع الدهور</a> (in Arabic). الهيئة المصرية العامة للكتاب. p. 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-419-623-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-977-419-623-2"><bdi>978-977-419-623-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1+%D9%81%D9%89+%D9%88%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1&rft.pages=237&rft.pub=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9+%D9%84%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-977-419-623-2&rft.aulast=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%86%D9%81%D9%89&rft.aufirst=%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%8C+%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DISBN9789774196232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> James, Boris (2007-07-23). "Le « territoire tribal des Kurdes » et l'aire iraqienne (xe-xiiie siècles) : Esquisse des recompositions spatiales". Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée (in French) (117–118): 101–126. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fremmm.3331">10.4000/remmm.3331</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0997-1327">0997-1327</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBajalanKarimi2017" class="citation book cs1">Bajalan, Djene Rhys; Karimi, Sara Zandi (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2kwrDwAAQBAJ&dq=Ayyubid+Kurdish+emir&pg=PA31">Studies in Kurdish History: Empire, Ethnicity and Identity</a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 31–32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-50216-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-50216-6"><bdi>978-1-317-50216-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Kurdish+History%3A+Empire%2C+Ethnicity+and+Identity&rft.pages=31-32&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-317-50216-6&rft.aulast=Bajalan&rft.aufirst=Djene+Rhys&rft.au=Karimi%2C+Sara+Zandi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2kwrDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DAyyubid%2BKurdish%2Bemir%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFعلي/المقريزي2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">علي/المقريزي, أبي العباس تقي الدين أحمد بن (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Syh0DwAAQBAJ&dq=%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%DA%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF&pg=PT102">السلوك لمعرفة دول الملوك 1-8 مع الفهارس ج1</a> (in Arabic). Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah دار الكتب العلمية. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7451-0933-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7451-0933-0"><bdi>978-2-7451-0933-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83+%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A9+%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83+1-8+%D9%85%D8%B9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3+%D8%AC1&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Dar+Al+Kotob+Al+Ilmiyah+%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-2-7451-0933-0&rft.aulast=%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%2F%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A&rft.aufirst=%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3+%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86+%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D9%86&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSyh0DwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%25D9%2585%25D9%2584%25D9%2588%25DA%25A9%2B%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25A7%25DA%25A9%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D8%25AF%26pg%3DPT102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIslamKotob" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">IslamKotob. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-ONJCwAAQBAJ">رفع الحاجب عن مختصر ابن الحاجب – ج 1</a> (in Arabic). IslamKotob. p. 29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%B9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A8+%D8%B9%D9%86+%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A8+%E2%80%93+%D8%AC+1&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=IslamKotob&rft.au=IslamKotob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-ONJCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shamela.ws/book/6669/307">"ص10 – كتاب مورد اللطافة في من ولي السلطنة والخلافة – الملك العادل – المكتبة الشاملة"</a>. shamela.ws. Retrieved 2024-07-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=shamela.ws&rft.atitle=%D8%B510+%E2%80%93+%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8+%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D9%85%D9%86+%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%A9+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9+%E2%80%93+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%84+%E2%80%93+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshamela.ws%2Fbook%2F6669%2F307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadpey2023" class="citation book cs1">Radpey, Loqman (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cevjEAAAQBAJ&dq=dawlat+al-akrad&pg=PA134">Towards an Independent Kurdistan: Self-Determination in International Law</a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-82238-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-003-82238-7"><bdi>978-1-003-82238-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Towards+an+Independent+Kurdistan%3A+Self-Determination+in+International+Law&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-003-82238-7&rft.aulast=Radpey&rft.aufirst=Loqman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcevjEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Ddawlat%2Bal-akrad%26pg%3DPA134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERabbat199524-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabbat199524_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRabbat1995">Rabbat 1995</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> The biographer <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khallikan" title="Ibn Khallikan">Ibn Khallikan</a> wrote, "Historians agree in stating that [Saladin's] father and family belonged to <a href="/wiki/Dvin_(ancient_city)" title="Dvin (ancient city)">Duwin</a>. ... They were Kurds and belonged to the Rawādiya [sic], which is a branch of the great tribe al-Hadāniya": Minorsky (1953), p. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ali27-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Ali27_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAli1996">Ali 1996</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ali28-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ali28_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ali28_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ali28_27-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAli1996">Ali 1996</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalog1980" class="citation book cs1">Balog (1980). The Coinage of the Ayyubids. London: Royal Numismatic Society. p. Coin 182.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coinage+of+the+Ayyubids&rft.place=London&rft.pages=Coin+182&rft.pub=Royal+Numismatic+Society&rft.date=1980&rft.au=Balog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988">, also Whelan Type III, 258–260; Album 791.4 </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> For a similar coin at the British Museum minted in AH 586/1190 CE: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/C_1865-0804-40-X">"Saladin coin British Museum"</a>. www.britishmuseum.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britishmuseum.org&rft.atitle=Saladin+coin+British+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fcollection%2Fobject%2FC_1865-0804-40-X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988">, and another one also minted in 1190: <a href="/wiki/File:Saladin_1190_mint_of_Mayyafariqin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Saladin_1190_mint_of_Mayyafariqin.jpg/20px-Saladin_1190_mint_of_Mayyafariqin.jpg" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Saladin_1190_mint_of_Mayyafariqin.jpg/30px-Saladin_1190_mint_of_Mayyafariqin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Saladin_1190_mint_of_Mayyafariqin.jpg/40px-Saladin_1190_mint_of_Mayyafariqin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1294" data-file-height="1278" /></a>. Also <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.numisbids.com/n.php?p=lot&sid=5085&lot=548">[1]</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.coinarchives.com/w/lotviewer.php?LotID=6582815&AucID=7626&Lot=1243&Val=d89ed4f58f834cadef373b4bbd223b6a">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLesley_Baker1988" class="citation thesis cs1">Lesley Baker, Patricia (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/33676/1/11010439.pdf">A History of Islamic Court Dress in the Middle East</a> (PDF) (Thesis). SOAS, London University. p. 119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.25501%2FSOAS.00033676">10.25501/SOAS.00033676</a>. <q>By the end of the 12th century, the wearing of the <a href="/wiki/Sharbush" title="Sharbush">sharbush</a> demonstrated support for Salah al-Din. Under the later Bahri Mamluks of Egypt and Syria it formed part of the <a href="/wiki/Khil%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Khil'a">khil'a</a> given to an amir on his investiture.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=A+History+of+Islamic+Court+Dress+in+the+Middle+East&rft.inst=SOAS%2C+London+University&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.25501%2FSOAS.00033676&rft.aulast=Lesley+Baker&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.soas.ac.uk%2F33676%2F1%2F11010439.