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</button> <ul id="toc-Etymology_and_usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ming_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ming_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Ming dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ming_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qing_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qing_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Qing dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qing_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continuous_or_separate_empire(s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continuous_or_separate_empire(s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Continuous or separate empire(s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continuous_or_separate_empire(s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>General history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" 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Available in 20 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-20" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">20 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Keiserryk" title="Chinese Keiserryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Chinese Keiserryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiserreich_China" title="Kaiserreich China – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kaiserreich China" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiu_chinu" title="Imperiu chinu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Imperiu chinu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="চীনা সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চীনা সাম্রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_xin%C3%A8s" title="Imperi xinès – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Imperi xinès" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8C%C3%ADnsk%C3%A9_c%C3%ADsa%C5%99stv%C3%AD" title="Čínské císařství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Čínské císařství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiserreich_China" title="Kaiserreich China – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kaiserreich China" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%91%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Κινεζική Αυτοκρατορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κινεζική Αυτοκρατορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_chino" title="Imperio chino – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperio chino" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chine_imp%C3%A9riale" title="Chine impériale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chine impériale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keizerryk_Sina" title="Keizerryk Sina – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Keizerryk Sina" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EA%B5%AD_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="중국 제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중국 제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carska_Kina" title="Carska Kina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Carska Kina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Emperatoriya_%C3%87%C3%AEn%C3%AA" title="Împeratoriya Çînê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Împeratoriya Çînê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinees_Keizerrijk" title="Chinees Keizerrijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Chinees Keizerrijk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="中華帝国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中華帝国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_imperiala" title="China imperiala – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="China imperiala" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_China" title="Imperial China – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Imperial China" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carska_Kina" title="Carska Kina – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Carska Kina" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu" title="Çin İmparatorluğu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çin İmparatorluğu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12060881#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Name for Imperial China</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the general term. For Yuan Shikai's imperial attempt, see <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Empire of China (1915–1916)</a>. For the timeline of Chinese dynasties, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Imperial_China" title="History of China">History of China § Imperial China</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Chinese imperialism</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks vcard plainlist" style="width:18.0em"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#5637ab;padding-top:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Names of China</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.25em;"> <ul><li><span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug" dir="rtl">خىتاي</span></span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cathay" title="Cathay">Cathay</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><span lang="zh">天朝</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_Empire" title="Celestial Empire">Celestial Empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><span lang="zh">中華帝國</span> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese Empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><span lang="zh">神州</span> <ul><li>Divine land</li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><span lang="zh">四海</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Seas" title="Four Seas">Four Seas</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><span lang="zh-Hans">华夏</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">華夏</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huaxia" title="Huaxia">Huaxia</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><span lang="zh">九州</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Provinces" title="Nine Provinces">Nine Provinces</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><span title="Ancient Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">Σηρικά</span></span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serica" title="Serica">Serica</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">支那</span></span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shina_(word)" title="Shina (word)">Shina</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><span lang="zh">天下</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tianxia" title="Tianxia">Tianxia</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><span lang="zh-Hans">中国</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">中國</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_China#Zhongguo" title="Names of China">Zhongguo (Middle Kingdom)</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><span lang="zh-Hans">中华</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">中華</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhonghua_minzu" title="Zhonghua minzu">Zhonghua</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Names_of_China" title="Template:Names of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Names_of_China" title="Template talk:Names of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Names_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Names of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Chinese Empire</b> (or <b>Empire of China</b>) is a term referring to the realm ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor of China</a> during the era known as <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial China</a>. It was coined by western scholars and used to describe the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> dynasties (or imperial <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Chinese dynasties</a> in general). Another term was "<a href="/wiki/Celestial_Empire" title="Celestial Empire">Celestial Empire</a>", in reference to the status of the emperor as the <a href="/wiki/Son_of_Heaven" title="Son of Heaven">Son of Heaven</a>. In 221 BC, China was unified under an emperor for the first time, and various dynasties or empires founded by <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">hereditary monarchs</a> ruled China for a total of two millennia since then, including the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_usage">Etymology and usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Empire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_china.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Qing_china.jpg/260px-Qing_china.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Qing_china.jpg/390px-Qing_china.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Qing_china.jpg/520px-Qing_china.jpg 2x" data-file-width="888" data-file-height="725" /></a><figcaption>A 1890 map showing Qing China (labeled "Chinese Empire").</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John-Tallis-1851-Tibet-Mongolia-and-Manchuria-33621.