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href="#Common_features_of_open_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Common features of open education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_features_of_open_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theoretical_foundations_of_open_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_foundations_of_open_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Theoretical foundations of open education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_foundations_of_open_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology_utilized" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology_utilized"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Technology utilized</span> </div> </a> <ul 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Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85_%D9%85%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD" title="تعليم مفتوح – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تعليم مفتوح" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="উন্মুক্ত শিক্ষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উন্মুক্ত শিক্ষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Отворено обучение – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Отворено обучение" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educaci%C3%B3_oberta" title="Educació oberta – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Educació oberta" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otev%C5%99en%C3%A9_vzd%C4%9Bl%C3%A1v%C3%A1n%C3%AD" title="Otevřené vzdělávání – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Otevřené vzdělávání" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Education" title="Open Education – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Open Education" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatud_%C3%B5pe" title="Avatud õpe – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Avatud õpe" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Ανοικτή εκπαίδευση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ανοικτή εκπαίδευση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educaci%C3%B3n_abierta" title="Educación abierta – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Educación abierta" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malfermita_edukado" title="Malfermita edukado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malfermita edukado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%B4_%D8%A2%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="آموزش آزاد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آموزش آزاد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ducation_ouverte" title="Éducation ouverte – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Éducation ouverte" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B4%EB%A6%B0%EA%B5%90%EC%9C%A1" title="열린교육 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="열린교육" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendidikan_terbuka" title="Pendidikan terbuka – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pendidikan terbuka" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opin_menntun" title="Opin menntun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Opin menntun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istruzione_aperta" title="Istruzione aperta – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Istruzione aperta" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8D%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Нээлттэй боловсрол – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Нээлттэй боловсрол" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_onderwijs" title="Open onderwijs – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Open onderwijs" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_aberta" title="Educação aberta – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Educação aberta" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educa%C8%9Bie_deschis%C4%83" title="Educație deschisă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Educație deschisă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Открытое образование – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Открытое образование" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsim_i_hapur" title="Arsim i hapur – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Arsim i hapur" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avoin_oppiminen" title="Avoin oppiminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Avoin oppiminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Відкрита освіта – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Відкрита освіта" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gi%C3%A1o_d%E1%BB%A5c_m%E1%BB%9F" title="Giáo dục mở – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Giáo dục mở" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BA%B8%CC%80k%E1%BB%8D%CC%81_a%E1%B9%A3%C3%ADs%C3%ADl%E1%BA%B9%CC%80" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Educational movement</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Open_educational_resources" title="Open educational resources">Open educational resources</a>.</div> <p><b>Open education</b> is an educational movement founded on <a href="/wiki/Openness" title="Openness">openness</a>, with connections to other educational movements such as <a href="/wiki/Critical_pedagogy" title="Critical pedagogy">critical pedagogy</a>, and with an educational stance which favours widening participation and inclusiveness in society.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Open education broadens access to the learning and training traditionally offered through formal education systems<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is typically (but not necessarily) offered through <a href="/wiki/Distance_education" title="Distance education">online and distance education</a>. The qualifier "open" refers to the elimination of barriers that can preclude both opportunities and recognition for participation in institution-based learning. One aspect of openness or "opening up" education is the development and adoption of <a href="/wiki/Open_educational_resources" title="Open educational resources">open educational resources</a> in support of <a href="/wiki/Open_educational_practices" title="Open educational practices">open educational practices</a>. </p><p>An example of an institutional practice in line with open education would be decreasing <a href="/wiki/Barriers_to_entry" title="Barriers to entry">barriers to entry</a>, for example, eliminating academic admission requirements. Universities which follow such practices include the <a href="/wiki/Open_University" title="Open University">Open University</a> in Britain, <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_University" title="Athabasca University">Athabasca University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thompson_Rivers_University,_Open_Learning" title="Thompson Rivers University, Open Learning">Thompson Rivers University, Open Learning</a> in Canada and the <a href="/wiki/Open_University_of_Catalonia" title="Open University of Catalonia">Open University of Catalonia</a>, in Spain, among many others (<a href="/wiki/List_of_open_universities" title="List of open universities">see full list here</a>). <a href="/wiki/Massive_open_online_course" title="Massive open online course">Massive open online courses</a> (MOOC) and <a href="/wiki/OpenCourseWare" title="OpenCourseWare">OpenCourseWare</a> are among the most recent and visible approaches to open education, adopted by universities worldwide. Although many MOOC's have free enrolment, the costs of acquiring a <a