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id="toc-Resurgence_of_Assyrian_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resurgence_of_Assyrian_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Resurgence of Assyrian power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resurgence_of_Assyrian_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Initial_reconquista" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_reconquista"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Initial reconquista </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_reconquista-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dominion_over_the_Near_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dominion_over_the_Near_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Dominion over the Near East </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dominion_over_the_Near_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age_of_the_magnates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_of_the_magnates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Age of the magnates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age_of_the_magnates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revitalization_and_rise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revitalization_and_rise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Revitalization and rise </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revitalization_and_rise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperial_apogee" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_apogee"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Imperial apogee </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperial_apogee-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sargon_II_and_Sennacherib" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sargon_II_and_Sennacherib"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 Sargon II and Sennacherib </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sargon_II_and_Sennacherib-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Esarhaddon_and_Ashurbanipal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Esarhaddon_and_Ashurbanipal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.2 Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Esarhaddon_and_Ashurbanipal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collapse_and_fall_of_the_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collapse_and_fall_of_the_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Collapse and fall of the empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collapse_and_fall_of_the_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reasons_for_the_fall_of_Assyria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reasons_for_the_fall_of_Assyria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Reasons for the fall of Assyria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reasons_for_the_fall_of_Assyria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Government </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Government subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kingship_and_royal_ideology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingship_and_royal_ideology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Kingship and royal ideology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingship_and_royal_ideology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-Assyrian_queens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-Assyrian_queens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Neo-Assyrian queens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neo-Assyrian_queens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elite_and_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elite_and_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Elite and administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elite_and_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_communications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_communications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 State communications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_communications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Society </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Population </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_classes,_hierarchy_and_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_classes,_hierarchy_and_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Social classes, hierarchy and economy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_classes,_hierarchy_and_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resettlement_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resettlement_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.2 Resettlement policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resettlement_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Akkadian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Akkadian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Akkadian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Akkadian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Aramaic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.3 Other languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholarship_and_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholarship_and_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Scholarship and engineering </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholarship_and_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civic_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civic_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.2 Civic technology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civic_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cultural_influence_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_influence_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Cultural influence and legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_influence_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literary_and_religious_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_and_religious_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Literary and religious traditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_and_religious_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeological_rediscoveries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeological_rediscoveries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 Archaeological rediscoveries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeological_rediscoveries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Neo-Assyrian_Empire_as_a_world_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Neo-Assyrian_Empire_as_a_world_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 The Neo-Assyrian Empire as a world empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Neo-Assyrian_Empire_as_a_world_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ideological_influence_on_later_empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ideological_influence_on_later_empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Ideological influence on later empires </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ideological_influence_on_later_empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_influence_on_later_empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_influence_on_later_empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.2 Administrative influence on later empires </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_influence_on_later_empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reputation_of_brutality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reputation_of_brutality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Reputation of brutality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reputation_of_brutality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Neo-Assyrian Empire</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 55 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-55" aria-hidden="true" > 55 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieu-Assiriese_Ryk" title="Nieu-Assiriese Ryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Nieu-Assiriese Ryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A2%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB%D8%A9" title="الإمبراطورية الآشورية الحديثة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإمبراطورية الآشورية الحديثة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeni_Assuriya_%C3%A7arl%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Yeni Assuriya çarlığı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yeni Assuriya çarlığı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%A6%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88" title="یئنی آشور ایمپراتورلوغو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یئنی آشور ایمپراتورلوغو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF-%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="নব্য-অ্যাসিরীয় সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নব্য-অ্যাসিরীয় সাম্রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin_Assyria_T%C3%A8-kok" title="Sin Assyria Tè-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sin Assyria Tè-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Новоасирийско царство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Новоасирийско царство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novoasirsko_Carstvo" title="Novoasirsko Carstvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Novoasirsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_Neoassiri" title="Imperi Neoassiri – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Imperi Neoassiri" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novoasyrsk%C3%A1_%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1e" title="Novoasyrská říše – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Novoasyrská říše" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymerodraeth_Newydd_Assyria" title="Ymerodraeth Newydd Assyria – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ymerodraeth Newydd Assyria" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuassyrisches_Reich" title="Neuassyrisches Reich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Neuassyrisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_neoasirio" title="Imperio neoasirio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperio neoasirio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nov-Asiria_Imperio" title="Nov-Asiria Imperio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nov-Asiria Imperio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-asiriar_inperioa" title="Neo-asiriar inperioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Neo-asiriar inperioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%86%D9%88" title="امپراتوری آشوری نو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپراتوری آشوری نو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_n%C3%A9o-assyrien" title="Empire néo-assyrien – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Empire néo-assyrien" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A0%EC%95%84%EC%8B%9C%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="신아시리아 제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="신아시리아 제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5-%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="नव-असीरियायी साम्राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नव-असीरियायी साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novoasirsko_Carstvo" title="Novoasirsko Carstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Novoasirsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Asyur_Baru" title="Kerajaan Asyur Baru – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kerajaan Asyur Baru" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_assiro" title="Impero assiro – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impero assiro" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%93%D7%A9%D7%94" title="האימפריה האשורית החדשה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האימפריה האשורית החדשה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D-%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ნეო-ასურული იმპერია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნეო-ასურული იმპერია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Neoassyrium" title="Imperium Neoassyrium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Imperium Neoassyrium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asirijos_imperija" title="Asirijos imperija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Asirijos imperija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Ajassz%C3%ADr_Birodalom" title="Újasszír Birodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Újasszír Birodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empira_Ne%C3%B4-Asiriana" title="Empira Neô-Asiriana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Empira Neô-Asiriana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emepaea_Ahiriana_hou" title="Emepaea Ahiriana hou – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Emepaea Ahiriana hou" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5-%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="नव-असिरियन साम्राज्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="नव-असिरियन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D-%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ნეო-ასურული იმპერია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ნეო-ასურული იმპერია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuw-Assyrische_Rijk" title="Nieuw-Assyrische Rijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nieuw-Assyrische Rijk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E3%82%A2%E3%83%83%E3%82%B7%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="新アッシリア帝国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="新アッシリア帝国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_nyassyriske_rike" title="Det nyassyriske rike – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Det nyassyriske rike" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_nyassyriske_riket" title="Det nyassyriske riket – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Det nyassyriske riket" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AF_%D8%A2%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="جدید آشوری سلطنت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جدید آشوری سلطنت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%DB%90_%D8%A2%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%8A" title="نوې آشوري سترواکي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="نوې آشوري سترواکي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_Neoass%C3%ADrio" title="Império Neoassírio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império Neoassírio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiul_Neo-Asirian" title="Imperiul Neo-Asirian – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Imperiul Neo-Asirian" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Новоассирийское царство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Новоассирийское царство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Neo-Assyrian Empire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novoas%C3%BDrska_r%C3%AD%C5%A1a" title="Novoasýrska ríša – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Novoasýrska ríša" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Новоасирско царство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Новоасирско царство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoasirsko_Carstvo" title="Neoasirsko Carstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Neoasirsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uus-Assyria" title="Uus-Assyria – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Uus-Assyria" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyassyriska_riket" title="Nyassyriska riket – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nyassyriska riket" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Neo-Asirya" title="Imperyong Neo-Asirya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Imperyong Neo-Asirya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="புது அசிரியப் பேரரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புது அசிரியப் பேரரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88" title="จักรวรรดิอัสซีเรียใหม่ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรวรรดิอัสซีเรียใหม่" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeni_Asur_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu" title="Yeni Asur İmparatorluğu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yeni Asur İmparatorluğu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Новоассирійська імперія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Новоассирійська імперія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AF_%D8%A2%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="جدید آشوری سلطنت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جدید آشوری سلطنت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%BF_qu%E1%BB%91c_T%C3%A2n_Assyria" title="Đế quốc Tân Assyria – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đế quốc Tân Assyria" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyo_Neoassiryo" title="Imperyo Neoassiryo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Imperyo Neoassiryo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E4%BA%9A%E8%BF%B0%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="新亚述帝国 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="新亚述帝国" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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.ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Neo-Assyrian Empire</div><div class="ib-country-names">𒆳𒀭𒊹𒆠<a href="#cite_note-9">[a]</a> māt Aššur</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">911 BC–609 BC</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyrie_general_en.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Neo-Assyrian Empire at its maximum extent.[9][10][11][12]"><img alt="The Neo-Assyrian Empire at its maximum extent.[9][10][11][12]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Assyrie_general_en.jpg/250px-Assyrie_general_en.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Assyrie_general_en.jpg/375px-Assyrie_general_en.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Assyrie_general_en.jpg/500px-Assyrie_general_en.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="810" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Neo-Assyrian Empire at its maximum extent.