CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Nuclear fallout - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"312f1b14-8503-4d24-8912-75e65a494095","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Nuclear_fallout","wgTitle":"Nuclear fallout","wgCurRevisionId":1257559445,"wgRevisionId":1257559445,"wgArticleId":53683,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 errors: missing periodical","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 errors: generic name","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Use dmy dates from September 2023","Pages using sidebar with the child parameter","Articles needing additional references from December 2008","All articles needing additional references","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2008","All articles lacking reliable references", "Articles lacking reliable references from October 2016","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from September 2023","Commons category link from Wikidata","Nuclear fallout","Aftermath of war","Nuclear weapons","Radiation health effects","Environmental impact of nuclear power","Radiobiology","Radioactive contamination","Nuclear chemistry","Fission products","Radiological weapons"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Nuclear_fallout","wgRelevantArticleId":53683,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"}, "wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":90000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q474044","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready", "skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.tmh.player","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022", "ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg/1200px-Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="960"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg/800px-Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="640"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg/640px-Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="512"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Nuclear fallout - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fallout"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fallout"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Nuclear_fallout rootpage-Nuclear_fallout skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Nuclear+fallout" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Nuclear+fallout" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Nuclear+fallout" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Nuclear+fallout" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_fallout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_fallout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Types of fallout</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_fallout-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of fallout subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_fallout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Global_fallout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_fallout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Global fallout</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_fallout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_fallout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_fallout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Local fallout</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_fallout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Factors_affecting_fallout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factors_affecting_fallout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Factors affecting fallout</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Factors_affecting_fallout-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Factors affecting fallout subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Factors_affecting_fallout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Location" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Location"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Location</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Location-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meteorological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meteorological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Meteorological</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meteorological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Short_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Short_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Short term</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Short_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Long term</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_the_environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_the_environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Effects on the environment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_the_environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fallout_protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fallout_protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Fallout protection</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fallout_protection-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Fallout protection subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Fallout_protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Personal_protective_equipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_protective_equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Personal protective equipment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_protective_equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_seven-ten_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_seven-ten_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>The seven-ten rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_seven-ten_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_government_guides_for_fallout_protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_government_guides_for_fallout_protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>United States government guides for fallout protection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_government_guides_for_fallout_protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_reactor_accident" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_reactor_accident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Nuclear reactor accident</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Nuclear_reactor_accident-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Nuclear reactor accident subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_reactor_accident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Volatility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volatility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Volatility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volatility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Half-life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Half-life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Half-life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Half-life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preventive_measures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preventive_measures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Preventive measures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preventive_measures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Determining_extent_of_nuclear_fallout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determining_extent_of_nuclear_fallout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Determining extent of nuclear fallout</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Determining_extent_of_nuclear_fallout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_nuclear_safety_standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_nuclear_safety_standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>International nuclear safety standards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_nuclear_safety_standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear fallout</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">35 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%82%D8%B7_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A" title="سقط نووي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سقط نووي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiasiya_ekologiyas%C4%B1" title="Radiasiya ekologiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Radiasiya ekologiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%9E%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Радыеактыўнае забруджванне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Радыеактыўнае забруджванне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluja_radioactiva" title="Pluja radioactiva – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pluja radioactiva" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alldafliad_niwclear" title="Alldafliad niwclear – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Alldafliad niwclear" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioaktivt_nedfald" title="Radioaktivt nedfald – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Radioaktivt nedfald" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioaktiver_Niederschlag" title="Radioaktiver Niederschlag – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Radioaktiver Niederschlag" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lluvia_radiactiva" title="Lluvia radiactiva – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lluvia radiactiva" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euri_erradioaktibo" title="Euri erradioaktibo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Euri erradioaktibo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4_%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="بارش هسته‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بارش هسته‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retomb%C3%A9e_radioactive" title="Retombée radioactive – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Retombée radioactive" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radachur_rada%C3%ADghn%C3%ADomhach" title="Radachur radaíghníomhach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Radachur radaíghníomhach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%99%EC%A7%84" title="낙진 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="낙진" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%83%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Ճառագայթային աղտոտում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ճառագայթային աղտոտում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekfalajo" title="Ekfalajo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ekfalajo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luruhan_nuklir" title="Luruhan nuklir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Luruhan nuklir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricaduta_radioattiva" title="Ricaduta radioattiva – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ricaduta radioattiva" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="נשורת גרעינית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נשורת גרעינית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%82%D1%96_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Радиоактивті залалдану – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Радиоактивті залалдану" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luruhan_nuklear" title="Luruhan nuklear – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Luruhan nuklear" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall-out" title="Fall-out – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Fall-out" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E6%80%A7%E9%99%8D%E4%B8%8B%E7%89%A9" title="放射性降下物 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="放射性降下物" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioaktivt_nedfall" title="Radioaktivt nedfall – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Radioaktivt nedfall" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%ADvol_radioactiva" title="Nívol radioactiva – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Nívol radioactiva" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opad_promieniotw%C3%B3rczy" title="Opad promieniotwórczy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Opad promieniotwórczy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinza_nuclear" title="Cinza nuclear – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cinza nuclear" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aba_proja_radioativa" title="Aba proja radioativa – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Aba proja radioativa" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nuclear fallout" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Нуклеарне падавине – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нуклеарне падавине" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioaktiivinen_laskeuma" title="Radioaktiivinen laskeuma – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Radioaktiivinen laskeuma" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioaktivt_nedfall" title="Radioaktivt nedfall – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Radioaktivt nedfall" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9D%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ฝุ่นรังสีนิวเคลียร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ฝุ่นรังสีนิวเคลียร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCkleer_serpinti" title="Nükleer serpinti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nükleer serpinti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Радіоактивне зараження – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Радіоактивне зараження" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E6%80%A7%E8%90%BD%E4%B8%8B%E7%81%B0" title="放射性落下灰 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="放射性落下灰" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q474044#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Nuclear_fallout" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Nuclear_fallout" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Nuclear_fallout" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&oldid=1257559445" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Nuclear_fallout&id=1257559445&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FNuclear_fallout"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FNuclear_fallout"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Nuclear_fallout&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nuclear_fallout" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q474044" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Residual radioactive material following a nuclear blast</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Fallout" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Fallout_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Fallout (disambiguation)">Fallout (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg/220px-Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg/330px-Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg/440px-Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of radioactive <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14"><sup>14</sup>C</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a> called the <a href="/wiki/Bomb_pulse" title="Bomb pulse">Bomb pulse</a>, before levels slowly declined following the <a href="/wiki/Partial_Test_Ban_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial Test Ban Treaty">Partial Test Ban Treaty</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Little_boy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of a mock-up of the Little Boy nuclear weapon dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, in August 1945." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/170px-Little_boy.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/255px-Little_boy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/340px-Little_boy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2860" data-file-height="1812" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee;"> Background</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">Nuclear explosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">Yield</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">Effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_labor_issues" title="Nuclear labor issues">Workers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Ethics</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">Arsenals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_utilization_target_selection" title="Nuclear utilization target selection">Target selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_blackmail" title="Nuclear blackmail">Blackmail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_espionage" title="Nuclear espionage">Espionage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Proliferation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_terrorism" title="Nuclear terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_umbrella" title="Nuclear umbrella">Umbrella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Winter</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">Nuclear-armed states</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <dl><dd><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">NPT</a> recognized</i><br /><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United States and weapons of mass destruction">United States</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Russia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Russia and weapons of mass destruction">Russia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/France_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="France and weapons of mass destruction">France</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/China_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="China and weapons of mass destruction">China</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd><i>Others</i><br /><a href="/wiki/India_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="India and weapons of mass destruction">India</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_and_Israel" title="Nuclear weapons and Israel">Israel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(undeclared)</span></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction">Pakistan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/North_Korea_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="North Korea and weapons of mass destruction">North Korea</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd><i>Former</i><br /><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">South Africa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons#Former_Soviet_Republics" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">Belarus </a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Kazakhstan and weapons of mass destruction">Kazakhstan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_and_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons and Ukraine">Ukraine</a></dd></dl></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_weapons" title="Template:Nuclear weapons"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_weapons" title="Template talk:Nuclear weapons"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_weapons" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear weapons"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a <a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution" title="Category:Pollution">series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0; background:#fadcc5; color:#fadcc5"><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_pollution3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/220px-Air_pollution3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/330px-Air_pollution3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/440px-Air_pollution3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2250" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Air pollution from a factory</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Digital</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_from_noise" title="Health effects from noise">Health effects from noise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_barrier" title="Noise barrier">Noise barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundproofing" title="Soundproofing">Soundproofing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">Depleted uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_mining" title="Illegal mining">Illegal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Solid waste</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Space</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Space debris</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Advertising clutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">Nuclear famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Nuclear winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosolids" title="Biosolids">Biosolids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_salinization" title="Freshwater salinization">Freshwater salinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sludge" title="Sludge">Sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Misc</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM2.5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Categories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" title="Category:Pollution by country">By country</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/16px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/24px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/16px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/24px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Nuclear fallout</b> is residual radioactive material propelled into the upper atmosphere following a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">nuclear blast</a>, so called because it "falls out" of the sky after the explosion and the <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock wave</a> has passed.