href="/wiki/Certification" title="Certification">certification</a> may be a barrier. Many open education institutes offer free certification schemes <a href="/wiki/Accreditation" title="Accreditation">accredited</a> by organizations like <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Accreditation_Service" title="United Kingdom Accreditation Service">UKAS</a> in the UK and ANAB in the United States; others offer a <a href="/wiki/Digital_badge" title="Digital badge">badge</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Open_education_and_flexible_learning_-_Graphic_illustration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Open_education_and_flexible_learning_-_Graphic_illustration.jpg/220px-Open_education_and_flexible_learning_-_Graphic_illustration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Open_education_and_flexible_learning_-_Graphic_illustration.jpg/330px-Open_education_and_flexible_learning_-_Graphic_illustration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Open_education_and_flexible_learning_-_Graphic_illustration.jpg/440px-Open_education_and_flexible_learning_-_Graphic_illustration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1366" /></a><figcaption>Open education and flexible learning</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_of_open_education">Origins of open education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Open_education&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins of open education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Open education is part of a broader openness movement. It has origins, particularly in higher education, to the 17th century in the thinking of <a href="/wiki/John_Amos_Comenius" title="John Amos Comenius">John Amos Comenius</a>, who proposed open access to education as a core goal.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors have noted scholarly discussion of open education originating in the progressive pedagogy movements of early childhood education, related to the openness of teaching methods and the promotion of learner autonomy within and outside the classroom. Returning to openness in higher education, the postwar era of the 1960s and 1970s faced a "world-wide crisis in education"<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as education systems responded slowly to the demand for higher education in an era of scientific and economic prosperity requiring new models to meet the needs of a much larger and diversified group of lifelong learners.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These conditions led to the establishment of open and distance education systems globally, which itself developed many innovative and progressive ideas of how to meet the educational needs of large and diverse learner populations. The establishment of open education today as a growing part of mainstream education, particularly in higher education, is directly linked to the development of open education universities beginning in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The interconnectedness of open education and scientific and economic progress is no coincidence. Openness in education is connected to the changing needs of societies, cultures, and economies, and in particular to the rapid evolution of digital and networked technologies. Technology, pedagogy, and related socioeconomic developments have a symbiotic relationship with open and distance education, including in the intellectual and theoretical foundations which define its practice.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most recent emergence of open education is related to the ability to share resources on the web at little cost compared to the distribution of copy righted material common within higher education. Early examples of this are the <a href="/wiki/OpenCourseWare" title="OpenCourseWare">OpenCourseWare</a> program, established in 2002 by <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT), which was followed by more than 200 <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">universities</a> and organisations, and Connexions, established at <a href="/wiki/Rice_University" title="Rice University">Rice University</a> in 1999, which transformed into <a href="/wiki/OpenStax" title="OpenStax">OpenStax</a>. Similar to the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Declaration_on_Open_Access_to_Knowledge_in_the_Sciences_and_Humanities" title="Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities">Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities</a> from the Open Access movement, are the goals and intentions from open education specified in the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town_Open_Education_Declaration" title="Cape Town Open Education Declaration">Cape Town Open Education Declaration</a>. <a href="/wiki/MOOC" class="mw-redirect" title="MOOC">MOOC</a> is a more recent form of online course based on principles of openness which has gotten increasing attention since the early 2010's, exemplified by online platforms such <a href="/wiki/EdX" title="EdX">edX</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coursera" title="Coursera">Coursera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Udacity" title="Udacity">Udacity</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Common_features_of_open_education">Common features of open education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Open_education&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Common features of open education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Open_learning" title="Open learning">Open learning</a></div> <p>Open education is often considered an unequivocal good, part of a larger movement of openness in society (i.e. open knowledge, open government, open access, open data, open source, and open culture). However, critical approaches to open education have also been developed which underline differing perspectives and the need for a nuanced examination of the contexts of openness, a focus on issues of participation, power and social justice, a move beyond the binaries of open and closed as well as examining relationships between formal, non-formal and informal forms of open education and the relationships between teachers and learners.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Openness in education is considered both a comprehensible and a contested term with multiple layers and dimensions. It can be characterised as an adaptive, flexible, and evolving concept.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advocates of openness in education argue that to fully realise the benefits of open education, there is a need to focus on open educational practices (OEP).<sup id="cite_ref-:12_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By using OEP, open educators recognise the ubiquity of knowledge across networks and orchestrate learning that aims to promote learner agency, empowerment, and global civic participation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, there are other parallel movements in education which support openness, included <a href="/wiki/Networked_learning" title="Networked learning">networked learning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Connected_learning" title="Connected learning">connected learning</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Social technologies">social technologies</a>, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Common features of open education in practice attempt to build opportunities for learners to:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>access</b> education, open educational resources, open textbooks, and open scholarship</li> <li><b>collaborate</b> with others, across the boundaries of institutions, institutional systems, and geographic locations</li> <li><b>create</b> and <b>co-create</b> knowledge openly</li> <li><b>integrate</b> formal and <a href="/wiki/Informal_learning" title="Informal learning">informal learning</a> practices, networks, and identities</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_foundations_of_open_education">Theoretical foundations of open education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Open_education&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Theoretical foundations of open education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Open_education_and_flexible_learning.