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/John-Tallis-1851-Tibet-Mongolia-and-Manchuria-33621.jpg/260px-John-Tallis-1851-Tibet-Mongolia-and-Manchuria-33621.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/John-Tallis-1851-Tibet-Mongolia-and-Manchuria-33621.jpg/390px-John-Tallis-1851-Tibet-Mongolia-and-Manchuria-33621.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/John-Tallis-1851-Tibet-Mongolia-and-Manchuria-33621.jpg/520px-John-Tallis-1851-Tibet-Mongolia-and-Manchuria-33621.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4030" data-file-height="3102" /></a><figcaption>A 1851 map showing the Inner Asian dependencies of the Chinese Empire.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_empire_and_Japan._LOC_2006629414.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Chinese_empire_and_Japan._LOC_2006629414.tif/lossy-page1-260px-Chinese_empire_and_Japan._LOC_2006629414.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Chinese_empire_and_Japan._LOC_2006629414.tif/lossy-page1-390px-Chinese_empire_and_Japan._LOC_2006629414.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Chinese_empire_and_Japan._LOC_2006629414.tif/lossy-page1-520px-Chinese_empire_and_Japan._LOC_2006629414.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5783" data-file-height="4879" /></a><figcaption>A 1840 map showing the Chinese Empire and Japan.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_new_universal_atlas_of_the_world.Asia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/A_new_universal_atlas_of_the_world.Asia.jpg/260px-A_new_universal_atlas_of_the_world.Asia.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/A_new_universal_atlas_of_the_world.Asia.jpg/390px-A_new_universal_atlas_of_the_world.Asia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/A_new_universal_atlas_of_the_world.Asia.jpg/520px-A_new_universal_atlas_of_the_world.Asia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3172" data-file-height="2497" /></a><figcaption>A 1825 map showing the Chinese Empire and other Asian regions.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Names of China</a></div> <p>The word "China" has been used in English since the 16th century. China was previously known to Europeans as <a href="/wiki/Cathay" title="Cathay">Cathay</a>, as used in <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>'s book on <a href="/wiki/The_Travels_of_Marco_Polo" title="The Travels of Marco Polo">his travels</a> in the 13th century (during the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>), and it took a while for most Europeans to be convinced that Cathay referred to China or <a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "Chinese Empire" first appeared in the 16th century (late <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>), and its usage increased during the following <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-origin_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-origin-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ming_dynasty">Ming dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Empire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ming dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As European explorers came into direct contact with the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> (1368-1644) of China during their voyages in the early 16th century, the European intellectual community began to update its concept of the Chinese political system. Initially however the vast majority of them considered Ming China a kingdom rather than an empire. It appeared that it was <a href="/wiki/Maximilianus_Transylvanus" title="Maximilianus Transylvanus">Maximilianus Transylvanus</a> who first considered China an empire in his work. In 1585, <a href="/wiki/Juan_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Mendoza" title="Juan González de Mendoza">Juan González de Mendoza</a> pointed out that Ming China was at the imperial level based on the multi-level system of the <a href="/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China" title="Tributary system of China">tribute system</a>. Afterwards, Europeans like <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Semedo" title="Álvaro Semedo">Álvaro Semedo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martino_Martini" title="Martino Martini">Martino Martini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Couplet" title="Philippe Couplet">Philippe Couplet</a> gradually constructed the name "Chinese Empire" by comparing the empire-kingdom level, translating European and Chinese concepts and constructing genealogies. However, popular adoption was a slow process. Even the 1615 book <i><a href="/wiki/De_Christiana_expeditione_apud_Sinas" title="De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas">De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas</a></i> by Matteo Ricci (one of the founding figures of the <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_China_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit China missions">Jesuit China missions</a>) more often referred to Ming China as a kingdom than an empire. By the last decade of the Ming dynasty though, an increasing number of Europeans began to refer to the Ming dynasty as "Chinese Empire".<sup id="cite_ref-origin_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-origin-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qing_dynasty">Qing dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Empire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Qing dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the <a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">transition from Ming to Qing</a>, Europeans began to apply the name "Chinese Empire" to the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> (1644-1912).<sup id="cite_ref-origin_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-origin-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Chinese Empire" (or "Empire of China") was commonly used during the Qing period, most notably in the western maps and international <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">treaties</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a> began official communications with the Qing dynasty in the 1650s, and Russian documents from that period referred to Qing China as "Empire of China", "Chinese state" or the state of <a href="/wiki/Bogda_Khan" title="Bogda Khan">Bogda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1689 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a>, the authoritative <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> text used the name "Imperii Sinici" (meaning "Chinese Empire") to refer to the Qing realm.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/George_Macartney,_1st_Earl_Macartney" title="George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney">George Macartney</a>, the first envoy of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a> to China in 1793, had famously said "the Empire of China is an old, crazy, first-rate Man of War, which a fortunate succession of able and vigilant officers have contrived to keep afloat for these hundred and fifty years past..." shortly after <a href="/wiki/Macartney_Embassy" title="Macartney Embassy">his mission to China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the Qing dynasty tried to maintain the traditional <a href="/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China" title="Tributary system of China">Chinese tributary system</a>, by the second half of the 19th century it had become part of a European-style community of <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">sovereign states</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the process, Qing dynasty's geographical boundaries were redefined by western powers and Japan through diplomacy and warfare. The Qing administration made an effort to effectively manage its borders while <a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">modernizing itself</a>, and its dependencies in <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a> (collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Tartary" title="Chinese Tartary">Chinese Tartary</a> at that time) were internalized and integrated into China's imperial dominion as accepted by the western countries. Throughout the 19th century, western cartographers commonly included <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_Turkestan" title="Chinese Turkestan">Chinese Turkestan</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> separated by lines, as part of the "Chinese Empire" in published maps. In the last decade of the Qing dynasty, maps published in China caught up with Western cartography, and China's Inner Asian frontiers were enclosed by fixed international boundaries and not separated from China proper by special demarcations.