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It commonly refers to the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive">radioactive</a> dust and ash created when a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapon</a> explodes. The amount and spread of fallout is a product of the size of the weapon and the altitude at which it is detonated. Fallout may get <a href="/wiki/Entrainment_(meteorology)" title="Entrainment (meteorology)">entrained</a> with the products of a <a href="/wiki/Pyrocumulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrocumulus">pyrocumulus</a> cloud and when combined with <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> falls as <a href="/wiki/Black_rain" title="Black rain">black rain</a> (rain darkened by soot and other particulates), which occurred within 30–40 minutes of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This radioactive dust, usually consisting of <a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">fission products</a> mixed with bystanding atoms that are <a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">neutron-activated by exposure</a>, is a form of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_fallout">Types of fallout</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types of fallout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fallout comes in two varieties. The first is a small amount of carcinogenic material with a long <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a>. The second, depending on the height of detonation, is a large quantity of radioactive dust and sand with a short half-life. </p><p>All nuclear explosions produce <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> products, un-fissioned nuclear material, and weapon residues vaporized by the heat of the fireball. These materials are limited to the original mass of the device, but include <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radioisotopes</a> with long lives.<sup id="cite_ref-effects2005_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-effects2005-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the nuclear fireball does not reach the ground, this is the only fallout produced. Its amount can be estimated from the <a href="/wiki/Neutron_bomb#Basic_concept" title="Neutron bomb">fission-fusion</a> design and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">yield</a> of the weapon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_fallout">Global fallout</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Global fallout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the detonation of a weapon at or above the fallout-free altitude (an <i><a href="/wiki/Air_burst" title="Air burst">air burst</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> products, un-fissioned nuclear material, and weapon residues vaporized by the heat of the fireball condense into a suspension of particles 10 <a href="/wiki/Nanometre" title="Nanometre">nm</a> to 20 <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">μm</a> in diameter. This size of <a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">particulate matter</a>, lifted to the <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a>, may take months or years to settle, and may do so anywhere in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-usnrdl-tr-933_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usnrdl-tr-933-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its radioactive characteristics increase the statistical cancer risk, with up to 2.4 million people having died by 2020 from the measurable elevated atmospheric radioactivity after the widespread <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">nuclear weapons testing</a> of the 1950s, peaking in 1963 (the <a href="/wiki/Bomb_pulse" title="Bomb pulse">Bomb pulse</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-s257_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s257-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Levels reached about 0.15 <a href="/wiki/MSv" class="mw-redirect" title="MSv">mSv</a> per year worldwide, or about 7% of average <a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">background radiation</a> dose from all sources, and has slowly decreased since,<sup id="cite_ref-t904_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-t904-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with natural background radiation levels being around 1 <a href="/wiki/MSv" class="mw-redirect" title="MSv">mSv</a>. </p><p>Radioactive fallout has occurred around the world; for example, people have been exposed to <a href="/wiki/Iodine-131" title="Iodine-131">iodine-131</a> from atmospheric nuclear testing. Fallout accumulates on vegetation, including fruits and vegetables. Starting from 1951 people may have gotten exposure, depending on whether they were outside, the weather, and whether they consumed contaminated milk, vegetables or fruit. Exposure can be on an intermediate time scale or long term.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The intermediate time scale results from fallout that has been put into the troposphere and ejected by precipitation during the first month. Long-term fallout can sometimes occur from deposition of tiny particles carried in the stratosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time that stratospheric fallout has begun to reach the earth, the radioactivity is very much decreased. Also, after a year it is estimated that a sizable quantity of fission products move from the northern to the southern stratosphere. The intermediate time scale is between 1 and 30 days, with long term fallout occurring after that. </p><p>Examples of both intermediate and long term fallout occurred after the 1986 <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl accident</a>, which contaminated over 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> (7,700 sq mi) of land in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>. The main fuel of the reactor was <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>, and surrounding this was graphite, both of which were vaporized by the hydrogen explosion that destroyed the reactor and breached its containment. An estimated 31 people died within a few weeks after this happened, including two plant workers killed at the scene. Although residents were evacuated within 36 hours, people started to complain of vomiting, migraines and other major signs of <a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">radiation sickness</a>. The officials of Ukraine had to close off an area with an 18-mile (30 km) radius. Long term effects included at least 6,000 cases of <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_cancer" title="Thyroid cancer">thyroid cancer</a>, mainly among children. Fallout spread throughout Europe, with Northern Scandinavia receiving a heavy dose, contaminating reindeer herds in Lapland, and salad greens becoming almost unavailable in France. Some sheep farms in North Wales and the North Of England were required to monitor radioactivity levels in their flocks until the control was lifted in 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_fallout">Local fallout</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Local fallout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bravo_fallout2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Bravo_fallout2.png/300px-Bravo_fallout2.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Bravo_fallout2.png/450px-Bravo_fallout2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Bravo_fallout2.png/600px-Bravo_fallout2.png 2x" data-file-width="928" data-file-height="422" /></a><figcaption>The 450 km (280 mi) fallout plume from 15 <a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">megaton</a> surface burst <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">Castle Bravo</a>, 1954.<br />"Estimated total (accumulated) dose contours in <a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">rads</a> at 96 hours after the BRAVO test explosion."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>During detonations of devices at ground level (<i><a href="/wiki/Ground_burst" title="Ground burst">surface burst</a></i>), below the fallout-free altitude, or in shallow water, heat <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">vaporizes</a> large amounts of earth or water, which is drawn up into the <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_cloud" title="Mushroom cloud">radioactive cloud</a>. This material becomes radioactive when it combines with <a href="/wiki/Fission_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission products">fission products</a> or other radio-contaminants, or when it is <a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">neutron-activated</a>. </p><p>The table below summarizes the abilities of common isotopes to form fallout. Some radiation taints large amounts of land and <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> causing formal <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> throughout animal and human life. </p> <table class="wikitable collapsible"> <caption>Table (according to T. Imanaka <i>et al.</i>) of the relative abilities of isotopes to form solids </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Isotope</th> <th><sup>91</sup>Sr</th> <th><sup>92</sup>Sr</th> <th><sup>95</sup>Zr</th> <th><sup>99</sup>Mo</th> <th><sup>106</sup>Ru</th> <th><sup>131</sup>Sb</th> <th><sup>132</sup>Te</th> <th><sup>134</sup>Te</th> <th><sup>137</sup>Cs</th> <th><sup>140</sup>Ba</th> <th><sup>141</sup>La</th> <th><sup>144</sup>Ce </th></tr> <tr> <td>Refractive index</td> <td>0.2</td> <td>1.0</td> <td>1.0</td> <td>1.0</td> <td>0.0</td> <td>0.1</td> <td>0.0</td> <td>0.0</td> <td>0.0</td> <td>0.3</td> <td>0.7</td> <td>1.0 </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_fallout_exposure.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/US_fallout_exposure.png/220px-US_fallout_exposure.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/US_fallout_exposure.png/330px-US_fallout_exposure.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/US_fallout_exposure.png/440px-US_fallout_exposure.png 2x" data-file-width="615" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption>Per capita <a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">thyroid</a> doses in the continental United States resulting from all exposure routes from all atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">nuclear tests</a> conducted at the <a href="/wiki/Nevada_Test_Site" title="Nevada Test Site">Nevada Test Site</a> from 1951 to 1962 and from emissions from plutonium production at the <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a> in Washington state</figcaption></figure> <p>A surface burst generates large amounts of particulate matter, composed of particles from less than 100 <a href="/wiki/Nanometre" title="Nanometre">nm</a> to several millimeters in diameter—in addition to very fine particles that contribute to worldwide fallout.<sup id="cite_ref-effects2005_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-effects2005-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The larger particles spill out of the stem and cascade down the outside of the fireball in a downdraft even as the cloud rises, so fallout begins to arrive near <a href="/wiki/Ground_zero" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground zero">ground zero</a> within an hour. More than half the total bomb debris lands on the ground within about 24 hours as local fallout.<sup id="cite_ref-KDFOC3_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KDFOC3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemical properties of the elements in the fallout control the rate at which they are deposited on the ground. Less volatile elements deposit first. </p><p>Severe local fallout contamination can extend far beyond the blast and thermal effects, particularly in the case of high yield surface detonations. The ground track of fallout from an explosion depends on the weather from the time of detonation onward. In stronger winds, fallout travels faster but takes the same time to descend, so although it covers a larger path, it is more spread out or diluted. Thus, the width of the fallout pattern for any given dose rate is reduced where the downwind distance is increased by higher winds. The total amount of activity deposited up to any given time is the same irrespective of the wind pattern, so overall casualty figures from fallout are generally independent of winds. But <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">thunderstorms</a> can bring down activity as <a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</a> allows fallout to drop more rapidly, particularly if the <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_cloud" title="Mushroom cloud">mushroom cloud</a> is low enough to be below ("washout"), or mixed with ("rainout"), the thunderstorm. </p><p>Whenever individuals remain in a <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radiologically contaminated</a> area, such contamination leads to an immediate external radiation exposure as well as a possible later internal hazard from inhalation and ingestion of radiocontaminants, such as the rather short-lived <a href="/wiki/Iodine-131" title="Iodine-131">iodine-131</a>, which is accumulated in the <a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">thyroid</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Factors_affecting_fallout">Factors affecting fallout</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Factors affecting fallout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Location">Location</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Location"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two main considerations for the location of an explosion: height and surface composition. A nuclear weapon detonated in the air, called an <a href="/wiki/Air_burst" title="Air burst">air burst</a>, produces less fallout than a comparable explosion near the ground. A nuclear explosion in which the fireball touches the ground pulls soil and other materials into the cloud and neutron activates it before it falls back to the ground. An air burst produces a relatively small amount of the highly radioactive heavy metal components of the device itself. </p><p>In case of water surface bursts, the particles tend to be rather lighter and smaller, producing less local fallout but extending over a greater area. The particles contain mostly <a href="/wiki/Sea_salt" title="Sea salt">sea salts</a> with some water; these can have a <a href="/wiki/Cloud_seeding" title="Cloud seeding">cloud seeding</a> effect causing local <a href="/wiki/Rainout_(radioactivity)" title="Rainout (radioactivity)">rainout</a> and areas of high local fallout. Fallout from a <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> burst is difficult to remove once it has soaked into <a href="/wiki/Porous" class="mw-redirect" title="Porous">porous</a> surfaces because the fission products are present as metallic <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> that chemically bond to many surfaces. Water and detergent washing effectively removes less than 50% of this chemically bonded activity from <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a> or <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>. Complete decontamination requires aggressive treatment like <a href="/wiki/Sandblasting" title="Sandblasting">sandblasting</a>, or acidic treatment. After the <i>Crossroads</i> underwater test, it was found that wet fallout must be immediately removed from ships by continuous water washdown (such as from the <a href="/wiki/Fire_sprinkler" title="Fire sprinkler">fire sprinkler</a> system on the decks). </p><p>Parts of the sea bottom may become fallout. After the <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">Castle Bravo</a> test, white dust—contaminated <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">calcium oxide</a> particles originating from pulverized and <a href="/wiki/Calcination" title="Calcination">calcined</a> <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>—fell for several hours, causing <a href="/wiki/Beta_burn" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta burn">beta burns</a> and radiation exposure to the inhabitants of the nearby atolls and the crew of the <i><a href="/wiki/Daigo_Fukury%C5%AB_Maru" title="Daigo Fukuryū Maru">Daigo Fukuryū Maru</a></i> fishing boat. The scientists called the fallout <i>Bikini snow</i>. </p><p>For subsurface bursts, there is an additional phenomenon present called "<a href="/wiki/Base_surge" class="mw-redirect" title="Base surge">base surge</a>". The base surge is a cloud that rolls outward from the bottom of the subsiding column, which is caused by an excessive density of dust or water droplets in the air. For underwater bursts, the visible surge is, in effect, a cloud of liquid (usually water) droplets with the property of flowing almost as if it were a homogeneous fluid. After the water evaporates, an invisible base surge of small radioactive particles may persist. </p><p>For subsurface land bursts, the surge is made up of small solid particles, but it still behaves like a <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluid</a>. A soil earth medium favors base surge formation in an underground burst. Although the base surge typically contains only about 10% of the total bomb debris in a subsurface burst, it can create larger radiation doses than fallout near the detonation, because it arrives sooner than fallout, before much radioactive decay has occurred. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meteorological">Meteorological</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Meteorological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fallout_G%26D77.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Fallout_G%26D77.JPG/300px-Fallout_G%26D77.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Fallout_G%26D77.JPG/450px-Fallout_G%26D77.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Fallout_G%26D77.JPG/600px-Fallout_G%26D77.JPG 2x" data-file-width="703" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of fallout gamma dose and dose rate contours for a 1 Mt fission land surface burst, based on DELFIC calculations. Because of radioactive decay, the dose rate contours contract after fallout has arrived, but dose contours continue to grow.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorological</a> conditions greatly influence fallout, particularly local fallout. Atmospheric winds are able to bring fallout over large areas.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, as a result of a <i><a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">Castle Bravo</a></i> surface burst of a 15 Mt thermonuclear device at <a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a> on March 1, 1954, a roughly cigar-shaped area of the <a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a> extending over 500 km downwind and varying in width to a maximum of 100 km was severely contaminated. There are three very different versions of the fallout pattern from this test, because the fallout was measured only on a small number of widely spaced Pacific Atolls. The two alternative versions both ascribe the high radiation levels at north <a href="/wiki/Rongelap" class="mw-redirect" title="Rongelap">Rongelap</a> to a downwind hot spot caused by the large amount of radioactivity carried on fallout particles of about 50–100 micrometres size.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <i>Bravo</i>, it was discovered that fallout landing on the ocean disperses in the top water layer (above the <a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">thermocline</a> at 100 m depth), and the land equivalent dose rate can be calculated by multiplying the ocean dose rate at two days after burst by a factor of about 530. In other 1954 tests, including <i>Yankee</i> and <i>Nectar,</i> hot spots were mapped out by ships with submersible probes, and similar hot spots occurred in 1956 tests such as <i>Zuni</i> and <i>Tewa</i>. <sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the major U.S. "<a href="/w/index.php?title=DELFIC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="DELFIC (page does not exist)">DELFIC</a>" (Defence Land Fallout Interpretive Code) computer calculations use the natural size distributions of particles in soil instead of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Afterwind&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Afterwind (page does not exist)">afterwind</a> sweep-up spectrum, and this results in more straightforward fallout patterns lacking the downwind hot spot. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</a>, especially if they come from considerable heights, accelerate local fallout. Under special meteorological conditions, such as a local rain shower that originates above the radioactive cloud, limited areas of heavy contamination just downwind of a nuclear blast may be formed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A wide range of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">biological</a> changes may follow the irradiation of animals. These vary from rapid death following high doses of penetrating whole-body radiation, to essentially normal lives for a variable period of time until the development of delayed radiation effects, in a portion of the exposed population, following low dose exposures. </p><p>The unit of actual <i>exposure</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Roentgen_(unit)" title="Roentgen (unit)">röntgen</a>, defined in <a href="/wiki/Ionisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionisation">ionisations</a> per unit volume of air. All ionisation based instruments (including <a href="/wiki/Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter">geiger counters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionisation_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionisation chamber">ionisation chambers</a>) measure exposure. However, effects depend on the energy per unit mass, not the exposure measured in air. A deposit of 1 joule per kilogram has the unit of 1 <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a> (Gy). For 1 MeV energy gamma rays, an exposure of 1 röntgen in air produces a dose of about 0.01 gray (1 centigray, cGy) in water or surface tissue. Because of shielding by the tissue surrounding the bones, the <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a> only receives about 0.67 cGy when the air exposure is 1 röntgen and the surface skin dose is 1 cGy. Some lower values reported for the amount of radiation that would kill 50% of personnel (the <a href="/wiki/Median_lethal_dose" title="Median lethal dose">LD<sub style="font-size:-1">50</sub></a>) refer to bone marrow dose, which is only 67% of the air dose. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Short_term">Short term</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Short term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/LD50" class="mw-redirect" title="LD50">LD<sub>50</sub></a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Nuclear_fallout" title="Special:EditPage/Nuclear fallout">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2008</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fallout_shelter_sign_on_a_building.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Fallout_shelter_sign_on_a_building.JPG/220px-Fallout_shelter_sign_on_a_building.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Fallout_shelter_sign_on_a_building.JPG/330px-Fallout_shelter_sign_on_a_building.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Fallout_shelter_sign_on_a_building.JPG/440px-Fallout_shelter_sign_on_a_building.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">Fallout shelter</a> sign on a building in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The dose that would be lethal to 50% of a population is a common parameter used to compare the effects of various fallout types or circumstances. Usually, the term is defined for a specific time, and limited to studies of acute lethality. The common time periods used are 30 days or less for most small laboratory animals and to 60 days for large animals and humans. The LD<sub>50</sub> figure assumes that the individuals did not receive other injuries or medical treatment. </p><p>In the 1950s, the LD<sub>50</sub> for gamma rays was set at 3.5 Gy, while under more dire conditions of war (a bad diet, little medical care, poor nursing) the LD<sub>50</sub> was 2.5 Gy (250 rad). There have been few documented cases of survival beyond 6 Gy. One person at <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl</a> survived a dose of more than 10 Gy, but many of the persons exposed there were not uniformly exposed over their entire body. If a person is exposed in a non-homogeneous manner then a given dose (averaged over the entire body) is less likely to be lethal. For instance, if a person gets a hand/low arm dose of 100 Gy, which gives them an overall dose of 4 Gy, they are more likely to survive than a person who gets a 4 Gy dose over their entire body. A hand dose of 10 Gy or more would likely result in loss of the hand. A <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a> industrial <a href="/wiki/Radiographer" title="Radiographer">radiographer</a> who was estimated to have received a hand dose of 100 Gy over the course of his lifetime lost his hand because of <a href="/wiki/Radiation_dermatitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation dermatitis">radiation dermatitis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most people become ill after an exposure to 1 Gy or more. <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">Fetuses</a> are often more vulnerable to radiation and may <a href="/wiki/Miscarriage" title="Miscarriage">miscarry</a>, especially in the first <a href="/wiki/Trimester_(pregnancy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trimester (pregnancy)">trimester</a>. </p><p>Because of the large amount of short-lived fission products, the activity and radiation levels of nuclear fallout decrease very quickly after being released; it is reduced by 50% in the first hour after a detonation,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> then by 80% during the first day. As a result, early <a href="/wiki/Human_decontamination" title="Human decontamination">gross decontamination</a>, such as removing contaminated articles of outer clothing, is more effective than delayed but more thorough cleaning.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most areas become fairly safe for travel and decontamination after three to five weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One hour after a surface burst, the radiation from fallout in the <a href="/wiki/Subsidence_crater" title="Subsidence crater">crater</a> region is 30 grays per hour (Gy/h).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (February 2008)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Civilian <a href="/wiki/Dose_rate" title="Dose rate">dose rates</a> in peacetime range from 30 to 100 μGy per year. </p><p><br /> For <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">yields</a> of up to 10 <a href="/wiki/Kiloton" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiloton">kt</a>, prompt radiation is the dominant producer of casualties on the battlefield. Humans receiving an acute incapacitating dose (30 Gy) have their performance degraded almost immediately and become ineffective within several hours. However, they do not die until five to six days after exposure, assuming they do not receive any other injuries. Individuals receiving less than a total of 1.5 Gy are not incapacitated. People receiving doses greater than 1.5 Gy become disabled, and some eventually die. </p><p>A dose of 5.3 Gy to 8.3 Gy is considered lethal but not immediately incapacitating. Personnel exposed to this amount of radiation have their cognitive performance degraded in two to three hours,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> depending on how physically demanding the tasks they must perform are, and remain in this disabled state at least two days. However, at that point they experience a recovery period and can perform non-demanding tasks for about six days, after which they relapse for about four weeks. At this time they begin exhibiting symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">radiation poisoning</a> of sufficient severity to render them totally ineffective. Death follows at approximately six weeks after exposure, although outcomes may vary. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long_term">Long term</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Long term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Project_GABRIEL" title="Project GABRIEL">Project GABRIEL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bellesrad" title="Bellesrad">Bellesrad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enewetak_Atoll#History" title="Enewetak Atoll">Enewetak Atoll § History</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll#Current_habitable_state" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll § Current habitable state</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Project_4.1" title="Project 4.1">Project 4.1</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caesium_europe.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Caesium_europe.webp/220px-Caesium_europe.webp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Caesium_europe.webp/330px-Caesium_europe.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Caesium_europe.webp/440px-Caesium_europe.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="785" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Caesium</a>-137 in Western European soil, from the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> and its deposition through the weather</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutionium_europe.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Plutionium_europe.webp/220px-Plutionium_europe.webp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Plutionium_europe.webp/330px-Plutionium_europe.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Plutionium_europe.webp/440px-Plutionium_europe.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="618" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a>-239 and -240 in soil, from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons test">nuclear weapons tests</a> and its deposition through the weather</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zuni.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Zuni.gif/220px-Zuni.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Zuni.gif/330px-Zuni.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Zuni.gif/440px-Zuni.gif 2x" data-file-width="694" data-file-height="436" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of predicted fallout "hotline" with test results in the 3.53 Mt 15% fission <i>Zuni</i> test at Bikini in 1956. The predictions were made under simulated tactical nuclear war conditions aboard ship by Edward A. Schuert.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Checking_Radiation_Exposure_Levels_(FDA_190)_(8227384650).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Checking_Radiation_Exposure_Levels_%28FDA_190%29_%288227384650%29.jpg/220px-Checking_Radiation_Exposure_Levels_%28FDA_190%29_%288227384650%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Checking_Radiation_Exposure_Levels_%28FDA_190%29_%288227384650%29.jpg/330px-Checking_Radiation_Exposure_Levels_%28FDA_190%29_%288227384650%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Checking_Radiation_Exposure_Levels_%28FDA_190%29_%288227384650%29.jpg/440px-Checking_Radiation_Exposure_Levels_%28FDA_190%29_%288227384650%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5400" data-file-height="7200" /></a><figcaption>Following the detonation of the first atomic bomb, <a href="/wiki/Low-background_steel" title="Low-background steel">pre-war steel</a> and post-war steel which is manufactured without atmospheric air, became a valuable commodity for scientists wishing to make extremely precise instruments that detect radioactive emissions, since these two types of steel are the only steels that do not contain trace amounts of fallout.</figcaption></figure> <p>Late or delayed effects of radiation occur following a wide range of doses and dose rates. Delayed effects may appear months to years after <a href="/wiki/Irradiation" title="Irradiation">irradiation</a> and include a wide variety of effects involving almost all tissues or organs. Some of the <i>possible</i> delayed consequences of radiation injury, with the rates above the background prevalence, depending on the absorbed dose, include <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenesis" title="Carcinogenesis">carcinogenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">cataract</a> formation, chronic <a href="/wiki/Radiodermatitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiodermatitis">radiodermatitis</a>, decreased <a href="/wiki/Fertility" title="Fertility">fertility</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_mutation" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic mutation">genetic mutations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Simon_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simon-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (October 2016)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Presently, the only <a href="/wiki/Teratological" class="mw-redirect" title="Teratological">teratological</a> effect observed in humans following nuclear attacks on highly populated areas is <a href="/wiki/Microcephaly" title="Microcephaly">microcephaly</a> which is the only proven malformation, or congenital abnormality, found in the <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">in utero</a> developing human fetuses present during the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings. Of all the pregnant women who were close enough to be exposed to the <i>prompt</i> burst of intense neutron and gamma doses in the two cities, the total number of children born with <a href="/wiki/Microcephaly" title="Microcephaly">microcephaly</a> was below 50.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.ie_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.ie-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No statistically demonstrable increase of congenital malformations was found among the <i>later conceived children</i> born to survivors of the nuclear detonations at Hiroshima and Nagasaki.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.ie_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.ie-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The surviving women of Hiroshima and Nagasaki who could conceive and were exposed to substantial amounts of radiation went on and had children with no higher incidence of abnormalities than the Japanese average.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Baby_Tooth_Survey" title="Baby Tooth Survey">Baby Tooth Survey</a> founded by the husband and wife team of physicians Eric Reiss and <a href="/wiki/Louise_Reiss" title="Louise Reiss">Louise Reiss</a>, was a research effort focused on detecting the presence of <a href="/wiki/Strontium-90" title="Strontium-90">strontium-90</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Carcinogenic">cancer-causing</a> radioactive isotope created by the more than 400 atomic tests conducted above ground that is absorbed from water and dairy products into the bones and teeth given its chemical similarity to <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>. The team sent collection forms to schools in the <a href="/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Louis, Missouri">St. Louis, Missouri</a> area, hoping to gather 50,000 teeth each year. Ultimately, the project collected over 300,000 teeth from children of various ages before the project was ended in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Preliminary results of the Baby Tooth Survey were published in the November 24, 1961, edition of the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>, and showed that levels of <a href="/wiki/Strontium-90" title="Strontium-90">strontium-90</a> had risen steadily in children born in the 1950s, with those born later showing the most pronounced increases.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The results of a more comprehensive study of the elements found in the teeth collected showed that children born after 1963 had levels of strontium-90 in their baby teeth that was 50 times higher than that found in children born before large-scale atomic testing began. The findings helped convince U.S. President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> to sign the <a href="/wiki/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty">Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty</a> with the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, which ended the above-ground <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">nuclear weapons testing</a> that created the greatest amounts of atmospheric nuclear fallout.<sup id="cite_ref-Reiss_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reiss-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some considered the baby tooth survey a "campaign [that] effectively employed a variety of media advocacy strategies" to alarm the public and "galvanized" support against atmospheric nuclear testing,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="'http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/messages/downloadsexceeded.html' isn't a reliable source (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, and putting an end to such testing was commonly viewed as a positive outcome for a myriad of reasons. The survey could not show at the time, nor in the decades that have elapsed, that the levels of global strontium-90 or fallout in general, were life-threatening, primarily because "50 times the strontium-90 from <i>before</i> nuclear testing" is a minuscule number, and multiplication of minuscule numbers results in only a slightly larger minuscule number. Moreover, the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_and_Public_Health_Project" title="Radiation and Public Health Project">Radiation and Public Health Project</a> that currently retains the teeth has had their stance and publications criticized: a 2003 article in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> states that many scientists consider the group's work controversial, with little credibility with the scientific establishment, while some scientists consider it "good, careful work".<sup id="cite_ref-NYT_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an April 2014 article in <i>Popular Science</i>, Sarah Fecht argues that the group's work, specifically the widely discussed case of <a href="/wiki/Cherry-picking" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherry-picking">cherry-picking</a> data to suggest that fallout from the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_and_Public_Health_Project#Fukushima" title="Radiation and Public Health Project">2011 Fukushima accident caused infant deaths</a> in America, is "<a href="/wiki/Junk_science" title="Junk science">junk science</a>", as despite their papers being peer-reviewed, independent attempts to corroborate their results return findings that are not in agreement with what the organization suggests.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The organization had earlier suggested the same thing occurred after the <a href="/wiki/Ernest_J._Sternglass#Three_Mile_Island" title="Ernest J. Sternglass">1979 Three Mile Island</a> accident, though the Atomic Energy Commission argued this was unfounded.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tooth survey, and the organization's new target of pushing for test bans with US nuclear electric power stations, is detailed and critically labelled as the "<a href="/wiki/Tooth_Fairy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tooth Fairy">Tooth Fairy</a> issue" by the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">Nuclear Regulatory Commission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NRC_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRC-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_the_environment">Effects on the environment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Effects on the environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout_effects_on_an_Ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear fallout effects on an Ecosystem">Nuclear fallout effects on an Ecosystem</a></div> <p>In the event of a large-scale nuclear exchange, the effects would be drastic on the environment as well as directly to the human population. Within direct blast zones everything would be vaporized and destroyed. Cities damaged but not completely destroyed would lose their water system due to the loss of power and supply lines rupturing.<sup id="cite_ref-Implications_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Implications-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the local nuclear fallout pattern suburban areas' water supplies would become extremely contaminated. At this point stored water would be the only safe water to use. All surface water within the fallout would be contaminated by falling fission products.<sup id="cite_ref-Implications_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Implications-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within the first few months of the nuclear exchange the nuclear fallout will continue to develop and detriment the environment. Dust, smoke, and <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive particles</a> will fall hundreds of kilometers downwind of the explosion point and pollute surface water supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-Implications_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Implications-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Iodine-131" title="Iodine-131">Iodine-131</a> would be the dominant fission product within the first few weeks, and in the months following the dominant fission product would be <a href="/wiki/Strontium-90" title="Strontium-90">strontium-90</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Implications_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Implications-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These fission products would remain in the fallout dust, resulting in rivers, lakes, sediments, and soils being contaminated with the fallout.<sup id="cite_ref-Implications_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Implications-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rural areas' water supplies would be slightly less polluted by fission particles in intermediate and long-term fallout than cities and suburban areas. Without additional contamination, the lakes, reservoirs, rivers, and runoff would be gradually less contaminated as water continued to flow through its system.<sup id="cite_ref-Implications_35-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Implications-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Groundwater supplies such as aquifers would however remain unpolluted initially in the event of a nuclear fallout. Over time the groundwater could become contaminated with fallout particles, and would remain contaminated for over 10 years after a nuclear engagement.<sup id="cite_ref-Implications_35-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Implications-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It would take hundreds or thousands of years for an aquifer to become completely pure.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Groundwater would still be safer than surface water supplies and would need to be consumed in smaller doses. Long term, <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">cesium-137</a> and strontium-90 would be the major radionuclides affecting the fresh water supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-Implications_35-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Implications-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The dangers of nuclear fallout do not stop at increased risks of cancer and radiation sickness, but also include the presence of radionuclides in human organs from food. A fallout event would leave fission particles in the soil for animals to consume, followed by humans. Radioactively contaminated milk, meat, fish, vegetables, grains and other food would all be dangerous because of fallout.<sup id="cite_ref-Implications_35-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Implications-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1945 to 1967 the U.S. conducted hundreds of nuclear weapon tests.