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Open_education_and_flexible_learning.svg/220px-Open_education_and_flexible_learning.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Open_education_and_flexible_learning.svg/330px-Open_education_and_flexible_learning.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Open_education_and_flexible_learning.svg/440px-Open_education_and_flexible_learning.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption>Open education and flexible learning</figcaption></figure> <p>Open education is motivated by a belief that learners want to exercise <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">agency</a> in their studies, particularly from a <a href="/wiki/Lifelong_learning" title="Lifelong learning">lifelong learning</a> perspective. Throughout its history, open education has been associated with multiple meanings: access, flexibility, equity, collaboration, agency, democratisation, social justice, transparency, and removing barriers.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers and practitioners in the field of open education have adopted generic educational theories such as <a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">social constructivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviourism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">cognitivism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then generated their own theoretical foundations following the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Open_university" class="mw-redirect" title="Open university">open universities</a><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the emergence of powerful and sophisticated digital technologies, such as <a href="/wiki/Networked_learning" title="Networked learning">networked learning</a> or <a href="/wiki/Connectivism" title="Connectivism">connectivism</a>. Open education has also been influenced by the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Openness" title="Openness">openness</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:12_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> characterised by an emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Transparency_(behavior)" title="Transparency (behavior)">transparency</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decentralized_decision-making" title="Decentralized decision-making">collaboration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initial conceptualisations of open education were characterised by independent study, where learners are independent of time and space through asynchronous learning, but also independent in developing their own learning strategies and practices, focused on personalised learning and learner autonomy and agency. </p><p>More recently, theories which support open education have developed in line with the rapid evolution of networked digital technologies and the sophistication of social software. The <a href="/wiki/Community_of_inquiry" title="Community of inquiry">community of inquiry</a> (CoI) model proposed by Garrison, Anderson, and Archer (2000)<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was developed to provide conceptual order and act as a heuristic tool for the use of <a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">computer-mediated communication</a> in support of educational experiences, particularly relevant for online and open education. The CoI model argues that a meaningful online learning experience is created through a combination of and interaction between cognitive, social, and teaching presence.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A range of other theories and conceptual frameworks relate to open education, including connectivism which adopts a non-linear approach to learning, influenced by <a href="/wiki/Complexity" title="Complexity">complexity theory</a>, where communities of knowledge are formed through connections forged in a networked learning environment.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Connectivism relates to openness through its emphasis on learner autonomy and agency and its use of OER. The study of self-determined learning, known as heutagogy also relates to open education, founded on the principles of <a href="/wiki/Self-efficacy" title="Self-efficacy">self-efficacy</a> and capability, meta-cognition and reflection, and non-linear learning. Self determined learning is often viewed as part of a continuum experience between <a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">pedagogy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andragogy" title="Andragogy">andragogy</a> and heutagogy, reflecting a shift from teacher-centred to learner-determined environments and activities.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A learning ecologies framework supports open education through both a lifelong and <a href="/wiki/Lifewide_learning" title="Lifewide learning">lifewide learning</a> perspective, which is learning in different places simultaneously across the multiple contexts one inhabits.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A learning ecologies approach rests on the possibilities of new technologies in facilitating self-sustaining, interest-driven and boundary crossing learning, interrelated with the openness in education movement. A <a href="/wiki/Rhizomatic_learning" title="Rhizomatic learning">rhizomatic learning</a> approach can also underlie forms of open education, characterised as an organic process where the curriculum is connected to the community and the learner navigates diversely connected learning environments by making links, negotiating the learning process, and adapting to change.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the most recent theoretical foundations of open education, including connectivism, heutagogy, and rhizomatic learning, openness arises from the learner-centred and non-linear design of learning contexts and resources and the promotion of learner agency and autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology_utilized">Technology utilized</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Open_education&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Technology utilized"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Available technologies for open education are important in the overall efficiency of the program. They promote an absolute openness in the dissemination of education, eliminating barriers including, but not limited to, cost and access to free and relevant resources.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After available technologies have been found, there need to be appropriate applications on the technologies for the specific online education program. </p><p>Since open education usually occurs at a different time and different place for most individuals across the world, certain technologies need to be utilized to enhance the program. These technologies are primarily online and serve a variety of purposes. Websites and other computer-based training may be used to provide lecture notes, assessments, and other course materials. Videos are provided and feature speakers, class events, topic discussions, and faculty interviews. YouTube and iTunesU are often used for this purpose. Students may interact through computer conferencing with Skype, e-mail, online study groups, or annotations on social bookmarking sites. Other course content may be provided through tapes, print, and CDs. </p><p>Governments, institutions, and people realize the importance of education. Human knowledge is crucial to producing competent leaders, innovators, and teachers. Educational systems must provide each individual the chance in building a better life. Technology has made the expansion of educational opportunities easier.