<a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a> (911–879 BC)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Nimrud" title="Nimrud">Nimrud</a> (879–706 BC)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Dur-Sharrukin" title="Dur-Sharrukin">Dur-Sharrukin</a> (706–705 BC)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a> (705–612 BC)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Harran" title="Harran">Harran</a> (612–609 BC)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Assyria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Assyria">Notable kings</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 911–891 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_II" title="Adad-nirari II">Adad-nirari II</a> (first)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 883–859 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 859–824 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 745–727 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser III</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 722–705 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon II</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 705–681 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 681–669 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 669–631 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 612–609 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_II" title="Ashur-uballit II">Ashur-uballit II</a> (last)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Accession of <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_II" title="Adad-nirari II">Adad-nirari II</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">911 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Nimrud" title="Nimrud">Nimrud</a> made capital </div></th><td class="infobox-data">879 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Age of the magnates </div></th><td class="infobox-data">823–745 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Conquest of <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">729 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a> made capital </div></th><td class="infobox-data">705 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">Conquest of Egypt</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">671 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Medo-Babylonian_conquest_of_the_Assyrian_Empire" title="Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire">Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">626–609 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Assur" title="Fall of Assur">Fall of Assur</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">614 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_(612_BC)" title="Battle of Nineveh (612 BC)">Fall of Nineveh</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">612 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Harran" title="Fall of Harran">Fall of Harran</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">609 BC</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Babylonian_period" title="Middle Babylonian period">Middle Babylonian period</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Median Empire</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Periodization of ancient <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Early_Assyrian_period" title="Early Assyrian period">Early Assyrian period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2600–2025 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyrian period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2025–1364 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1363–912 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neo-Assyrian period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 911–609 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Post-imperial_Assyria" title="Post-imperial Assyria">Post-imperial period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 609 BC – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> AD 240</td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border:none;font-size:90%;padding-top:0;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:1.0em;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Assyrians" title="History of the Assyrians">History of the Assyrians</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Cuneform_UZ.svg/40px-Cuneform_UZ.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Cuneform_UZ.svg/60px-Cuneform_UZ.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Cuneform_UZ.svg/80px-Cuneform_UZ.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="948" data-file-height="630" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform script">cuneiform script</a>. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support#Cuneiform" title="Help:Multilingual support">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of cuneiform script.</div></div> </div> The Neo-Assyrian Empire<a href="#cite_note-16">[b]</a> was the fourth and penultimate stage of ancient <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> history. Beginning with the accession of <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_II" title="Adad-nirari II">Adad-nirari II</a> in 911 BC,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerrillRookerGrisanti201130-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[c]</a> the Neo-Assyrian Empire grew to dominate the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="East Mediterranean">East Mediterranean</a> throughout much of the 9th to 7th centuries BC, becoming the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest empire</a> in history up to that point.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAberbach20034-20">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring2020133-21">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017161-22">[19]</a> Because of its geopolitical dominance and ideology based in <a href="/wiki/World_domination" title="World domination">world domination</a>, the Neo-Assyrian Empire is by many researchers regarded to have been the first <a href="/wiki/World_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="World empire">world empire</a> in history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring2020133-21">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017536-23">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017161-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElayi20172-24">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[d]</a> It influenced other empires of the ancient world culturally, administratively, and militarily, including the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonians</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" title="Achaemenid dynasty">Achaemenids</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucids</a>. At its height, the empire was the strongest military power in the world<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAberbach20034-20">[17]</a> and ruled over all of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and Egypt, as well as parts of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a> and modern-day <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>. The early Neo-Assyrian kings were chiefly concerned with restoring Assyrian control over much of northern Mesopotamia, East Anatolia and Levant, since significant portions of the preceding <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a> (1365 - 1050 BC) had been lost during the late 11th century BC. Under <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 883–859 BC), Assyria once more became the dominant power of the Near East, ruling the north undisputed. Ashurnasirpal's campaigns reached as far as the Mediterranean and he also oversaw the transfer of the imperial capital from the traditional city of <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a> to the more centrally located <a href="/wiki/Kalhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalhu">Kalhu</a> (later known as <a href="/wiki/Calah" class="mw-redirect" title="Calah">Calah</a> in the Bible and <a href="/wiki/Nimrud" title="Nimrud">Nimrud</a> to the Medieval Arabs) The empire grew even more under Ashurnasirpal II's successor <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 859–824 BC), though it entered a period of stagnation after his death, referred to as the "age of the magnates". During this time, the chief wielders of political power were prominent generals and officials and central control was unusually weak. This age came to an end with the rule of <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser III</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 745–727 BC), who re-asserted Assyrian royal power once again and more than doubled the size of the empire through wide-ranging conquests. His most notable conquests were <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> in the south and large parts of the Levant. Under the <a href="/wiki/Sargonid_dynasty" title="Sargonid dynasty">Sargonid dynasty</a>, which ruled from 722 BC to the fall of the empire, Assyria reached its apex. Under the Sargonid king <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 705–681 BC), the capital was transferred to <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a> and under <a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 681–669 BC) the empire reached its largest extent through the conquest of Egypt. Despite being at the peak of its power, the empire experienced a swift and violent fall in the late 7th century BC, destroyed by <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">a Babylonian uprising</a> and an invasion by the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>. The causes behind how Assyria could be destroyed so quickly continue to be debated among scholars. The unprecedented success of the Neo-Assyrian Empire was not only due to its ability to expand but also, and perhaps more importantly, its ability to efficiently incorporate conquered lands into its administrative system. As the first of its scale, the empire saw various military, civic and administrative innovations. In the military, important innovations included a large-scale use of cavalry and new <a href="/wiki/Siege_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege warfare">siege warfare</a> techniques. Techniques first adopted by the Neo-Assyrian army would be used in later warfare for millennia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAberbach20034-20">[17]</a> To solve the issue of communicating over vast distances, the empire developed a sophisticated <a href="/wiki/State_communications_in_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="State communications in the Neo-Assyrian Empire">state communication system</a>, using relay stations and well-maintained roads. The communication speed of official messages in the empire was not surpassed in the Middle East until the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2012Making_speed-26">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2015b64-27">[23]</a> The empire also made use of a <a href="/wiki/Resettlement_policy_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">resettlement policy</a>, wherein some portions of the populations from conquered lands were resettled in the Assyrian heartland and in underdeveloped provinces. This policy served to both disintegrate local identities and to introduce Assyrian-developed agricultural techniques to all parts of the empire. A consequence was the dilution of the cultural diversity of the Near East, forever changing the ethnolinguistic composition of the region and facilitating the rise of <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> as the regional <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017177–178-28">[24]</a> a position the language retained until the 14th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiloni201737-29">[25]</a> The Neo-Assyrian Empire left a legacy of great cultural significance. The political structures established by the empire became the model for the later empires that succeeded it and the ideology of <a href="/wiki/Universal_monarchy" title="Universal monarchy">universal rule</a> promulgated by the Neo-Assyrian kings inspired, through the concept of <a href="/wiki/Translatio_imperii" title="Translatio imperii">translatio imperii</a>, similar ideas of rights to <a href="/wiki/World_domination" title="World domination">world domination</a> in later empires as late as the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>. The Neo-Assyrian Empire became an important part of later folklore and literary traditions in northern Mesopotamia through the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Post-imperial_Assyria" title="Post-imperial Assyria">post-imperial period</a> and beyond. <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, and thus in turn also <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, was profoundly affected by the period of Neo-Assyrian rule; numerous Biblical stories appear to draw on earlier Assyrian mythology and history<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAberbach20034-20">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017196-30">[26]</a> and the Assyrian impact on early Jewish theology was immense.<a href="#cite_note-32">[e]</a> Although the Neo-Assyrian Empire is prominently remembered today for the supposed excessive brutality of the <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">army</a>, the Assyrians were not excessively brutal when compared to other civilizations throughout history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg201658,_71-33">[28]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M%C3%A9dio-assyrien.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/M%C3%A9dio-assyrien.png/370px-M%C3%A9dio-assyrien.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/M%C3%A9dio-assyrien.png/555px-M%C3%A9dio-assyrien.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/M%C3%A9dio-assyrien.png/740px-M%C3%A9dio-assyrien.png 2x" data-file-width="883" data-file-height="724" /></a><figcaption>Approximate map of the preceding <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a> at its height in the 13th century BC</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a> and the ambition of establishing a <a href="/wiki/Universal_monarchy" title="Universal monarchy">universal, all-encompassing empire</a> was a long-established aspect of royal ideology in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a> prior to the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2900 – c. 2350 BC), the <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> rulers of the various city-states in the region often fought with each other in order to establish small hegemonic empires and to gain a superior position relative to the other city-states. Eventually, these small conflicts evolved into a general ambition to achieve universal rule. Reaching a position of world domination was not seen as a wholly impossible task in this time since Mesopotamia was believed to correspond to the entire world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2013120-34">[29]</a> One of the earliest Mesopotamian "world conquerors" was <a href="/wiki/Lugal-zage-si" title="Lugal-zage-si">Lugalzaggesi</a>, king of Uruk, who conquered all of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a> in the 24th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2013120–121-35">[30]</a> The first great Mesopotamian empire is generally regarded to have been the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a>, founded <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2334 BC by <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevin2002360-36">[31]</a> Numerous imperialist states rose and fell in Mesopotamia and the rest of the Near East after the time of the Akkadian Empire. Most early empires and kingdoms were limited to some core territories, with most of their subjects only nominally recognizing the authority of the central government. Still, the general desire for universal rule dominated the royal ideologies of Mesopotamian kings for thousands of years, bolstered by the memory of the Akkadian Empire and exemplified in titles such as "<a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Universe" title="King of the Universe">king of the Universe</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Four_Corners_of_the_World" class="mw-redirect" title="King of the Four Corners of the World">king of the Four Corners of the World</a>". This desire was also manifested in the kings of Assyria, who ruled in what had once been the northern part of the Akkadian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElayi20171-37">[32]</a> Assyria experienced its first period of ascendancy with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a> in the 14th century BC, previously only having been a city-state centered around the city of <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring202043-38">[33]</a> From the time of the Assyrian king <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_I" title="Adad-nirari I">Adad-nirari I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1305–1274 BC) onwards, Assyria became one of the great powers of the ancient Near East<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring202043-38">[33]</a> and under <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_I" title="Tukulti-Ninurta I">Tukulti-Ninurta I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1243–1207 BC), the empire reached its greatest extent<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring202045-39">[34]</a> and became the dominant force in Mesopotamia, for a time even subjugating <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> in the south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakob2017125-40">[35]</a> After Tukulti-Ninurta's assassination, the Middle Assyrian Empire went into a long period of decline, becoming increasingly restricted to just the Assyrian heartland itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring202046-41">[36]</a> Though this period of decline was broken up by <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_I" title="Tiglath-Pileser I">Tiglath-Pileser I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1114–1076 BC), who once more expanded Assyrian power, his conquests overstretched Assyria and could not be maintained by his successors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakob2017136-42">[37]</a> The trend of decline was only substantially reversed in the reign of the last Middle Assyrian king, <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_II" title="Ashur-dan II">Ashur-dan II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 934–912 BC) who campaigned in the northeast and northwest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017167-43">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resurgence_of_Assyrian_power">Resurgence of Assyrian power</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Resurgence of Assyrian power">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Initial_reconquista">Initial reconquista</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Initial reconquista">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyria_in_reign_of_Adad-nirari_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Assyria_in_reign_of_Adad-nirari_II.jpg/370px-Assyria_in_reign_of_Adad-nirari_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="370" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Assyria_in_reign_of_Adad-nirari_II.jpg/555px-Assyria_in_reign_of_Adad-nirari_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Assyria_in_reign_of_Adad-nirari_II.jpg/740px-Assyria_in_reign_of_Adad-nirari_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Assyrian borders and campaigns under <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_II" title="Ashur-dan II">Ashur-dan II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 934–912 BC), <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_II" title="Adad-nirari II">Adad-nirari II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 911–891 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_II" title="Tukulti-Ninurta II">Tukulti-Ninurta II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 890–884 BC)</figcaption></figure> Through decades of military conquests, the early Neo-Assyrian kings worked to reverse the long age of decline and retake the former lands of their empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017161-22">[19]</a> Though the Neo-Assyrian Empire has sometimes in the past been considered a completely new phenomenon only loosely connected to earlier Assyrian history,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring2020133-21">[18]</a> it is now considered more probable, due to evidence from royal inscriptions and the nature and extent of the campaigns undertaken, that the early Neo-Assyrian kings chiefly sought to re-establish the position of Assyria at the height of the Middle Assyrian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring2020136-44">[39]</a> Any notion of the two empires being distinct entities can also be dispelled through the line of kings being part of the same continuous family line.