<sup id="cite_ref-Shadow_244–274_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shadow_244–274-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Atmospheric testing</a> took place over the US mainland during this time and as a consequence scientists have been able to study the effect of nuclear fallout on the environment. Detonations conducted near the surface of the earth irradiated thousands of tons of soil.<sup id="cite_ref-Shadow_244–274_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shadow_244–274-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the material drawn into the atmosphere, portions of radioactive material will be carried by low altitude winds and deposited in surrounding areas as radioactive dust. The material intercepted by high altitude winds will continue to travel. When a radiation cloud at high altitude is exposed to rainfall, the radioactive fallout will contaminate the downwind area below.<sup id="cite_ref-Shadow_244–274_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shadow_244–274-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Agricultural fields and plants will absorb the contaminated material and animals will consume the radioactive material. As a result, the nuclear fallout may cause livestock to become ill or die, and if consumed the radioactive material will be passed on to humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Shadow_244–274_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shadow_244–274-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The damage to other living organism as a result to nuclear fallout depends on the species.<sup id="cite_ref-Koppe_247–268_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koppe_247–268-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mammals particularly are extremely sensitive to nuclear radiation, followed by birds, plants, fish, reptiles, crustaceans, insects, moss, lichen, algae, bacteria, mollusks, and viruses.<sup id="cite_ref-Koppe_247–268_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koppe_247–268-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Climatologist <a href="/wiki/Alan_Robock" title="Alan Robock">Alan Robock</a> and atmospheric and oceanic sciences professor Brian Toon created a model of a hypothetical small-scale nuclear war that would have approximately 100 weapons used. In this scenario, the fires would create enough soot into the atmosphere to block sunlight, lowering global temperatures by more than one degree Celsius.<sup id="cite_ref-Humanitarian_22–26_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humanitarian_22–26-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result would have the potential of creating widespread food insecurity (nuclear famine).<sup id="cite_ref-Humanitarian_22–26_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humanitarian_22–26-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Precipitation across the globe would be disrupted as a result. If enough soot was introduced in the upper atmosphere the planet's ozone layer could potentially be depleted, affecting plant growth and human health.<sup id="cite_ref-Humanitarian_22–26_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humanitarian_22–26-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Radiation from the fallout would linger in soil, plants, and food chains for years. Marine food chains are more vulnerable to the nuclear fallout and the effects of soot in the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-Humanitarian_22–26_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humanitarian_22–26-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fallout radionuclides' detriment in the human food chain is apparent in the lichen-caribou-eskimo studies in Alaska.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary effect on humans observed was thyroid dysfunction.<sup id="cite_ref-Biosphere_576–583_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biosphere_576–583-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result of a nuclear fallout is incredibly detrimental to human survival and the biosphere. Fallout alters the quality of our atmosphere, soil, and water and causes species to go extinct.<sup id="cite_ref-Biosphere_576–583_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biosphere_576–583-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fallout_protection">Fallout protection</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fallout protection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/0752_Fallout_When_and_How_to_Protect_Yourself_Against_It_12_01_05_00.ogg/220px-seek%3D114-0752_Fallout_When_and_How_to_Protect_Yourself_Against_It_12_01_05_00.ogg.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="867" data-mwtitle="0752_Fallout_When_and_How_to_Protect_Yourself_Against_It_12_01_05_00.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:0752_Fallout_When_and_How_to_Protect_Yourself_Against_It_12_01_05_00.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/0752_Fallout_When_and_How_to_Protect_Yourself_Against_It_12_01_05_00.ogg#t=00:00:06,00:00:28" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="400" data-height="300" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/33/0752_Fallout_When_and_How_to_Protect_Yourself_Against_It_12_01_05_00.ogg/0752_Fallout_When_and_How_to_Protect_Yourself_Against_It_12_01_05_00.ogg.360p.webm#t=00:00:06,00:00:28" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="400" data-height="300" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/33/0752_Fallout_When_and_How_to_Protect_Yourself_Against_It_12_01_05_00.ogg/0752_Fallout_When_and_How_to_Protect_Yourself_Against_It_12_01_05_00.ogg.144p.mjpeg.mov#t=00:00:06,00:00:28" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/33/0752_Fallout_When_and_How_to_Protect_Yourself_Against_It_12_01_05_00.ogg/0752_Fallout_When_and_How_to_Protect_Yourself_Against_It_12_01_05_00.ogg.240p.vp9.webm#t=00:00:06,00:00:28" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption>Public safety film created by the United States Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization from 1959.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">Fallout shelter</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fallout_Protection" title="Fallout Protection">Fallout Protection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare#Survival" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear warfare § Survival</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Protect_and_Survive" title="Protect and Survive">Protect and Survive</a></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the governments of the U.S., the USSR, Great Britain, and China attempted to educate their citizens about surviving a nuclear attack by providing procedures on minimizing short-term exposure to fallout. This effort commonly became known as <a href="/wiki/Civil_Defense" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Defense">Civil Defense</a>. </p><p>Fallout protection is almost exclusively concerned with protection from radiation. Radiation from a fallout is encountered in the forms of <a href="/wiki/Radiation#Alpha" title="Radiation">alpha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiation#Beta" title="Radiation">beta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radiation#Gamma" title="Radiation">gamma</a> radiation, and as ordinary clothing affords protection from alpha and beta radiation,<sup id="cite_ref-NWSSD_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NWSSD-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> most fallout protection measures deal with reducing exposure to gamma radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-NWSSA_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NWSSA-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the purposes of radiation shielding, many materials have a characteristic <i>halving thickness</i>: the thickness of a layer of a material sufficient to reduce gamma radiation exposure by 50%. Halving thicknesses of common materials include: 1 cm (0.4 inch) of lead, 6 cm (2.4 inches) of concrete, 9 cm (3.6 inches) of packed earth or 150 m (500 ft) of air. When multiple thicknesses are built, the shielding multiplies. A practical fallout shield is ten halving-thicknesses of a given material, such as 90 cm (36 inches) of packed earth, which reduces gamma ray exposure by approximately 1024 times (2<sup>10</sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NWSS2_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NWSS2-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A shelter built with these materials for the purposes of fallout protection is known as a <a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">fallout shelter</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_protective_equipment">Personal protective equipment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Personal protective equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the nuclear energy sector continues to grow, the international rhetoric surrounding nuclear warfare intensifies, and the ever-present threat of radioactive materials falling into the hands of dangerous people persists, many scientists are working hard to find the best way to protect human organs from the harmful effects of high energy radiation. <a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Acute radiation syndrome</a> (ARS) is the most immediate risk to humans when exposed to <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> in dosages greater than around 0.1 <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gy/hr</a>. Radiation in the low energy spectrum (<a href="/wiki/Alpha_Radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha Radiation">alpha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beta_Radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta Radiation">beta radiation</a>) with minimal penetrating power is unlikely to cause significant damage to internal organs (although if contamination is ingested, inhaled or on the skin, and thus in close proximity to tissues and organs, the effect of these 'massive' particles may be catastrophic). The high penetrating power of <a href="/wiki/Gamma_Radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma Radiation">gamma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">neutron radiation</a>, however, easily penetrates the skin and many thin shielding mechanisms to cause cellular degeneration in the stem cells found in bone marrow. While full body shielding in a secure fallout shelter as described above is the most optimal form of radiation protection, it requires being locked in a very thick bunker for a significant amount of time. In the event of a nuclear catastrophe of any kind, it is imperative to have <a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection#External_penetrating_radiation" title="Radiation protection">mobile protection equipment</a> for medical and security personnel to perform necessary containment, evacuation, and any number of other important public safety objectives. The mass of the shielding material required to properly protect the entire body from high energy radiation would make functional movement essentially impossible. This has led scientists to begin researching the idea of partial body protection: a strategy inspired by <a href="/wiki/Hematopoietic_stem_cell_transplantation" title="Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation">hematopoietic stem cell transplantation</a> (HSCT). The idea is to use enough shielding material to sufficiently protect the high concentration of bone marrow in the pelvic region, which contains enough regenerative stem cells to repopulate the body with unaffected bone marrow.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More information on bone marrow shielding can be found in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.lww.com/health-physics/pages/default.aspx">Health Physics Radiation Safety Journal</a> article <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.lww.com/health-physics/Abstract/2017/09000/Selective_Shielding_of_Bone_Marrow___An_Approach.4.aspx">Selective Shielding of Bone Marrow: An Approach to Protecting Humans from External Gamma Radiation</a>, or in the <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Energy_Agency" title="Nuclear Energy Agency">Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)</a>'s 2015 report: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/docs/2014/crpph-r2014-5.pdf">Occupational Radiation Protection in Severe Accident Management.</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_seven-ten_rule">The seven-ten rule</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The seven-ten rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The danger of radiation from fallout also decreases rapidly with time due in large part to the exponential decay of the individual radionuclides. A book by Cresson H. Kearny presents data showing that for the first few days after the explosion, the radiation dose rate is reduced by a factor of ten for every seven-fold increase in the number of hours since the explosion. He presents data showing that "it takes about seven times as long for the dose rate to decay from 1000 roentgens per hour (1000 R/hr) to 10 R/hr (48 hours) as to decay from 1000 R/hr to 100 R/hr (7 hours)."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a rule of thumb based on observed data, not a precise relation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_government_guides_for_fallout_protection">United States government guides for fallout protection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: United States government guides for fallout protection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Risks_hazards_A_State_by_State_Guide_FEMA196_0017-map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Risks_hazards_A_State_by_State_Guide_FEMA196_0017-map.jpg/220px-Risks_hazards_A_State_by_State_Guide_FEMA196_0017-map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Risks_hazards_A_State_by_State_Guide_FEMA196_0017-map.jpg/330px-Risks_hazards_A_State_by_State_Guide_FEMA196_0017-map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Risks_hazards_A_State_by_State_Guide_FEMA196_0017-map.jpg/440px-Risks_hazards_A_State_by_State_Guide_FEMA196_0017-map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1630" data-file-height="1152" /></a><figcaption>One of many possible fallout patterns mapped by the United States <a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency" title="Federal Emergency Management Agency">Federal Emergency Management Agency</a> that could occur during a nuclear war. (Based on 1988 data.)</figcaption></figure> <p>The United States government, often the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Civil_Defense" title="Office of Civil Defense">Office of Civil Defense</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a>, provided guides to fallout protection in the 1960s, frequently in the form of booklets. These booklets provided information on how to best survive nuclear fallout.<sup id="cite_ref-protection_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also included instructions for various <a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">fallout shelters</a>, whether for a family, a hospital, or a school shelter were provided.<sup id="cite_ref-school1_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-school1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-school3_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-school3-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also instructions for how to create an improvised fallout shelter, and what to do to best increase a person's chances for survival if they were unprepared.<sup id="cite_ref-protection2_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The central idea in these guides is that materials like concrete, soil, and sand are necessary to shield a person from fallout particles and radiation. A significant amount of materials of this type are necessary to protect a person from fallout radiation, so safety clothing cannot protect a person from fallout radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-protection2_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-protection_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, protective clothing can keep fallout particles off a person's body, but the radiation from these particles will still permeate through the clothing. For safety clothing to be able to block the fallout radiation, it would have to be so thick and heavy that a person could not function.<sup id="cite_ref-protection_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These guides indicated that fallout shelters should contain enough resources to keep its occupants alive for up to two weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-protection_48-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Community shelters were preferred over single-family shelters. The more people in a shelter, the greater quantity and variety of resources that shelter would be equipped with. These communities’ shelters would also help facilitate efforts to recuperate the community in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-protection_48-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Single family shelters should be built below ground if possible. Many different types of fallout shelters could be made for a relatively small amount of money.<sup id="cite_ref-protection_48-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-protection2_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A common format for fallout shelters was to build the shelter underground, with solid concrete blocks to act as the roof. If a shelter could only be partially underground, it was recommended to mound over that shelter with as much soil as possible. If a house had a basement, it is best for a fallout shelter to be constructed in a corner of the basement.<sup id="cite_ref-protection_48-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The center of a basement is where the most radiation will be because the easiest way for radiation to enter a basement is from the floor above.<sup id="cite_ref-protection2_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two of the walls of the shelter in a basement corner will be the basement walls that are surrounded by soil outside. Cinder blocks filled with sand or soil were highly recommended for the other two walls.<sup id="cite_ref-protection2_51-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concrete blocks, or some other dense material, should be used as a roof for a basement fallout shelter because the floor of a house is not an adequate roof for a <a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">fallout shelter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-protection2_51-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These shelters should contain water, food, tools, and a method for dealing with human waste.<sup id="cite_ref-protection2_51-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If a person did not have a shelter previously built, these guides recommended trying to get underground. If a person had a basement but no shelter, they should put food, water, and a waste container in the corner of the basement.<sup id="cite_ref-protection2_51-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then items such as furniture should be piled up to create walls around the person in the corner.<sup id="cite_ref-protection2_51-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the underground cannot be reached, a tall apartment building at least ten miles from the blast was recommended as a good fallout shelter. People in these buildings should get as close to the center of the building as possible and avoid the top and ground floors.<sup id="cite_ref-protection_48-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-protection-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Schools were the preferred fallout shelters according to the Office of Civil Defense.<sup id="cite_ref-school3_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-school3-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-school1_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-school1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Schools, not including universities, contained around one-quarter of the population of the United States when they were in session at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-school1_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-school1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distribution of schools across the nation reflected the population density, and they were often the most suitable building in a community to act as a fallout shelter. Schools also already had organization with leaders in place.<sup id="cite_ref-school1_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-school1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Office of Civil Defense recommended altering current schools and the construction of future schools to include thicker walls and roofs, better-protected electrical systems, a purifying ventilation system, and a protected water pump.<sup id="cite_ref-school3_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-school3-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Office of Civil Defense determined that around 10 square feet of net area per person were necessary in schools that were to function as a fallout shelter. A normal classroom could provide 180 people with area to sleep.<sup id="cite_ref-school1_49-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-school1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If an attack were to happen, all the unnecessary furniture was to be moved out of the classrooms to make more room for people.<sup id="cite_ref-school1_49-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-school1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was recommended to keep one or two tables in the room if possible to use as a food-serving station.<sup id="cite_ref-school1_49-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-school1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Office of Civil Defense conducted four case studies to find the cost of turning four standing schools into fallout shelters and what their capacity would be. The cost of the schools per occupant in the 1960s were $66.00, $127.00, $50.00, and $180.00.