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shillington438-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shillington438_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shillington438_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shillington438_31-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shillington438_31-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shillington438_31-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shillington438_31-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFShillington2005">Shillington 2005</a>, p. 438 </li> <li id="cite_note-LyonsJackson8-32"><a href="#cite_ref-LyonsJackson8_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyonsJackson1982">Lyons & Jackson 1982</a>, p. 8 </li> <li id="cite_note-LyonsJackson14-33"><a href="#cite_ref-LyonsJackson14_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyonsJackson1982">Lyons & Jackson 1982</a>, p. 14 </li> <li id="cite_note-LyonsJackson25-34"><a href="#cite_ref-LyonsJackson25_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyonsJackson1982">Lyons & Jackson 1982</a>, p. 25 </li> <li id="cite_note-LyonsJackson28-35"><a href="#cite_ref-LyonsJackson28_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyonsJackson1982">Lyons & Jackson 1982</a>, p. 28 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lev96-97-36"><a href="#cite_ref-Lev96-97_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLev1999">Lev 1999</a>, pp. 96–97 </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1938-0312-0-1">"Ayyubid dynasty battle scene"</a>. www.britishmuseum.org. British Museum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britishmuseum.org&rft.atitle=Ayyubid+dynasty+battle+scene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fcollection%2Fobject%2FW_1938-0312-0-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloom2022" class="citation journal cs1">Bloom, Jonathan M. (October 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1356186322000359">"Painting in the Fatimid Period: A Reconsideration"</a>. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 32 (4): 730–742, Fig. 5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1356186322000359">10.1017/S1356186322000359</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1356-1863">1356-1863</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society&rft.atitle=Painting+in+the+Fatimid+Period%3A+A+Reconsideration&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=730-742%2C+Fig.+5&rft.date=2022-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1356186322000359&rft.issn=1356-1863&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS1356186322000359&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolle1997" class="citation book cs1">Nicolle, David (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ghazali.org/saladin/maas-171.pdf">Men-at-arms series 171 – Saladin and the saracens</a> (PDF). Osprey publishing. p. 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Men-at-arms+series+171+%E2%80%93+Saladin+and+the+saracens&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Osprey+publishing&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Nicolle&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ghazali.org%2Fsaladin%2Fmaas-171.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LyonsJackson41-40"><a href="#cite_ref-LyonsJackson41_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyonsJackson1982">Lyons & Jackson 1982</a>, p. 41 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lev101-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lev101_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lev101_41-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLev1999">Lev 1999</a>, p. 101 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lev100-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Lev100_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLev1999">Lev 1999</a>, p. 100 </li> <li id="cite_note-Fage583-43"><a href="#cite_ref-Fage583_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFage1978">Fage 1978</a>, p. 583 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015123–125-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015123–125_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaadj2015">Baadj 2015</a>, pp. 123–125. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015131,_137–138-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015131,_137–138_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaadj2015">Baadj 2015</a>, pp. 131, 137–138. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015141-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015141_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaadj2015">Baadj 2015</a>, p. 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbun-Nasr198799-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbun-Nasr198799_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbun-Nasr1987">Abun-Nasr 1987</a>, p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015142–146-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015142–146_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaadj2015">Baadj 2015</a>, pp. 142–146. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbun-Nasr1987100-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbun-Nasr1987100_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbun-Nasr1987">Abun-Nasr 1987</a>, p. 100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015153-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaadj2015153_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaadj2015">Baadj 2015</a>, pp. 153. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNIcolle2016" class="citation journal cs1">NIcolle, David (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://knowledge.uchicago.edu/record/757/files/MamlukStudiesReview_XIX_2016.pdf">"The Iconography of a Military Elite (Part II)"</a> (PDF). Mamluk Studies Review. XIX: 255, photograph 56.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mamluk+Studies+Review&rft.atitle=The+Iconography+of+a+Military+Elite+%28Part+II%29&rft.volume=XIX&rft.pages=255%2C+photograph+56&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=NIcolle&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fknowledge.uchicago.edu%2Frecord%2F757%2Ffiles%2FMamlukStudiesReview_XIX_2016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HoutsmaWensinck884-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HoutsmaWensinck884_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HoutsmaWensinck884_52-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HoutsmaWensinck884_52-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoutsmaWensinck1993">Houtsma & Wensinck 1993</a>, p. 884 </li> <li id="cite_note-Margariti29-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Margariti29_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Margariti29_53-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMargariti2007">Margariti 2007</a>, p. 29 </li> <li id="cite_note-McLaughlin131-54"><a href="#cite_ref-McLaughlin131_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLaughlin2008">McLaughlin 2008</a>, p. 131 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lofgren181-55"><a href="#cite_ref-Lofgren181_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLofgren1960">Lofgren 1960</a>, p. 181 </li> <li id="cite_note-DumperStanley10-56"><a href="#cite_ref-DumperStanley10_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDumperStanley2007">Dumper & Stanley 2007</a>, p. 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-Brice338-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brice338_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brice338_57-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrice1981">Brice 1981</a>, p. 338 </li> <li id="cite_note-Salibi55-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Salibi55_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salibi55_58-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salibi55_58-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salibi55_58-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSalibi1998">Salibi 1998</a>, p. 55 </li> <li id="cite_note-DalyPetry217-218-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DalyPetry217-218_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DalyPetry217-218_59-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDalyPetry1998">Daly & Petry 1998</a>, pp. 217–218 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lane-Poole141-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lane-Poole141_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lane-Poole141_60-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLane-Poole1906">Lane-Poole 1906</a>, p. 141 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lane-Poole189476-61"><a href="#cite_ref-Lane-Poole189476_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLane-Poole1894">Lane-Poole 1894</a>, p. 76 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lane-Poole1906p142-146-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Lane-Poole1906p142-146_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLane-Poole1906">Lane-Poole 1906</a>, pp. 142–146 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lane-Poole1906p146-148-63"><a href="#cite_ref-Lane-Poole1906p146-148_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLane-Poole1906">Lane-Poole 1906</a>, pp. 146–148 </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFContadini2010" class="citation book cs1">Contadini, Anna (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HA55sqqsaoQC&pg=PA11">Arab Painting: Text and Image in Illustrated Arabic Manuscripts</a>. Brill. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18630-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18630-9"><bdi>978-90-04-18630-9</bdi></a>. <q>A case in point is the Ayyubid enamelled beaker known as the Palmer Cup</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+Painting%3A+Text+and+Image+in+Illustrated+Arabic+Manuscripts&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-04-18630-9&rft.aulast=Contadini&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHA55sqqsaoQC%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehrens-Abouseif2024" class="citation book cs1">Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2024). "Chapter 12: Mamluk Dress between Text and Image". Dress and Dress Code in Medieval Cairo: A Mamluk Obsession. pp. 172–173. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004684980_013">10.1163/9789004684980_013</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004684980" title="Special:BookSources/9789004684980"><bdi>9789004684980</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+12%3A+Mamluk+Dress+between+Text+and+Image&rft.btitle=Dress+and+Dress+Code+in+Medieval+Cairo%3A+A+Mamluk+Obsession&rft.pages=172-173&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004684980_013&rft.isbn=9789004684980&rft.aulast=Behrens-Abouseif&rft.aufirst=Doris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFContadini1998" class="citation book cs1">Contadini, Anna (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299579571">Poetry on Enamelled Glass: The Palmer Cup in the British Museum.' In: Ward, R, (ed.), Gilded and Enamelled Glass from the Middle East</a>. British Museum Press. pp. 58–59.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poetry+on+Enamelled+Glass%3A+The+Palmer+Cup+in+the+British+Museum.%27+In%3A+Ward%2C+R%2C+%28ed.%29%2C+Gilded+and+Enamelled+Glass+from+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=58-59&rft.pub=British+Museum+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Contadini&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F299579571&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFContadini2017" class="citation book cs1">Contadini, Anna (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317006955">Text and Image on Middle Eastern Objects: The Palmer Cup in Context (in A Rothschild Renaissance: A New Look at the Waddesdon Bequest in the British Museum)</a>. British Museum Research Publications. p. 130. <q>The iconography of its figures is very similar to that on the Palmer Cup, in the design of their robes, in the headgear (sharbūsh) and in the way that walking figures are rendered, with one leg straight and the other slightly bent, with a slim foot slightly raised from the ground. Although the candlestick does not have a date, it is securely datable to the early 13th century, as it clearly belongs to a group of metalwork that has now been established as of that period and coming from the Mosul or North Jaziran area. These elements also confirm the early 13th-century date of the Palmer Cup and further support the region of provenance.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Text+and+Image+on+Middle+Eastern+Objects%3A+The+Palmer+Cup+in+Context+%28in+A+Rothschild+Renaissance%3A+A+New+Look+at+the+Waddesdon+Bequest+in+the+British+Museum%29&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=British+Museum+Research+Publications&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Contadini&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F317006955&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lev22-68"><a href="#cite_ref-Lev22_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLev1999">Lev 1999</a>, p. 22 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lev100-101-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Lev100-101_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLev1999">Lev 1999</a>, pp. 100–101 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lane-Poole1906p155-156-70"><a href="#cite_ref-Lane-Poole1906p155-156_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLane-Poole1906">Lane-Poole 1906</a>, pp. 155–156 </li> <li id="cite_note-Smail35-36-71"><a href="#cite_ref-Smail35-36_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmail1995">Smail 1995</a>, pp. 35–36 </li> <li id="cite_note-LyonsJackson195-72"><a href="#cite_ref-LyonsJackson195_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyonsJackson1982">Lyons & Jackson 1982</a>, p. 195 </li> <li id="cite_note-LyonsJackson202-203-73"><a href="#cite_ref-LyonsJackson202-203_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyonsJackson1982">Lyons & Jackson 1982</a>, pp. 202–203 </li> <li id="cite_note-BosworthDonzelHeinrichsPellat781-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BosworthDonzelHeinrichsPellat781_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BosworthDonzelHeinrichsPellat781_74-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BosworthDonzelHeinrichsPellat781_74-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHumphreys1991">Humphreys 1991</a>, p. 781 </li> <li id="cite_note-LyonsJackson221-75"><a href="#cite_ref-LyonsJackson221_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyonsJackson1982">Lyons & Jackson 1982</a>, p. 221 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lane-Poole1906p177-181-76"><a href="#cite_ref-Lane-Poole1906p177-181_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLane-Poole1906">Lane-Poole 1906</a>, pp. 177–181 </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinorsky1953" class="citation book cs1">Minorsky, V. (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pzg8AAAAIAAJ&q=prehistory+of+Saladin">Studies in Caucasian History: I. New Light on the Shaddadids of Ganja II. The Shaddadids of Ani III. Prehistory of Saladin</a>. 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Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230203191346/https://asia.si.edu/object/F1955.10/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-03. Retrieved 2023-02-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian%27s+National+Museum+of+Asian+Art&rft.atitle=Basin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasia.si.edu%2Fobject%2FF1955.10%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ali35-108"><a href="#cite_ref-Ali35_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAli1996">Ali 1996</a>, p. 35 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ali36-109"><a href="#cite_ref-Ali36_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAli1996">Ali 1996</a>, p. 36 </li> <li id="cite_note-RichardBirrell349-110"><a href="#cite_ref-RichardBirrell349_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRichardBirrell1999">Richard & Birrell 1999</a>, p. 349 </li> <li id="cite_note-Tabbaa29-30-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tabbaa29-30_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tabbaa29-30_111-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTabbaa1997">Tabbaa 1997</a>, pp. 29–30 </li> <li id="cite_note-Humphreys316-112"><a 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href="#cite_ref-DumperStanley128_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDumperStanley2007">Dumper & Stanley 2007</a>, p. 128 </li> <li id="cite_note-Burns197-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burns197_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burns197_119-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burns197_119-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burns197_119-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurns2005">Burns 2005</a>, p. 197 </li> <li id="cite_note-Grousset362-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grousset362_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grousset362_120-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrousset2002">Grousset 2002</a>, p. 362 </li> <li id="cite_note-AbulafiaMcKitterickFouracre616-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AbulafiaMcKitterickFouracre616_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AbulafiaMcKitterickFouracre616_121-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AbulafiaMcKitterickFouracre616_121-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFIrwin1999">Irwin 1999</a>, p. 616 </li> <li id="cite_note-DumperStanley163-122"><a href="#cite_ref-DumperStanley163_122-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDumperStanley2007">Dumper & Stanley 2007</a>, p. 163 </li> <li id="cite_note-Singh203-204-123"><a href="#cite_ref-Singh203-204_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSingh2000">Singh 2000</a>, pp. 203–204 </li> <li id="cite_note-AyliffeDubinGawthropRichardson913-124"><a href="#cite_ref-AyliffeDubinGawthropRichardson913_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyliffeDubinGawthropRichardson2003">Ayliffe et al. 2003</a>, p. 913 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977416-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977416_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977416_125-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHumphreys1977">Humphreys 1977</a>, p. 416. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977373-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977373_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977373_126-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHumphreys1977">Humphreys 1977</a>, p. 373. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys197729–30-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphreys197729–30_127-0">a</a> <a 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Minnesota: Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. p. 420. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4021-9246-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4021-9246-3"><bdi>978-1-4021-9246-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210512151617/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Baha-al-Din">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2021. 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Studies in Caucasian History. New York: Taylor’s Foreign Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-05735-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-05735-3">0-521-05735-3</a> p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-Humphreys189-190-147"><a href="#cite_ref-Humphreys189-190_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHumphreys1977">Humphreys 1977</a>, pp. 189–190 </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Houtsma, M. Th (1993). E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936. 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Al-Masāq. 25 (2): 222–239. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09503110.2013.799953">10.1080/09503110.2013.799953</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0950-3110">0950-3110</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al-Mas%C4%81q&rft.atitle=Coptic+Language+and+Identity+in+Ayy%C5%ABbid+Egypt+1&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=222-239&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09503110.2013.799953&rft.issn=0950-3110&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F09503110.2013.799953&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerthmuller2010" class="citation book cs1">Werthmuller, Kurt J. 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American Univ in Cairo Press. pp. 16, 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-416-345-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-977-416-345-6"><bdi>978-977-416-345-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coptic+Identity+and+Ayyubid+Politics+in+Egypt%2C+1218-1250&rft.pages=16%2C+125&rft.pub=American+Univ+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-977-416-345-6&rft.aulast=Werthmuller&rft.aufirst=Kurt+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRrxIBXFUGV8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lev187-189-154"><a href="#cite_ref-Lev187-189_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLev1999">Lev 1999</a>, pp. 187–189 </li> <li id="cite_note-Willey41-155"><a href="#cite_ref-Willey41_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilley2005">Willey 2005</a>, p. 41 </li> <li 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href="#cite_ref-leStrange154-155_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFle_Strange1890">le Strange 1890</a>, pp. 154–155 </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: General and cited references">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbun-Nasr1987" class="citation book cs1">Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC">A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521337674" title="Special:BookSources/0521337674"><bdi>0521337674</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+Maghrib+in+the+Islamic+period&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0521337674&rft.aulast=Abun-Nasr&rft.aufirst=Jamil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjdlKbZ46YYkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAngold2006" class="citation cs2">Angold, Michael, ed. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1xUV-nMxNGsC">The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 5, Eastern Christianity</a>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81113-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81113-2"><bdi>978-0-521-81113-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity%3A+Volume+5%2C+Eastern+Christianity&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81113-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1xUV-nMxNGsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyliffeDubinGawthropRichardson2003" class="citation cs2">Ayliffe, Rosie; Dubin, Marc; Gawthrop, John; Richardson, Terry (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/turkey0000unse">The Rough Guide to Turkey</a>, Rough Guides, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84353-071-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84353-071-8"><bdi>978-1-84353-071-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rough+Guide+to+Turkey&rft.pub=Rough+Guides&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-84353-071-8&rft.aulast=Ayliffe&rft.aufirst=Rosie&rft.au=Dubin%2C+Marc&rft.au=Gawthrop%2C+John&rft.au=Richardson%2C+Terry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fturkey0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli1996" class="citation cs2">Ali, Abdul (1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SgjRRuPtfkQC&q=Islamic+Dynasties+of+the+Arab+East">Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East: State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times</a>, M.D. Publications Pvt. 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LTD., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-261-0403-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-261-0403-1"><bdi>978-81-261-0403-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopaedia+of+Islamic+Dynasties&rft.pub=Anmol+Publications+PVT.+LTD.&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-81-261-0403-1&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Nagendra+Kumar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoT8EZ7ulytgC%26q%3DAyyubids%2BHisn%2BKayfa%26pg%3DPA203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmail1995" class="citation cs2">Smail, R.C. 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International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 475–504. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053">10.1111/0020-8833.00053</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600793">2600793</a>. Retrieved 2019-07-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Expansion+and+Contraction+Patterns+of+Large+Polities%3A+Context+for+Russia&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=475-504&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2600793%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Taagepera&rft.aufirst=Rein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fcontent%2Fqt3cn68807%2Fqt3cn68807.pdf%3Ft%3Dotc3in&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTabbaa1997" class="citation cs2">Tabbaa, Yasser (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=30kb0G15IH8C">Constructions of Power and Piety in Medieval Aleppo</a>, Penn State Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-01562-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-01562-0"><bdi>978-0-271-01562-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constructions+of+Power+and+Piety+in+Medieval+Aleppo&rft.pub=Penn+State+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-271-01562-0&rft.aulast=Tabbaa&rft.aufirst=Yasser&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D30kb0G15IH8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Turchin" title="Peter Turchin">Turchin, Peter</a>; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006), "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires", Journal of World-Systems Research, 12 (2): 219–229, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5195%2FJWSR.2006.369">10.5195/JWSR.2006.369</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World-Systems+Research&rft.atitle=East-West+Orientation+of+Historical+Empires&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=219-229&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5195%2FJWSR.2006.369&rft.aulast=Turchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Adams%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Hall%2C+Thomas+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermeulenDe_SmetVan_Steenbergen2001" class="citation cs2">Vermeulen, Urbaine; De Smet, D.; Van Steenbergen, J. (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sk6tAUL5ZWYC&pg=PA61">Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid, and Mamluk eras III</a>, Peeters Publishers, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-0970-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-0970-0"><bdi>978-90-429-0970-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+and+Syria+in+the+Fatimid%2C+Ayyubid%2C+and+Mamluk+eras+III&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-90-429-0970-0&rft.aulast=Vermeulen&rft.aufirst=Urbaine&rft.au=De+Smet%2C+D.&rft.au=Van+Steenbergen%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSk6tAUL5ZWYC%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilley2005" class="citation cs2">Willey, Peter (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RTyTn4ErwRIC&q=Syria+population+12th+century&pg=PA41">Eagle's nest: Ismaili castles in Iran and Syria</a>, Institute of Ismaili Studies and I.B. Tauris, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-464-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-464-1"><bdi>978-1-85043-464-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eagle%27s+nest%3A+Ismaili+castles+in+Iran+and+Syria&rft.pub=Institute+of+Ismaili+Studies+and+I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-85043-464-1&rft.aulast=Willey&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRTyTn4ErwRIC%26q%3DSyria%2Bpopulation%2B12th%2Bcentury%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeomans2006" class="citation cs2">Yeomans, Richard (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sNVBbTuPcPkC&q=Art+and+Architecture+of+Islamic+Cairo&pg=PP1">The Art and Architecture of Islamic Cairo</a>, Garnet & Ithaca Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85964-154-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85964-154-5"><bdi>978-1-85964-154-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+and+Architecture+of+Islamic+Cairo&rft.pub=Garnet+%26+Ithaca+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-85964-154-5&rft.aulast=Yeomans&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsNVBbTuPcPkC%26q%3DArt%2Band%2BArchitecture%2Bof%2BIslamic%2BCairo%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazaheriGholami2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Mazaheri, Mas‘ud Habibi; Gholami, Rahim (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-islamica/ayyubids-COM_0323?s.num=8&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-islamica&s.q=fatimid+caliph">"Ayyūbids"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung" title="Wilferd Madelung">Madelung, Wilferd</a>; <a href="/wiki/Farhad_Daftary" title="Farhad Daftary">Daftary, Farhad</a> (eds.). Encyclopaedia Islamica Online. Brill Online. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1875-9831">1875-9831</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ayy%C5%ABbids&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Islamica+Online&rft.pub=Brill+Online&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=1875-9831&rft.aulast=Mazaheri&rft.aufirst=Mas%E2%80%98ud+Habibi&rft.au=Gholami%2C+Rahim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-islamica%2Fayyubids-COM_0323%3Fs.num%3D8%26s.f.s2_parent%3Ds.f.book.encyclopaedia-islamica%26s.q%3Dfatimid%2Bcaliph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAyyubid+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media 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media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ayyubid_dynasty" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111114213156/http://archive.cyark.org/bab-albarqiyya-intro">Fatimid-era Ayyubid Wall of Cairo Digital Media Archive</a> (<a href="/wiki/Creative_commons" class="mw-redirect" title="Creative commons">creative commons</a>-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from an <a href="/wiki/Aga_Khan_Foundation" title="Aga Khan Foundation">Aga Khan Foundation</a>/<a href="/wiki/CyArk" title="CyArk">CyArk</a> research partnership</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFC332; text-align:center;"><div style="font-size:90%">— <a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Royal house</a> —</div><div></div><div>Ayyubid dynasty</div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid dynasty</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Ruling house of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> 1171–1254 as <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid autonomy</a> </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Bahri_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahri dynasty">Bahri dynasty</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rulers_of_the_Ayyubid_dynasty" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#FFD700;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Template:Ayyubid dynasty"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Template talk:Ayyubid dynasty"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ayyubid dynasty"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rulers_of_the_Ayyubid_dynasty" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ayyubid_rulers" title="List of Ayyubid rulers">Rulers</a> of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ayyubid dynasty</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFD700;"><a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultans</a> of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> (1171–1250)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Aziz_Uthman" title="Al-Aziz Uthman">al-Aziz Uthman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur_Nasir_al-Din_Muhammad" title="Al-Mansur Nasir al-Din Muhammad">al-Mansur Nasir al-Din</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Adil_I" title="Al-Adil I">al-Adil I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kamil" title="Al-Kamil">al-Kamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Adil_II" title="Al-Adil II">al-Adil II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/As-Salih_Ayyub" title="As-Salih Ayyub">as-Salih Ayyub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muazzam_Turanshah" title="Al-Muazzam Turanshah">al-Muazzam Turanshah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shajar_al-Durr" title="Shajar al-Durr">Shajar al-Durr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Musa,_Sultan_of_Egypt" title="Al-Ashraf Musa, Sultan of Egypt">al-Ashraf Musa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFD700;"><a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">Emirs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> (1174–1260)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Afdal_ibn_Salah_ad-Din" title="Al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din">al-Afdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Adil_I" title="Al-Adil I">al-Adil I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27azzam_Isa" title="Al-Mu'azzam Isa">al-Mu'azzam Isa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An-Nasir_Dawud" title="An-Nasir Dawud">an-Nasir Dawud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Musa,_Emir_of_Damascus" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Damascus">al-Ashraf Musa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/As-Salih_Ismail,_Emir_of_Damascus" class="mw-redirect" title="As-Salih Ismail, Emir of Damascus">as-Salih Ismail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/As-Salih_Ayyub" title="As-Salih Ayyub">as-Salih Ayyub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muazzam_Turanshah" title="Al-Muazzam Turanshah">al-Muazzam Turanshah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An-Nasir_Yusuf" title="An-Nasir Yusuf">an-Nasir Yusuf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFD700;">Emirs of <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> (1177–1260)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Az-Zahir_Ghazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Az-Zahir Ghazi">az-Zahir Ghazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Aziz_Muhammad" title="Al-Aziz Muhammad">al-Aziz Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayfa_Khatun" title="Dayfa Khatun">Dayfa Khatun</a> (regent)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/An-Nasir_Yusuf" title="An-Nasir Yusuf">an-Nasir Yusuf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFD700;">Emirs of <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> (1175–1262)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shirkuh" title="Shirkuh">Asad ad-Din Shirkuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Shirkuh" title="Muhammad ibn Shirkuh">Muhammad ibn Shirkuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mujahid" title="Al-Mujahid">al-Mujahid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur_Ibrahim" title="Al-Mansur Ibrahim">al-Mansur Ibrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Musa,_Emir_of_Homs" title="Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Homs">al-Ashraf Musa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFD700;">Emirs of <a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hama</a> (1175–1341)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muzaffar_I_Umar" title="Al-Muzaffar I Umar">al-Muzaffar I Umar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur_I_Muhammad" title="Al-Mansur I Muhammad">al-Mansur I Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir_Kilij_Arslan" title="Al-Nasir Kilij Arslan">al-Nasir Kilij Arslan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muzaffar_II_Mahmud" title="Al-Muzaffar II Mahmud">al-Muzaffar II Mahmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur_II_Muhammad" title="Al-Mansur II Muhammad">al-Mansur II Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muzaffar_III_Mahmud" title="Al-Muzaffar III Mahmud">al-Muzaffar III Mahmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abulfeda" title="Abulfeda">al-Mu'ayyad Abu al-Fida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Afdal_Muhammad" title="Al-Afdal Muhammad">al-Afdal Muhammad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFD700;">Emirs of <a href="/wiki/Diyar_Bakr" title="Diyar Bakr">Diyar Bakr</a> (1180–1260)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Awhad_Ayyub" title="Al-Awhad Ayyub">al-Awhad Ayyub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Musa,_Emir_of_Damascus" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Damascus">al-Ashraf Musa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muzaffar_Ghazi" title="Al-Muzaffar Ghazi">al-Muzaffar Ghazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kamil_Muhammad" title="Al-Kamil Muhammad">al-Kamil Muhammad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFD700;">Emirs of <a href="/wiki/Yemen#Ayyubid_conquest_(1171–1260)" title="Yemen">Yemen and Hejaz</a> (1173–1228)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turan-Shah" title="Turan-Shah">Turan-Shah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tughtakin_ibn_Ayyub" title="Tughtakin ibn Ayyub">Tughtakin ibn Ayyub</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Muizz_Ismail&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Muizz Ismail (page does not exist)">al-Muizz Ismail</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=An-Nasir_Ayyub&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="An-Nasir Ayyub (page does not exist)">an-Nasir Ayyub</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Muzaffar_Sulaiman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Muzaffar Sulaiman (page does not exist)">al-Muzaffar Sulaiman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mas%27ud_Yusuf" title="Al-Mas'ud Yusuf">al-Mas'ud Yusuf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFD700;">Emirs of <a href="/wiki/Baalbek" title="Baalbek">Baalbek</a> (1175–1260)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_Muhammad_ibn_al-Muqaddam" title="Shams al-Din Muhammad ibn al-Muqaddam">Ibn al-Muqaddam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turan-Shah" title="Turan-Shah">Turan-Shah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farrukh_Shah" title="Farrukh Shah">Farrukhshah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahramshah" title="Bahramshah">Bahramshah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Musa,_Emir_of_Damascus" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Damascus">al-Ashraf Musa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/As-Salih_Ismail,_Emir_of_Damascus" class="mw-redirect" title="As-Salih Ismail, Emir of Damascus">as-Salih Ismail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/As-Salih_Ayyub" title="As-Salih Ayyub">as-Salih Ayyub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BFd_al-Din_al-Humaidi" title="Saʿd al-Din al-Humaidi">Saʿd al-Din al-Humaidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An-Nasir_Yusuf" title="An-Nasir Yusuf">an-Nasir Yusuf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_dynasties_in_Mashriq_region" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_dynasties_in_Mashriq_region" title="Template:Islamic