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring2020136-44">[39]</a> Another justification for expansion was casting the campaigns as wars of liberation, meant to liberate those Assyrians who no longer lived within Assyrian territory from their new foreign rulers; material evidence from numerous sites reconquered under the early Neo-Assyrian Empire demonstrate an endurance of Assyrian culture outside of the Assyrian borders during the decline of the Middle Assyrian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring2020145-45">[40]</a> The early Neo-Assyrian efforts at reconquest were mostly focused on the region up to the <a href="/wiki/Khabur_(Euphrates)" title="Khabur (Euphrates)">Khabur</a> river in the west.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017161-22">[19]</a> One of the first conquests of Ashur-dan II had been Katmuḫu in this region, which he made a vassal kingdom rather than annexed outright; this suggests that the resources available to the early Neo-Assyrian kings were very limited and that the imperial reconquista project had to begin nearly from scratch. In this context, the successful expansion conducted under the early Neo-Assyrian kings was an extraordinary achievement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring2020144-46">[41]</a> The initial phase of the Assyrian reconquista, beginning under Ashur-dan II near the end of the Middle Assyrian period and covering the reigns of the first two Neo-Assyrian kings, <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_II" title="Adad-nirari II">Adad-nirari II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 911–891 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_II" title="Tukulti-Ninurta II">Tukulti-Ninurta II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 890–884 BC), saw the slow beginning of this project.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017167-43">[38]</a> Ashur-dan's efforts mostly worked to pave the way for the more sustained work under Adad-nirari and Tukulti-Ninurta.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017168-47">[42]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Annals_Tukulti-Ninurta_II_Louvre_AO4655.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Annals_Tukulti-Ninurta_II_Louvre_AO4655.jpg/170px-Annals_Tukulti-Ninurta_II_Louvre_AO4655.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Annals_Tukulti-Ninurta_II_Louvre_AO4655.jpg/255px-Annals_Tukulti-Ninurta_II_Louvre_AO4655.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Annals_Tukulti-Ninurta_II_Louvre_AO4655.jpg/340px-Annals_Tukulti-Ninurta_II_Louvre_AO4655.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1930" data-file-height="2630" /></a><figcaption>Annals of <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_II" title="Tukulti-Ninurta II">Tukulti-Ninurta II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 890–884 BC), recounting one of his campaigns</figcaption></figure> Among the conquests of Adad-nirari, the most strategically important campaigns were the wars directed to the southeast, beyond the <a href="/wiki/Little_Zab" title="Little Zab">Little Zab</a> river. These lands had previously been under <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> rule. One of Adad-nirari's wars brought the Assyrian army as far south as the city of <a href="/wiki/Der_(Sumer)" title="Der (Sumer)">Der</a>, close to the border of the southwestern kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a>. Though Adad-nirari did not manage to incorporate territories so far away from the Assyrian heartland into the empire, he secured the city of <a href="/wiki/Arrapha" title="Arrapha">Arrapha</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Kirkuk" title="Kirkuk">Kirkuk</a>). Arrapha in later times served as the launching point of innumerable Assyrian campaigns toward lands in the east. A testament to Adad-nirari's power was that he managed to secure a border agreement with the Babylonian king <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ukin_I" title="Nabu-shuma-ukin I">Nabu-shuma-ukin I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 900–887 BC), sealed through both kings marrying a daughter of the other. Adad-nirari also continued Ashur-dan's efforts in the west; in his wars, he defeated numerous small western kingdoms. Several small states, such as <a href="/wiki/Guzana" class="mw-redirect" title="Guzana">Guzana</a>, were made into vassals and others, such as <a href="/wiki/Nusaybin" title="Nusaybin">Nisibis</a>, were placed under pro-Assyrian puppet-kings. After his successful wars in the region, Adad-nirari was able to go on a long march along the Khabur river and the Euphrates, collecting tribute from all the local rulers without being met with any military opposition. In addition to his wars, he also conducted important building projects; the city of Apku, located between <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sinjar" title="Sinjar">Sinjar</a> and destroyed <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1000 BC, was rebuilt and became an important administrative center.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017168-47">[42]</a> Though he reigned only briefly, Adad-nirari's son Tukulti-Ninurta continued the policies of his father. In 885 BC, Tukulti-Ninurta repeated his father's march along the Euphrates and Khabur, though he went in the opposite direction, beginning in the south at <a href="/wiki/Dur-Kurigalzu" title="Dur-Kurigalzu">Dur-Kurigalzu</a> and then collecting tribute while he travelled north. Some of the southern cities that sent tribute to Tukulti-Ninurta during this march were historically more closely aligned with Babylon. In terms of military matters, Tukulti-Ninurta also fought against small states in the east, aimed to strengthen Assyrian control in this direction. Among the lands he defeated were <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kirruri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kirruri (page does not exist)">Kirruri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hubushkia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubushkia">Hubushkia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gilzan" title="Gilzan">Gilzanu</a>. In later times, Gilzanu often supplied Assyria with horses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017168-47">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dominion_over_the_Near_East">Dominion over the Near East</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Dominion over the Near East">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alabaster_Stela_of_the_Asirian_King_Ashurnasirpal_II_(884-859_BC)_-_British_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Alabaster_Stela_of_the_Asirian_King_Ashurnasirpal_II_%28884-859_BC%29_-_British_Museum.jpg/170px-Alabaster_Stela_of_the_Asirian_King_Ashurnasirpal_II_%28884-859_BC%29_-_British_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Alabaster_Stela_of_the_Asirian_King_Ashurnasirpal_II_%28884-859_BC%29_-_British_Museum.jpg/255px-Alabaster_Stela_of_the_Asirian_King_Ashurnasirpal_II_%28884-859_BC%29_-_British_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Alabaster_Stela_of_the_Asirian_King_Ashurnasirpal_II_%28884-859_BC%29_-_British_Museum.jpg/340px-Alabaster_Stela_of_the_Asirian_King_Ashurnasirpal_II_%28884-859_BC%29_-_British_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1588" data-file-height="2655" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">Stele</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 883–859 BC)</figcaption></figure> The second phase of the Assyrian reconquista was initiated in the reign of Tukulti-Ninurta's son and successor <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 883–859 BC). Under his rule, Assyria rose to become the dominant political power in the Near East, though it would not yet achieve power comparable to that under its complete dominion in later centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017167,_169-48">[43]</a> In terms of personality, Ashurnasirpal was a complex figure; he was a relentless warrior<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017169-49">[44]</a> and one of the most brutal kings in Assyrian history,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg201660-50">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[f]</a> but he also cared about the people, working to increase the prosperity and comfort of his subjects and being recorded as establishing extensive water reserves and food depots in times of crisis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2020-53">[47]</a> As a result of the successful campaigns of his predecessors, Ashurnasirpal inherited an impressive amount of resources with which he could work to re-establish Assyrian dominance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2020-53">[47]</a> Ashurnasirpal's first campaign, in 883 BC, was against the revolting cities of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Suru_(city)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Suru (city) (page does not exist)">Suru</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tela_(city)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tela (city) (page does not exist)">Tela</a> along the northern portion of the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> river. At Tela he brutally repressed the citizens, among other punishments cutting off noses, ears, fingers and limbs, gouging out eyes and overseeing <a href="/wiki/Impalement" title="Impalement">impalements</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decapitation" title="Decapitation">decapitations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2020-53">[47]</a> Ashurnasirpal's later campaigns included three wars against the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Zamua" title="Zamua">Zamua</a> in the eastern <a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a>, repeated campaigns against <a href="/wiki/Nairi" title="Nairi">Nairi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a> in the north, and, most prominently, near continuous conflict with <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Aramean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Neo-Hittite</a> kingdoms in the west. The Arameans and Neo-Hittites had by the time of Ashurnasirpal's rise to the throne evolved into well-organized kingdoms, possibly in response to pressure from Assyria. One of Ashurnasirpal's most persistent enemies was the Aramean king <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ahuni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ahuni (page does not exist)">Ahuni</a>, who ruled the city or region <a href="/wiki/Bit_Adini" title="Bit Adini">Bit Adini</a>. Ahuni's forces broke through across the Khabur and Euphrates several times and it was only after years of war that he at last accepted Ashurnasirpal as his <a href="/wiki/Suzerain" class="mw-redirect" title="Suzerain">suzerain</a>. Ahuni's defeat was highly important as it marked the first time since <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-kala" title="Ashur-bel-kala">Ashur-bel-kala</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1073–1056 BC), two centuries prior, that Assyrian forces had the opportunity to campaign further west than the Euphrates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017169-49">[44]</a> Ashurnasirpal made use of this opportunity. In his ninth campaign, he marched to Lebanon and then to the coast of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. Though few of them became formally incorporated into the empire at this point, many kingdoms on the way paid tribute to Ashurnasirpal to avoid being attacked, including <a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Carchemish</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Patina,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patina, Syria (page does not exist)">Patina</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> cities such as <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arwad" title="Arwad">Arwad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017169-49">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2020-53">[47]</a> Ashurnasirpal's royal inscriptions proudly proclaim that he and his army symbolically cleaned their weapons in the water of the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2020-53">[47]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:354px;max-width:354px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:352px;max-width:352px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyrian_Expansion_under_Ashurnasirpal_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Assyrian_Expansion_under_Ashurnasirpal_II.jpg/350px-Assyrian_Expansion_under_Ashurnasirpal_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Assyrian_Expansion_under_Ashurnasirpal_II.jpg/525px-Assyrian_Expansion_under_Ashurnasirpal_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Assyrian_Expansion_under_Ashurnasirpal_II.jpg/700px-Assyrian_Expansion_under_Ashurnasirpal_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Assyrian borders and campaigns under <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 883–859 BC)</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:352px;max-width:352px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Expansion_of_Neo_Assyrian_Empire_under_Shalmanesar_III.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/dc/Expansion_of_Neo_Assyrian_Empire_under_Shalmanesar_III.jpg/350px-Expansion_of_Neo_Assyrian_Empire_under_Shalmanesar_III.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/dc/Expansion_of_Neo_Assyrian_Empire_under_Shalmanesar_III.jpg/525px-Expansion_of_Neo_Assyrian_Empire_under_Shalmanesar_III.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/dc/Expansion_of_Neo_Assyrian_Empire_under_Shalmanesar_III.jpg/700px-Expansion_of_Neo_Assyrian_Empire_under_Shalmanesar_III.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Assyrian borders and campaigns under <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 859–824 BC)</div></div></div></div></div> Through the tribute and booty collected through the campaigns of his predecessors and his own wars, Ashurnasirpal financed several large-scale building projects at cities like Assur, Nineveh and <a href="/wiki/Balawat" title="Balawat">Balawat</a>. The most impressive and important project conducted was the restoration of the ruined town of <a href="/wiki/Nimrud" title="Nimrud">Nimrud</a>, located on the eastern bank of the Tigris in the Assyrian heartland. In 879 BC, Ashurnasirpal made Nimrud the new capital of the empire and employed thousands of workers to construct new fortifications, palaces and temples in the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017169-49">[44]</a> The construction of the new capital left Assur, still the empire's religious center,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017170-54">[48]</a> as a purely ceremonial city. In addition to enormous city walls 7.5 kilometers (4.6 miles) long, palaces, temples, royal offices and various residential buildings, Ashurnasirpal also established <a href="/wiki/Botanical_garden" title="Botanical garden">botanical gardens</a>, filled with foreign plants brought back from his wide-ranging campaigns, and a <a href="/wiki/Zoo" title="Zoo">zoo</a>, perhaps the first large zoo ever constructed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2020-53">[47]</a> Ashurnasirpal's inscriptions offer no motive for changing the capital. Various explanations have been proposed by modern scholars, including that he might have gotten disenchanted with Assur since there was little room left in the ancient capital to leave a mark,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2020-53">[47]</a> the important position of Nimrud in regard to local trade networks,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2020-53">[47]</a> that Nimrud was more centrally located in the empire,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017170-54">[48]</a> or that Ashurnasirpal hoped for greater independence from the influential great families of Assur.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017170-54">[48]</a> To celebrate the completion of his work in Nimrud in 864 BC, Ashurnasirpal hosted a grand celebration,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017170-54">[48]</a> which some scholars have described as perhaps the greatest party in world history;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2020-53">[47]</a> the event hosted 69,574 guests, including 16,000 citizens of the new capital and 5,000 foreign dignitaries, and lasted for ten days. Among the food and beverage used, Ashurnasirpal's inscriptions record 10,000 pigeons, 10,000 jugs of beer, and 10,000 skins of wine, among countless other items.