<sup id="cite_ref-school1_49-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-school1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The capacity of people these schools could house as shelters were 735, 511, 484, and 460 respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-school1_49-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-school1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The US Department of Homeland Security and the Federal Emergency Management Agency in coordination with other agencies concerned with public protection in the aftermath of a nuclear detonation have developed more recent guidance documents that build on the older Civil Defense frameworks. Planning Guidance for Response to a Nuclear Detonation was published in 2022 and provided in-depth analysis and response planning for local government jurisdictions.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_reactor_accident">Nuclear reactor accident</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Nuclear reactor accident"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Chernobyl_and_other_radioactivity_releases" title="Comparison of Chernobyl and other radioactivity releases">Comparison of Chernobyl and other radioactivity releases</a></div> <p>Fallout can also refer to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear accident">nuclear accidents</a>, although a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> does not explode like a nuclear weapon. The <a href="/wiki/Isotopic_signature" title="Isotopic signature">isotopic signature</a> of bomb fallout is very different from the fallout from a serious power reactor accident (such as <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima nuclear disaster">Fukushima</a>). </p><p>The key differences are in <a href="/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">volatility</a> and <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volatility">Volatility</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Volatility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling point</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">element</a> (or its <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compounds</a>) determines the percentage of that element that a power reactor accident releases. The ability of an element to form a solid determines the rate it is deposited on the ground after having been injected into the atmosphere by a nuclear detonation or accident. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Half-life">Half-life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Half-life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Half_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Half life">half life</a> is the time it takes the radiation emitted by a specific substance to decay to half the initial value. A large amount of short-lived isotopes such as <sup>97</sup>Zr are present in bomb fallout. This isotope and other short-lived isotopes are constantly generated in a power reactor, but because the <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">criticality</a> occurs over a long length of time, the majority of these short lived isotopes decay before they can be released. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preventive_measures">Preventive measures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Preventive measures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nuclear fallout can occur due to a number of different sources. One of the most common potential sources of nuclear fallout is that of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactors" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear reactors">nuclear reactors</a>. Because of this, steps must be taken to ensure the risk of nuclear fallout at nuclear reactors is controlled. In the 1950s and 60's, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">United States Atomic Energy Commission</a> (AEC) began developing safety regulations against nuclear fallout for civilian nuclear reactors. Because the effects of nuclear fallout are more widespread and longer lasting than other forms of energy production accidents, the AEC desired a more proactive response towards potential accidents than ever before.<sup id="cite_ref-Uncertainty_846–884_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uncertainty_846–884-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One step to prevent nuclear reactor accidents was the <a href="/wiki/Price-Anderson_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Price-Anderson Act">Price-Anderson Act</a>. Passed by Congress in 1957, the Price-Anderson Act ensured government assistance above the $60 million covered by private insurance companies in the case of a nuclear reactor accident. The main goal of the Price-Anderson Act was to protect the multi-billion-dollar companies overseeing the production of nuclear reactors. Without this protection, the nuclear reactor industry could potentially come to a halt, and the protective measures against nuclear fallout would be reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-Probabilistic_920–941_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Probabilistic_920–941-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, because of the limited experience in nuclear reactor technology, engineers had a difficult time calculating the potential risk of released radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Probabilistic_920–941_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Probabilistic_920–941-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Engineers were forced to imagine every unlikely accident, and the potential fallout associated with each accident. The AEC's regulations against potential nuclear reactor fallout were centered on the ability of the power plant to the Maximum Credible Accident (MCA). The MCA involved a "large release of radioactive isotopes after a substantial meltdown of the reactor fuel when the reactor coolant system failed through a Loss-of-Coolant Accident".<sup id="cite_ref-Uncertainty_846–884_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uncertainty_846–884-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prevention of the MCA enabled a number of new nuclear fallout preventive measures. Static safety systems, or systems without power sources or user input, were enabled to prevent potential human error. Containment buildings, for example, were reliably effective at containing a release of radiation and did not need to be powered or turned on to operate. Active protective systems, although far less dependable, can do many things that static systems cannot. For example, a system to replace the escaping steam of a cooling system with cooling water could prevent reactor fuel from melting. However, this system would need a sensor to detect the presence of releasing steam. Sensors can fail, and the results of a lack of preventive measures would result in a local nuclear fallout. The AEC had to choose, then, between active and static systems to protect the public from nuclear fallout. With a lack of set standards and probabilistic calculations, the AEC and the industry became divided on the best safety precautions to use. This division gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">Nuclear Regulatory Commission</a> (NRC). The NRC was committed to 'regulations through research', which gave the regulatory committee a knowledge bank of research on which to draw their regulations. Much of the research done by the NRC sought to move safety systems from a deterministic viewpoint into a new probabilistic approach. The deterministic approach sought to foresee all problems before they arose. The probabilistic approach uses a more mathematical approach to weigh the risks of potential radiation leaks. Much of the probabilistic safety approach can be drawn from the <a href="/wiki/Radiative_transfer" title="Radiative transfer">radiative transfer</a> theory in <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a>, which describes how radiation travels in free space and through barriers.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, the NRC is still the leading regulatory committee on nuclear reactor power plants. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Determining_extent_of_nuclear_fallout">Determining extent of nuclear fallout</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Determining extent of nuclear fallout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Nuclear_Event_Scale" title="International Nuclear Event Scale">International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale</a> (INES) is the primary form of categorizing the potential health and environmental effects of a nuclear or radiological event and communicating it to the public.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scale, which was developed in 1990 by the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> and the Nuclear Energy Agency of the <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development</a>, classifies these nuclear accidents based on the potential impact of the fallout:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Defence-in-Depth: This is the lowest form of nuclear accidents and refers to events that have no direct impact on people or the environment but must be taken note of to improve future safety measures.</li> <li>Radiological Barriers and Control: This category refers to events that have no direct impact on people or the environment and only refer to the damage caused within major facilities.</li> <li>People and the Environment: This section of the scale consists of more serious nuclear accidents. Events in this category could potentially cause radiation to spread to people close to the location of the accident. This also includes an unplanned, widespread release of the radioactive material.</li></ul> <p>The INES scale is composed of seven steps that categorize the nuclear events, ranging from anomalies that must be recorded to improve upon safety measures to serious accidents that require immediate action. </p><p><b>Chernobyl</b> </p><p>The 1986 nuclear reactor explosion at <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl</a> was categorized as a Level 7 accident, which is the highest possible ranking on the INES scale, due to widespread environmental and health effects and "external release of a significant fraction of reactor core inventory".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The nuclear accident still stands as the only accident in commercial nuclear power that led to radiation-related deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The steam explosion and fires released approximately 5200 PBq, or at least 5 percent of the reactor core, into the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The explosion itself resulted in the deaths of two plant workers, while 28 people died over the weeks that followed of severe radiation poisoning.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, young children and adolescents in the areas most contaminated by the radiation exposure showed an increase in the risk for <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_cancer" title="Thyroid cancer">thyroid cancer</a>, although the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Scientific_Committee_on_the_Effects_of_Atomic_Radiation" title="United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation">United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation</a> stated that "there is no evidence of a major public health impact" apart from that.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_58-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The nuclear accident also took a heavy toll on the environment, including contamination in urban environments caused by the deposition of radionuclides and the contamination of "different crop types, in particular, green leafy vegetables ... depending on the deposition levels, and time of the growing season".<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Three Mile Island</b> </p><p>The nuclear meltdown at <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island</a> in 1979 was categorized as a Level 5 accident on the INES scale because of the "severe damage to the reactor core" and the radiation leak caused by the incident.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three Mile Island was the most serious accident in the history of American commercial nuclear power plants, yet the effects were different from those of the Chernobyl accident.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study done by the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">Nuclear Regulatory Commission</a> following the incident reveals that the nearly 2 million people surrounding the Three Mile Island plant "are estimated to have received an average radiation dose of only 1 millirem above the usual background dose".<sup id="cite_ref-:3_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, unlike those affected by radiation in the Chernobyl accident, the development of thyroid cancer in the people around Three Mile Island was "less aggressive and less advanced".<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Fukushima</b> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fukushima-_Panache-25-mars.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Fukushima-_Panache-25-mars.svg/250px-Fukushima-_Panache-25-mars.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Fukushima-_Panache-25-mars.svg/375px-Fukushima-_Panache-25-mars.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Fukushima-_Panache-25-mars.svg/500px-Fukushima-_Panache-25-mars.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1430" data-file-height="1027" /></a><figcaption>Calculated <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">caesium-137</a> concentration in the air, 25 March 2011</figcaption></figure> <p>Like the Three Mile Island incident, the incident at <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster">Fukushima</a> was initially categorized as a Level 5 accident on the INES scale after a tsunami disabled the power supply and cooling of three reactors, which then suffered significant melting in the days that followed.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, after combining the events at the three reactors rather than assessing them individually, the accident was upgraded to an INES Level 7.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The radiation exposure from the incident caused a recommended evacuation for inhabitants up to 30 km away from the plant.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it was also hard to track such exposure because 23 out of the 24 radioactive monitoring stations were also disabled by the tsunami.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Removing contaminated water, both in the plant itself and run-off water that spread into the sea and nearby areas, became a huge challenge for the Japanese government and plant workers. During the containment period following the accident, thousands of cubic meters of slightly contaminated water were released in the sea to free up storage for more contaminated water in the reactor and turbine buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_63-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the fallout from the Fukushima accident had a minimal impact on the surrounding population. According to the <a href="/wiki/Institut_de_radioprotection_et_de_s%C3%BBret%C3%A9_nucl%C3%A9aire" title="Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire">Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire</a>, over 62 percent of assessed residents within the Fukushima prefecture received external doses of less than 1 mSv in the four months following the accident.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, comparing screening campaigns for children inside the Fukushima prefecture and in the rest of the country revealed no significant difference in the risk of thyroid cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_nuclear_safety_standards">International nuclear safety standards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: International nuclear safety standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Founded in 1974, the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> (IAEA) was created to set forth international standards for nuclear reactor safety. However, without a proper policing force, the guidelines set forth by the IAEA were often treated lightly or ignored completely. In 1986, the disaster at <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl" title="Chernobyl">Chernobyl</a> was evidence that international nuclear reactor safety was not to be taken lightly. Even in the midst of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission sought to improve the safety of Soviet nuclear reactors. As noted by IAEA Director General <a href="/wiki/Hans_Blix" title="Hans Blix">Hans Blix</a>, "A radiation cloud doesn't know international boundaries."<sup id="cite_ref-Children_3–32_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Children_3–32-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NRC showed the Soviets the safety guidelines used in the US: capable regulation, safety-minded operations, and effective plant designs. The Soviets, however, had their own priority: keeping the plant running at all costs. In the end, the same shift between deterministic safety designs to probabilistic safety designs prevailed. In 1989, the <a href="/wiki/World_Association_of_Nuclear_Operators" title="World Association of Nuclear Operators">World Association of Nuclear Operators</a> (WANO) was formed to cooperate with the IAEA to ensure the same three pillars of reactor safety across international borders. In 1991, WANO concluded (using a probabilistic safety approach) that all former communist-controlled nuclear reactors could not be trusted, and should be closed. Compared to a "Nuclear <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a>", efforts were taken throughout the 1990s and 2000s to ensure international standards of safety for all nuclear reactors.<sup id="cite_ref-Children_3–32_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Children_3–32-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_bomb" title="Dirty bomb">Dirty bomb</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fallout:_An_American_Nuclear_Tragedy" title="Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy">Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fallout_Protection" title="Fallout Protection">Fallout Protection</a></i>—U.S. government booklet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">Effects of nuclear explosions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_(RT%C3%89_drama)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallout (RTÉ drama)"><i>Fallout</i> (RTÉ drama)</a>—Irish drama exploring scenarios following a nuclear accident at <a href="/wiki/Sellafield" title="Sellafield">Sellafield</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_(franchise)" title="Fallout (franchise)"><i>Fallout</i> (series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">Fallout shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">Fission product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_particle" title="Hot particle">Hot particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_radiation_experiments" title="Human radiation experiments">Human radiation experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear accidents">List of nuclear accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_bomb" title="Neutron bomb">Neutron bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation_breeding#Radiation_breeding" title="Mutation breeding">Mutation breeding#Radiation breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout_effects_on_an_ecosystem" title="Nuclear fallout effects on an ecosystem">Nuclear fallout effects on an ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_terrorism" title="Nuclear terrorism">Nuclear terrorism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_War_Survival_Skills" title="Nuclear War Survival Skills">Nuclear War Survival Skills</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Cresson_Kearny" title="Cresson Kearny">Cresson Kearny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Nuclear weapon design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium_iodide" title="Potassium iodide">Potassium iodide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_GABRIEL" title="Project GABRIEL">Project GABRIEL</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Protect_and_Survive" title="Protect and Survive">Protect and Survive</a></i>, a series of booklets and a <a href="/wiki/Public_information_film" title="Public information film">public information film</a> series produced for the British government in the 1970s and 1980s.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radioactive contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">Radiation poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation biology">Radiation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiological weapon">Radiological weapon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rotblat" title="Joseph Rotblat">Joseph Rotblat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salted_bomb" title="Salted bomb">Salted bomb</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Survival_Under_Atomic_Attack" title="Survival Under Atomic Attack">Survival Under Atomic Attack</a></i>, an official U.S. government booklet regarding the effects of a nuclear attack.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atomicarchive.com/Effects/effects17.shtml">"Radioactive Fallout | Effects of Nuclear Weapons | atomicarchive.com"</a>. <i>www.atomicarchive.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180118045524/http://www.atomicarchive.com/Effects/effects17.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.atomicarchive.com&rft.atitle=Radioactive+Fallout+%7C+Effects+of+Nuclear+Weapons+%7C+atomicarchive.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atomicarchive.com%2FEffects%2Feffects17.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://atomicbombmuseum.org/3_radioactivity.shtml"><i>Energy & Radioactivity</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q63214334" class="extiw" title="d:Q63214334">Q63214334</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Energy+%26%2338%3B+Radioactivity&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fatomicbombmuseum.org%2F3_radioactivity.