dynasties in Mashriq region"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_dynasties_in_Mashriq_region" title="Template talk:Islamic dynasties in Mashriq region"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_dynasties_in_Mashriq_region" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic dynasties in Mashriq region"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_dynasties_in_Mashriq_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_empires_and_dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Muslim empires and dynasties">Islamic dynasties</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a> region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashiduns</a> (632–661)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a> (661–750)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasids</a> (750–1258)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunids</a> (868–905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanids</a> (890–1004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadhabani" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadhabani">Hadhabani</a> (10th–11th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimids</a> (909–1171)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhsidids</a> (935–969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarrahids" title="Jarrahids">Jarrahids</a> (970–11th/12th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numayrid_dynasty" title="Numayrid dynasty">Numayrids</a> (990–1081)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwanids_(Diyar_Bakr)" title="Marwanids (Diyar Bakr)">Marwanids</a> (990–1085)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uqaylid_dynasty" title="Uqaylid dynasty">Uqaylids</a> (990–1096)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirdasid_dynasty" title="Mirdasid dynasty">Mirdasids</a> (1024–1080)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artuqids" title="Artuqids">Artuqids</a> (11th–12th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burid_dynasty" title="Burid dynasty">Burids</a> (1104–1154)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zengid_dynasty" title="Zengid dynasty">Zengids</a> (1127–1250)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ayyubids</a> (1171–1341)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Mosul#Lu'lu'id_dynasty" title="List of rulers of Mosul">Lu'lu'ids</a> (1234–1262)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahri_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahri dynasty">Bahri</a> (1250–1382)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahdinan" title="Bahdinan">Bahdinan</a> (1376–1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burji_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Burji dynasty">Burji</a> (1382–1517)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harfush_dynasty" title="Harfush dynasty">Harfush</a> (15th–19th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soran_Emirate" title="Soran Emirate">Soran</a> (16th–19th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridwan_dynasty" title="Ridwan dynasty">Ridwan</a> (1560s–1690)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baban" title="Baban">Baban</a> (1649–1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihab_dynasty" title="Shihab dynasty">Shihabs</a> (1697–1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)">Mamluks</a> (1704–1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalili_dynasty" title="Jalili dynasty">Jalilis</a> (1726–1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_dynasty" title="Muhammad Ali dynasty">Alawiyya</a> (1805–1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hashemites" title="Hashemites">Hashemites of Iraq</a> (1921–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hashemites" title="Hashemites">Hashemites of Jordan</a> (1921–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible state collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a> (<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magadhan_Empire" title="Magadhan Empire">Magadha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Muscovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Perm" title="Great Perm">Permian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Kyivan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Egypt_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Egypt_topics" title="Template:Egypt topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Egypt_topics" title="Template talk:Egypt topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Egypt_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Egypt topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Egypt_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Egypt" title="List of years in Egypt">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Template:Ancient Egypt topics">topics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">27th Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">31st Dynasty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Battle of Actium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Lighthouse of Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Egypt" title="Diocese of Egypt">Diocese of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt#Christian_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Sassanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Egypt in the Middle Ages">Muslim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fustat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Egypt" title="Islamization of Egypt">Islamization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusader_invasions_of_Egypt" title="Crusader invasions of Egypt">Crusader invasions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ayyubid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Egypt" title="Ottoman Egypt">Ottoman Egypt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali%27s_seizure_of_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Ali's seizure of power">Khedivate and Kingdom of Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_Muhammad_Ali_dynasty" title="History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty">Muhammad Ali dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">Nahda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Khedivate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Ethiopian_War" title="Egyptian–Ethiopian War">Egyptian–Ethiopian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urabi_revolt" title="Urabi revolt">Urabi revolt</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_modern_Egypt" title="History of modern Egypt">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French occupation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_Cairo" title="Revolt of Cairo">Revolt of Cairo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British" title="History of Egypt under the British">British occupation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1919_Egyptian_revolution" title="1919 Egyptian revolution">1919 revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Egypt" title="Sultanate of Egypt">Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_World_War_II" title="Egypt in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_republican_Egypt" title="History of republican Egypt">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser">Nasser era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform_in_Egypt" title="Land reform in Egypt">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_Anwar_Sadat" title="History of Egypt under Anwar Sadat">Sadat era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Anwar_Sadat" title="Assassination of Anwar Sadat">Assassination of Anwar Sadat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_Hosni_Mubarak" title="History of Egypt under Hosni Mubarak">Mubarak era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Crisis_(2011%E2%80%932014)" title="Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014)">2010s Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Egyptian_revolution" title="2011 Egyptian revolution">2011 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_2013_Rabaa_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="August 2013 Rabaa massacre">2013 Rabaa massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Egypt" title="Anarchism in Egypt">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_capitals_of_Egypt" title="List of historical capitals of Egypt">Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_cigarette_industry" title="Egyptian cigarette industry">Cigarette industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Egyptian_Constitution" title="History of the Egyptian Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Copts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Egypt" title="Genetic history of Egypt">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Egypt" title="Healthcare in Egypt">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Muslim_Brotherhood_in_Egypt" title="History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt">Muslim Brotherhood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Muslim_Brotherhood_in_Egypt_(1928%E2%80%931938)" title="History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (1928–1938)">1928–1938</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Muslim_Brotherhood_in_Egypt_(1939%E2%80%931954)" title="History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (1939–1954)">1939–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Muslim_Brotherhood_in_Egypt_(1954%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (1954–present)">1954–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Egyptian_parliament" title="History of the Egyptian parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Egypt" title="Population history of Egypt">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Egypt" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Egypt">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladin_in_Egypt" title="Saladin