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017170-54">[48]</a> Ashurnasirpal's aggressive military politics were continued under his son <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 859–824 BC), whose reign saw a considerable expansion of Assyrian territory. In Shalmaneser's reign, the lands along the Khabur and Euphrates rivers in the west were consolidated under Assyrian control. Ahuni of Bit Adini resisted for several years, but he eventually surrendered to Shalmaneser in the winter of 857/856 BC. When Shalmaneser visited the city in the summer of the next year, he renamed it Kar-Salmanu‐ašared ("fortress of Shalmaneser"), settled a substantial number of Assyrians there, and made it the administrative center of a new province, placed under the <a href="/wiki/Turtanu" title="Turtanu">turtanu</a> (commander in chief). Shalmaneser also placed other powerful officials, so-called "magnates", in charge of other vulnerable provinces and regions of the empire. The most powerful and threatening enemy of Assyria at this point was Urartu in the north; following in the footsteps of the Assyrians, the Urartian administration, culture, writing system and religion closely followed those of Assyria. The Urartian kings were also autocrats highly similar to the Assyrian kings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017170-54">[48]</a> The Assyrians also took some inspiration from Urartu. For instance, Assyrian irrigation technology and cavalry units, introduced by Shalmaneser, may have been derived from encounters with Urartu. The imperialist expansionism undertaken by the kings of both Urartu and Assyria led to frequent military clashes between the two, despite being separated by the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a>. In 856, Shalmaneser conducted one of the most ambitious military campaigns in Assyrian history, marching through mountainous territory to the source of the Euphrates and then attacking Urartu from the west. The Urartian king <a href="/wiki/Arame_of_Urartu" title="Arame of Urartu">Arame</a> was forced to flee as Shalmaneser's forces sacked the Urartian capital of <a href="/wiki/Arzashkun" title="Arzashkun">Arzashkun</a>, devastated the Urartian heartland, and then marched into what today is western Iran before returning to <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Arbela</a> in Assyria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017171-55">[49]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shalmaneser_III_greets_Marduk-zakir-shumi,_detail,_front_panel,_Throne_Dais_of_Shalmaneser_III_at_the_Iraq_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Shalmaneser_III_greets_Marduk-zakir-shumi%2C_detail%2C_front_panel%2C_Throne_Dais_of_Shalmaneser_III_at_the_Iraq_Museum.jpg/220px-Shalmaneser_III_greets_Marduk-zakir-shumi%2C_detail%2C_front_panel%2C_Throne_Dais_of_Shalmaneser_III_at_the_Iraq_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Shalmaneser_III_greets_Marduk-zakir-shumi%2C_detail%2C_front_panel%2C_Throne_Dais_of_Shalmaneser_III_at_the_Iraq_Museum.jpg/330px-Shalmaneser_III_greets_Marduk-zakir-shumi%2C_detail%2C_front_panel%2C_Throne_Dais_of_Shalmaneser_III_at_the_Iraq_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Shalmaneser_III_greets_Marduk-zakir-shumi%2C_detail%2C_front_panel%2C_Throne_Dais_of_Shalmaneser_III_at_the_Iraq_Museum.jpg/440px-Shalmaneser_III_greets_Marduk-zakir-shumi%2C_detail%2C_front_panel%2C_Throne_Dais_of_Shalmaneser_III_at_the_Iraq_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of Shalmaneser III (right) shaking hands with the Babylonian king <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_I" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi I">Marduk-zakir-shumi I</a> (left)</figcaption></figure> Although Shalmaneser's impressive campaign against Urartu compelled many of the small states in northern Syria to pay tribute to him, he was unable to fully utilize the situation. In 853 BC, a massive coalition of western states assembled at <a href="/wiki/Tell_Qarqur" title="Tell Qarqur">Tell Qarqur</a> in Syria to work together against Assyrian expansion. The coalition, included numerous kings of various peoples, including the earliest historically verifiable <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelite</a> and Arab rulers, and was led by <a href="/wiki/Hadadezer" title="Hadadezer">Hadadezer</a>, the king of <a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a>. Shalmaneser engaged the coalition in the same year that it was formed. Though Assyrian records claim that he scored a great victory at the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Qarqar" title="Battle of Qarqar">Battle of Qarqar</a> it is more likely that the battle was indecisive since no substantial political or territorial gains were achieved. After Qarqar, Shalmaneser focused much on the south and in 851–850 BC aided the Babylonian king <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_I" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi I">Marduk-zakir-shumi I</a> to defeat a revolt by his brother <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marduk-bel-ushati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marduk-bel-ushati (page does not exist)">Marduk-bel-ushati</a>. After defeating the rebel, Shalmaneser spent some time visiting cities in Babylon and further helping Marduk-zakir-shumi through fighting against the <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a> in the far south of Mesopotamia. As Babylonian culture was greatly appreciated in Assyria, Shalmaneser was proud of his alliance to the Babylonian king; a famous surviving piece of artwork shows the two rulers shaking hands. In the 840s and 830s, Shalmaneser again campaigned in Syria and succeeding in receiving tribute from numerous western states after the coalition against him collapsed with Hadadezer's death in 841 BC. Assyrian forces thrice tried to capture <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> itself but were not successful.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017171-55">[49]</a> Shalmaneser's failed attempts to properly impose Assyrian rule in Syria was a result of his energetic campaigns overextending the empire too quickly. In the 830s, his armies reached into <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> in Anatolia and in 836 BC, Shalmaneser reached <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%B8%AAubu%C5%A1na&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ḫubušna (page does not exist)">Ḫubušna</a> (near modern-day <a href="/wiki/Ere%C4%9Fli,_Konya" title="Ereğli, Konya">Ereğli</a>), one of the westernmost places ever reached by Assyrian forces. Though Shalmaneser's conquests were wide-ranging and inspired fear among the other kings of the Near East, he lacked the means to stabilize and consolidate his new lands and imperial control in many places remained shaky.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017172-56">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age_of_the_magnates">Age of the magnates</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Age of the magnates">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stela_of_the_Assyrian_king_Shamshi-Adad_V_from_the_temple_of_Nabu_at_Nimrud,_Mesopotamia..JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Stela_of_the_Assyrian_king_Shamshi-Adad_V_from_the_temple_of_Nabu_at_Nimrud%2C_Mesopotamia..JPG/170px-Stela_of_the_Assyrian_king_Shamshi-Adad_V_from_the_temple_of_Nabu_at_Nimrud%2C_Mesopotamia..JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Stela_of_the_Assyrian_king_Shamshi-Adad_V_from_the_temple_of_Nabu_at_Nimrud%2C_Mesopotamia..JPG/255px-Stela_of_the_Assyrian_king_Shamshi-Adad_V_from_the_temple_of_Nabu_at_Nimrud%2C_Mesopotamia..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Stela_of_the_Assyrian_king_Shamshi-Adad_V_from_the_temple_of_Nabu_at_Nimrud%2C_Mesopotamia..JPG/340px-Stela_of_the_Assyrian_king_Shamshi-Adad_V_from_the_temple_of_Nabu_at_Nimrud%2C_Mesopotamia..JPG 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="4288" /></a><figcaption>Stele of <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_V" title="Shamshi-Adad V">Shamshi-Adad V</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 824–811 BC)</figcaption></figure> In the latter years of Shalmaneser's reign, Urartu rose again as a powerful adversary. Though the Assyrians campaigned against them in 830 BC, they failed to fully neutralize the threat the restored kingdom posed. Unlike the vast majority of Assyrian campaigns, the 830 BC campaign against Urartu was not led by the king, but by the long-serving and prominent turtanu <a href="/wiki/Dayyan-Assur" title="Dayyan-Assur">Dayyan-Assur</a>, indicating not only that Shalmaneser might have been very old and no longer properly capable of being a strong leader but also that Dayyan-Assur had grown unprecedently powerful for an Assyrian official, otherwise rarely mentioned by name in documents. In later years, Dayyan-Assur led further campaigns on behalf of the kings. Shalmaneser's final years became preoccupied by an internal crisis when one of his sons, <a href="/wiki/Ashur-danin-pal" title="Ashur-danin-pal">Ashur-danin-pal</a>, rebelled in an attempt to seize the throne, possibly because the younger son <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_V" title="Shamshi-Adad V">Shamshi-Adad</a> had been designated as heir instead of himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017172-56">[50]</a> When Shalmaneser died in 824, Ashur-danin-pal was still in revolt, supported by a significant portion of the country, most notably including the former capital of Assur. Shamshi-Adad acceded to the throne as Shamshi-Adad V, perhaps initially a minor and a puppet of Dayyan-Assur. Though Dayyan-Assur died during the early stages of the civil war, Shamshi-Adad was eventually victorious, apparently due to help from the Babylonian king Marduk-zakir-shumi or his successor <a href="/wiki/Marduk-balassu-iqbi" title="Marduk-balassu-iqbi">Marduk-balassu-iqbi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017173-57">[51]</a> Shamshi-Adad V's accession marked the beginning of a new age of Neo-Assyrian history, sometimes dubbed the "age of the magnates". This time was marked by the number of royal inscriptions being much smaller than in preceding and succeeding times and Assyrian magnates, such as Dayyan-Assur and other prominent generals and officials, being the dominant political actors, with the kings wielding significantly less power and influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017173-57">[51]</a> Though the consequences of this shift in power remain debated,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017173-57">[51]</a> the age of the magnates has often been characterized as a period of decline.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayson2002200-58">[52]</a> Assyria endured through this period largely unscathed but there was little to no territorial expansion and central power grew unusually weak. Some developments were good for the longevity of the empire, since many magnates took the opportunity to develop stronger military and economic structures and institutions in their own lands throughout the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017173-57">[51]</a> Shamshi-Adad's earliest campaigns were against a series of Urartian fortresses and western Iran and quite limited in scope. One of the campaigns was led by the chief <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuch</a> (rab ša-rēši), a position created under Shamshi-Adad, and not the king himself. Most of Shamshi-Adad's early reign was relatively unsuccessful; the king's third campaign, against the small states in the Zagros Mountains region, might have been an Assyrian defeat and many of the small kingdoms in northern Syria ceased to pay tribute to Assyria. In 817 or 816, there was a rebellion against the king at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Till%C3%AA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tillê (page does not exist)">Tillê</a>, within the Assyrian heartland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017174-59">[53]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_of_Bel-harran-beli-usur,_from_Tell_Abda,_8th_century_BCE._Ancient_Orient_Museum,_Istanbul,_Turkey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Stele_of_Bel-harran-beli-usur%2C_from_Tell_Abda%2C_8th_century_BCE._Ancient_Orient_Museum%2C_Istanbul%2C_Turkey.jpg/170px-Stele_of_Bel-harran-beli-usur%2C_from_Tell_Abda%2C_8th_century_BCE._Ancient_Orient_Museum%2C_Istanbul%2C_Turkey.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Stele_of_Bel-harran-beli-usur%2C_from_Tell_Abda%2C_8th_century_BCE._Ancient_Orient_Museum%2C_Istanbul%2C_Turkey.jpg/255px-Stele_of_Bel-harran-beli-usur%2C_from_Tell_Abda%2C_8th_century_BCE._Ancient_Orient_Museum%2C_Istanbul%2C_Turkey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Stele_of_Bel-harran-beli-usur%2C_from_Tell_Abda%2C_8th_century_BCE._Ancient_Orient_Museum%2C_Istanbul%2C_Turkey.jpg/340px-Stele_of_Bel-harran-beli-usur%2C_from_Tell_Abda%2C_8th_century_BCE._Ancient_Orient_Museum%2C_Istanbul%2C_Turkey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3862" data-file-height="5788" /></a><figcaption>Stele of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bel-harran-beli-usur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bel-harran-beli-usur (page does not exist)">Bel-harran-beli-usur</a>, a palace herald, made in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_IV" title="Shalmaneser IV">Shalmaneser IV</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 783–773 BC)</figcaption></figure> From 815 BC onward, Shamshi-Adad's luck changed. During the last few years of his reign he directed his efforts mainly against Marduk-balassu-iqbi in Babylonia. In 813 BC, he defeated Marduk-balassu-iqbi and brought him to Assyria as a captive. A year later he defeated Marduk-balassu-iqbi's successor <a href="/wiki/Baba-aha-iddina" title="Baba-aha-iddina">Baba-aha-iddina</a> and annexed several territories in northern Babylonia. Southern Mesopotamia was left in disarray after Shamshi-Adad's victories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017174-59">[53]</a> Though Babylonia nominally came under Assyrian control, Shamshi-Adad took the ancient Babylonian title "<a href="/wiki/King_of_Sumer_and_Akkad" title="King of Sumer and Akkad">king of Sumer and Akkad</a>" but not the conventional "king of Babylon". Due to Assyria's perhaps somewhat weakened state he was unable to fully exploit the victory<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeaulieu2018184–185-60">[54]</a> and the Babylonian throne remained unoccupied for several years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017174-59">[53]</a> Shamshi-Adad's son <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_III" title="Adad-nirari III">Adad-nirari III</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 811–783 BC) was probably very young at the time of his father's death in 811, and real political power during his early reign was probably wielded by the turtanu <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nergal%E2%80%90ila%27i&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nergal‐ila'i (page does not exist)">Nergal‐ila'i</a> and by Adad-nirari's mother <a href="/wiki/Shammuramat" title="Shammuramat">Shammuramat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017174-59">[53]</a> Shammuramat was one of the most powerful women in Assyrian history and perhaps for a time served as co-regent;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFink2020-61">[55]</a> she is recorded to have partaken in a military campaign, the only ancient Assyriain woman known to have done so, against <a href="/wiki/Kummuh" title="Kummuh">Kummuh</a> in Syria and is credited in inscriptions alongside her son for expanding Assyrian territory, usually only a royal privilege.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelville2014228-62">[56]</a> After Shammuramat's death, Adad-nirari continued to be dominated by other figures, such as the eunuch <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nergal-eresh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nergal-eresh (page does not exist)">Nergal-eresh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017174-59">[53]</a> Despite his limited sole authority, Adad-nirari's reign saw some military successes and Assyrian armies campaigned in western Iran at least thirteen times. The western territories, now more or less autonomous, were only attacked four times, though Adad-nirari managed to defeat Aram-Damascus. In 790 BC, Adad-nirari conducted the first Assyrian campaign against the Aramaic tribes now living in the Assyro-Babylonian border regions. In <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 787 BC, Adad-nirari appointed the new turtanu <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-ilu" title="Shamshi-ilu">Shamshi-ilu</a>. Shamshi-ilu would occupy this position for about 40 years and was for most of that time likely the most powerful political actor in Assyria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017175-63">[57]</a> After Adad-nirari's death in 783, three of his sons ruled in succession: <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_IV" title="Shalmaneser IV">Shalmaneser IV</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 783–773 BC), <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_III" title="Ashur-dan III">Ashur-dan III</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 773–755 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_V" title="Ashur-nirari V">Ashur-nirari V</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 755–745 BC). Their reigns collectively form what appears to be the low point of Assyrian royal power since a remarkably small number of royal inscriptions are known from them. In Shalmaneser IV's reign, Shamshi-ilu eventually grew bold enough to stop crediting the king at all in his inscriptions and instead claimed to act completely on his own, more openly flaunting his power. Probably under Shamshi-ilu's leadership, the Assyrian army began to mainly focus on Urartu. In 774 BC, Shamshi-ilu scored an important victory against <a href="/wiki/Argishti_I_of_Urartu" title="Argishti I of Urartu">Argishti I</a> of Urartu,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017175-63">[57]</a> though Urartu was not decisively beaten.