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The concept of gender mainstreaming was first proposed at the 1985 [[World Conference on Women, 1985|Third World Conference on Women]] and has subsequently been pushed in the [[United Nations]] development community. The idea was formally featured in 1995 at the [[Fourth World Conference on Women]], and was cited in the document that resulted from the conference, the [[Beijing Platform for Action]]. == Definition == Most definitions of gender mainstreaming conform to the UN [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|Economic and Social Council]] formally defined concept: : Mainstreaming a gender perspective is the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making women's as well as men's concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve [[gender equality]].<ref>United Nations. "[https://www.un.org/documents/ga/docs/52/plenary/a52-3.htm Report of the Economic and Social Council for 1997]". A/52/3.18 September 1997.</ref> There are different approaches to gender mainstreaming: ''Institutional perspective:'' The ways in which specific organizations adopt and implement mainstreaming policies. This will often involve an analysis of how national politics intersects with international norms and practices.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Gender Matters in Global Politics: A Feminist Introduction to International Relations|last=Shepard|first=Laura J.|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|location=New York}}</ref> ''Discursive'' ''perspective:'' Queries the ways in which mainstreaming reproduces power relations through language and issue-framing. This approach will often involve looking at documents, resolutions and peace agreements to see how they reproduce the narratives of gender in a political context.<ref name=":1" /> These approaches are not necessarily competing, and can be seen as complementary. [[File:Gender Mainstreaming Seminar 2015.jpg|thumb|Gender Mainstreaming Seminar 2015]] The ways in which approaches are used, however, can also reflect differing feminist theories. For example, ''liberal feminism'' is strongly invoked by mainstreaming through the binary approach of gender in strict relation to the public sphere of policymaking. ''Poststructuralist feminism'' can be seen in mainstreaming thought which seeks to displace gender difference as the sole axis of difference and to highlight the diversity of policy its ramifications.<ref name=":1" /> ==Principles== [[File:Col. Shafiqa Quraishi, Director of the Afghan National Police Gender Mainstreaming Unit, speaks at an ANP female recruiting conference (4329927147).jpg|thumb|Col. Shafiqa Quraishi, Director of the [[Afghan National Police Gender Mainstreaming Unit]], speaks at an ANP female recruiting conference covered how to recruit and train the additional 5,000 women that [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] President [[Hamid Karzai]] has mandated be added to the police force by 2014.]] ===Prioritizing gender equality=== Gender mainstreaming tries, among others, to ascertain a [[gender equality]] perspective across all [[policy]] areas.<ref name="True, Jacqui 2010">[[Jacqui True|True, Jacqui]], Mainstreaming Gender in Global Public Policy, International Feminist Journal of Politics, 2010, 371</ref> According to [[Jacqui True]], a Professor of politics and international relations, "[e]very [[policy]] or piece of [[legislation]] should be evaluated from the perspective of whether or not it reduces or increases gender inequalities."<ref name="True, Jacqui 2010"/> This concept of [[gender equality]] is not limited to formal equality, it includes as well equality de facto, which is a more holistic approach to gender [[policy]] in order to tackle the interconnected causes that create an unequal relation between the sexes in all areas of life (work, politics, sexuality, culture, and violence).<ref name="ReferenceA">Lombardo, E., (2005) "Integrating or Setting the Agenda? Gender Mainstreaming in the European Constitution-Making Process", Social Politics 12(3): 417</ref> Lombardo notes that "[t]here should be evidence that [[gender equality]] objective and policies of special concern for women (for example, [[social policy]]) have been prioritized in the organization among competing objectives (in terms of financial and human resources, type of measures adopted, voting systems used, and so forth)."