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through the Internet, students can easily find information practically on any topic while mentors are capable of sharing their expertise with any student within seconds. Educational materials are disseminated to a global audience without additional costs. Evolving technology makes it possible for learners to interact with the global community in the comfort of their homes. Under distance learning, universities and colleges expand their impact through online courses that people in any country can take.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Open education includes resources such as practices and tools that are not hampered by financial, technical, and legal impediments. These resources are used and shared easily within the digital settings. Technology revolutionized techniques in sending receiving information on a daily basis particularly in education. Availability of web resources has transformed everything.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Open education is founded on Open Educational Resources (OER) comprised or learning, teaching, and research sources.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With Open Education, the costs of textbooks which surged over three times the rate of inflation for many years must not hinder education. Based on the NBC News review of the Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics data, prices of student books increased three times inflation rates from January 1977 until June 2015 reflecting an increase of 1,041 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>OER can possibly address this problem since materials are free online and economical in printed form. Resources intended for buying textbooks can be rechanneled towards technology, enhancing the medium of instructions, and lowering debt.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research studies also showed many students learn more because of their access to quality materials. Technology also has unlimited potentials in raising teaching and learning to a higher level.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Open_education&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Diploma_icon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Diploma_icon.png/28px-Diploma_icon.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Diploma_icon.png/42px-Diploma_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Diploma_icon.png/56px-Diploma_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Education">Education portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/28px-School.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/42px-School.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/56px-School.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Schools" title="Portal:Schools">Schools portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_education" title="Free education">Free education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_educational_practices" title="Open educational practices">Open educational practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_educational_resources" title="Open educational resources">Open educational resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_open_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of open education">Outline of open education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Personalized learning">Personalized learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_assignments" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable assignments">Renewable assignments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Open_Education_Foundation" title="Virginia Open Education Foundation">Virginia Open Education Foundation</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has more on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Open_education" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Special:Search/Open education">Open education</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Open_education&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFZawacki-Richter2020" class="citation journal cs1">Zawacki-Richter, Olaf (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/4659">"Elements of open education: An invitation to future research"</a>. <i>The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning</i>. <b>21</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.19173%2Firrodl.v21i3.4659">10.19173/irrodl.v21i3.4659</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226018305">226018305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Review+of+Research+in+Open+and+Distributed+Learning&rft.atitle=Elements+of+open+education%3A+An+invitation+to+future+research&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.19173%2Firrodl.v21i3.4659&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A226018305%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Zawacki-Richter&rft.aufirst=Olaf&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irrodl.org%2Findex.php%2Firrodl%2Farticle%2Fview%2F4659&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOpen+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/11/open-education-for-a-global-economy/">Open education for a global economy</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Combs (1968 p. 4)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBozkurt2019" class="citation journal cs1">Bozkurt, Aras (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01587919.2019.1681894?journalCode=cdie20">"Intellectual roots of distance education: a progressive knowledge domain analysis"</a>. <i>Distance Education</i>. <b>40</b> (4): 497–514. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01587919.2019.1681894">10.1080/01587919.2019.1681894</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:209060529">209060529</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Distance+Education&rft.atitle=Intellectual+roots+of+distance+education%3A+a+progressive+knowledge+domain+analysis&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=497-514&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01587919.2019.1681894&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A209060529%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bozkurt&rft.aufirst=Aras&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F01587919.2019.1681894%3FjournalCode%3Dcdie20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOpen+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoskurt2019" class="citation journal cs1">Boskurt, Aras (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ajet.org.au/index.php/AJET/article/view/4252/1564">"An analysis of peer reviewed publications on openness in education in half a century: Trends and patterns in the open hemisphere"</a>. <i>Australasian Journal of Educational Technology</i>. <b>35</b> (4): 78–97.