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayson1982277-64">[58]</a> There was however some significant successes in the west<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayson1982277-64">[58]</a> since Shamshi-ilu captured Damascus in 773 BC and secured tribute from the city to the king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017175-63">[57]</a> Another official who acted with usually royal privileges in Shalmaneser's time was the palace herald <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bel-harran-beli-usur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bel-harran-beli-usur (page does not exist)">Bel-harran-beli-usur</a>, who founded a city, Dur-Bel-harran-beli-usur (named after himself), and claimed in a stele that it was he, and not the king, who had established tax exemptions for the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017175-63">[57]</a> Though little information survives concerning Ashur-dan III's reign, it is clear that it was particularly difficult. Much of his reign was spent putting down revolts. These revolts were perhaps the result of the plague epidemics sweeping Assyria and the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_eclipse" title="Assyrian eclipse">Bur-Sagale solar eclipse</a> on 15 June 763 BC; both the epidemics and the eclipse could have been interpreted by the Assyrian populace as the gods withdrawing their divine support for Ashur-dan's rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner201652-65">[59]</a> Though Assyria stabilized again under Ashur-dan's brother Ashur-nirari V,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017176-66">[60]</a> he appears to have been relatively idle. Ashur-nirari campaigned in only three of the ten years of his reign and is not recorded to have conducted any construction projects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayson1982277–278-67">[61]</a> The influential Shamshi-ilu died at some point in Ashur-nirari's reign. Though the Assyrian army under Ashur-nirari was successful against <a href="/wiki/Arpad,_Syria" title="Arpad, Syria">Arpad</a> in northwestern Syria in 754 BC, they were also beaten at an important battle against <a href="/wiki/Sarduri_II" title="Sarduri II">Sarduri II</a> of Urartu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017176-66">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revitalization_and_rise">Revitalization and rise</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Revitalization and rise">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tilglath_pileser_iii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Tilglath_pileser_iii.jpg/170px-Tilglath_pileser_iii.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Tilglath_pileser_iii.jpg/255px-Tilglath_pileser_iii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Tilglath_pileser_iii.jpg/340px-Tilglath_pileser_iii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2328" data-file-height="2307" /></a><figcaption>Partial relief depicting <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser III</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 745–727 BC)</figcaption></figure> In 745 BC, Ashur-nirari was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser III</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 745–727 BC), probably another son of Adad-nirari III. The nature of Tiglath-Pileser's rise to throne is not clear and the surviving evidence is too scant to come to a certain conclusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZawadzki199453-68">[62]</a> Several pieces of evidence, including that there was a revolt in Nimrud in 746/745 BC,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavenport201636-69">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner201647-70">[64]</a> that ancient Assyrian sources give conflicting information in regards to Tiglath-Pileser's lineage, and that Tiglath-Pileser in his inscriptions attributes his rise to the throne solely to divine selection rather than both divine selection and his royal ancestry (typically done by Assyrian kings), have typically been interpreted as indicating that he usurped the throne from Ashur-nirari.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavenport201636-69">[63]</a> His accession, which is marked by a once more abundant number of sources, ushered in an entirely new era of Neo-Assyrian history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017176-66">[60]</a> While the conquests of earlier kings were impressive, they contributed little to Assyria's full rise as a consolidated empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElayi20171-37">[32]</a> Through campaigns aimed at conquest and not just extraction of seasonal tribute, as well as reforms meant to efficiently organize the army and centralize the realm, Tiglath-Pileser is by some regarded as the first true initiator of Assyria's "imperial" phase.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017161-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElayi20172-24">[21]</a> Tiglath-Pileser is the earliest Assyrian king mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Chronicles" title="Babylonian Chronicles">Babylonian Chronicles</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, and thus the earliest king for which there exists important outside perspectives on his reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017177-71">[65]</a> Early on, Tiglath-Pileser reduced the influence of the previously powerful magnates, dividing their territories into smaller provinces under the rule of royally appointed provincial governors and withdrawing their right to commission official building inscriptions in their own names. Shamshi-ilu appears to have been subjected to a <a href="/wiki/Damnatio_memoriae" title="Damnatio memoriae">damnatio memoriae</a>, as his name and tiles were erased from some of his inscriptions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017177-71">[65]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capture_of_Damascus_by_Tiglath-Pileser_III.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Capture_of_Damascus_by_Tiglath-Pileser_III.png/220px-Capture_of_Damascus_by_Tiglath-Pileser_III.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Capture_of_Damascus_by_Tiglath-Pileser_III.png/330px-Capture_of_Damascus_by_Tiglath-Pileser_III.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Capture_of_Damascus_by_Tiglath-Pileser_III.png/440px-Capture_of_Damascus_by_Tiglath-Pileser_III.png 2x" data-file-width="1148" data-file-height="829" /></a><figcaption>20th-century illustration of Tiglath-Pileser III's capture of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a></figcaption></figure> During his 18-year reign, Tiglath-Pileser campaigned in all directions. Already in his first year as king, Tiglath-Pileser warred against the Babylonian king <a href="/wiki/Nabonassar" title="Nabonassar">Nabonassar</a> and conquered territories on the eastern side of the Tigris river. In the year after that, Tiglath-Pileser conducted a successful campaign in the region around the Zagros Mountains, where he created two new Assyrian provinces. From 743 to 739 BC, Tiglath-Pileser focused his attention on the still strong Urartu in the north and the ever unsubmissive cities of northern Syria. Campaigns against both targets proved to be resoundingly successful; in 743 BC, Sarduri II of Urartu was defeated and nearly killed in battle and in 740 BC, the strategically placed city of Arpad in Syria was conquered after a three-year long siege. With the nearest threats dealt with, Tiglath-Pileser began to focus on lands that had never been under solid Assyrian rule. In 738 BC, the Neo-Hittite states of <a href="/wiki/Pattin" title="Pattin">Pattin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hatarikka" class="mw-redirect" title="Hatarikka">Hatarikka</a>, and the Phoenician city of <a href="/wiki/Sumur_(Levant)" title="Sumur (Levant)">Sumur</a> were conquered and in 734 BC, the Assyrian army marched through the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> all the way to the Egyptian border, forcing several of the states on the way, such as <a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Ammon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edom" title="Edom">Edom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moab" title="Moab">Moab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Judah</a>, to pay tribute and become Assyrian vassals. In 732 BC, the Assyrians captured Damascus and much of <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017177-71">[65]</a> Tiglath-Pileser's conquests are, in addition to their extent, also noteworthy because of the large scale in which he undertook <a href="/wiki/Resettlement_policy_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">resettlement policies</a>; he settled tens, if not hundreds, of thousand foreigners in both the Assyrian heartland and in far-away underdeveloped provinces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017177–178-28">[24]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tiglath-Pileser_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Tiglath-Pileser_map.png/350px-Tiglath-Pileser_map.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Tiglath-Pileser_map.png/525px-Tiglath-Pileser_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Tiglath-Pileser_map.png/700px-Tiglath-Pileser_map.png 2x" data-file-width="2031" data-file-height="1351" /></a><figcaption>The Neo-Assyrian Empire at the start (purple) and end (blue) of Tiglath-Pileser's reign</figcaption></figure> Late in his reign, Tiglath-Pileser turned his eyes towards Babylon. For a long time, the political situation in the south had been highly volatile, with conflict between the traditional urban elites of the cities, Aramean tribes in the countryside and Chaldean warlords in the south. In 732 BC, the Chaldean warlord <a href="/wiki/Nabu-mukin-zeri" title="Nabu-mukin-zeri">Nabu-mukin-zeri</a> seized Babylon and became king, a development Tiglath-Pileser used as an excuse to invade Babylonia. In 729 BC, he succeeded in capturing Babylon and defeating Nabu-mukin-zeri and thus assumed the title "king of Babylon", alongside "king of Assyria". To increase the willingness of the Babyloninan populace to accept him as ruler, Tiglath-Pileser twice partook in the traditional Babylonian <a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a> (New Year's) celebrations, held in honor of the Babylonian national deity <a href="/wiki/Marduk" title="Marduk">Marduk</a>. Control over Babylonia was secured through campaigns against the remaining Chaldean strongholds in the south. By the time of his death in 727 BC, Tiglath-Pileser had more than doubled the territory of the empire. Tiglath-Pileser's policy of direct rule rather than rule through vassal states brought important changes to the Assyrian state and its economy; rather than tribute, the empire grew more reliant on taxes collected by provincial governors, a development which increased administrative costs but also reduced the need for military intervention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017178-72">[66]</a> Tiglath-Pileser was succeeded by his son Ululayu, who took the regnal name <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_V" title="Shalmaneser V">Shalmaneser V</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 727–722 BC). Though little to no royal inscriptions and other sources survive from Shalmaneser's brief reign, the empire appears to have been largely stable under his rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017180-73">[67]</a> Shalmaneser managed to secure some lasting achievements; he was probably the Assyrian king responsible for conquering <a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samaria</a> and thus bringing an end to the ancient <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a> and he also appears to have annexed lands in northern Syria and Cilicia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYamadaYamada2017408–409,_410–416-74">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperial_apogee">Imperial apogee</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Imperial apogee">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sargon_II_and_Sennacherib">Sargon II and Sennacherib</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sargon II and Sennacherib">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sargon_II,_Iraq_Museum_in_Baghdad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Sargon_II%2C_Iraq_Museum_in_Baghdad.jpg/170px-Sargon_II%2C_Iraq_Museum_in_Baghdad.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Sargon_II%2C_Iraq_Museum_in_Baghdad.jpg/255px-Sargon_II%2C_Iraq_Museum_in_Baghdad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Sargon_II%2C_Iraq_Museum_in_Baghdad.jpg/340px-Sargon_II%2C_Iraq_Museum_in_Baghdad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4016" data-file-height="5867" /></a><figcaption>Relief depicting Sargon II, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Sargonid_dynasty" title="Sargonid dynasty">Sargonid dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> Shalmaneser was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 722–705 BC), who in all likelihood was a usurper who deposed his predecessor in a <a href="/wiki/Palace_coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Palace coup">palace coup</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017180-73">[67]</a> Like Tiglath-Pileser before him, Sargon in his inscriptions made no references to prior kings and instead ascribed his accession purely to divine selection.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011367-75">[69]</a> Though most scholars accept the claim made by the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_King_List" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian King List">Assyrian King List</a> that Sargon was a son of Tiglath-Pileser and thus Shalmaneser's brother, he is not believed to have been the legitimate heir to the throne as next-in-line.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECogan2017154-76">[70]</a> It is also possible that he was wholly unconnected to the previous royal lineage,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011367-75">[69]</a> in which case Shalmaneser V would be the last king of the nearly thousand-year long <a href="/wiki/Adaside_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaside dynasty">Adaside dynasty</a>. It is clear that Sargon's seizure of power, which marked the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Sargonid_dynasty" title="Sargonid dynasty">Sargonid dynasty</a>, led to considerable internal unrest. In his own inscriptions, Sargon claims to have deported 6,300 "guilty Assyrians", probably Assyrians from the heartland who opposed his accession. Several peripheral regions of the empire also revolted and regained their independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017180-73">[67]</a> The most significant of the revolts was the successful uprising of the Chaldean warlord <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a>, who took control of Babylon, restoring Babylonian independence, and allied with the Elamite king <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%B8%AAuban%E2%80%90nika%C5%A1_I&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ḫuban‐nikaš I (page does not exist)">Ḫuban‐nikaš I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017181-77">[71]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reconstructed_Model_of_Palace_of_Sargon_at_Khosrabad_1905.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Reconstructed_Model_of_Palace_of_Sargon_at_Khosrabad_1905.jpg/220px-Reconstructed_Model_of_Palace_of_Sargon_at_Khosrabad_1905.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Reconstructed_Model_of_Palace_of_Sargon_at_Khosrabad_1905.jpg/330px-Reconstructed_Model_of_Palace_of_Sargon_at_Khosrabad_1905.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Reconstructed_Model_of_Palace_of_Sargon_at_Khosrabad_1905.jpg/440px-Reconstructed_Model_of_Palace_of_Sargon_at_Khosrabad_1905.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2006" /></a><figcaption>20th-century reconstruction of Sargon II's palace at <a href="/wiki/Dur-Sharrukin" title="Dur-Sharrukin">Dur-Sharrukin</a></figcaption></figure> Though Sargon tried early on to dislodge Marduk-apla-iddina, attacking Aramean tribes who supported Marduk-apla-iddina and marching out to fight the Elamites, his efforts were initially unsuccessful and in 720 BC the Elamites defeated Sargon's forces at <a href="/wiki/Der_(Sumer)" title="Der (Sumer)">Der</a>. Sargon's early reign was more successful in the west. There, another movement, led by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yau-bi%27di&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yau-bi'di (page does not exist)">Yau-bi'di</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hamath" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamath">Hamath</a> and supported by Simirra, Damascus, Samaria and Arpad, also sought to regain independence and threatened to destroy the sophisticated provincial system imposed on the region under Tiglath-Pileser. While Sargon was campaigning in the east in 720 BC, his generals defeated Yau-bi'di and the others. Sargon continued to focus on both east and west, successfully warring against <a href="/wiki/%C5%A0inu%E1%B8%ABtu" title="Šinuḫtu">Šinuḫtu</a> in Anatolia and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mannaya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mannaya (page does not exist)">Mannaya</a> in western Iran. In 717 BC, Sargon retook the city of Carchemish and secured the city's substantial silver treasury. Perhaps it was the acquisition of these funds which inspired Sargon to in the same year begin the construction of another new capital of the empire, named <a href="/wiki/Dur-Sharrukin" title="Dur-Sharrukin">Dur-Sharrukin</a> ("Fort Sargon") after himself. Unlike Ashurnasirpal's project at Nimrud more than a century earlier, Sargon was not simply expanding an already existing city, but building a new one from scratch. Perhaps the motivating factor was that Sargon did not feel safe at Nimrud after the early conspiracies against him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017181-77">[71]</a> As construction work progressed, Sargon continued to go on military campaigns, which ensured that Assyria's geopolitical dominance and influence expanded significantly in his reign. Just between 716 and 713 BC, Sargon fought against Urartu, the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, Arab tribes, and <a href="/wiki/Ionians" title="Ionians">Ionian</a> pirates in the eastern Mediterranean. A significant victory was the 714 BC campaign against Urartu, in which the Urartian king <a href="/wiki/Rusa_I" title="Rusa I">Rusa I</a> was defeated and much of the Urartian heartland was plundered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017180-73">[67]</a> In 709 BC, Sargon won against seven kings in the land of Ia', in the district of Iadnana or Atnana.