<ref name="ReferenceA"/> ===Incorporating gender into politics and decision making=== Puechguirbal takes a discursive approach to argue that in order to successfully mainstream a gendered perspective in politics, language needs to be reevaluated and used to change the parameters of how women are perceived. Historically, documents concerning international agreements, peacekeeping arrangements and legal resolutions have perpetuated stereotypes that disempower women. This can be seen through the use of language, even as simply as in the UN Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration program's (DDR) motto: 'One man, on weapon'.<ref name=":1" /> Reference of gender issues should be found in all [[policy]] areas. "There must be evidence that the mainstream political agenda has been reoriented by rethinking and rearticulating [[policy]] ends and means from a gender perspective," Lombardo says, referencing [[Rounaq Jahan]], a political scientists, feminist leader and author.<ref name="Lombardo, E. 2005">Lombardo, E., (2005) "Integrating or Setting the Agenda? Gender Mainstreaming in the European Constitution-Making Process", ''Social Politics'' 12(3): 417</ref> As the [[Beijing Platform for Action]] states, "women's equal participation in political life plays a pivotal role in the general process of the advancement of women."<ref name="ReferenceB">Beijing Platform for Action, G. 181</ref> Further, according to the [[Beijing Platform for Action]] "[w]ithout the active participation of women and the incorporation of women's perspective at all levels of decision-making, the goals of equality, development and peace cannot be achieved."<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Therefore, Lombardo claims that women and men should be equally represented in any decision-making institution.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Charlesworth agrees and believes that every effort should be made to broaden women's participation at all levels of decision-making.<ref name="Charlesworth, H 2005">Charlesworth, H., (2005) "Not waving but Drowning: Gender Mainstreaming and Human Rights in the United Nations", 18 ''Harvard Human Rights Journal'' 1.</ref> ==== Post-conflict peace-building (PCPB) ==== An area of policy and decision making that will particularly benefit from gender mainstreaming is post-conflict peace-building, also known as PCPB. Various feminist research has concluded that men and women experience violent conflict differently and moreover, the current policies surrounding PCPB are insufficient in addressing the disadvantaged position of women in male-dominated power structures that are further reinforced by peace-building efforts, both from the domestic and international communities. Gender mainstreaming in PCPB would emphasize the importance of gendered considerations of particular issues that disproportionally affect women in post-conflict settings. This would mean that policy reflected an acknowledgment of the many instances of wartime sexualized violence perpetrated on women, among other issues that (primarily) women face during conflict. A major focus of the effort towards gender mainstreaming in post-conflict peace-building policy is to lessen the international community's inclination towards building a return to 'normal' for the post-conflict region. Much of feminist research has found that returning to 'normal' is of little comfort for women, who were burdened by the patriarchal systems that were in place before conflict broke out. As Handrahan<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Handrahan|first=Lori|title=Conflict, gender, ethnicity and post-conflict reconstruction|journal=Security Dialogue|year=2004|volume=35|issue=4|pages=429–445|doi=10.1177/0967010604049521|s2cid=145460388}}</ref> notes, the international community involved in much of PCPB "tolerates high levels of violence against women in their own societies." Policy that prioritized gender in its applications and goals would seek to build a society where women are better off than they were before conflict broke out.<ref name=":0" /> ===Shifts in institutional culture=== Gender mainstreaming can be seen as a process of organizational change.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bibbings|first=Sharleene May|title=The politics of mainstreaming in critical perspective|year=2012|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Pub.|location=Newcastle upon Tyne|isbn=9781443835121}}</ref> Gender mainstreaming must be institutionalized through concrete steps, mechanisms, and processes in all parts of the organization.