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continuous_or_separate_empire(s)"><span id="Continuous_or_separate_empire.28s.29"></span>Continuous or separate empire(s)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Empire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Continuous or separate empire(s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the term "Chinese Empire" may be used to specifically mean the Ming or the Qing dynasties during the existence of these dynasties, it was often used in a sense to refer to a continuous empire ruled by various dynasties in Chinese history, as the traditional <a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Chinese historiography</a> conceives its history in terms of an unbroken sequence of dynasties (see <a href="/wiki/Dynastic_cycle" title="Dynastic cycle">dynastic cycle</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, when <a href="/wiki/Juan_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Mendoza" title="Juan González de Mendoza">Juan González de Mendoza</a> talked about ancient China in his work in the late 16th century, he clearly stated in three places that the first (mythical) sovereign of China, the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a>, made the Chinese kingdom an empire; since China was already an empire during the time of the Yellow Emperor, all dynasties from then on were regarded as the continuation of the "empire". According to <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a>'s view of "imperial power transfer", the name of the empire had not changed since ancient times, but it often had other names due to different ruling families; for instance, the name of "German Empire" would never change, but when the Austrian family ruled, it could also be called "Austrian Empire".<sup id="cite_ref-origin_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-origin-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, according to the newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Herald" title="New York Herald">New York Herald</a></i> published in 1853, "during four thousand and sixty years, twenty-one dynasties have swayed the destines of the Chinese Empire, embracing, besides the present sovereign, two hundred and twenty Emperors, whose average reigns have been nearly nineteen years each".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, modern scholars usually consider the imperial dynasties separate states or empires rather than a single continuous empire, especially since the end of Imperial China. Meanwhile, the English term "Emperor" nowadays generally corresponds to the Chinese term <i>Huangdi</i> (皇帝), also referred to as <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor of China</a>. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a>, which was the first to use the title Emperor or <i>Huangdi</i>, has been referred to as "the first Chinese Empire" in modern sources.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, the Qing dynasty is regarded as the last Chinese Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dynasties in between them are similarly regarded as empires instead of a single continuous empire, and terms such as "<a href="/wiki/Sui-Tang_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Sui-Tang transition">Sui-Tang transition</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Ming-Qing_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming-Qing transition">Ming-Qing transition</a>" were introduced in the second half of the 20th century to highlight the changes during transitions of these periods,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While imperial dynasties are no longer considered a single empire, some dynasties may be grouped together by some scholars, such as the Qin and the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> that followed, collectively called the "Qin-Han Empire" by some researchers.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taken together, these two dynasties constitute the "classical" era of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese civilization</a>, as did the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a> in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_history">General history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Empire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: General history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="background:#FFEECC;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_China" title="Category:History of China">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage mw-no-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China"><img alt="History of China in Chinese characters and seal script" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/200px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/300px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/400px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="121" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #f0faff; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 8500</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2000 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow</a></b>, <b><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></b>, and <b><a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao civilization</a></b></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">Ancient</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #eeffe8; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2070</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> BC)</span></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 256 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1046–771 BC)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(771–256 BC)</span> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 770</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 476 BC</span>)</span></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a> <span class="nowrap">(475–221 BC)</span></dd></dl></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(221–207 BC)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(206 BC – 220 AD)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Han_Contention" title="Chu–Han Contention">Chu–Han Contention</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(206–202 BC)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(202 BC – 9 AD)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(9–23 AD)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(25–220 AD)</span></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(220–280 AD)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></b>, <b><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu</a></b>, and <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Wu</a></b></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(266–420)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(266–316)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(317–420)</span></dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><br /></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(304–439)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and<br />Southern dynasties</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(420–589)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(581–618)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(618–907)</span> <ul><li><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Wu_Zhou" title="Wu Zhou">Wu Zhou</a> <span class="nowrap">(690–705)</span></dd></dl></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and<br />Ten Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(907–979)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(960–1279)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(960–1127)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1127–1279)</span></dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(916–1125)</span></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1038–1227)</span></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1115–1234)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1271–1368)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1368–1644)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1644–1912)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Modern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern China">Modern</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fff0f6; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(mainland, 1912–1949)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fff0f6; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic<br />of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1949–present)</span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(Taiwan,<br />1949–present)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related articles</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art#History_and_development" title="Chinese art">Art history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China" title="Economic history of China">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_China" title="History of education in China">Education history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_China" title="Legal history of China">Legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in China">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_history_of_China" title="Media history of China">Media history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_China#History" title="Music of China">Music history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_music" title="Timeline of Chinese music">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Military history of China before 1912">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_China" title="Naval history of China">Naval history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">History of religion in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity in China">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_China" title="History of Islam in China">Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Science and technology history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_China" title="Cartography of China">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">Inventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport_in_China" title="History of transport in China">Transport history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">Women's history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_China" title="Template:History of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_China" title="Template talk:History of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_Dynasties.