<a href="#cite_note-78">[72]</a> The land of Ia' is assumed to be the Assyrian name for Cyprus, and some scholars suggest that the latter may mean 'the islands of the <a href="/wiki/Danaans" class="mw-redirect" title="Danaans">Danaans</a>', or Greece. There are other inscriptions referring to the land of Ia' in Sargon's palace at <a href="/wiki/Khorsabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Khorsabad">Khorsabad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[73]</a> Cyprus was thus absorbed into the Assyrian Empire, with the victory commemorated with a stele found near present-day <a href="/wiki/Larnaca" title="Larnaca">Larnaca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[74]</a> Late in his reign, Sargon again turned his attention to Babylon. The alliance between Babylon and Elam had at this point evaporated away. When Sargon marched south in 710 BC he encountered little resistance. After Marduk-apla-iddina fled to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dur-Yakin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dur-Yakin (page does not exist)">Dur-Yakin</a>, the stronghold of his Chaldean tribe, the citizens of Babylon willingly opened the gates of Babylon to Sargon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017180-73">[67]</a> The situation was somewhat uncertain until Sargon made peace with Marduk-apla-iddina after prolonged negotiations, which resulted in Marduk-apla-iddina and his family being given the right to escape to Elam in exchange for Sargon being allowed to dismantle the walls of Dur-Yakin. Between 710 and 707 BC, Sargon resided in Babylon, receiving foreign delegations there and participating in local traditions, such as the Akitu festival. Some later Assyrian kings, such as Sargon's son <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 705–681 BC) and grandson <a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 681–669 BC), found the extent of Sargon's pro-Babylonian leanings to be somewhat questionable. In 707 BC, Sargon returned to Nimrud and in 706 BC, Dur-Sharrukin was inaugurated as the empire's new capital. Sargon did not get to enjoy his new city for long; in 705 BC he embarked on his final campaign, directed against <a href="/wiki/Tabal_(state)" title="Tabal (state)">Tabal</a> in Anatolia. To the shock of the Assyrians, Sargon was in this campaign killed in battle with the army being unable to recover his body.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017183-81">[75]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C%2BB-Chariot-Fig6-SennacheribStateChariotNimrod.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/C%2BB-Chariot-Fig6-SennacheribStateChariotNimrod.PNG/220px-C%2BB-Chariot-Fig6-SennacheribStateChariotNimrod.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/C%2BB-Chariot-Fig6-SennacheribStateChariotNimrod.PNG/330px-C%2BB-Chariot-Fig6-SennacheribStateChariotNimrod.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/C%2BB-Chariot-Fig6-SennacheribStateChariotNimrod.PNG/440px-C%2BB-Chariot-Fig6-SennacheribStateChariotNimrod.PNG 2x" data-file-width="473" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>Line-drawing of a relief depicting <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 705–681 BC) on campaign in a chariot</figcaption></figure> Shocked and frightened by the manner of his father's death and its theological implications, Sargon's son Sennacherib distanced himself from him. Sennacherib never mentioned Sargon in his inscriptions and abandoned Dur-Sharrukin, instead moving the capital to Nineveh, previously the residence of the crown prince. One of the first building projects he undertook was restoring a temple dedicated to the death-god <a href="/wiki/Nergal" title="Nergal">Nergal</a>, likely due to worries concerning his father's fate. It was not only Sennacherib and the elites of Assyria who were unsettled by Sargon's death; the theological implications led some of the conquered regions around the imperial periphery to once more assert their independence. Most prominently, several of the vassal states in the Levant stopped paying tribute and Marduk-apla-iddina, deposed by Sargon, retook Babylon with the aid of the Elamites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017183–184-82">[76]</a> Sennacherib was thus faced with numerous enemies almost immediately upon his accession and it took years to defeat them all. In 704 BC, he sent the Assyrian army, led by officials rather than the king himself, to Anatolia to avenge Sargon's death and towards the end of the same year, he began warring against Marduk-apla-iddina in the south. After fighting against Babylonia for nearly two years, Sennacherib succeeded in recapturing Babylonia, though Marduk-apla-iddina fled to Elam once again, and <a href="/wiki/Bel-ibni" title="Bel-ibni">Bel-ibni</a>, a Babylonian noble who had been raised at the Assyrian court, was installed as vassal king of Babylon. In 701, Sennacherib undertook the most famous campaign of his reign, <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib%27s_campaign_in_the_Levant" title="Sennacherib's campaign in the Levant">invading the Levant</a> to force the states there to pay tribute again. This conflict is the first Assyrian war to be recorded in great detail not only in Assyrian inscriptions but also in classical sources and in the Hebrew Bible. The Assyrian account diverges somewhat from the Biblical one; whereas the Assyrian inscriptions describes the campaign as a resounding success, in which tribute was regained, some states were annexed outright and Sennacherib even managed to stop Egyptian ambitions in the region, the Bible describes Sennacherib suffering a crushing defeat outside <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. Since <a href="/wiki/Hezekiah" title="Hezekiah">Hezekiah</a>, the king of Judah (who ruled Jerusalem), paid a heavy tribute to Sennacherib after the campaign, modern scholars consider it more likely that the Biblical account, motivated by theological concerns, is highly distorted and that Sennacherib succeeded in his goals of the campaign and re-imposed Assyrian authority in the region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017183–184-82">[76]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_Assyrian_palaces_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard,_1853.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_Assyrian_palaces_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg/220px-Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_Assyrian_palaces_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_Assyrian_palaces_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg/330px-Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_Assyrian_palaces_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_Assyrian_palaces_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg/440px-Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_Assyrian_palaces_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1960" data-file-height="1153" /></a><figcaption>19th-century reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>, made capital under Sennacherib</figcaption></figure> Bel-ibni's tenure as Babylonian vassal ruler did not last long and he continually opposed by Marduk-apla-iddina and another Chaldean warlord, <a href="/wiki/Mushezib-Marduk" title="Mushezib-Marduk">Mushezib-Marduk</a>, who hoped to seize power for themselves. In 700 BC, Sennacherib invaded Babylonia again and drove Marduk-apla-iddina and Mushezib-Marduk away. Needing a vassal ruler with stronger authority, he placed his eldest son, <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-shumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-nadin-shumi">Ashur-nadin-shumi</a>, on the throne of Babylon. For a few years, internal peace was restored and Sennacherib kept the army busy with a few minor campaigns. During this time, Sennacherib focused his attention mainly on building projects; between 699 and 695 BC he ambitiously rebuilt and renovated Nineveh, constructing among other works a new gigantic palace, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Southwest_Palace&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Southwest Palace (page does not exist)">Southwest Palace</a>, and a great 12 kilometer (7.5-mile) long and 25 meter (82 feet) tall wall. It is possible that a large park constructed near the Southwest Palace served as the inspiration for the later legendary <a href="/wiki/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon" title="Hanging Gardens of Babylon">Hanging Gardens of Babylon</a>. Sennacherib's choice of making Nineveh capital probably resulted not only from him having long lived in the city as crown prince, but also because of its ideal location, being an important point in the established road and trade systems and also located close to an important <a href="/wiki/Ford_(crossing)" title="Ford (crossing)">ford</a> across the Tigris river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017185-83">[77]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Destruction_of_Babylon_by_Sennacherib.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/The_Destruction_of_Babylon_by_Sennacherib.png/220px-The_Destruction_of_Babylon_by_Sennacherib.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/The_Destruction_of_Babylon_by_Sennacherib.png/330px-The_Destruction_of_Babylon_by_Sennacherib.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/The_Destruction_of_Babylon_by_Sennacherib.png/440px-The_Destruction_of_Babylon_by_Sennacherib.png 2x" data-file-width="1047" data-file-height="793" /></a><figcaption>20th-century illustration of Sennacherib's <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Babylon" title="Siege of Babylon">destruction of Babylon</a></figcaption></figure> In 694, Sennacherib invaded Elam,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017185-83">[77]</a> with the explicit goal to root out Marduk-apla-iddina and his supporters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevine198241-84">[78]</a> Sennacherib sailed across the Persian Gulf with a fleet built by Phoenician and Greek shipwrights<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017185-83">[77]</a> and captured and sacked countless Elamite cities. He never got his revenge on Marduk-apla-iddina, who died of natural causes before the Assyrian army landed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuckenbill192415-85">[79]</a> and the campaign instead significantly escalated the conflict with the anti-Assyrian faction in Babylonia and with the Elamites. The Elamite king <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hallushu-Inshushinak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hallushu-Inshushinak (page does not exist)">Hallushu-Inshushinak</a> took revenge on Sennacherib by marching on Babylonia while the Assyrians were busy in his lands. During this campaign, Ashur-nadin-shumi was captured through some means and taken to Elam, where he was probably executed. In his place, the Elamites and Babylonians crowned the Babylonian noble <a href="/wiki/Nergal-ushezib" title="Nergal-ushezib">Nergal-ushezib</a> as king of Babylon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017185-83">[77]</a> Though Senacherib just a few months later defeated and captured Nergal-ushezib in battle, the war dragged on as the Chaldean warlord Mushezib-Marduk took control of Babylon late in 693 and assembled a large coalition of Chaldeans, Arameans, Arabs and Elamites to resist Assyrian retribution. After a series of battles, Sennacherib finally recaptured Babylon in 689 BC. Mushezib-Marduk was captured and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Babylon" title="Siege of Babylon">Babylon was destroyed</a> nearly completely<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017186-86">[80]</a> in an effort to eradicate Babylonian political identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2014210-87">[81]</a> The last years of Sennacherib's reign were relatively peaceful in the empire, but problems began to arise within the royal court itself. Though Sennacherib's next eldest son, <a href="/wiki/Arda-Mulissu" title="Arda-Mulissu">Arda-Mulissu</a>, had replaced Ashur-nadin-shumi as heir after the latter's death, around 684 BC the younger son Esarhaddon was proclaimed heir instead. Perhaps Sennacherib was influenced by Esarhaddon's mother <a href="/wiki/Naqi%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqi'a">Naqi'a</a>, who in later times became increasingly prominent and powerful. Disappointed, Arda-Mulissu and his supporters pressured Sennacherib to reinstate him as heir. Though they succeeded in forcing Esarhaddon into exile in the west for his own protection, Sennacherib never accepted Arda-Mulissu as heir again. In late 681 BC, Arda-Mulissu killed his father in a temple in Nineveh.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017186-86">[80]</a> Because of the regicide, Arda-Mulissu lost some of his previous support and was unable to undergo a coronation before Esarhaddon returned with an army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2003166-88">[82]</a> A mere two months after Sennacherib was murdered, Esarhaddon captured Nineveh and became king, Arda-Mulissu and his supporters fleeing from the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017186-86">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Esarhaddon_and_Ashurbanipal">Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Detail._Sam%27al_stele_of_Esarhaddon,_671_BCE,_Pergamon_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Detail._Sam%27al_stele_of_Esarhaddon%2C_671_BCE%2C_Pergamon_Museum.jpg/170px-Detail._Sam%27al_stele_of_Esarhaddon%2C_671_BCE%2C_Pergamon_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Detail._Sam%27al_stele_of_Esarhaddon%2C_671_BCE%2C_Pergamon_Museum.jpg/255px-Detail._Sam%27al_stele_of_Esarhaddon%2C_671_BCE%2C_Pergamon_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Detail._Sam%27al_stele_of_Esarhaddon%2C_671_BCE%2C_Pergamon_Museum.jpg/340px-Detail._Sam%27al_stele_of_Esarhaddon%2C_671_BCE%2C_Pergamon_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4016" data-file-height="6016" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 681–669 BC), as depicted in his <a href="/wiki/Victory_stele_of_Esarhaddon" title="Victory stele of Esarhaddon">victory stele</a></figcaption></figure> Esarhaddon sought to establish a new and lasting balance of power between the northern and southern parts of his empire. Thus, he rebuilt Babylon in the south, viewing Sennacherib's destruction of the city as excessively brutal, but also made sure not to neglect the temples and cults of Assyria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017186–187-89">[83]</a> Esarhaddon was a deeply troubled man. As a result of his tumultuous rise to the throne he was deeply distrustful of his officials and family members; something which also had the side effect of an increased prominence of women in his reign, whom he trusted more. Esarhaddon's mother Naqi'a, his queen <a href="/wiki/Esharra-hammat" class="mw-redirect" title="Esharra-hammat">Esharra-hammat</a> and his daughter <a href="/wiki/Serua-eterat" class="mw-redirect" title="Serua-eterat">Serua-eterat</a> were all more powerful and prominent than most women in earlier Assyrian history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2003166,_168-90">[84]</a> The king was also frequently ill and sickly and also appears to have suffered from <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>, which intensified after the deaths of his queen and several of his children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2003169-91">[85]</a> Despite his physical and mental health, Esarhaddon led many successful military campaigns, several of them farther away from the Assyrian heartland than those of any previous king. He defeated the <a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a> who plagued the northwestern part of the empire, conquered the cities of Kundu and Sissû in Anatolia, and conquered the Phoenician city of <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a>, which was renamed Kar-Aššur‐aḫu‐iddina ("fortress of Esarhaddon"). After fighting the Medes in the Zagros Mountains, Esarhaddon campaigned further to the east than any king before him, reaching as far into modern-day Iran as <a href="/wiki/Dasht-e_Kavir" title="Dasht-e Kavir">Dasht-e Kavir</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Elam" title="Assyrian conquest of Elam">Assyrian conquest of Elam</a>. Esarhaddon also invaded the eastern <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a> where he conquered a large number of cities, including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Di%E1%B8%ABranu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diḫranu (page does not exist)">Diḫranu</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Dhahran" title="Dhahran">Dhahran</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017187-92">[86]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capture_of_Memphis_by_the_Assyrians.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Capture_of_Memphis_by_the_Assyrians.png/170px-Capture_of_Memphis_by_the_Assyrians.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Capture_of_Memphis_by_the_Assyrians.png/255px-Capture_of_Memphis_by_the_Assyrians.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Capture_of_Memphis_by_the_Assyrians.png/340px-Capture_of_Memphis_by_the_Assyrians.png 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="1120" /></a><figcaption>20th-century illustration of the Assyrians capturing <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>, the Egyptian capital, during the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">Assyrian conquest of Egypt</a></figcaption></figure> Esarhaddon's greatest military achievement was his 671 BC <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">conquest of Egypt</a>. He had tried to conquer Egypt already in 674 BC but had then been driven back. Through logistic support from various Arab tribes, the 671 BC invasion took a difficult route through central <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai</a> and took the Egyptian armies by surprise. After a series of three large battles against Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a>, Esarhaddon captured <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>, the Egyptian capital. Taharqa fled south to <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> and Esarhaddon allowed most of the local governors to remain in place, though he left some of his representatives to oversee them. The conquest of Egypt not only placed a land of great cultural prestige under Esarhaddon's rule but also brought the Neo-Assyrian Empire to its greatest extent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017187-92">[86]</a> Though he was among the most successful kings in Assyrian history, Esarhaddon faced numerous conspiracies against his rule,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017187-92">[86]</a> perhaps because the king suffering from illness could be seen as the gods withdrawing their divine support for his rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2003169-91">[85]</a> Around the time of the Egyptian campaigns, there were at least three major insurgencies against Esarhaddon within the Assyrian heartland itself; in Nineveh, the chief eunuch <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ashur-nasir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ashur-nasir (page does not exist)">Ashur-nasir</a> was prophesied by a Babylonian hostage to replace Esarhaddon as king,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017187-92">[86]</a> a prophetess in <a href="/wiki/Harran" title="Harran">Harran</a> proclaimed that Esarhaddon and his lineage would be "destroyed" and that a usurper named Sasî would become king,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017187-92">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2003172-93">[87]</a> and in Assur, the local governor instigated a plot after receiving a prophetic dream in which a child rose from a tomb and handed him a staff.