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australasian+Journal+of+Educational+Technology&rft.atitle=An+analysis+of+peer+reviewed+publications+on+openness+in+education+in+half+a+century%3A+Trends+and+patterns+in+the+open+hemisphere&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=78-97&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Boskurt&rft.aufirst=Aras&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fajet.org.au%2Findex.php%2FAJET%2Farticle%2Fview%2F4252%2F1564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOpen+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayne2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bayne, Sian (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17439884.2015.1065272">"Open education: the need for a critical approach"</a>. <i>Learning, Media and Technology</i>. <b>40</b> (3): 247–250. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17439884.2015.1065272">10.1080/17439884.2015.1065272</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11820%2F8392c755-9e0c-4725-afa8-a9ab141653aa">20.500.11820/8392c755-9e0c-4725-afa8-a9ab141653aa</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:60460372">60460372</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Learning%2C+Media+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Open+education%3A+the+need+for+a+critical+approach&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=247-250&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.11820%2F8392c755-9e0c-4725-afa8-a9ab141653aa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A60460372%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17439884.2015.1065272&rft.aulast=Bayne&rft.aufirst=Sian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F17439884.2015.1065272&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOpen+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane2016" class="citation book cs1">Lane, A. 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style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Journalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_media" title="Citizen media">Citizen media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_journalism" title="Citizen journalism">Citizen journalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wiki_journalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Wiki journalism">Wiki journalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_journalism" title="Open-source journalism">Open-source journalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">Free and open-source software</a> (FOSS) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_software" title="Free software">Free/libre software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source software</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-design_movement" title="Open-design movement">Open-design movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_robotics" title="Open-source robotics">Robotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_gaming" title="Open gaming">Open gaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_architecture" title="Open-source architecture">Open-source architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">Open-source hardware</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Economic principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_innovation" title="Open innovation">Open innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_patent" class="mw-redirect" title="Open patent">Open patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_standard" title="Open standard">Open standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">Sharing economy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Politics and governance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open_government" title="Open government">Open government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_governance" title="Open-source governance">Open-source governance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Architecture_Network" title="Open Architecture Network">Open Architecture Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Energy_Modelling_Initiative" title="Open Energy Modelling Initiative">Openmod Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Knowledge_Foundation" title="Open Knowledge Foundation">Open Knowledge Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Rights_Group" title="Open Rights Group">Open Rights Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Source_Initiative" title="Open Source Initiative">Open Source Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Web_Foundation" title="Open Web Foundation">Open Web Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PLOS" title="PLOS">PLOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholarly_Publishing_and_Academic_Resources_Coalition" title="Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition">SPARC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Elbakyan" title="Alexandra Elbakyan">Alexandra Elbakyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Murray-Rust" title="Peter Murray-Rust">Peter Murray-Rust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Rushkoff" title="Douglas Rushkoff">Douglas Rushkoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Suber" title="Peter Suber">Peter Suber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sunde" title="Peter Sunde">Peter Sunde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Swartz" title="Aaron Swartz">Aaron Swartz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilbanks" title="John Wilbanks">John Wilbanks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Projects and<br />movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Do-it-yourself_biology" title="Do-it-yourself biology">DIYbio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">Free-culture movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement">Free software movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_science" title="Open science">Open science movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Source_Ecology" title="Open Source Ecology">Open Source Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_software_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-source software movement">Open-source software movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenCores" title="OpenCores">OpenCores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenWetWare" title="OpenWetWare">OpenWetWare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sci-Hub" title="Sci-Hub">Sci-Hub</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Tools" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em">Tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_software_license" class="mw-redirect" title="Free software license">Licenses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons_license" title="Creative Commons license">Creative Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License" title="GNU General Public License">GPL</a></li></ul></li> <li>Definition docs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works" title="Definition of Free Cultural Works">Free Cultural Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Free_Software_Definition" title="The Free Software Definition">Free Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Definition" title="The Open Definition">Open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Source_Definition" title="The Open Source Definition">Open Source</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Data_Indices" title="Open Data Indices">Open Data Indices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_educational_resources" title="Open educational resources">Open educational resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_music_model" title="Open music model">Open music model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Web" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Web">Open Web movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div 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