in Egypt">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_timekeeping_devices_in_Egypt" title="History of timekeeping devices in Egypt">Timekeeping devices</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alexandria" title="History of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Cairo" title="Timeline of Cairo">Cairo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Port_Said" title="Timeline of Port Said">Port Said</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Egypt" title="Geography of Egypt">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_biota_of_Egypt" title="Category:Lists of biota of Egypt">Biota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Egypt" title="Template:Borders of Egypt">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Egypt" title="List of cities and towns in Egypt">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Egypt" title="Climate of Egypt">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deserts_of_Egypt" title="Category:Deserts of Egypt">Deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Egypt" title="List of earthquakes in Egypt">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Egypt" title="Environmental issues in Egypt">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossils_of_Egypt" title="Fossils of Egypt">Fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Egypt" title="Geology of Egypt">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfaya_Pass" title="Halfaya Pass">Halfaya Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islands_of_Egypt" title="Category:Islands of Egypt">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Egypt" title="List of lakes of Egypt">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Egypt" title="Category:Mountains of Egypt">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai" title="Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_coast_of_Egypt" title="Northern coast of Egypt">Northern coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oases_of_Egypt" title="Category:Oases of Egypt">Oases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qattara_Depression" title="Qattara Depression">Qattara Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_Riviera" title="Red Sea Riviera">Red Sea Riviera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Egypt" title="List of rivers of Egypt">Rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_and_villages_in_Egypt" title="List of towns and villages in Egypt">Towns and villages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wadis_of_Egypt" title="Category:Wadis of Egypt">Wadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Egypt" title="Wildlife of Egypt">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Egypt" title="Politics of Egypt">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Egypt" title="Subdivisions of Egypt">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_Government_in_Egypt#List_of_Governorates_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Local Government in Egypt">Governorates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Civil_Code" title="Egyptian Civil Code">Civil Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Egypt" title="Corruption in Egypt">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Egypt" title="Conscription in Egypt">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Egypt" title="Constitution of Egypt">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Egypt" title="Elections in Egypt">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Egypt" title="Foreign relations of Egypt">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Egypt" title="List of diplomatic missions of Egypt">Missions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism_in_20th-century_Egypt" title="Islamic extremism in 20th-century Egypt">Islamic extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Egypt" title="Judiciary of Egypt">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_National_Police" title="Egyptian National Police">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_Egypt" title="List of massacres in Egypt">Massacres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Armed_Forces" title="Egyptian Armed Forces">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Council_of_the_Armed_Forces" title="Supreme Council of the Armed Forces">Supreme Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationality_law" title="Egyptian nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Egypt" title="Parliament of Egypt">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_passport" title="Egyptian passport">Passport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Egypt" title="List of political parties in Egypt">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Egypt" title="President of Egypt">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Egypt" title="List of presidents of Egypt">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Egypt" title="Prime Minister of Egypt">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Egypt" title="List of prime ministers of Egypt">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Administrative_Capital" title="New Administrative Capital">Proposed new capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_in_Egypt" title="Refugees of the Syrian civil war in Egypt">Refugees of the Syrian civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Egypt" title="Terrorism in Egypt">Terrorism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_tourism_in_Egypt" title="Terrorism and tourism in Egypt">Terrorism and tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_Egypt" title="List of twin towns and sister cities in Egypt">Twin towns and sister cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Egypt" title="Economy of Egypt">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Egypt#Land,_agriculture_and_crops" title="Economy of Egypt">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Egypt" title="List of banks in Egypt">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Bank_of_Egypt" title="National Bank of Egypt">National Bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Egypt" title="List of companies of Egypt">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_regions_of_Egypt" title="Economic regions of Egypt">Economic regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Exchange" title="Egyptian Exchange">Egyptian stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pound" title="Egyptian pound">Egyptian pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Egypt" title="Energy in Egypt">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship_policies_in_Egypt" title="Entrepreneurship policies in Egypt">Entrepreneurship policies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishing in Egypt">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Egypt_and_the_environment" title="Economy of Egypt and the environment">Impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lighthouses_in_Egypt" title="List of lighthouses in Egypt">Lighthouses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_industry_of_Egypt" title="Military industry of Egypt">Military industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_Egypt" title="Mining industry of Egypt">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mines_in_Egypt" title="List of mines in Egypt">Mines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Egypt" title="Nuclear program of Egypt">Nuclear program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Egypt" title="List of power stations in Egypt">Power stations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aswan_Dam" title="Aswan Dam">Aswan Dam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Egyptian_Armed_Forces" title="Economy of the Egyptian Armed Forces">Role of the Egyptian Armed Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_and_structures_in_Egypt" title="List of tallest buildings and structures in Egypt">Tallest buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egypt">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Egypt" title="Internet in Egypt">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Egypt" title="Tourism in Egypt">Tourism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_tourism_in_Egypt" title="Cultural tourism in Egypt">Cultural tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Egypt" title="Transport in Egypt">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Egypt" title="List of airlines of Egypt">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Egypt" title="List of airports in Egypt">Airports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_railway_stations_in_Egypt" title="List of railway stations in Egypt">Railway stations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Egypt" title="Water supply and sanitation in Egypt">Water supply and sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources_management_in_Egypt" title="Water resources management in Egypt">Water resources management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Egypt" title="Category:Society of Egypt">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Egypt" title="Abortion in Egypt">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare_in_Egypt" title="Animal welfare in Egypt">Animal welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptians_by_net_worth" title="List of Egyptians by net worth">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Egypt" title="Cannabis in Egypt">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Egypt" title="Capital punishment in Egypt">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Census_in_Egypt" title="Census in Egypt">Censuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Egypt" title="Corruption in Egypt">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Egypt" title="Crime in Egypt">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Egypt" title="Human trafficking in