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017187-92">[86]</a> Through a well-developed network of spies and informants, Esarhaddon uncovered all of these coup attempts and in 670 had a large number of high-ranking officials put to death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017188-94">[88]</a> In 672 BC, Esarhaddon decreed that his younger son <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 669–631 BC) would succeed him in Assyria and that the older son <a href="/wiki/Shamash-shum-ukin" class="mw-redirect" title="Shamash-shum-ukin">Shamash-shum-ukin</a> would rule Babylon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed201863-95">[89]</a> To ensure that the succession to the throne after his own death would go more smoothly than his own accession, Esarhaddon forced everyone in the empire, not only the prominent officials but also far-away vassal rulers and members of the royal family, to swear oaths of allegiance to the successors and respect the arrangement. When Esarhaddon died of an illness while on his way to campaign in Egypt once again in 669 BC, his mother Naqi'a also forced similar oaths of allegiance to Ashurbanipal,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017188–189-96">[90]</a> who became king without incident.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelville2012-97">[91]</a> One year later, Ashurbanipal oversaw Shamash-shum-ukin's inauguration as (largely ceremonial) king of Babylon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017189-98">[92]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ashurbanipal_in_a_chariot,_wall_relief,_7th_century_BC,_from_Nineveh,_the_British_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ashurbanipal_in_a_chariot%2C_wall_relief%2C_7th_century_BC%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg/220px-Ashurbanipal_in_a_chariot%2C_wall_relief%2C_7th_century_BC%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ashurbanipal_in_a_chariot%2C_wall_relief%2C_7th_century_BC%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg/330px-Ashurbanipal_in_a_chariot%2C_wall_relief%2C_7th_century_BC%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ashurbanipal_in_a_chariot%2C_wall_relief%2C_7th_century_BC%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg/440px-Ashurbanipal_in_a_chariot%2C_wall_relief%2C_7th_century_BC%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016" /></a><figcaption>Relief depicting Ashurbanipal (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 669–631 BC) in a chariot, armed with a bow</figcaption></figure> Ashurbanipal is often regarded to have been the last great king of Assyria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017189-98">[92]</a> His reign saw the last time Assyrian troops marched in all directions of the Near East. In 667 and 664 BC, Ashurbanipal invaded Egypt in the wake of anti-Assyrian uprisings; both Pharaoh Taharqa and his nephew <a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tantamani</a> were defeated and Ashurbanipal captured the southern Egyptian capital of <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a>, from which enormous amounts of plundered booty was sent back to Assyria. In 664 BC, after a prolonged period of peace, the Elamite king <a href="/wiki/Urtak_(king_of_Elam)" title="Urtak (king of Elam)">Urtak</a> launched a surprise invasion of Babylonia which renewed hostilities. After indecisive campaigns for ten years, the Elamite king <a href="/wiki/Teumman" title="Teumman">Teumman</a> was defeated in 653 BC, captured and executed in a battle by the <a href="/wiki/Ulai" title="Ulai">Ulai</a> river. Teumman's head was brought back to Nineveh and displayed for the public. Elam itself however remained undefeated and continued to work against Assyria for some time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017189-98">[92]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frederick_Arthur_Bridgman,_The_Diversion_of_an_Assyrian_King._Oil_on_canvas._Sotheby%27s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Frederick_Arthur_Bridgman%2C_The_Diversion_of_an_Assyrian_King._Oil_on_canvas._Sotheby%27s.jpg/220px-Frederick_Arthur_Bridgman%2C_The_Diversion_of_an_Assyrian_King._Oil_on_canvas._Sotheby%27s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Frederick_Arthur_Bridgman%2C_The_Diversion_of_an_Assyrian_King._Oil_on_canvas._Sotheby%27s.jpg/330px-Frederick_Arthur_Bridgman%2C_The_Diversion_of_an_Assyrian_King._Oil_on_canvas._Sotheby%27s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Frederick_Arthur_Bridgman%2C_The_Diversion_of_an_Assyrian_King._Oil_on_canvas._Sotheby%27s.jpg/440px-Frederick_Arthur_Bridgman%2C_The_Diversion_of_an_Assyrian_King._Oil_on_canvas._Sotheby%27s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="987" /></a><figcaption>The Diversion of an Assyrian King (1876) by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Arthur_Bridgman" title="Frederick Arthur Bridgman">Frederick Arthur Bridgman</a></figcaption></figure> One of the growing problems in Ashurbanipal's early reign were disagreements between Ashurbanipal and his older brother Shamash-shum-ukin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed20188-99">[93]</a> While Esarhaddon's documents suggest that Shamash-shum-ukin was intended to inherit all of Babylonia, it appears that he only controlled the immediate vicinity of Babylon itself since numerous other Babylonian cities apparently ignored him and considered Ashurbanipal to be their king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed201880-100">[94]</a> Over time, it seems that Shamash-shum-ukin grew to resent his brother's overbearing control<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed201890-101">[95]</a> and in 652 BC, with the aid of several Elamite kings, he revolted. The war ended disastrously for Shamash-shum-ukin; in 648 BC, Ashurbanipal captured Babylon after a long siege and devastated the city. Shamash-shum-ukin might have died by <a href="/wiki/Setting_himself_on_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Setting himself on fire">setting himself on fire</a> in his palace. Ashurbanipal replaced him as king of Babylon with the puppet ruler <a href="/wiki/Kandalanu" title="Kandalanu">Kandalanu</a> and then marched on Elam. The Elamite capital of <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> was captured and devastated and large numbers of Elamite prisoners were brought to Nineveh, tortured and humiliated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017189–190-102">[96]</a> Ashurbanipal chose to not annex and integrate Elam into the Neo-Assyrian Empire, instead leaving it open and undefended. In the following decades, the <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a> would migrate into the region and rebuild the ruined Elamite strongholds for their own use.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2009-103">[97]</a> Though Ashurbanipal's inscriptions present Assyria as an uncontested and divinely supported hegemon over all the world, cracks were starting to form in the empire during his reign. At some point after 656 BC, the empire lost control of Egypt, which instead fell into the hands of the Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a>, founder of Egypt's <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">twenty-sixth dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017190-104">[98]</a> Egyptian independence was achieved only slowly and relations remained peaceful; Psamtik was originally granted Egypt as a vassal by Ashurbanipal and with the Assyrian army occupied elsewhere, the region slowly receded from Ashurbanipal's grasp.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2009-103">[97]</a> Ashurbanipal went on numerous campaigns against various Arab tribes which failed to consolidate rule over their lands and wasted Assyrian resources. Perhaps most importantly, his devastation of Babylon after defeating Shamash-shum-ukin fanned anti-Assyrian sentiments in southern Mesopotamia, which soon after his death would have disastrous consequences. Ashurbanipal's reign also appears to have seen a growing disconnect between the king and the traditional elite of the empire; eunuchs grew unprecedently powerful in his time, being granted large tracts of lands and numerous tax exemptions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017190-104">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collapse_and_fall_of_the_empire">Collapse and fall of the empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Collapse and fall of the empire">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Medo-Babylonian_conquest_of_the_Assyrian_Empire" title="Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire">Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sin-sum2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sin-sum2.png/220px-Sin-sum2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sin-sum2.png/330px-Sin-sum2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sin-sum2.png/440px-Sin-sum2.png 2x" data-file-width="562" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>Impression of a seal possibly belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuch</a> <a href="/wiki/Usurper" title="Usurper">usurper</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-shumu-lishir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-shumu-lishir">Sin-shumu-lishir</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 626 BC)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatanabe1999320-105">[99]</a></figcaption></figure> After Ashurbanipal's death in 631 BC, the throne was inherited by his son <a href="/wiki/Ashur-etil-ilani" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-etil-ilani">Ashur-etil-ilani</a>. Though some historians have forwarded the idea that Ashur-etil-ilani was a minor upon his accession,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017191-106">[100]</a> this is unlikely given that he is attested to have had children during his brief reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed2018122–123-107">[101]</a> Ashur-etil-ilani, despite being his father's legitimate successor, appears to only have been installed against considerable opposition with the aid of the chief eunuch <a href="/wiki/Sin-shumu-lishir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-shumu-lishir">Sin-shumu-lishir</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017191-106">[100]</a> An Assyrian official by the name of Nabu-rihtu-usur appears to have attempted to usurp the throne but his conspiracy was swiftly crushed by Sin-shumu-lishir.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed2018121-108">[102]</a> Since excavated ruins at Nineveh from around the time of Ashurbanipal's death show evidence of fire damage, the plot might have resulted in violence and unrest within the capital itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed2018122-109">[103]</a> In comparison to his predecessors, Ashur-etil-ilani appears to have been a relatively idle ruler; no records of any military campaigns are known and his palace at Nimrud was much smaller than that of previous kings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed2018129-110">[104]</a> It is possible that the government was more or less entirely run by Sin-shumu-lishir throughout his reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017191-106">[100]</a> After a reign of only four years, Ashur-etil-ilani died in unclear circumstances in 627 and was succeeded by his brother <a href="/wiki/Sinsharishkun" title="Sinsharishkun">Sinsharishkun</a>. It has historically frequently been assumed, without any supporting evidence, that Sinsharishkun fought with Ashur-etil-ilani for the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed2018126-111">[105]</a> Although the exact circumstances of Ashur-etil-ilani's death are unknown, there is no evidence to suggest Sinsharishkun gaining the throne through any other means than legitimate inheritance after his brother's sudden death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENa'aman1991255-112">[106]</a> Sinsharishkun's accession did not go unchallenged. Immediately upon his rise to the throne, Sin-shumu-lishir rebelled and attempted to claim the throne for himself,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENa'aman1991256-113">[107]</a> despite the lack of any genealogical claim<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017191-106">[100]</a> and as the only eunuch to ever do so in Assyrian history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOates1992172-114">[108]</a> Sin-shumu-lishir successfully seized several prominent cities in Babylonia, including <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a> and Babylon itself, but was defeated by Sinsharishkun after three months.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipschits200513-115">[109]</a> This victory did little to alleviate Sinsharishkun's problems. The long-reigning Babylonian vassal king Kandalanu also died in 627 BC. The swift regime changes and internal unrest bolstered Babylonian hopes to shake off Assyrian rule and regain independence, a movement which swiftly proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Nabopolassar" title="Nabopolassar">Nabopolassar</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017191-106">[100]</a> probably a member of a prominent political family in <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJursa2007127,_129,_130,_133-116">[110]</a> as its leader.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017191-106">[100]</a> Some months after Sin-shumu-lishir's defeat, Nabopolassar and his allies captured both Nippur and Babylon, though the Assyrian response was swift and Nippur was recaptured in October 626. Sinsharishkun's attempts to retake Babylon and Uruk were unsuccessful, however, and in the aftermath Nabopolassar was formally invested as <a href="/wiki/King_of_Babylon" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Babylon">king of Babylon</a> on November 22/23 626 BC, restoring Babylonia as an independent kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipschits200514-117">[111]</a> In the years that followed Nabopolassar's coronation, Babylonia became a brutal battleground between Assyrian and Babylonian armies. Though cities often repeatedly changed hands, the Babylonians slowly but surely pushed Sinsharishkun's armies out of the south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017192-118">[112]</a> Under Sinsharishkun's personal leadership, the Assyrian campaigns against Nabopolassar initially looked to be successful: in 625 BC, <a href="/wiki/Sippar" title="Sippar">Sippar</a> was retaken and Nabopolassar failed to take Nippur, in 623 BC the Assyrians recaptured Nabopolassar's ancestral home city Uruk.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipschits200515-119">[113]</a> Sinsharishkun might ultimately have been victorious had it not been for a usurper, whose name is not known, from the empire's western territories rebelling in 622 BC, marching on Nineveh and seizing the capital.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipschits200515-119">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENa'aman1991263-120">[114]</a> Though this usurper was defeated by Sinsharishkun after just 100 days, the absence of the Assyrian army allowed Nabopolassar's forces to capture all of Babylonia in 622–620 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipschits200515-119">[113]</a> Despite this loss, there was little reason for the Assyrians to suspect that Nabopolassar's consolidation of Babylonia was a significant event and not simply a temporary inconvenience; in previous Babylonian uprisings the Babylonians had at times gained the upper hand temporarily.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelville201117-121">[115]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fall_of_nineveh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Fall_of_nineveh.jpg/220px-Fall_of_nineveh.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Fall_of_nineveh.jpg/330px-Fall_of_nineveh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Fall_of_nineveh.jpg/440px-Fall_of_nineveh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1480" data-file-height="979" /></a><figcaption>Fall of Nineveh (1829) by <a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">John Martin</a></figcaption></figure> More alarming was Nabopolassar's first forays into the Assyrian heartland in 616 BC, which amounted to capturing some border cities and defeating local Assyrian garrisons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelville201117-121">[115]</a> The Assyrian heartland had not been invaded for five hundred years<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelville201127-122">[116]</a> and the event illustrated that the situation was dire enough for Sinsharishkun's closest ally, Psamtik I of Egypt to enter the conflict on Assyria's side. Psamtik was probably primarily interested in Assyria remaining as a buffer between his own growing empire and the Babylonians and other powers in the east.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipschits200516-123">[117]</a> In May 615 BC, Nabopolassar assaulted Assur, still the religious and ceremonial center of Assyria and by now the empire's southernmost remaining city. Sinsharishkun succeeded in defeating Nabopolassar's assault and, for a time, saving the old city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelville201113,_18-124">[118]</a> It is doubtful that Nabopolassar would ever have achieved a lasting victory without the entrance of the <a href="/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Median Empire</a> into the conflict.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017192-118">[112]</a> Long fragmented into several tribes and often targets of Assyrian military campaigns, the Medes had been united under the king <a href="/wiki/Cyaxares" title="Cyaxares">Cyaxares</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017192-118">[112]</a> In late 615<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipschits200517-125">[119]</a> or in 614 BC,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelville201118-126">[120]</a> Cyaxares and his army entered Assyria and conquered the region around the city of <a href="/wiki/Arrapha" title="Arrapha">Arrapha</a> in preparation for a campaign against Sinsharishkun.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipschits200517-125">[119]</a> Although there are plenty of earlier sources discussing Assyro-Median relations, none are preserved from the period leading up to Cyaxares's invasion and as such, the political context and reasons for the sudden attack are not known.