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/China_Dynasties.gif/260px-China_Dynasties.gif" decoding="async" width="260" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/China_Dynasties.gif/390px-China_Dynasties.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/China_Dynasties.gif/520px-China_Dynasties.gif 2x" data-file-width="956" data-file-height="676" /></a><figcaption>Approximate territorial extent of the various dynasties and states in Chinese history.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_expansionism" title="Chinese expansionism">Chinese expansionism</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Imperial_China" title="History of China">History of China § Imperial China</a></div> <p>The period of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial China</a> lasted more than two millennia, connecting ancient and modern history. Although Chinese dynasties or empires rose and fell during those centuries, including during periods of strife and war, Imperial China endured with remarkable constancy.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The defining characteristics of all Chinese empires were their large scale and the diversity of their peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Originally emerged as a loose collection of various Han Chinese-speaking entities during the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Qin%27s_wars_of_unification" title="Qin's wars of unification">Qin's wars of unification</a> brought most of the <i><a href="/wiki/Huaxia" title="Huaxia">Huaxia</a></i> realm into <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">one single dynasty</a>, establishing Qin as the first imperial dynasty in 221 BC, the year where the first Chinese empire was established.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Imperial China would continue to expand even after the collapse of the Qin dynasty, with the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> expanding to the north, south and west.<sup id="cite_ref-hanexpansion_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hanexpansion-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> four centuries later, China achieved a golden age in terms of its economic, military and political power. Tang's territory spanned <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia" title="Northeast Asia">Northeast Asia</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, until the dynasty ended following the <a href="/wiki/An_Lushan_rebellion" title="An Lushan rebellion">An Lushan rebellion</a> in the eight century.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Imperial China marked its revival under the Mongol-based <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asian</a> territories such as <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> were incorporated. The <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, founded three centuries after the fall of the Yuan dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Legacy of the Qing dynasty">laid ground to most of China's modern border</a> with <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">its re-expansion into Inner Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One year after the <a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a>, the Qing monarchy was abolished following the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">abdication</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Xuantong Emperor</a> (Puyi), thus putting an end to the era of Imperial China.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three years later, <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a> restored <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">imperial rule</a> with himself as the emperor. It lasted only 83 days before his own abdication due to mounting disapproval and revolts as well as Yuan's declining health.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhengyuan_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhengyuan-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spence3_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spence3-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 1917, Puyi was <a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">reinstalled</a> by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xun" title="Zhang Xun">Zhang Xun</a> but the restoration was reversed in less than two weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Empire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chinoiserie" title="Chinoiserie">Chinoiserie</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pax_Sinica" title="Pax Sinica">Pax Sinica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_uniformity" title="Chinese uniformity">Chinese uniformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China" title="Tributary system of China">Tributary system of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire_Reform_Association" title="Chinese Empire Reform Association">Chinese Empire Reform Association</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Empire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Empire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLachVan_Kley1994" class="citation cs2">Lach, Donald F.; Van Kley, Edwin J. (1994), <i>Asia in the Making of Europe</i>, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 1575–1577, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-46734-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-46734-4"><bdi>978-0-226-46734-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia+in+the+Making+of+Europe&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=1575-1577&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-226-46734-4&rft.aulast=Lach&rft.aufirst=Donald+F.&rft.au=Van+Kley%2C+Edwin+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-origin-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-origin_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-origin_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-origin_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-origin_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.ifeng.com/c/8CWbwPcoIPd">"西方"中华帝国"概念的起源（1516—1688）"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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The Middle State in historical myth and real policy, Oriens (Moscow), no 3, pp. 5-19"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220212123001/https://www.academia.edu/7730158/%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%A1.%D0%92._%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A1.%D0%9B._2012._%D0%A7%D1%82%D0%BE_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5_Dmitriev_S.V._Kuzmin_S.L._2012._What_is_China_The_Middle_State_in_historical_myth_and_real_policy_">Archived</a> from the original on 12 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dmitriev%2C+S.V.+and+Kuzmin%2C+S.L.+2012.+What+is+China%3F+The+Middle+State+in+historical+myth+and+real+policy%2C+Oriens+%28Moscow%29%2C+no+3%2C+pp.+5-19.&rft.aulast=Kuzmin&rft.aufirst=Sergius+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7730158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2018" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Yuanchong (2018). <i>Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Lesson+for+American+Foreign+Trade+with+China&rft.date=2020-01-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyalebooks.yale.edu%2F2020%2F01%2F06%2Fa-lesson-for-american-foreign-trade-with-china%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowe2009" class="citation book cs1">—— (2009). <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. History of Imperial China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03612-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03612-3"><bdi>978-0-674-03612-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Last+Empire%3A+The+Great+Qing&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.series=History+of+Imperial+China&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03612-3&rft.aulast=Rowe&rft.aufirst=William+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirby2020" class="citation book cs1">Kirby, William C. 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Brill. p. 308. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781684171217" title="Special:BookSources/9781684171217"><bdi>9781684171217</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+People%27s+Republic+of+China+at+60%3A+An+International+Assessment&rft.series=History+of+Imperial+China&rft.pages=308&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781684171217&rft.aulast=Kirby&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvelyn2015" class="citation book cs1">Evelyn, Evelyn (2015). <i>Early Modern China and Northeast Asia</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107093089" title="Special:BookSources/9781107093089"><bdi>9781107093089</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Modern+China+and+Northeast+Asia&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781107093089&rft.aulast=Evelyn&rft.aufirst=Evelyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"The Chinese Empire". <i>New York Daily Herald</i>. United States. 14 June 1853.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Daily+Herald&rft.atitle=The+Chinese+Empire&rft.date=1853-06-14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_New_York_Times2011" class="citation book cs1">The New York Times, ed. (2011). <i>The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge: A Desk Reference for the Curious Mind</i>. St. Martin's Publishing Group. p. 513. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781429950855" title="Special:BookSources/9781429950855"><bdi>9781429950855</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+York+Times+Guide+to+Essential+Knowledge%3A+A+Desk+Reference+for+the+Curious+Mind&rft.pages=513&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781429950855&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDietmar_W._Winkler2013" class="citation book cs1">Dietmar W. Winkler, ed. 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Harvard University Press. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Chinese+Empires%3A+Qin+and+Han&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamir_Puri2021" class="citation book cs1">Samir Puri, ed. (2021). <i>The Shadows of Empire</i>. Pegasus Books. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781643136691" title="Special:BookSources/9781643136691"><bdi>9781643136691</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shadows+of+Empire&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Pegasus+Books&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781643136691&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Edward_Lewis2010" class="citation book cs1">Mark Edward Lewis, ed. (2010). <i>The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han</i>. Harvard University Press. p. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Chinese+Empires%3A+Qin+and+Han&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Qin-Shi-Huang">"Qin Shi Huang | Biography, Accomplishments, Family, United China, Tomb, & Facts | Britannica"</a>. 8 April 2024. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210720132654/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Qin-Shi-Huang">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Qin+Shi+Huang+%26%23124%3B+Biography%2C+Accomplishments%2C+Family%2C+United+China%2C+Tomb%2C+%26+Facts+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft.date=2024-04-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FQin-Shi-Huang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hanexpansion-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hanexpansion_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/early-china/expansion-and-political-transition-of-the-han-empire/D876A79D835304F5E068882D0D639D46">"Expansion and political transition of the Han Empire"</a>. <i>Early China</i>. New Approaches to Asian History. Cambridge University Press. 2013. pp. 256–281. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139034395.015">10.1017/CBO9781139034395.015</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89552-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89552-1"><bdi>978-0-521-89552-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Expansion+and+political+transition+of+the+Han+Empire&rft.btitle=Early+China&rft.series=New+Approaches+to+Asian+History&rft.pages=256-281&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139034395.015&rft.isbn=978-0-521-89552-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fearly-china%2Fexpansion-and-political-transition-of-the-han-empire%2FD876A79D835304F5E068882D0D639D46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ushistory.org/civ/9d.asp">"Archived copy"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240509130138/https://www.ushistory.org/civ/9d.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushistory.org%2Fciv%2F9d.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPan1997" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Pan, Yihong (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cedar.wwu.edu/easpress/6/">"Son of Heaven and Heavenly Qaghan: Sui-Tang China and its Neighbors"</a>. <i>East Asian Studies Press</i>. Studies on East Asia, Volume 20. Center for East Asian Studies, Western Washington University. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.25710%2Fvs3m-gw59">10.25710/vs3m-gw59</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240606023554/https://cedar.wwu.edu/easpress/6/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=East+Asian+Studies+Press&rft.atitle=Son+of+Heaven+and+Heavenly+Qaghan%3A+Sui-Tang+China+and+its+Neighbors&rft.volume=Studies+on+East+Asia%2C+Volume+20&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.25710%2Fvs3m-gw59&rft.aulast=Pan&rft.aufirst=Yihong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcedar.wwu.edu%2Feaspress%2F6%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://contents.nahf.or.kr/english/item/level.do?levelId=iscd_003e_0030_0040">"Northeast Asian History Network"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240509130146/http://contents.nahf.or.kr/english/item/level.do?levelId=iscd_003e_0030_0040">Archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Northeast+Asian+History+Network&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontents.nahf.or.kr%2Fenglish%2Fitem%2Flevel.do%3FlevelId%3Discd_003e_0030_0040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historyhaven.com/APWH/unit2/Sinification_of_East_and_Southeast_Asia.htm">"Sinification of East and Southeast Asia"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sinification+of+East+and+Southeast+Asia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyhaven.com%2FAPWH%2Funit2%2FSinification_of_East_and_Southeast_Asia.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/zcjrbqt">"Overview and expansion of the Qing dynasty - the Qing dynasty - KS3 History - homework help for year 7, 8 and 9"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Overview+and+expansion+of+the+Qing+dynasty+-+the+Qing+dynasty+-+KS3+History+-+homework+help+for+year+7%2C+8+and+9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fbitesize%2Farticles%2Fzcjrbqt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asia-archive.si.edu/learn/for-educators/teaching-china-with-the-smithsonian/explore-by-dynasty/qing-dynasty/">"Qing dynasty (1644–1911)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231010125546/https://asia-archive.si.edu/learn/for-educators/teaching-china-with-the-smithsonian/explore-by-dynasty/qing-dynasty/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Qing+dynasty+%281644%E2%80%931911%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasia-archive.si.edu%2Flearn%2Ffor-educators%2Fteaching-china-with-the-smithsonian%2Fexplore-by-dynasty%2Fqing-dynasty%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/abdication-emperor-puyi-1912/">"The abdication decree of Emperor Puyi (1912)"</a>. 4 June 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410202346/https://alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/abdication-emperor-puyi-1912/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+abdication+decree+of+Emperor+Puyi+%281912%29&rft.date=2013-06-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falphahistory.com%2Fchineserevolution%2Fabdication-emperor-puyi-1912%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhengyuan-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zhengyuan_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zhengyuan Fu. (1994) <i>Autocratic Tradition and Chinese Politics</i>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a> Press. pp. 153–154. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44228-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-44228-1">0-521-44228-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spence3-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spence3_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spence, Jonathan D. (1999) <i>The Search for Modern China</i>, p. 282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rxxMAQAAIAAJ"><i>Literary Knowledge</i></a>. Henan People's Publishing House. 1984.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literary+Knowledge&rft.pub=Henan+People%27s+Publishing+House&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrxxMAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Empire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFangyin2023" class="citation book cs1">Fangyin, Zhou (31 December 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377003015">"7 The Particularity of Ancient China as an Empire"</a>. <i>Bridging Two Worlds</i>. University of California Press. pp. 155–169. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2F9780520390997-010">10.1525/9780520390997-010</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-39099-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-39099-7"><bdi>978-0-520-39099-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=7+The+Particularity+of+Ancient+China+as+an+Empire&rft.btitle=Bridging+Two+Worlds&rft.pages=155-169&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2023-12-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2F9780520390997-010&rft.isbn=978-0-520-39099-7&rft.aulast=Fangyin&rft.aufirst=Zhou&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F377003015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Empire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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China">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China" title="Military history of China">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">Language</a></li> <li>Economic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Economic history of China before 1912">before 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Economic history of China (1912–1949)">1912–1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">1949–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chinese_history" title="Ethnic groups in Chinese history">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_foreign_relations_of_China" title="History of foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs" title="List of Chinese monarchs">Monarchs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Imperial_China" title="History of China">Imperial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Wu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin (266–420)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin (1115–1234)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Modern_China" title="History of China">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">Tiananmen Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China" title="COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">persecution of Uyghurs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_China" title="Geography of China">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_China" title="Borders of China">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_China" title="List of extreme points of China">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_China" title="Geology of China">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_disasters_in_China" title="Natural disasters in China">Natural disasters</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_China" title="List of regions of China">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_China" title="East China">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Central_China" title="South Central China">South Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_China" title="Central China">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China" title="South China">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_China" title="Northwestern China">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_China" title="Southwestern China">Southwestern</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Terrain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bays_of_China" title="Category:Bays of China">Bays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canyons_and_gorges_of_China" title="Category:Canyons and gorges of China">Canyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caves_of_China" title="Category:Caves of China">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deserts_of_China" title="Category:Deserts of China">Deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grasslands_of_China" title="Category:Grasslands of China">Grasslands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hills_of_China" title="Category:Hills of China">Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_China" title="List of islands of China">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_China" title="Category:Mountains of China">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_China" title="Category:Mountain ranges of China">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_passes_of_China" title="Category:Mountain passes of China">passes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peninsulas_of_China" title="Category:Peninsulas of China">Peninsulas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China_Plain" title="Northeast China Plain">Northeast</a> / <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North</a> / <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Valleys_of_China" title="Category:Valleys of China">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_China" title="List of volcanoes in China">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canals_in_China" title="Category:Canals in China">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_China" title="List of lakes of China">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_China" title="List of rivers of China">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Waterfalls_of_China" title="Category:Waterfalls of China">Waterfalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wetlands_of_China" title="Category:Wetlands of China">Wetlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources_of_China" title="Water resources of China">Water resources</a></li> <li>Seas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohai_Sea" title="Bohai Sea">Bohai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Sea" title="Yellow Sea">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_China" title="Environment of China">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_China" title="Climate change in China">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_policy_of_China" title="Climate policy of China">Climate policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_China" title="Environmental issues in China">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_China" title="List of protected areas of China">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_China" title="List of national parks of China">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nature_reserves_in_China" title="Category:Nature reserves in China">Nature reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_UNESCO_Biosphere_Reserves_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves in China">UNESCO Biosphere Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_China" title="Wildlife of China">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauna of China">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_China" title="Flora of China">Flora</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baselines_of_the_Chinese_territorial_sea" title="Baselines of the Chinese territorial sea">Baseline islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Border_crossings_of_China" title="Category:Border crossings of China">Border crossings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_China" title="List of cities in China">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Province-level subdivisions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_China" title="Politics of China">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Law" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Law of the People's Republic of China">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_China" title="Judicial system of China">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_China" title="Human rights in China">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in China">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Tibet" title="Human rights in Tibet">in Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_China" title="Law enforcement in China">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">Penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_laws_in_China" title="Naming laws in China">Naming laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationality law of China">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_China" title="Terrorism in China">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_China" title="Government of China">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Civil service of the People's Republic of China">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_China" title="Constitution of China">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_China" title="Democracy in China">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_democracy_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese democracy movement">Pro-democratisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_China" title="Elections in China">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China" title="Foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Standing Committee of the National People's Congress">Standing Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_China" title="National security of China">National security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_China" title="List of political parties in China">Political parties and movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">General Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">Politburo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_front_(China)" title="United