Egypt">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_sexual_assault_in_Egypt" title="Mass sexual assault in Egypt">Mass sexual assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_in_Egypt" title="Rape in Egypt">Rape</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Egypt" title="Demographics of Egypt">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_diaspora" title="Egyptian diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_grading_in_Egypt" title="Academic grading in Egypt">Academic grading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_schools_in_Egypt" title="List of law schools in Egypt">Law schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_schools_in_Egypt" title="List of medical schools in Egypt">Medical schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_in_Egypt" title="List of schools in Egypt">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Egypt" title="List of universities in Egypt">Universities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Egyptian_families" title="Category:Egyptian families">Families</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abaza_family" title="Abaza family">Abaza family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Egypt" title="Feminism in Egypt">Feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality_in_Egypt" title="Gender inequality in Egypt">Gender inequality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Egypt" title="Health in Egypt">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Egypt" title="Healthcare in Egypt">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_Egypt" title="List of hospitals in Egypt">Hospitals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_Egypt" title="Housing in Egypt">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Egypt" title="Human rights in Egypt">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt#Freedom_of_religion_and_human_rights" title="Religion in Egypt">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Egypt">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Egypt" title="International rankings of Egypt">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Egypt" title="Languages of Egypt">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Sign_Language" title="Egyptian Sign Language">Sign Language</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Egypt" title="Liberalism in Egypt">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_literature" title="Egyptian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Egypt" title="Prostitution in Egypt">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt" title="Religion in Egypt">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Egypt" title="Baháʼí Faith in Egypt">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blasphemy_law_in_Egypt" title="Blasphemy law in Egypt">Blasphemy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Egypt" title="Christianity in Egypt">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_dioceses_in_Egypt" title="List of Catholic dioceses in Egypt">Catholic dioceses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Coptic_Orthodox_churches_in_Egypt" title="List of Coptic Orthodox churches in Egypt">Coptic Churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Arab_states#Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hinduism in Arab states">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_identification_card_controversy" title="Egyptian identification card controversy">Identification card controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Egypt" title="Irreligion in Egypt">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Egypt" title="Islam in Egypt">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya_in_Egypt" title="Ahmadiyya in Egypt">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mosques_in_Egypt" title="List of mosques in Egypt">Mosques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niq%C4%81b_in_Egypt" title="Niqāb in Egypt">Niqāb</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_synagogues_in_Egypt" title="List of synagogues in Egypt">Synagogues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology_in_Egypt" title="Scientology in Egypt">Scientology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Egypt" title="Smoking in Egypt">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_units_of_measurement" title="Egyptian units of measurement">Units of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_Egypt" title="Vehicle registration plates of Egypt">Vehicle registration plates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Egypt" title="Waste management in Egypt">Waste management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Egypt" title="Women in Egypt">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Egypt" title="Culture of Egypt">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Egypt" title="Architecture of Egypt">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Art (ancient)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art_in_Egypt" title="Contemporary art in Egypt">Art (contemporary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanical_gardens_in_Egypt" title="List of botanical gardens in Egypt">Botanical gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_castles,_forts,_fortifications_and_city_walls" title="List of Egyptian castles, forts, fortifications and city walls">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Egypt" title="Cinema of Egypt">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Egypt" title="Coat of arms of Egypt">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_cuisine" title="Egyptian cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beer_in_Egypt" title="Beer in Egypt">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_wine" title="Egyptian wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Egyptian_films" title="Lists of Egyptian films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Egypt" title="Flag of Egypt">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_flags" title="List of Egyptian flags">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_regions_of_Egypt" title="Flags of regions of Egypt">regions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Football_in_Egypt" title="Football in Egypt">Football</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_football_clubs_in_Egypt" title="List of football clubs in Egypt">Football clubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_football_stadiums_in_Egypt" title="List of football stadiums in Egypt">Football stadiums</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Egypt" title="Mass media in Egypt">Mass media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_magazines_in_Egypt" title="List of magazines in Egypt">Magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Egypt" title="List of newspapers in Egypt">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_radio_stations_in_Egypt" title="List of radio stations in Egypt">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Egypt" title="Television in Egypt">TV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Egypt" title="List of museums in Egypt">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Egypt" title="Music of Egypt">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilady,_Bilady,_Bilady" title="Bilady, Bilady, Bilady">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_at_the_Olympics" title="Egypt at the Olympics">Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Egypt" title="Public holidays in Egypt">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Egypt" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Egypt">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Egypt" title="Category:Egypt">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Egypt" title="Portal:Egypt">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Egypt" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Egypt">WikiProject</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Egypt" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Egypt">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180114#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180114#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180114#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&oldid=1258963298">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ayyubid_dynasty&oldid=1258963298</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Category:Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1171_establishments_in_Asia" title="Category:1171 establishments in Asia">1171 establishments in Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1171_establishments" title="Category:1171 establishments">1171 establishments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1260s_disestablishments_in_Asia" title="Category:1260s disestablishments in Asia">1260s disestablishments in Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:12th-century_establishments_in_Africa" title="Category:12th-century establishments in Africa">12th-century establishments in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:13th-century_disestablishments_in_Africa" title="Category:13th-century disestablishments in Africa">13th-century disestablishments in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_countries_in_Africa" title="Category:Former countries in Africa">Former countries in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_countries_in_West_Asia" title="Category:Former countries in West Asia">Former countries in West Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_transcontinental_empires" title="Category:Historical transcontinental empires">Historical transcontinental empires</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_North_Africa" title="Category:History of North Africa">History of North Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Nubia" title="Category:History of Nubia">History of Nubia</a></li><li><a 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