<ref name="Charlesworth, H 2005"/> According to Lombardo, this change involves three aspects: [[policy]] process, [[policy]] mechanisms; and [[policy]] actors. She explains as follows: "1. A shift in [[policy]] process means that the process "is reorganized so that ordinary actors know how to incorporate a gender perspective" or that gender expertise is included "as normal requirement for [[policy]]-makers" (Council of Europe 1998, 165<ref>Council of Europe. 1998. Gender Mainstreaming: Conceptual Framework, Methodology and Presentation of Good Practices: Final Report of Activities of the Group of Specialists on Mainstreaming. EG-S-MS. Strasbourg: Council of Europe</ref>). 2. A shift in [[policy]] mechanism involves (a) the adoption of horizontal cooperation on [[gender]] issues across all [[policy]] areas, levels, and departments; and (b) the use of appropriate [[policy]] tools and techniques to integrate the gender variable in all policies and to monitor and evaluate all policies from a [[gender]] perspective. 3. The range of [[policy]] actors participating in the policy-making process is broadened to include, apart from policy-makers and civil servants, gender experts and civil society."<ref>Lombardo, E., (2005) "Integrating or Setting the Agenda? Gender Mainstreaming in the European Constitution-Making Process", Social Politics 12(3): 417-18</ref> == Gender budgeting == {{Main|Gender budgeting}} Gender budgeting encompasses activities and initiatives aiming at the preparation of [[budget]]s or the analysis of policies and budgets from a gender perspective. It can also be referred to as gender-sensitive budgeting or gender-responsive budgeting. Gender budgeting does not aim at creating separate budgets for women, or only increasing spending on women’s programmes. It is rather concerned with addressing budgetary [[gender inequality]] concerns, as for instance, how gender hierarchies influence budgets, and gender-based unpaid or low paid work.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002316/231646e.pdf|title=A Guide for Gender Equality in Teacher Education Policy and Practices|last=UNESCO|publisher=Paris, UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100069-0|pages=72–75}}</ref> ==Examples== As Jacqui True says, "[m]ainstreaming was established as a global strategy for achieving [[gender equality]], and in turn for achieving sustainable economic development in the 1995 [[Beijing Platform for Action]] ratified by all [[United Nations]] member states. It is now incumbent upon nation-states and international organizations to carry out gender mainstreaming. As such, mainstreaming has achieved widespread endorsement by individual governments, regional supra-state bodies."<ref>True, Jacqui, Mainstreaming Gender in Global Public Policy, International Feminist Journal of Politics, 2010, 369</ref> What follows is a non-exhaustive list of examples of these endorsements. ===Nicaragua=== [[1990 Nicaraguan general election|The election of 1990]] in [[Nicaragua]] brought to office the first female [[President (government title)|president]] in the Americas. On April 25, 1990, [[Violeta Chamorro]] became the first and only woman to defeat a male incumbent presentment.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Prevost|first=G.|title='The Nicaraguan Revolution: Six Years After The Sandinista Electoral Defeat'|journal=Third World Quarterly|year=1996|volume=17|issue=2|pages=307–327|doi=10.1080/01436599650035707|s2cid=144886074 }}</ref> This helped to change and mobilize mainstream [[gender]] structure within [[Nicaragua]]. In 1993 the existing outdated Sandinista Women's organization, the Nicaraguan Institute for Research on Women, was revitalized and renamed by the Chamorro government as the Nicaraguan Institute for Woman (INIM). This was to encourage the involvement of Nicaraguan women in the country's economic, social, cultural, and political development and to promote a change in mainstream gender constructs.<ref name="Isbester 2001">{{cite book|last=Isbester|first=Katherine|title=Still Fighting: The Nicaraguan Women's movement, 1977-2000|url=https://archive.org/details/stillfightingnic0305isbe|url-access=registration|year=2001|publisher=University of Pittsburgh press|location=Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh}}</ref> More specifically, the INIM aims to institute in all sectors a system of gender-focus indicators and to achieve equal opportunity in all State body programming.