front (China)">United front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Political Consultative Conference</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_stage_of_socialism" title="Primary stage of socialism">Primary stage of socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_China" title="President of China">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_China" title="Vice President of China">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">State Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_China" title="Premier of China">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_Premier_of_China" title="Vice Premier of China">Vice Premier</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of China">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_military_history_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Outline of the military history of the People's Republic of China">Outline of military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Central Military Commission (China)">Central Military Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Defense_(China)" title="Ministry of National Defense (China)">Ministry of National Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Ground_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Ground Force">Ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Navy" title="People's Liberation Army Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Air_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Air Force">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Rocket_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Rocket Force">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force">Strategic Support</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Armed_Police" title="People's Armed Police">People's Armed Police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Coast_Guard" title="China Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militia_(China)" title="Militia (China)">Militia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Militia" title="Maritime Militia">Maritime Militia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_China" title="Agriculture in China">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_China" title="Aquaculture in China">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_China" title="Banking in China">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China" title="People's Bank of China">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">Economic history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">Special economic zones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce_in_China" title="E-commerce in China">E-commerce</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_advertising_in_China" title="Online advertising in China">Online advertising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_China" title="Energy policy of China">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_China" title="Coal in China">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_China" title="Petroleum industry in China">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">Renewable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_China" title="Foreign aid to China">Foreign aid received</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_foreign_aid" title="Chinese foreign aid">Foreign aid program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_GDP_of_China" title="Historical GDP of China">Historical GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_China" title="Industry of China">Industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_China" title="Chemical industry in China">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_China" title="Gold mining in China">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry_in_China" title="Semiconductor industry in China">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_China" title="Textile industry in China">Textiles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_China" title="Poverty in China">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_China" title="Standard of living in China">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_China" title="Taxation in China">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_China" title="Tourism in China">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trade_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of trade of the People's Republic of China">Trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture in China">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_China" title="Housing in China">Housing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_China" title="Internet in China">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_China" title="Transport in China">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_China" title="Automotive industry in China">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_China" title="Civil aviation in China">Civil aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_China" title="Rail transport in China">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_industry_of_China" title="Shipping industry of China">Shipping industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Space program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_China" title="Category:Society of China">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_China" title="Abortion in China">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_China" title="Censorship in China">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Dream" title="Chinese Dream">Chinese Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_China" title="Crime in China">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_China" title="Prostitution in China">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_China" title="Sex trafficking in China">Sex trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_China" title="Literacy in China">Literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonious_Society" title="Harmonious Society">Harmonious Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_China" title="Health in China">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_China" title="Food safety in China">Food safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_China" title="Food safety incidents in China">incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_China" title="HIV/AIDS in China">HIV/AIDS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_intellectualism" title="Chinese intellectualism">Intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Written Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_China" title="Propaganda in China">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_China" title="Public holidays in China">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_society_in_China" title="Rural society in China">Rural society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_China" title="Science and technology in China">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_China" title="Technological and industrial history of China">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_China" title="Sexuality in China">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issues_in_China" title="Social issues in China">Social issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy_in_China" title="Patriarchy in China">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_China" title="Racism in China">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_discrimination_in_China" title="Regional discrimination in China">Regional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_China" title="Suicide in China">Suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_social_relations" title="Chinese social relations">Social relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">Structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_China" title="Time in China">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_society_in_China" title="Urban society in China">Urban society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_China" title="Welfare in China">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_China" title="Archaeology of China">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archives_in_China" title="Archives in China">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_China" title="Dance in China">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libraries_in_China" title="Libraries in China">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts" title="Chinese martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_China" title="Mass media in China">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_China" title="Music of China">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_China" title="Smoking in China">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_China" title="Sport in China">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_tea_culture" title="Chinese tea culture">Tea culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_variety_art" title="Chinese variety art">Variety