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-effects2005-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-effects2005_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-effects2005_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Research_Council2005" class="citation book cs1">National Research Council (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nap.edu/read/11282/chapter/7"><i>Effects of Nuclear Earth-Penetrator and Other Weapons</i></a>. National Academies Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780309096737" title="Special:BookSources/9780309096737"><bdi>9780309096737</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210515172331/https://www.nap.edu/read/11282/chapter/7">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Effects+of+Nuclear+Earth-Penetrator+and+Other+Weapons&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780309096737&rft.au=National+Research+Council&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fread%2F11282%2Fchapter%2F7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-usnrdl-tr-933-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-usnrdl-tr-933_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreiling1965" class="citation journal cs1">Freiling, E.C. (20 September 1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200202165627/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/626608.pdf">"Radionuclide Fractionation in Air-Burst Debris"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>209</b> (5020). U.S. Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory: 236–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F209236a0">10.1038/209236a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5915953">5915953</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4149383">4149383</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/626608.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Radionuclide+Fractionation+in+Air-Burst+Debris&rft.volume=209&rft.issue=5020&rft.pages=236-8&rft.date=1965-09-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4149383%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5915953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F209236a0&rft.aulast=Freiling&rft.aufirst=E.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fdtic%2Ftr%2Ffulltext%2Fu2%2F626608.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-s257-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-s257_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2020" class="citation web cs1">Adams, Lilly (26 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.ucsusa.org/lilly-adams/resuming-nuclear-testing-a-slap-in-the-face-to-survivors/">"Resuming Nuclear Testing a Slap in the Face to Survivors"</a>. <i>The Equation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Equation&rft.atitle=Resuming+Nuclear+Testing+a+Slap+in+the+Face+to+Survivors&rft.date=2020-05-26&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Lilly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.ucsusa.org%2Flilly-adams%2Fresuming-nuclear-testing-a-slap-in-the-face-to-survivors%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/fallout/rf-gwt_home.htm">"Radioactive Fallout from Global Weapons Testing: Home | CDC RSB"</a>. <i>www.cdc.gov</i>. 11 February 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190419013250/https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/fallout/rf-gwt_home.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cdc.gov&rft.atitle=Radioactive+Fallout+from+Global+Weapons+Testing%3A+Home+%7C+CDC+RSB&rft.date=2019-02-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fnceh%2Fradiation%2Ffallout%2Frf-gwt_home.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-t904-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-t904_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouvilleSimonMillerBeck2002" class="citation journal cs1">Bouville, André; Simon, Steven L.; Miller, Charles W.; Beck, Harold L.; Anspaugh, Lynn R.; Bennett, Burton G. (2002). "Estimates of Doses from Global Fallout". <i>Health Physics</i>. <b>82</b> (5): 690–705. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00004032-200205000-00015">10.1097/00004032-200205000-00015</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0017-9078">0017-9078</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12003019">12003019</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Physics&rft.atitle=Estimates+of+Doses+from+Global+Fallout&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=690-705&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=0017-9078&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12003019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00004032-200205000-00015&rft.aulast=Bouville&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft.au=Simon%2C+Steven+L.&rft.au=Miller%2C+Charles+W.&rft.au=Beck%2C+Harold+L.&rft.au=Anspaugh%2C+Lynn+R.&rft.au=Bennett%2C+Burton+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarstonSolomonWar1986" class="citation book cs1">Marston, Robert Q.; Solomon, Fred; War, Institute of Medicine (US) Steering Committee for the Symposium on the Medical Implications of Nuclear (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK219147/"><i>Radioactive Fallout</i></a>. National Academies Press (US). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201112043049/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK219147/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radioactive+Fallout&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press+%28US%29&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Marston&rft.aufirst=Robert+Q.&rft.au=Solomon%2C+Fred&rft.au=War%2C+Institute+of+Medicine+%28US%29+Steering+Committee+for+the+Symposium+on+the+Medical+Implications+of+Nuclear&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK219147%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLallanilla2013" class="citation web cs1">Lallanilla, Marc (25 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/39961-chernobyl.html">"Chernobyl: Facts About the Nuclear Disaster"</a>. <i>Live Science</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190419013251/https://www.livescience.com/39961-chernobyl.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Live+Science&rft.atitle=Chernobyl%3A+Facts+About+the+Nuclear+Disaster&rft.date=2013-09-25&rft.aulast=Lallanilla&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F39961-chernobyl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-17472698">"Chernobyl sheep controls lifted in Wales and Cumbria"</a>. BBC. 22 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+sheep+controls+lifted+in+Wales+and+Cumbria&rft.date=2012-03-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk-wales-17472698&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlasstoneDolan1977" class="citation book cs1">Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip J. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=65tBAAAAIAAJ"><i>The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (3rd ed.)</i></a>. U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. pp. 436–437. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780318203690" title="Special:BookSources/9780318203690"><bdi>9780318203690</bdi></a>. <q>(page 436.) 9.107 A radiation dose of 700 rads over a period of 96 hours would probably prove fatal in the great majority of cases.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Effects+of+Nuclear+Weapons+%283rd+ed.%29&rft.pages=436-437&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Defense%2C+U.S.+Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=9780318203690&rft.aulast=Glasstone&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft.au=Dolan%2C+Philip+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D65tBAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KDFOC3-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KDFOC3_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey1992" class="citation book cs1">Harvey, T. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://narac.llnl.gov/content/mods/publications/op-model-description-evaluation/UCRL-TM-222788.pdf"><i>KDFOC3: A Nuclear Fallout Assessment Capability</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200927002905/https://narac.llnl.gov/content/mods/publications/op-model-description-evaluation/UCRL-TM-222788.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 27 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=KDFOC3%3A+A+Nuclear+Fallout+Assessment+Capability&rft.pub=Lawrence+Livermore+National+Laboratories&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnarac.llnl.gov%2Fcontent%2Fmods%2Fpublications%2Fop-model-description-evaluation%2FUCRL-TM-222788.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110315084044/http://ocw.nd.edu/physics/nuclear-warfare/notes/lecture-17">"Continental US Fallout Pattern for Prevailing Winds (FEMA-196/September 1990)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">University of Notre Dame</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocw.nd.edu/physics/nuclear-warfare/notes/lecture-17">the original</a> on 15 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Notre+Dame&rft.atitle=Continental+US+Fallout+Pattern+for+Prevailing+Winds+%28FEMA-196%2FSeptember+1990%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Focw.nd.edu%2Fphysics%2Fnuclear-warfare%2Fnotes%2Flecture-17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward_A._Hawthorne1979" class="citation journal cs1">Howard A. Hawthorne, ed. (May 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080410131321/http://worf.eh.doe.gov/data/ihp1d/1362e.pdf">"COMPILATION OF LOCAL FALLOUT DATA FROM TEST DETONATIONS 1945–1962 – EXTRACTED FROM DASA 1251 – Volume II – Oceanic U.S. Tests"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. General Electric Company. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worf.eh.doe.gov/data/ihp1d/1362e.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 10 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=COMPILATION+OF+LOCAL+FALLOUT+DATA+FROM+TEST+DETONATIONS+1945%E2%80%931962+%E2%80%93+EXTRACTED+FROM+DASA+1251+%E2%80%93+Volume+II+%E2%80%93+Oceanic+U.S.+Tests&rft.date=1979-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworf.eh.doe.gov%2Fdata%2Fihp1d%2F1362e.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProject_Officer_T._Triffet,_P._D._LaRiviere1961" class="citation journal cs1">Project Officer T. Triffet, P. D. LaRiviere (March 1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080410131256/http://worf.eh.doe.gov/data/ihp1c/0881_a.pdf">"OPERATION REDWING – Project 2.63, Characterization of Fallout – Pacific Proving Grounds, May–July 1956"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. US Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worf.eh.doe.gov/data/ihp1c/0881_a.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 10 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=OPERATION+REDWING+%E2%80%93+Project+2.63%2C+Characterization+of+Fallout+%E2%80%93+Pacific+Proving+Grounds%2C+May%E2%80%93July+1956&rft.date=1961-03&rft.au=Project+Officer+T.+Triffet%2C+P.+D.+LaRiviere&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworf.eh.doe.gov%2Fdata%2Fihp1c%2F0881_a.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oem.bmj.com/content/51/10/713.full.pdf">"Death of a classified worker probably caused by overexposure to gamma radiation"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>British Medical Journal</i>. <b>54</b>: 713–718. 1994. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220125090735/https://oem.bmj.com/content/oemed/51/10/713.full.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 25 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=Death+of+a+classified+worker+probably+caused+by+overexposure+to+gamma+radiation&rft.volume=54&rft.pages=713-718&rft.date=1994&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foem.bmj.com%2Fcontent%2F51%2F10%2F713.full.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://remm.hhs.gov/nuclearfallout.htm">"Fallout from a Nuclear Detonation: Description and Management - Radiation Emergency Medical Management"</a>. <i>remm.hhs.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=remm.hhs.gov&rft.atitle=Fallout+from+a+Nuclear+Detonation%3A+Description+and+Management+-+Radiation+Emergency+Medical+Management&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fremm.hhs.gov%2Fnuclearfallout.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://remm.hhs.gov/nuclearfallout.htm">"Fallout from a Nuclear Detonation: Description and Management - Radiation Emergency Medical Management"</a>. <i>remm.hhs.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=remm.hhs.gov&rft.atitle=Fallout+from+a+Nuclear+Detonation%3A+Description+and+Management+-+Radiation+Emergency+Medical+Management&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fremm.hhs.gov%2Fnuclearfallout.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoint_Committee_on_Atomic_Energy1957" class="citation book cs1">Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, US Congress (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cveGUvsA4kIC&q=nuclear+fallout+tropospheric%2C+of+1+to+30+days&pg=PA1351"><i>The Nature of Radioactive Fallout and Its Effects on Man: Hearings Before the Special Subcommittee on Radiation of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Congress of the United States, Eighty-fifth Congress, First Session</i></a>. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 1351. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220125090735/https://books.google.com/books?id=cveGUvsA4kIC&q=nuclear+fallout+tropospheric%2C+of+1+to+30+days&pg=PA1351">Archived</a> from the original on 25 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Radioactive+Fallout+and+Its+Effects+on+Man%3A+Hearings+Before+the+Special+Subcommittee+on+Radiation+of+the+Joint+Committee+on+Atomic+Energy%2C+Congress+of+the+United+States%2C+Eighty-fifth+Congress%2C+First+Session&rft.pages=1351&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Joint+Committee+on+Atomic+Energy&rft.aufirst=US+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcveGUvsA4kIC%26q%3Dnuclear%2Bfallout%2Btropospheric%252C%2Bof%2B1%2Bto%2B30%2Bdays%26pg%3DPA1351&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170125171152/https://ke.army.mil/bordeninstitute/published_volumes/nuclearwarfare/chapter1/chapter1.pdf">NUCLEAR EVENTS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES by the Borden institute. Chapter 1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161227080318/https://ke.army.mil/bordeninstitute/published_volumes/nuclearwarfare/chapter7/chapter7.pdf">NUCLEAR EVENTS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES by the Borden institute. Chapter 7 BEHAVIORAL AND NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES WITH EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION </a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simon-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Simon_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimonBouvilleLand2006" class="citation cs2">Simon, Steven L.; Bouville, André; Land, Charles E. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/radiation/Fallout-PDF"><i>Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests and Cancer Risks</i></a>, vol. 94, American Scientist, pp. 48–57, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170201125713/https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/radiation/Fallout-PDF">archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2018</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fallout+from+Nuclear+Weapons+Tests+and+Cancer+Risks&rft.pages=48-57&rft.pub=American+Scientist&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Steven+L.&rft.au=Bouville%2C+Andr%C3%A9&rft.au=Land%2C+Charles+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancer.gov%2Fabout-cancer%2Fcauses-prevention%2Frisk%2Fradiation%2FFallout-PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.ie-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.ie_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.ie_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalter2010" class="citation book cs1">Kalter, Harold (28 July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DykKlVU0V-oC&q=microcephaly+hiroshima&pg=PA21"><i>Teratology in the Twentieth Century Plus Ten</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789048188208" title="Special:BookSources/9789048188208"><bdi>9789048188208</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211221000552/https://books.google.com/books?id=DykKlVU0V-oC&q=microcephaly+hiroshima&pg=PA21">Archived</a> from the original on 21 December 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2020</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teratology+in+the+Twentieth+Century+Plus+Ten&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2010-07-28&rft.isbn=9789048188208&rft.aulast=Kalter&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDykKlVU0V-oC%26q%3Dmicrocephaly%2Bhiroshima%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeath1992" class="citation journal cs1">Heath, Clark W. (5 August 1992). "The Children of Atomic Bomb Survivors: A Genetic Study". <i>JAMA</i>. <b>268</b> (5): 661–662. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992RadR..131..229A">1992RadR..131..229A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.1992.03490050109039">10.1001/jama.1992.03490050109039</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA&rft.atitle=The+Children+of+Atomic+Bomb+Survivors%3A+A+Genetic+Study&rft.volume=268&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=661-662&rft.date=1992-08-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjama.1992.03490050109039&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992RadR..131..229A&rft.aulast=Heath&rft.aufirst=Clark+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/bjc/journal/v88/n3/full/6600748a.html">"Sex ratio among offspring of childhood cancer survivors treated with radiotherapy"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130927161530/http://www.nature.com/bjc/journal/v88/n3/full/6600748a.html">Archived</a> 2013-09-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>British Journal of Cancer</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rerf.jp/radefx/genetics_e/birthdef.html">"Birth defects among the children of atomic-bomb survivors (1948–1954)"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180520224831/http://www.rerf.jp/radefx/genetics_e/birthdef.html">Archived</a> 2018-05-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Radiation Effects Research Foundation</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eenews.net/public/Greenwire/2011/04/11/1">"Nuclear Crises: Hiroshima and Nagasaki cast long shadows over radiation science</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120405235042/http://www.eenews.net/public/Greenwire/2011/04/11/1">Archived</a> 2012-04-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. April 11, 2011. www.eenews.net</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1959/03/19/archives/teeth-to-measure-fallout.html">"Teeth to Measure Fall-Out"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180722191254/https://www.nytimes.com/1959/03/19/archives/teeth-to-measure-fallout.html">Archived</a> 2018-07-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, March 18, 1969.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sullivan, Walter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1961/11/25/archives/babies-surveyed-for-strontium-90-ratio-to-calcium-in-bones-is.html">"Babies Surveyed for Strontium 90; Ratio to Calcium in Bones Is Discovered to Be Low A survey has shown that pregnant mothers and their unborn children absorb radioactive strontium, as a substitute for calcium, only about 10 per cent of the time"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180722190129/https://www.nytimes.com/1961/11/25/archives/babies-surveyed-for-strontium-90-ratio-to-calcium-in-bones-is.html">Archived</a> 2018-07-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, November 25, 1961.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reiss-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reiss_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hevesi, Dennis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/10/science/10reiss.html">"Dr. Louise Reiss, Who Helped Ban Atomic Testing, Dies at 90"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190419195654/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/10/science/10reiss.html">Archived</a> 2019-04-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, January 10, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndy_Newman2003" class="citation news cs1">Andy Newman (11 November 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9403E7D81E39F932A25752C1A9659C8B63&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=all">"In Baby Teeth, a Test of Fallout; A Long-Shot Search for Nuclear Peril in Molars and Cuspids"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220125090737/https://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/11/nyregion/baby-teeth-test-fallout-long-shot-search-for-nuclear-peril-molars-cuspids.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=In+Baby+Teeth%2C+a+Test+of+Fallout%3B+A+Long-Shot+Search+for+Nuclear+Peril+in+Molars+and+Cuspids&rft.date=2003-11-11&rft.au=Andy+Newman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9403E7D81E39F932A25752C1A9659C8B63%26sec%3Dhealth%26spon%3D%26pagewanted%3Dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarah_Fecht2014" class="citation magazine cs1">Sarah Fecht (8 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/health/what-can-we-do-about-junk-science-16674140">"What Can We Do About Junk Science"</a>. <i>Popular Science</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140520060329/http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/health/what-can-we-do-about-junk-science-16674140">Archived</a> from the original on 20 May 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science&rft.atitle=What+Can+We+Do+About+Junk+Science&rft.date=2014-04-08&rft.au=Sarah+Fecht&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.popularmechanics.com%2Fscience%2Fhealth%2Fwhat-can-we-do-about-junk-science-16674140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInformation1980" class="citation journal cs1">Information, Reed Business (24 April 1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=59-_mdEJoRkC&q=sternglass+westinghouse&pg=PA198">"Scientists challenge baby deaths at Three Mile Island"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i>. <b>86</b> (1204). London: 180. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220125090736/https://books.google.com/books?id=59-_mdEJoRkC&q=sternglass+westinghouse&pg=PA198">Archived</a> from the original on 25 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Scientists+challenge+baby+deaths+at+Three+Mile+Island&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=1204&rft.pages=180&rft.date=1980-04-24&rft.aulast=Information&rft.aufirst=Reed+Business&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D59-_mdEJoRkC%26q%3Dsternglass%2Bwestinghouse%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|first1=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NRC-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NRC_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/tooth-fairy.html">"Backgrounder on Radiation Protection and the "Tooth Fairy" Issue"</a>. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 17 February 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170720060330/https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/tooth-fairy.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Backgrounder+on+Radiation+Protection+and+the+%22Tooth+Fairy%22+Issue&rft.pub=U.S.+Nuclear+Regulatory+Commission&rft.date=2010-02-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrc.gov%2Freading-rm%2Fdoc-collections%2Ffact-sheets%2Ftooth-fairy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Implications-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Implications_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Implications_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Implications_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Implications_35-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Implications_35-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Implications_35-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Implications_35-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Implications_35-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Implications_35-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolomonMarstonThomas1986" class="citation book cs1">Solomon, Fred; Marston, Robert Q.; Thomas, Lewis (1 January 1986). <i>The Medical Implications of Nuclear War</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F940">10.17226/940</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-07866-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-07866-5"><bdi>978-0-309-07866-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25032468">25032468</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Medical+Implications+of+Nuclear+War&rft.date=1986-01-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25032468&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F940&rft.isbn=978-0-309-07866-5&rft.aulast=Solomon&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft.au=Marston%2C+Robert+Q.&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_Heijde1989" class="citation cs2">van der Heijde, P. K. M. (1989), "Models in Regulation: A Report on Panel Discussions", <i>Groundwater Contamination: Use of Models in Decision-Making</i>, Springer Netherlands, pp. 653–656, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-009-2301-0_60">10.1007/978-94-009-2301-0_60</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789401075336" title="Special:BookSources/9789401075336"><bdi>9789401075336</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Models+in+Regulation%3A+A+Report+on+Panel+Discussions&rft.btitle=Groundwater+Contamination%3A+Use+of+Models+in+Decision-Making&rft.pages=653-656&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-009-2301-0_60&rft.isbn=9789401075336&rft.aulast=van+der+Heijde&rft.aufirst=P.+K.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shadow_244–274-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shadow_244–274_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shadow_244–274_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shadow_244–274_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shadow_244–274_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyers2019" class="citation journal cs1">Meyers, Keith (14 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/258121/files/Abstracts_17_05_18_16_06_27_33__128_196_90_232_0.pdf">"In the Shadow of the Mushroom Cloud: Nuclear Testing, Radioactive Fallout, and Damage to U.S. Agriculture, 1945 to 1970"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>79</b> (1): 244–274. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002205071800075X">10.1017/S002205071800075X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0507">0022-0507</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:134969796">134969796</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=In+the+Shadow+of+the+Mushroom+Cloud%3A+Nuclear+Testing%2C+Radioactive+Fallout%2C+and+Damage+to+U.S.+Agriculture%2C+1945+to+1970&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=244-274&rft.date=2019-03-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A134969796%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-0507&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS002205071800075X&rft.aulast=Meyers&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fageconsearch.umn.edu%2Frecord%2F258121%2Ffiles%2FAbstracts_17_05_18_16_06_27_33__128_196_90_232_0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koppe_247–268-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koppe_247–268_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koppe_247–268_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoppe2014" class="citation cs2">Koppe, Erik V. (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/35608/E.V.%20Koppe%20-%20Use%20of%20nuclear%20weapons%20and%20protection%20of%20the%20environment%20during%20IAC.pdf?sequence=1">"Use of nuclear weapons and protection of the environment during international armed conflict"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, in Nystuen, Gro; Casey-Maslen, Stuart; Bersagel, Annie Golden (eds.), <i>Nuclear Weapons under International Law</i>, Cambridge University Press, pp. 247–268, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781107337435.018">10.1017/cbo9781107337435.018</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1887%2F35608">1887/35608</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107337435" title="Special:BookSources/9781107337435"><bdi>9781107337435</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191214035802/https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/35608/E.V.%20Koppe%20-%20Use%20of%20nuclear%20weapons%20and%20protection%20of%20the%20environment%20during%20IAC.pdf?sequence=1">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 14 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2019</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Use+of+nuclear+weapons+and+protection+of+the+environment+during+international+armed+conflict&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Weapons+under+International+Law&rft.pages=247-268&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1887%2F35608&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781107337435.018&rft.isbn=9781107337435&rft.aulast=Koppe&rft.aufirst=Erik+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenaccess.leidenuniv.nl%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1887%2F35608%2FE.V.%2520Koppe%2520-%2520Use%2520of%2520nuclear%2520weapons%2520and%2520protection%2520of%2520the%2520environment%2520during%2520IAC.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Humanitarian_22–26-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Humanitarian_22–26_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Humanitarian_22–26_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Humanitarian_22–26_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Humanitarian_22–26_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelfand2013" class="citation journal cs1">Helfand, Ira (2013). "The Humanitarian Consequences of Nuclear War". <i>Arms Control Today</i>. <b>43</b> (9): 22–26. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0196-125X">0196-125X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23629551">23629551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arms+Control+Today&rft.atitle=The+Humanitarian+Consequences+of+Nuclear+War&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=22-26&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23629551%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0196-125X&rft.aulast=Helfand&rft.aufirst=Ira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson1968" class="citation journal cs1">Hanson, Wayne C. (October 1968). "Fallout Radionuclides in Northern Alaskan Ecosystems". <i>Archives of Environmental Health</i>. <b>17</b> (4): 639–648. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00039896.1968.10665295">10.1080/00039896.1968.10665295</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-9896">0003-9896</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5693144">5693144</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Environmental+Health&rft.atitle=Fallout+Radionuclides+in+Northern+Alaskan+Ecosystems&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=639-648&rft.date=1968-10&rft.issn=0003-9896&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5693144&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00039896.1968.10665295&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Wayne+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Biosphere_576–583-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Biosphere_576–583_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biosphere_576–583_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroverHarwell1985" class="citation journal cs1">Grover, Herbert D.; Harwell, Mark A. (1985). "Biological Effects of Nuclear War II: Impact on the Biosphere". <i>BioScience</i>. <b>35</b> (9): 576–583. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1309966">10.2307/1309966</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0006-3568">0006-3568</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1309966">1309966</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.atitle=Biological+Effects+of+Nuclear+War+II%3A+Impact+on+the+Biosphere&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=576-583&rft.date=1985&rft.issn=0006-3568&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1309966%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1309966&rft.aulast=Grover&rft.aufirst=Herbert+D.&rft.au=Harwell%2C+Mark+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NWSSD-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NWSSD_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKearny1986" class="citation book cs1">Kearny, Cresson H (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oism.org/nwss/s73p916.htm"><i>Nuclear War Survival Skills</i></a>. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-942487-01-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-942487-01-5"><bdi>978-0-942487-01-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130121153109/http://www.oism.org/nwss/s73p916.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 21 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+War+Survival+Skills&rft.place=Oak+Ridge%2C+TN&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Oak+Ridge+National+Laboratory&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-942487-01-5&rft.aulast=Kearny&rft.aufirst=Cresson+H&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oism.org%2Fnwss%2Fs73p916.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NWSSA-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NWSSA_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKearny1986" class="citation book cs1">Kearny, Cresson H (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oism.org/nwss/s73p926.htm#Message2481"><i>Nuclear War Survival Skills</i></a>. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-942487-01-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-942487-01-5"><bdi>978-0-942487-01-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130120220818/http://www.oism.org/nwss/s73p926.htm#Message2481">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+War+Survival+Skills&rft.place=Oak+Ridge%2C+TN&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Oak+Ridge+National+Laboratory&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-942487-01-5&rft.aulast=Kearny&rft.aufirst=Cresson+H&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oism.org%2Fnwss%2Fs73p926.htm%23Message2481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.derose.net/steve/guides/emergency/hardened.html">"Halving-thickness for various materials"</a>. The Compass DeRose Guide to Emergency Preparedness – Hardened Shelters. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180122235733/http://www.derose.net/steve/guides/emergency/hardened.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Halving-thickness+for+various+materials&rft.pub=The+Compass+DeRose+Guide+to+Emergency+Preparedness+%E2%80%93+Hardened+Shelters&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.derose.net%2Fsteve%2Fguides%2Femergency%2Fhardened.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NWSS2-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NWSS2_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKearny1986" class="citation book cs1">Kearny, Cresson H (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oism.org/nwss/s73p912.htm"><i>Nuclear War Survival Skills</i></a>. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. pp. 11–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-942487-01-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-942487-01-5"><bdi>978-0-942487-01-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130121054206/http://www.oism.org/nwss/s73p912.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 21 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+War+Survival+Skills&rft.place=Oak+Ridge%2C+TN&rft.pages=11-20&rft.pub=Oak+Ridge+National+Laboratory&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-942487-01-5&rft.aulast=Kearny&rft.aufirst=Cresson+H&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oism.org%2Fnwss%2Fs73p912.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatermanKaseOrionBroisman2017" class="citation journal cs1">Waterman, Gideon; Kase, Kenneth; Orion, Itzhak; Broisman, Andrey; Milstein, Oren (29 March 2017). "Selective Shielding of Bone Marrow: An Approach to Protecting Humans from External Gamma Radiation". <i>The Radiation Safety Journal: Health Physics</i>. <b>113</b> (3): 195–208. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FHP.0000000000000688">10.1097/HP.0000000000000688</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28749810">28749810</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3300412">3300412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Radiation+Safety+Journal%3A+Health+Physics&rft.atitle=Selective+Shielding+of+Bone+Marrow%3A+An+Approach+to+Protecting+Humans+from+External+Gamma+Radiation&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=195-208&rft.date=2017-03-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3300412%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28749810&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FHP.0000000000000688&rft.aulast=Waterman&rft.aufirst=Gideon&rft.au=Kase%2C+Kenneth&rft.au=Orion%2C+Itzhak&rft.au=Broisman%2C+Andrey&rft.au=Milstein%2C+Oren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKearny1986" class="citation book cs1">Kearny, Cresson H (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oism.org/nwss/s73p912.htm"><i>Nuclear War Survival Skills</i></a>. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. pp. 11–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-942487-01-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-942487-01-5"><bdi>978-0-942487-01-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130121054206/http://www.oism.org/nwss/s73p912.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 21 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+War+Survival+Skills&rft.place=Oak+Ridge%2C+TN&rft.pages=11-20&rft.pub=Oak+Ridge+National+Laboratory&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-942487-01-5&rft.aulast=Kearny&rft.aufirst=Cresson+H&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oism.org%2Fnwss%2Fs73p912.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-protection-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-protection_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection_48-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection_48-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection_48-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection_48-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection_48-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015041235329;view=1up;seq=3"><i>Fallout Protection: What to Know and Do About Nuclear Attack</i></a>. Its [Handbook] H-6. Department of Defense, Office of Civil Defense. 1961. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201008184936/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015041235329;view=1up;seq=3">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2019</span> – via Hathi Trust Digital Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fallout+Protection%3A+What+to+Know+and+Do+About+Nuclear+Attack&rft.series=Its+%26%2391%3BHandbook%26%2393%3B+H-6&rft.pub=Department+of+Defense%2C+Office+of+Civil+Defense&rft.date=1961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dmdp.39015041235329%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-school1-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-school1_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-school1_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-school1_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-school1_49-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-school1_49-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-school1_49-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-school1_49-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-school1_49-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-school1_49-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015041235329;view=1up;seq=3"><i>School Shelter; An Approach to Fallout Protection</i></a>. Its [Handbook] H-6. Department of Defense, Office of Civil Defense. 1961. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201008184936/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015041235329;view=1up;seq=3">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2019</span> – via Hathi Trust Digital Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=School+Shelter%3B+An+Approach+to+Fallout+Protection&rft.series=Its+%26%2391%3BHandbook%26%2393%3B+H-6&rft.pub=Department+of+Defense%2C+Office+of+Civil+Defense&rft.date=1961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dmdp.39015041235329%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-school3-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-school3_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-school3_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-school3_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMann" class="citation book cs1">Mann, Albert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924013369107;view=1up;seq=2"><i>A Guide to Fallout Protection for New York State Schools</i></a>. Cornell University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220125090748/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924013369107;view=1up;seq=2;a=zoom:1">Archived</a> from the original on 25 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2019</span> – via Hathi Trust Digital Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+Fallout+Protection+for+New+York+State+Schools&rft.pub=Cornell+University&rft.aulast=Mann&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dcoo.31924013369107%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-protection2-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-protection2_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection2_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection2_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection2_51-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection2_51-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection2_51-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection2_51-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection2_51-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-protection2_51-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015041763437;view=1up;seq=7"><i>Fallout Protection for Homes with Basements</i></a>. H-12. Department of Defense, Office of Civil Defense. 28 July 1967. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220125090749/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/imgsrv/html?id=mdp.39015041763437;seq=7">Archived</a> from the original on 25 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2019</span> – via Hathi Trust Digital Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fallout+Protection+for+Homes+with+Basements&rft.series=H-12&rft.pub=Department+of+Defense%2C+Office+of+Civil+Defense&rft.date=1967-07-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dmdp.39015041763437%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Emergency_Management_Agency2022" class="citation web cs1">Federal Emergency Management Agency, (FEMA) (7 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_nuc-detonation-planning-guide.pdf">"Planning Guidance for Response to a Nuclear Detonation, Third Edition"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Planning+Guidance+for+Response+to+a+Nuclear+Detonation%2C+Third+Edition&rft.date=2022-07-07&rft.aulast=Federal+Emergency+Management+Agency&rft.aufirst=%28FEMA%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fema.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Ffema_nuc-detonation-planning-guide.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Uncertainty_846–884-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Uncertainty_846–884_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Uncertainty_846–884_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellock2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wellock, Thomas (October 2012). "Engineering Uncertainty and Bureaucratic Crisis at the Atomic Energy Commission". <i>Technology and Culture</i>. <b>53</b> (4): 846–884. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftech.2012.0144">10.1353/tech.2012.0144</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143252147">143252147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Engineering+Uncertainty+and+Bureaucratic+Crisis+at+the+Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=846-884&rft.date=2012-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ftech.2012.0144&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143252147%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wellock&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Probabilistic_920–941-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Probabilistic_920–941_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Probabilistic_920–941_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlisle1997" class="citation journal cs1">Carlisle, Rodney (October 1997). "Probabilistic Risk Assessment in Nuclear Reactors: Engineering Success, Public Relation Failure". <i>Technology and Culture</i>. <b>38</b> (4): 920–941. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3106954">10.2307/3106954</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3106954">3106954</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:112329893">112329893</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Probabilistic+Risk+Assessment+in+Nuclear+Reactors%3A+Engineering+Success%2C+Public+Relation+Failure&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=920-941&rft.date=1997-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A112329893%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3106954%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3106954&rft.aulast=Carlisle&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShore2002" class="citation journal cs1">Shore, Steven (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fhmat.2002.2360">"Blue Sky and Hot Piles: The Evolution of Radiative Transfer Theory from Atmospheres to Nuclear Reactors"</a>. <i>Historia Mathematica</i>. <b>29</b> (4): 463–489. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fhmat.2002.2360">10.1006/hmat.2002.2360</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia+Mathematica&rft.atitle=Blue+Sky+and+Hot+Piles%3A+The+Evolution+of+Radiative+Transfer+Theory+from+Atmospheres+to+Nuclear+Reactors&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=463-489&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fhmat.2002.2360&rft.aulast=Shore&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1006%252Fhmat.2002.2360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iaea.org/topics/emergency-preparedness-and-response-epr/international-nuclear-radiological-event-scale-ines">"International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES)"</a>. <i>www.iaea.org</i>. 22 November 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190419165057/https://www.iaea.org/topics/emergency-preparedness-and-response-epr/international-nuclear-radiological-event-scale-ines">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iaea.org&rft.atitle=International+Nuclear+and+Radiological+Event+Scale+%28INES%29&rft.date=2017-11-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaea.org%2Ftopics%2Femergency-preparedness-and-response-epr%2Finternational-nuclear-radiological-event-scale-ines&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/ines.pdf">"INES: The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The International Atomic Energy Agency</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190628203331/https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/ines.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 28 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&rft.atitle=INES%3A+The+International+Nuclear+and+Radiological+Event+Scale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaea.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fines.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_58-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_58-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/chernobyl-accident.aspx">"Chernobyl | Chernobyl Accident | Chernobyl Disaster - World Nuclear Association"</a>. <i>www.world-nuclear.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160716045843/http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/chernobyl-accident.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 16 July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.world-nuclear.org&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+%7C+Chernobyl+Accident+%7C+Chernobyl+Disaster+-+World+Nuclear+Association&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.world-nuclear.org%2Finformation-library%2Fsafety-and-security%2Fsafety-of-plants%2Fchernobyl-accident.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/chernobyl/backgrounder/en/">"WHO | Health effects of the Chernobyl accident: an overview"</a>. <i>WHO</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190420143912/https://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/chernobyl/backgrounder/en/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WHO&rft.atitle=WHO+%7C+Health+effects+of+the+Chernobyl+accident%3A+an+overview&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fionizing_radiation%2Fchernobyl%2Fbackgrounder%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www-ns.iaea.org/downloads/rw/meetings/environ-consequences-report-wm-08.05.pdf">"Environmental Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident and Their Remediation: Twenty Years of Experience"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The International Atomic Energy Agency</i>. August 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190203205859/http://www-ns.iaea.org/downloads/rw/meetings/environ-consequences-report-wm-08.05.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 3 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&rft.atitle=Environmental+Consequences+of+the+Chernobyl+Accident+and+Their+Remediation%3A+Twenty+Years+of+Experience&rft.date=2005-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww-ns.iaea.org%2Fdownloads%2Frw%2Fmeetings%2Fenviron-consequences-report-wm-08.05.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/3mile-isle.html">"NRC: Backgrounder on the Three Mile Island Accident"</a>. <i>www.nrc.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115101945/https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/3mile-isle.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nrc.gov&rft.atitle=NRC%3A+Backgrounder+on+the+Three+Mile+Island+Accident&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrc.gov%2Freading-rm%2Fdoc-collections%2Ffact-sheets%2F3mile-isle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoyalCamachoManganoGoldenberg2012" class="citation journal cs1">Goyal, Neerav; Camacho, Fabian; Mangano, Joseph; Goldenberg, David (22 March 2012). "Thyroid cancer characteristics in the population surrounding Three Mile Island". <i>The Laryngoscope</i>. <b>122</b> (6): 1415–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Flary.23314">10.1002/lary.23314</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22565486">22565486</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5132110">5132110</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Laryngoscope&rft.atitle=Thyroid+cancer+characteristics+in+the+population+surrounding+Three+Mile+Island&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1415-21&rft.date=2012-03-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5132110%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22565486&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Flary.23314&rft.aulast=Goyal&rft.aufirst=Neerav&rft.au=Camacho%2C+Fabian&rft.au=Mangano%2C+Joseph&rft.au=Goldenberg%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_63-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/fukushima-accident.aspx">"Fukushima Daiichi Accident - World Nuclear Association"</a>. <i>www.world-nuclear.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190417103109/http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/fukushima-accident.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.world-nuclear.org&rft.atitle=Fukushima+Daiichi+Accident+-+World+Nuclear+Association&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.world-nuclear.org%2Finformation-library%2Fsafety-and-security%2Fsafety-of-plants%2Ffukushima-accident.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/fukushima-nuclear-accident-update-log-15">"Fukushima Nuclear Accident Update Log"</a>. <i>www.iaea.org</i>. 12 April 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190419212715/https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/fukushima-nuclear-accident-update-log-15">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iaea.org&rft.atitle=Fukushima+Nuclear+Accident+Update+Log&rft.date=2011-04-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaea.org%2Fnewscenter%2Fnews%2Ffukushima-nuclear-accident-update-log-15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irsn.fr/EN/publications/thematic-safety/fukushima/fukushima-2016/Pages/Fukushima-in-2016-Health-impact.aspx">"Health impact in 2016 of the Fukushima Daiichi accident"</a>. <i>www.irsn.fr</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190419212656/https://www.irsn.fr/EN/publications/thematic-safety/fukushima/fukushima-2016/Pages/Fukushima-in-2016-Health-impact.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.irsn.fr&rft.atitle=Health+impact+in+2016+of+the+Fukushima+Daiichi+accident&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irsn.fr%2FEN%2Fpublications%2Fthematic-safety%2Ffukushima%2Ffukushima-2016%2FPages%2FFukushima-in-2016-Health-impact.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Children_3–32-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Children_3–32_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Children_3–32_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellock2013" class="citation journal cs1">Wellock, Thomas (2013). "The Children of Chernobyl: Engineers and the Campaign for Safety". <i>History and Technology</i>. <b>29</b> (1): 3–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07341512.2013.785719">10.1080/07341512.2013.785719</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:108578526">108578526</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Technology&rft.atitle=The+Children+of+Chernobyl%3A+Engineers+and+the+Campaign+for+Safety&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-32&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07341512.2013.785719&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A108578526%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wellock&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fallout" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Glasstone, Samuel and Dolan, Philip J., <i>The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (third edition)</i>, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050204002118/http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/nukeffct/">Available Online</a>)</li> <li><i>NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I – Nuclear)</i>, Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, Washington, D.C., 1996, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/doctrine/dod/fm8-9/1toc.htm">Available Online</a>)</li> <li>Smyth, H. DeW., <i>Atomic Energy for Military Purposes</i>, Princeton University Press, 1945. (<a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Effects_of_Nuclear_War" title="The Effects of Nuclear War">The Effects of Nuclear War</a></i>, Office of Technology Assessment (May 1979), (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/7906/">Available Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160828040127/http://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/7906/">Archived</a> 2016-08-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li> <li>T. Imanaka, S. Fukutani, M. Yamamoto, A. Sakaguchi and M. Hoshi, <i>J. Radiation Research</i>, 2006, <b>47</b>, Suppl A121–A127.</li> <li>Sheldon Novick, <i>The Careless Atom</i> (Boston MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1969), p. 98</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nuclear_fallout" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuclearsecrecy.com/nukemap/">NUKEMAP3D</a> – a 3D nuclear weapons effects simulator powered by Google Maps. It simulates the effects of nuclear weapons upon geographic areas.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pollution" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pollution" title="Template:Pollution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pollution" title="Template talk:Pollution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pollution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joss_paper" title="Joss paper">Joss paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_burning_of_waste" title="Open burning of waste">Open burning of waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renovation" title="Renovation">Renovation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demolition" title="Demolition">Demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_exhaust" title="Diesel exhaust">Diesel exhaust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">Smoke</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">Internal combustion engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">Asbestos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_working" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal working">Metal working</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refining" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refining">Oil refining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood dust">Wood dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">Welding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">Black carbon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Digital</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological light pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a> <ul><li>Land</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Sustainable transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Industrial</li> <li>Military</li> <li>Abstract</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">Herbicides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manure_management" title="Manure management">Manure waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticides</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Solid waste</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling" title="Battery recycling">Battery recycling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_waste" title="Biomedical waste">Biomedical waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_waste" title="Chemical waste">Chemical waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_waste" title="Construction waste">Construction waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">Mercury poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead_smelting" title="Lead smelting">Lead smelting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">Coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">Mining waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">Uranium mining</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbage" title="Garbage">Garbage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">Microplastics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_treatment" title="Thermal treatment">Thermal treatment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris"> Space</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Clutter (advertising)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> (<a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear fallout</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">nuclear famine</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">nuclear winter</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">debris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploitation">Oil exploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploration">Oil exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">Pit latrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Misc</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Responses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">Pollution haven hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant_release_and_transfer_register" title="Pollutant release and transfer register">Pollutant release and transfer register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">Polluter pays principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollution control">Pollution control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_waste" title="Zero waste">Zero waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution-related_lists" title="Category:Pollution-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM<sub>2.5</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_air_pollution" title="List of countries by air pollution">Most polluted countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution" title="Category:Pollution">Categories</a> (<a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" title="Category:Pollution by country">by country</a>) <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:pollution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:pollution">Commons</a> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Environment" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Environment">WikiProject Environment</a> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Ecology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Ecology">WikiProject Ecology</a> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/48px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/64px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/48px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/64px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q474044#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4176815-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85110599">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007558363005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&oldid=1257559445">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&oldid=1257559445</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_fallout" title="Category:Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aftermath_of_war" title="Category:Aftermath of war">Aftermath of war</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_weapons" title="Category:Nuclear weapons">Nuclear weapons</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_health_effects" title="Category:Radiation health effects">Radiation health effects</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Category:Environmental impact of nuclear power">Environmental impact of nuclear power</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Radiobiology" title="Category:Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Radioactive_contamination" title="Category:Radioactive contamination">Radioactive contamination</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_chemistry" title="Category:Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fission_products" title="Category:Fission products">Fission products</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Radiological_weapons" title="Category:Radiological weapons">Radiological weapons</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_missing_periodical" title="Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical">CS1 errors: missing periodical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_generic_name" title="Category:CS1 errors: generic name">CS1 errors: generic name</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_September_2023" title="Category:Use dmy dates from September 2023">Use dmy dates from September 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_sidebar_with_the_child_parameter" title="Category:Pages using sidebar with the child parameter">Pages using sidebar with the child parameter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_December_2008" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from December 2008">Articles needing additional references from December 2008</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_February_2008" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2008">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2008</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_October_2016" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from October 2016">Articles lacking reliable references from October 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 15 November 2024, at 15:24<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fallout&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-pj8zz","wgBackendResponseTime":156,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.155","walltime":"1.464","ppvisitednodes":{"value":5464,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":228049,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":3077,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":14,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":22,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":280921,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":2,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1164.358 1 -total"," 43.57% 507.320 1 Template:Reflist"," 13.81% 160.827 19 Template:Cite_web"," 9.35% 108.920 1 Template:Nuclear_weapons"," 9.26% 107.847 2 Template:Sidebar"," 7.42% 86.341 15 Template:Cite_book"," 7.40% 86.162 17 Template:Cite_journal"," 6.51% 75.799 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.93% 68.992 1 Template:Authority_control"," 4.95% 57.633 1 Template:Pollution"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.662","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":10557037,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-s7r2r","timestamp":"20241122140802","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Nuclear fallout","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_fallout","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q474044","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q474044","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-05-27T02:29:50Z","dateModified":"2024-11-15T15:24:17Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/e2\/Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg","headline":"residual radioactive material following a nuclear blast"}</script> </body> </html>