<ref name="General Assembly">{{cite web|last=General Assembly|first=United Nations|title=Nicaraguan Institute for women Instrumental in Mainstream Gender Equality Strategies, Anti-Discrimination|url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/wom1595.doc.htm}}</ref> In 1994, the INIM with 62 women's groups held discussions to mobilize their initiatives and form a bill of action. The discussions formed a plan, which defined [[patriarchy]], [[sexism]], and [[gender stereotypes]] to reduce inequality in education, employment, and violence.<ref name="Isbester 2001"/> Although the Nicaraguan Institute for Women claimed to "have been instrumental in mainstreaming [[gender equality]] principles and strategies into agriculture, socio-economic development, higher education, and sexual and [[domestic violence]] prevention," the [[United Nations General Assembly]] on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in 2007 raised several concerns, such as the backlog of important women's rights legislation in the country, the lack of studies on [[abortion]], and the available funds of the Institute.<ref name="General Assembly"/> ===Taiwan=== Under the influence of the UN community, the usage of the term increased in [[Taiwan]] since 2000. Local feminist organizations have different views on gender mainstreaming. Some groups considered that the Commission on Women Rights Promotion under [[Executive Yuan]] should be expanded, while other groups, including the [[National Alliance of Taiwan Women's Associations]], considered that gender mainstreaming is not promotion of women's rights but an assessment of all policies and requires a specific organization.<ref>Lin, Fang-Mei. "性別主流化在台灣：從國際發展到在地化實踐". ''第一屆性別研究與公共政策學術研討會'', Taipei:[[Shih Hsin University]]. April 13, 2005.</ref> [[Foundation of Women's Rights Promotion and Development]] (FWRPD) has conducted research on gender mainstreaming and gender equality development, produced gender resources kits for training and education, networked women groups and entrepreneurs, participated in international exchange in [[UN]], [[APEC]] gender related meetings.<ref name="website_apecwln.org">{{cite web |url=http://apecwln.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/Taiwan%20Women's%20Organizations.pdf |title=Taiwan's Women's Organizations |author= |website=APEC Women Leaders Network |publisher=APEC Women Leaders Network. |access-date=2015-11-15 }}{{dead link|date=October 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ===Vienna, Austria=== In late 2006, the city council of [[Vienna]], capital of [[Austria]], ordered several gender mainstreaming measures for public facilities and areas. [[Pictogram]]s and information display charts feature a male silhouette holding a baby in his arms to advise passengers on the [[Rapid transit|underground railway]] to offer seating to parents with children.<ref>Prabha Khosla, Vienna, Austria – A Model City for Gender Mainstreaming</ref><ref>Bauer, Ursula. Mainstreaming in Vienna. How the Gender Perspective Can Raise the Quality of Life in a Big City, Kvinder, Køn & Forskning 70 nr. 2-4, 2009, 66</ref> [[Fire escape|Emergency escape]] paths are marked by a square table featuring a long-haired lady running in her high heel boots.<ref>{{Cite news| title = Gender Change for Vienna Signs| work = BBC News| last = Bell| first = Bethany| access-date = 2015-07-16| date = 2007-01-23| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6274213.stm}}</ref> A pilot [[kindergarten]] now uses a flexible open play area instead of separate "playing corners" with toy cars and [[LEGO]] for boys or dolls and faux fireplaces for girls.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kindergartens - ways to implement gender mainstreaming|url=https://www.wien.gv.at/english/administration/gendermainstreaming/examples/kindergarten.html|website=wien.at|access-date=16 July 2015}}</ref> In some pilot kindergartens, traditional fairy tales were rewritten, and a songbook featuring active women was created.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Viktória|first1=Soós|title=How Is Vienna 'Gender Mainstreaming'?|url=http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2008/soos_viktoria.pdf|access-date=16 July 2015}}</ref> Infrastructure changes have included "[[unisex]]" playgrounds for city parks, which encourage young boys and girls to mix and redesigned streetlights to make parks and sidewalks safer for late night joggers.