art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_Historical_and_Cultural_Site_Protected_at_the_National_Level" class="mw-redirect" title="Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level">Major Historical and Cultural Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_China" title="List of World Heritage Sites in China">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fours_of_China" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Fours of China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Treasures_of_the_Study" title="Four Treasures of the Study">Four Treasures of the Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions" title="Four Great Inventions">Four Great Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Gentlemen" title="Four Gentlemen">Four Gentlemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowers_of_the_Four_Seasons" title="Flowers of the Four Seasons">Flowers of the Four Seasons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Beauties" title="Four Beauties">Four Beauties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Chinese_Novels" title="Classic Chinese Novels">Four Classic Novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_arts" title="Four arts">Four arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Symbols" title="Four Symbols">Four Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Holy_Beasts" title="Four Holy Beasts">Four Holy Beasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pillars_of_Destiny" title="Four Pillars of Destiny">Four Pillars of Destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Paragons_of_the_Early_Tang" title="Four Paragons of the Early Tang">Four Paragons of the Early Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Ming dynasty">Four Masters of the Ming dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty">Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pests_campaign" title="Four Pests campaign">Four Pests campaign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunuchs_in_China" title="Eunuchs in China">Eunuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_in_China" title="Migration in China">Internal migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_administrative_divisions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Chinese administrative divisions by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">Population history</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-80s" title="Post-80s">Post-80s</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-90s" title="Post-90s">Post-90s</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_China" title="Urbanization in China">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_China" title="Women in China">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Catholic Church in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_China" title="Irreligion in China">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_China" title="National symbols of China">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/March_of_the_Volunteers" title="March of the Volunteers">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Emblem_of_China" title="National Emblem of China">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_China" title="Flag of China">Flag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:China" title="Category:China">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Inner_Asia_history_series" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Inner_Asia" title="Template:Inner Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Inner_Asia" title="Template talk:Inner Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Inner_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Inner Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Inner_Asia_history_series" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a> history series</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nomadic_empire" title="Nomadic empire">Nomadic empires</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second Turkic Khaganate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zubu" title="Zubu">Zubu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenisei_Kyrgyz_Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_confederation" title="Tatar confederation">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamag_Mongol" title="Khamag Mongol">Khamag Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_Mongolia_(orthographic_projection).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Approximate range of Inner Asia"><img alt="Approximate range of Inner Asia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Greater_Mongolia_%28orthographic_projection%29.png/120px-Greater_Mongolia_%28orthographic_projection%29.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Greater_Mongolia_%28orthographic_projection%29.png/180px-Greater_Mongolia_%28orthographic_projection%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Greater_Mongolia_%28orthographic_projection%29.png/240px-Greater_Mongolia_%28orthographic_projection%29.png 2x" data-file-width="484" data-file-height="484" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese empires</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Han dynasty in Inner Asia">Han</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han%E2%80%93Xiongnu_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Han–Xiongnu War">against Xiongnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_the_Western_Regions" title="Protectorate of the Western Regions">Protectorate of the Western Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Official_of_the_Western_Regions" title="Chief Official of the Western Regions">Chief Official</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Tang dynasty in Inner Asia">Tang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tang_campaigns_against_the_Western_Turks" title="Tang campaigns against the Western Turks">against Western Turks</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tang_campaign_against_the_Eastern_Turks" title="Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks">Eastern Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Tang–Tibet relations">against Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_North" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the North">Mongolian Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beiting_Protectorate" title="Beiting Protectorate">Beiting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the West">Tarim Basin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Western Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Liao" title="Northern Liao">Northern Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Liao" title="Eastern Liao">Eastern Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Liao" title="Later Liao">Later Liao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia">Yuan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaidu%E2%80%93Kublai_war" title="Kaidu–Kublai war">against Northwest khanates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Yuan_rule" title="Manchuria under Yuan rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Yuan_rule" title="Mongolia under Yuan rule">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Yuan_rule" title="Tibet under Yuan rule">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Ming dynasty in Inner Asia">Ming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor%27s_campaigns_against_the_Mongols" title="Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols">against Mongols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Turpan_conflict" title="Ming–Turpan conflict">against Turpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Ming_rule" title="Manchuria under Ming rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Ming–Tibet relations">Tibet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Qing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">against Dzungar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_genocide" title="Dzungar genocide">genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amban" title="Amban">Amban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_Inner_Asia" title="The Cambridge History of Inner Asia">The Cambridge History of Inner Asia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Central_Asia" title="Greater Central Asia">Greater Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">Eurasian nomads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartary" title="Tartary">Tartary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Tartary" title="Chinese Tartary">Chinese Tartary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_Turkestan" title="Chinese Turkestan">Chinese Turkestan</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_China" title="Greater China">Greater China</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li>Magadha <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Empire&oldid=1257443508">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Empire&oldid=1257443508</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Imperial_China" title="Category:Imperial China">Imperial China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Names_of_China" title="Category:Names of China">Names of China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_imperialism" title="Category:Chinese imperialism">Chinese 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