<ref>{{Cite news| last = Foran| first = Claire| title = How to Design a City for Women| work = The Atlantic - Cities| access-date = 2013-09-19| date = 2013-09-16| url = http://www.theatlanticcities.com/commute/2013/09/how-design-city-women/6739/| archive-date = 2014-05-11| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140511183522/http://www.theatlanticcities.com/commute/2013/09/how-design-city-women/6739/| url-status = dead}}</ref> ===UN Peacekeeping Operations=== The [[United Nations]] began acknowledging the importance of gender mainstreaming as a tool towards achieving [[gender equality]] in the mid-1990s, as outlined in the [[Beijing Platform for Action]] and the Report from the Secretary General to the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|Economic and Social Council]].<ref>{{cite web|last=United Nations, Fourth World Conference on Women|title=Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action|url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/pdf/BDPfA%20E.pdf|access-date=September 26, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=United Nations General Assembly |title=E/1997/66 |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=E/1997/66 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001054742/http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=E%2F1997%2F66 |archive-date=2013-10-01 }}</ref> In October 2000, the [[UN Security Council]] passed Resolution 1325,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1325(2000)|title=United Nations Official Document|website=www.un.org}}</ref> a resolution that called for an enhanced female participation in the prevention, management and resolution of conflict.<ref>True, Jacqui, Mainstreaming Gender in Global Public Policy, International Feminist Journal of Politics, 2010, 373</ref> [[Peacekeeping]] was an area of particular concern, and the [[Security Council]] recognized "the urgent need to mainstream a gender perspective into [[peacekeeping]] operations."<ref>Resolution 1325, 2</ref> The Council requested "the [[Secretary-General]], where appropriate, to include in his reporting to the [[Security Council]], progress on gender mainstreaming throughout peacekeeping missions and all other aspects relating to women and girls."<ref>Resolution 1325, 4</ref> As a result, there has been an increase in female peacekeeping personnel. As of 2012, in [[peacekeeping]] operations and special political missions, 29 percent of international and 17 percent of national staff were women. If we compare these figures with the 48 percent representation of women at the [[UN Headquarters]], the participation of women in the [[United Nations Peacekeeping]] operations still faces challenges.<ref>{{cite web|last=United Nations|title=Women in Peacekeeping|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/issues/women/womeninpk.shtml|access-date=September 26, 2013}}</ref> ===European Union=== The equality [[policy]] of the [[European Union]] consists of three pillars: (1) [[anti-discrimination]], (2) [[affirmative action]] policies, and (3) gender mainstreaming.<ref>Lang, S., 2009, Assessing Advocacy: European Transnational Women's Networks and Gender Mainstreaming, 9</ref><ref name="Calvo 2013">{{cite thesis|author=Calvo, D.|year=2013|title=What is the problem of gender? Mainstreaming gender in migration and development policies in the European Union|location=Gothenburg|publisher=Department of Sociology and Work Science|type=Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/31823/1/gupea_2077_31823_1.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|28}} In the 1990s the [[European Union]] officially put gender mainstreaming on their agenda, "fixing the principle in [[treaty]] articles, action programs and communications, and setting up institutional bodies and mechanisms to promote the incorporation of a gender perspective into policymaking."<ref>Lang, S., 2009, Assessing Advocacy: European Transnational Women's Networks and Gender Mainstreaming, 2</ref> More specifically, gender mainstreaming was introduced in 1991 in the European Community as an element of the Third Action Programme on Equal Opportunities.<ref>Pollack, Mark A. and Hafner-Burton, Emilie. 2000. Gender Mainstreaming in the European Union, Harvard Jean Monnet Working Paper 2/000, 9</ref> Currently, the legal basis for gender mainstreaming in European law is Article 8 of the [[Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union]] (TFEU). This article states the following: "In all its activities, the Union shall aim to eliminate inequalities, and to promote equality, between men and women". What follows is a non-exhaustive overview of current gender governance initiatives in the [[European Union]] that encourages gender mainstreaming. For instance, since 1997 gender mainstreaming has been part of the [[European Employment Strategy]], a concept launched by the [[European Council]]. The [[European Employment Strategy]] requires governments to adopt an approach that complies with the concept of gender mainstreaming, while deciding on employment policies.<ref name="Rubery, Jill 2005">Rubery, Jill, 2005, Reflections on Gender Mainstreaming: An Example of Feminist Economics in Action?, Feminist Economics 11(3), November 2005, 1</ref><ref>Woodward, Alison E. 2008. Too late for gender mainstreaming? Taking stock in Brussels Journal of European Social Policy (2008) 18 (3): 4</ref> Some concrete examples: new equal opportunities acts requiring mainstreaming (e.g., in France social partners are required to promote gender equality through collective bargaining); mainstreaming or [[gender]] assessment in individual ministries or areas of public services (e.g., in Finland and Sweden); and [[gender]] assessment of all new pieces of legislation.<ref>Rubery, Jill, 2005, Reflections on Gender Mainstreaming: An Example of Feminist Economics in Action?, Feminist Economics 11(3), November 2005, 9-10</ref> According to Jill Rubery, a Professor of comparative employment system at Manchester School of Management, so far "the experience has been mixed: though the argument that increasing women's employment is critical to the achievement of Europe's aspirations for a higher employment rate has been widely accepted, there is a much weaker and more fragile commitment to improving the quality of work available to women."<ref name="Rubery, Jill 2005"/> A second example is the Transnational Women's Networks.<ref name="Lang, S. 2009">Lang, S., 2009, Assessing Advocacy: European Transnational Women's Networks and Gender Mainstreaming, 12</ref> As such we can cite the [[European Women's Lobby]] (EWL) as an important women's organization at EU level that was created in 1990. About 2,500 [[NGOs]] of 30 European countries are part of the EWL.<ref name="Lang, S. 2009"/><ref name="Calvo 2013"/>{{rp|51}} The [[European Women's Lobby]] encourages "coordination of women's civic groups on the EU stages."<ref name="Lang, S. 2009"/> The EWL lobbied for increasing the involvement of women's organizations in the process of gender governance.<ref name="Calvo 2013"/>{{rp|51}} In addition the EWL has been pushing for "an EU Strategy to promote, implement and facilitate civil society and specifically women's organizations input into the European debate as an essential part of the [[European social model]]."<ref>European Women's Lobby. 2005a. Contribution from the European Women's Lobby to the Green Paper on an EU Approach to Managing Economic Migration, COM(2005)811 final, 6</ref> Another important organization is [[Women in Development Europe]] (WIDE). This network, created in 1985, consists of NGOs, women's organizations, gender experts, and activists active in development. [[Women in Development Europe]] monitors European economic and developmental policies and practices<ref name="Lang, S. 2009"/><ref name="Calvo 2013"/>{{rp|52}} and is involved at many phases in policy-making activities as knowledge source.<ref name="Calvo 2013"/>{{rp|52}} Another [[gender]] governance actor is the [[European Institute for Gender Equality]] (EIGE), established in May 2007. The EIGE has as mandate to "provide expertise, improve knowledge and raise visibility of equality between men and women".<ref name="Calvo 2013"/>{{rp|53}} Obviously there are many more initiatives on EU level, to name a few: Advisory Committee on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men,<ref name="Calvo 2013"/>{{rp|57}} High Level Group on Gender Mainstreaming,<ref name="Calvo 2013"/>{{rp|58}} Inter-Service Group on Gender Equality,<ref name="Calvo 2013"/> Informal Group of Experts on Gender Equality in Development Cooperation,<ref name="Calvo 2013"/>{{rp|61}} Women in Europe for our Common Future.<ref name="Lang, S. 2009"/> ==Criticism== ===Ineffective results=== Maria Stratigaki, Assistant Professor at the Department of Social Policy of [[Panteion University]], claims that the transformative effect of gender mainstreaming was minimal and its application has led to contradictory results. It opened important opportunities for specific policies in new [[policy]] areas, whereas in some other it diluted [[positive action]]. She also claims that, at least as of 2003, gender mainstreaming has failed to affect core [[policy]] areas or radically transform [[policy]] processes within the European Institutions.<ref name="Stratigaki, M 2005">Stratigaki, M., (2005) "Gender Mainstreaming vs Positive Action. An Ongoing Conflict in EU Gender Equality Policy", ''European Journal of Women's Studies'' 12 (2): 165-186.</ref> Some say that gender mainstreaming has not increased women's participation in decision making. As Charlesworth notes, "[i]n the most readily measurable area, the United Nations' employment of women in professional and managerial posts, progress has been glacial. In 2004, women held 37.4 percent of these positions. The annual growth rate toward the 50 percent target [...] is predicted to be 0.4 percent. On top of this slow growth, there is a considerable hierarchy based on sex. On June 30, 2004, women held 83.3 percent of positions at the lowest professional level, P-1, but just 16.7 percent at the highest staff level, Under-Secretary-General."<ref name="Charlesworth, H 2005"/> In a similar vein, concerning the [[European Union]], Lombardo reports that as of 2003 women represented only 20 percent of the representatives of the head of state or government the member states, 10 percent of the representatives of national parliaments, 31.25 percent of the representatives of the [[European Parliament]] and so forth.<ref>Lombardo, E., (2005) "Integrating or Setting the Agenda? Gender Mainstreaming in the European Constitution-Making Process", Social Politics 12(3): 422</ref> True claims that mainstreaming gender does not end in simply increasing the number of women within a specific institution. It is about changing social consciousness, so that the effects of a policy for both women and men are truly analyzed before they are implemented. While it is necessary for [[feminists]] to engage with mainstream institutions, the ability of gender mainstreaming to deconstruct the embedded masculinization of institutions varies depending on the characteristics of the policy, the political nature of the institution, and the depth of the institution's consultation with civil society and other members of the women's rights movement.<ref>"True, J. (2010) "Mainstreaming Gender in International Relations". ''Gender Matters in Global Politics'' (New York: Routledge) L.J. Shepherd (Ed.) 194"</ref> The danger of gender mainstreaming is that large compromises can be made for small gains and can lead to what feminist and sociology professor [[Gail Dines]] calls "trickle-down [[feminism]]"—i.e., "working to increase the ranks of women in elite jobs without a strategy for wider economic and social change represents a kind of "trickle-down [[feminism]]."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jun/25/having-it-all-women-anne-marie-slaughter |title='Having it all' looks very different for women stuck in low-paid jobs &#124; Gail Dines &#124; Comment is free |publisher=theguardian.com |date=2014-04-23 |access-date=2014-06-05}}</ref> ===Poor implementation=== Charlesworth remarks that "[a]lthough it has not been difficult to encourage the adoption of the vocabulary of mainstreaming, there is little evidence of monitoring or follow-up. A consistent problem for all the organizations that adopted gender mainstreaming is the translation of the commitment into action."<ref name="Charlesworth, H 2005"/> She continues: "A review of gender mainstreaming policies implemented under the [[United Nations Development Programme]], [[World Bank]], and [[ILO]] found inadequate budgeting for the gender components of projects, insufficient development of analytical skills, poor supervision of the implementation of gender components and a general lack of political commitment both within the organization and at the country level."<ref name="Charlesworth, H 2005"/> ===Hindering progress=== Stratigaki claims that [[positive action]] was sidelined after the launch of gender mainstreaming as a result of the specific way gender mainstreaming was used by the opponents of [[gender equality]]. According to Stratigaki, "[a]lmost all analyses of [gender mainstreaming] agree that it is a strategy which complements but does not replace previous gender specific equality policies like equal treatment legislation and positive action." However, she states too that "in a hostile gender equality policy environments (i.e. patriarchal structures of institutional organisations or the prevalence of policy objectives contrary to gender equality etc.), [gender mainstreaming] may be conceived and applied as an alternative to positive action and used to downplay the final overall objective of [[gender equality]].<ref name="Stratigaki, M 2005"/> True is of the opinion that in practice, attempts to mainstream gender within international institutions have led to the marginalization and increasing invisibility of gender in each policy area. Anne-Marie Goetz, a Clinical Professor at [[NYU]], and Joanne Sandler, a consultant for gender equality and organizational development, argue that ironically, mainstreaming gender runs the risk of becoming everyone's responsibility, yet nobody's at the same time.<ref name="True, J., 2010, p. 196">True, Jacqui (2010). Laura J. Shepherd, ed. ''Gender Mainstreaming in International Institutions''. New York: Routledge. p. 196</ref> Gender mainstreaming can allow those in power who are not genuinely interested in the women's movement to adopt the language of women's rights, a reflection of power politics that becomes more of a tool used to legitimize the actions of governments. Gender mainstreaming then becomes more about advising governments than advancing gender equality.<ref name="True, J., 2010, p. 198">True, Jacqui (2010). Laura J. Shepherd, ed. ''Mainstreaming Gender in International Institutions''. New York: Routledge. p. 198</ref> ===Other criticism=== As differences are silenced, the kind of [[feminism]] that is likely to be mainstreamed could be a western or middle class brand of feminism. When mainstreaming decisions within international organizations are made by elites can undermine the input of local women's groups.<ref name=Palmary>{{cite journal|author1=Palmary, I.|author2=Nunez, L.|year=2009|title=The Orthodoxy of Gender Mainstreaming: Reflecting on Gender Mainstreaming as Strategy for Accomplishing the Millennium Development Goals|journal=Journal of Health Management|volume=11|issue=65|pages=65–78|doi=10.1177/097206340901100105|s2cid=56810635}}</ref>{{rp|72}} When gender mainstreaming policies are drafted without consulting sections of the women's movement (i.e., women's rights civil society groups), they lack ground level-expertise. [[Policy]] decisions related to gender that are made without consulting sections of the women's movement do not demonstrate a clear political willingness to addressing gender inequality. When institutions reach out to the women's rights movement, it demonstrates transparency, inclusiveness, accountability and the implementation process is more likely to be monitored with diligence.<ref name="True, J., 2010, p. 199">True, Jacqui (2010). Laura J. Shepherd, ed. Mainstreaming Gender in International Institutions. New York: Routledge. p. 192.</ref> For example, the [[Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs), as an attempt at mainstreaming gender into development, were formed with minimal consultation with women's groups. The MDGs have led to a considerable amount of theoretically discourse about the goals but less analysis about how they will be implemented.<ref name=Palmary/>{{rp|78}} True highlights the tendency for gender mainstreaming to become a guise under which women are used as economic subjects.<ref name=":1" /> Women are framed in terms of advancing economic growth, as opposed to the inherent normative ideal for women and men to hold equal positions of power in society. ==See also== {{Portal bar|Feminism}} {{div col}} * [[Feminist economics]] * [[Gender and security sector reform]] * [[Gender Empowerment Measure]] * [[Gender mainstreaming in teacher education policy]] * [[Gender mainstreaming in mine action]] * [[History of feminism]] * [[Material feminism]] * [[Special measures for gender equality in the United Nations]] * [[Youth mainstreaming]] {{div col end}} == References == {{Reflist|2}} == External links == *[https://www.un.org/womenwatch WomenWatch], the United Nations Internet Gateway on Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women *[https://web.archive.org/web/20091009065232/http://www.undp.org/women/ Women's Empowerment], the United Nations Development Programme's gateway on women's empowerment and gender equality *[http://brs.skl.se/brsbibl/kata_documents/doc39566_1.pdf Active work for Gender Equality]{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, SALAR's booklet "Active work for Gender Equality – a challenge for municipalities and county councils"" *[http://www.eige.europa.eu EIGE], the European Institute for Gender Equality official website *[http://www.genderCoP.eu The European Community of Practice on Gender Mainstreaming], The European Commission's learning network on Gender Mainstreaming within the European Social Fund (ESF)"" * [https://biblioguias.cepal.org/RegionalGenderAgenda/ Libguide on Gender Regional Agenda] {{Feminism}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Gender Mainstreaming}} [[Category:Feminism and society]] 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