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelville201113-127">[121]</a> Perhaps, the war between Babylonia and Assyria had disrupted the economy of the Medes and inspired a direct intervention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelville201118-126">[120]</a> In July or August of 614 BC, the Medes mounted attacks on both Nimrud and Nineveh and captured Assur, leading to the ancient city being brutally plundered and its inhabitants being massacred. Nabopolassar arrived at Assur after the sack and upon his arrival met and allied with Cyaxares.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipschits200518-128">[122]</a> The fall of Assur must have been devastating for Assyrian morale. Just two years later in 612 BC, after a siege lasting two months, the Medes and Babylonians <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_(612_BC)" title="Battle of Nineveh (612 BC)">captured Nineveh</a>, Sinsharishkun dying in the city's defense. The capture of the city was followed by extensive looting and destruction and effectively meant the end of the Assyrian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017192-118">[112]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Battle_of_Carchemish.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/The_Battle_of_Carchemish.png/220px-The_Battle_of_Carchemish.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/The_Battle_of_Carchemish.png/330px-The_Battle_of_Carchemish.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/The_Battle_of_Carchemish.png/440px-The_Battle_of_Carchemish.png 2x" data-file-width="1255" data-file-height="893" /></a><figcaption>20th-century illustration of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carchemish" title="Battle of Carchemish">Battle of Carchemish</a></figcaption></figure> After the fall of Nineveh, an Assyrian general and prince, possibly Sinsharishkun's son, led the remnants of the Assyrian army and established himself at Harran in the west.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2013-129">[123]</a> The prince chose the regnal name <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_II" title="Ashur-uballit II">Ashur-uballit II</a>, likely a highly conscious choice since its etymology ("Ashur has kept alive") suggested that Assyria would ultimately be victorious and since it evoked the name of <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_I" title="Ashur-uballit I">Ashur-uballit I</a>, the 14th-century BC Assyrian ruler who had been the first to adopt the title šar ("king").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2019136-130">[124]</a> Due to the loss of Assur, Ashur-uballit could not undergo the traditional Assyrian coronation ritual and as such formally ruled under the title of "crown prince", though Babylonian documents considered him to be the new Assyrian king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2019135–136-131">[125]</a> Ashur-uballit's rule at Harran lasted until late 610 or early 609 BC, when the city was captured by the Babylonians and the Medes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017192Lipschits200519-132">[126]</a> Three months later, an attempt by Ashur-uballit and the Egyptians to retake the city failed disastrously and Ashur-uballit disappears from the sources, his ultimate fate unknown. The remnants of the Assyrian army continued to fight alongside the Egyptian forces against the Babylonians until a crushing defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carchemish" title="Battle of Carchemish">Battle of Carchemish</a> in 605.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipschits200520-133">[127]</a> Though Assyrian culture endured through the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Post-imperial_Assyria" title="Post-imperial Assyria">post-imperial period</a> of Assyrian history and beyond,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHauser2017229-134">[128]</a> Ashur-uballit's final defeat at Harran in 609 marked the end of the ancient line of Assyrian kings and of Assyria as a state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2019141-135">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017193-136">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reasons_for_the_fall_of_Assyria">Reasons for the fall of Assyria</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Reasons for the fall of Assyria">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Fall_of_Nineveh.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/The_Fall_of_Nineveh.png/170px-The_Fall_of_Nineveh.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/The_Fall_of_Nineveh.png/255px-The_Fall_of_Nineveh.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/The_Fall_of_Nineveh.png/340px-The_Fall_of_Nineveh.png 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="1206" /></a><figcaption>20th-century illustration of the Fall of Nineveh</figcaption></figure> The fall of Assyria was swift, dramatic and unexpected;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017191-106">[100]</a> still today modern scholars continue to grapple with what factors caused the empire's quick and violent downfall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017192-118">[112]</a> One commonly cited possible explanation is the unrest and the civil wars that immediately preceded Nabopolassar's rise. Such civil conflict could have caused a crisis of legitimacy, and the members of the Assyrian elite may have felt increasingly disconnected from the Assyrian king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017193-136">[130]</a> However, there is as mentioned no evidence that Ashur-etil-ilani and Sinsharishkun warred with each other, and other uprisings of Assyrian officials—the unrest upon Ashur-etil-ilani's accession, the rebellion of Sin-shumu-lishir, and the capture of Nineveh by a usurper in 622 BC—were dealt with relatively quickly. Protracted civil war is thus unlikely to have been the reason for the empire's fall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENa'aman1991265-137">[131]</a> Another proposed explanation was that Assyrian rule suffered from serious structural vulnerabilities; most importantly, Assyria appears to have had little to offer the regions it conquered other than order and freedom from strife; conquered lands were mostly kept in line through fear and terror, alienating local peoples. As such, people outside of the Assyrian heartland may have had little reason to remain loyal when the empire came under attack.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017193-136">[130]</a> Further explanations may lie in the actions and policies of the late Assyrian kings themselves. Under Esarhaddon's reign, many experienced and capable officials and generals had been killed as the result of the king's paranoia and under Ashurbanipal, many had lost their positions to eunuchs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017193-136">[130]</a> Some historians have further deemed Ashurbanipal to have been an "irresponsible and self-indulgent king" since he at one point appointed his chief musician the <a href="/wiki/Eponym_dating_system" title="Eponym dating system">name of the year</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReade1998263-138">[132]</a> Though it would be easy to place the blame on Sinsharishkun, there is no evidence to suggest that he was an incompetent ruler.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelville201121-139">[133]</a> No defensive plan existed for the Assyrian heartland since it had not been invaded for centuries and Sinsharishkun was a capable military leader using well-established Mesopotamian military tactics. In a normal war, Sinsharishkun could have been victorious but he was wholly unprepared to go on the defensive against an enemy that was both numerically superior and that aimed to destroy his country rather than conquer it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelville201127-122">[116]</a> Yet another possible factor was environmental issues. The massive rise in population in the Assyrian heartland during the height of the Neo-Assyrian Empire might have led to a period of severe drought that affected Assyria to a much larger extent than nearby territories such as Babylonia. It is impossible to determine the severity of such demographic and climate-related effects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017193-136">[130]</a> A large reason for Assyrian collapse was the failure to resolve the "Babylonian problem" which had plagued Assyrian kings since Assyria first conquered southern Mesopotamia. Despite the many attempts of the kings of the Sargonid dynasty to resolve the constant rebellions in the south in a variety of different ways; Sennacherib's destruction of Babylon and Esarhaddon's restoration of it, rebellions and insurrections remained common.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENa'aman1991266-140">[134]</a> This is despite Babylon for the most part being treated more leniently than other conquered regions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017162-141">[135]</a> Babylonia was for instance not annexed directly into Assyria but preserved as a full kingdom, either ruled by an appointed client king or by the Assyrian king in a <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrinkman197390-142">[136]</a> Despite the privileges the Assyrians saw themselves as extending to the Babylonians, Babylon refused to be passive in political matters,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017162-141">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2014212-143">[137]</a> likely because the Babylonians might have seen the Assyrian kings, who only sometimes visited the city, as failing to undertake the traditional religious duties of the Babylonian kings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaia20196–7-144">[138]</a> The strong appreciation of Babylonian culture in Assyria sometimes turned to hatred, which led to Babylon suffering several brutal acts of retribution from Assyrian kings after revolts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017162-141">[135]</a> Nabopolassar's revolt was the last in a long line of Babylonian uprisings against the Assyrians and Sinsharishkun's failure to stop it, despite trying for years, doomed his empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENa'aman1991266-140">[134]</a> Despite all of these simultaneous factors, it is possible that the empire could have survived if the unexpected alliance between the Babylonians and Medes had not been sealed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017193-136">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Government">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingship_and_royal_ideology">Kingship and royal ideology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Kingship and royal ideology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyrian_kings" title="List of Assyrian kings">List of Assyrian kings</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Sennacherib, the great king, the mighty king, <a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Universe" title="King of the Universe">king of the Universe</a>, king of Assyria, <a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Four_Corners_of_the_World" class="mw-redirect" title="King of the Four Corners of the World">king of the Four Corners of the World</a>; favorite of the great gods; the wise and crafty one; strong hero, first among all princes; the flame that consumes the insubmissive, who strikes the wicked with the thunderbolt.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Excerpt from the royal titles of <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 705–681 BC)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuckenbill1927140-145">[139]</a></cite></div></blockquote><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nimrud_-_Neo-Assyrian_king.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nimrud_-_Neo-Assyrian_king.png/170px-Nimrud_-_Neo-Assyrian_king.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nimrud_-_Neo-Assyrian_king.png/255px-Nimrud_-_Neo-Assyrian_king.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nimrud_-_Neo-Assyrian_king.png/340px-Nimrud_-_Neo-Assyrian_king.png 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="814" /></a><figcaption>Line-drawing of a relief from Nimrud depicting a Neo-Assyrian king</figcaption></figure>In documents describing coronations of Assyrian kings from both the Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods, it is specifically recorded that the king was commanded by Ashur, the Assyrian national deity, to "broaden the land of Ashur" and "extend the land at his feet". The Assyrians saw their empire as being the part of the world overseen and administered by Ashur, through his human agents. In their ideology, the outer realm outside of Assyria was characterized by chaos and the people there were uncivilized, with unfamiliar cultural practices and strange languages. The terrain was also unfamiliar and included environments not found in Assyria itself, such as seas, vast mountain ranges and giant deserts. The mere existence of the "outer realm" was regarded as a threat to the cosmic order within Assyria and as such, it was the king's duty to expand the realm of Ashur and incorporate these strange lands, converting chaos to civilization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011363–364-146">[140]</a> The position of the king above all others was regarded as natural in ancient Assyria since he, though not divine himself, was seen as the divinely appointed representative of the god Ashur on earth. His power thus derived from his unique position among humanity and his obligation to extend Assyria to eventually cover the whole world was cast as a moral, humane and necessary duty rather than exploitative imperialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011364–365-147">[141]</a> Though their power was nearly limitless, the kings were not free from tradition and their obligations. The kings were obliged to campaign once a year to bring Ashur's rule and civilization to the "four corners of the world", if a king did not set out to campaign, their legitimacy was severely undermined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011367-75">[69]</a> Campaigns were usually justified through an enemy having made some sort of (real or fabricated) affront against Ashur. The overwhelming force of the Assyrian army was used to instill the idea that it was invincible, thus further legitimizing the Assyrian king's rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011372-148">[142]</a> The king was also responsible for performing various rituals in support of the cult of Ashur and the Assyrian priesthood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011367-75">[69]</a> Because the rule and actions of the Assyrian king were seen as divinely sanctioned,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011365-149">[143]</a> resistance to Assyrian sovereignty in times of war was regarded to be resistance against divine will, which deserved punishment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBedford200922-150">[144]</a> Peoples and polities who revolted against Assyria were seen as criminals against the divine world order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBedford200929-151">[145]</a> The legitimacy of the Assyrian king hinged on acceptance among the imperial elite, and to a lesser extent the wider populace, of the idea that the king was both divinely chosen by Ashur and uniquely qualified for his position. There were various methods of legitimization employed by the Neo-Assyrian kings and their royal courts. One of the common methods, which appears to be a new innovation of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, was the manipulation and codifying of the king's own personal history in the form of <a href="/wiki/Annals" title="Annals">annals</a>. This genre of texts are believed to have been created to support the king's legitimacy through recording events of their reign, particularly their military exploits. The annals were copied by scribes and then disseminated throughout the empire for propagandistic purposes, adding to the perception of the king's power. In many cases, historical information was also inscribed on temples and other buildings. Kings also made use of genealogical legitimacy. Real (and in some cases perhaps fabricated) connections to past royalty established both uniqueness and authenticity since it established the monarch as a descendant of great ancestors who on Ashur's behalf were responsible for creating and expanding civilization. Nearly all Neo-Assyrian kings highlighted their royal lineage in their inscriptions. Genealogical qualification presented a problem for usurpers who did not belong to the direct genealogical lineage. The two Neo-Assyrian kings generally believed to have been usurpers, Tiglath-Pileser III and Sargon II, did for the most part not mention genealogical connections in their inscriptions but instead relied on direct divine appointment. Both of these kings claimed in several of their inscriptions that Ashur had "called my name" or "placed me on the throne".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011365–367-152">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neo-Assyrian_queens">Neo-Assyrian queens</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Neo-Assyrian queens">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Queens_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Queens of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Queens of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_Queen_Hama_of_Assyria,_Nimrud_(transparent).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Seal_of_Queen_Hama_of_Assyria%2C_Nimrud_%28transparent%29.png/170px-Seal_of_Queen_Hama_of_Assyria%2C_Nimrud_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Seal_of_Queen_Hama_of_Assyria%2C_Nimrud_%28transparent%29.png/255px-Seal_of_Queen_Hama_of_Assyria%2C_Nimrud_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Seal_of_Queen_Hama_of_Assyria%2C_Nimrud_%28transparent%29.png/340px-Seal_of_Queen_Hama_of_Assyria%2C_Nimrud_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="659" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>Seal of <a href="/wiki/Hama_(queen)" title="Hama (queen)">Hama</a>, queen of <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_IV" title="Shalmaneser IV">Shalmaneser IV</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 783–773 BC)</figcaption></figure> The queens of the Neo-Assyrian Empire were titled issi ekalli, which could be abbreviated to sēgallu, both terms meaning "Woman of the Palace".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKertai2013109-153">[147]</a> The feminine version of the word for "king" (šarru) was šarratu, but this term was only applied to goddesses and queens of foreign nations who ruled in their own right. Since the Assyrian consorts did not rule themselves, the Assyrians did not refer to them as šarratu. The difference in terminology does not necessarily mean that foreign queens, who often governed significantly smaller territories than the Neo-Assyrian Empire, were seen as having a higher status than the Assyrian queens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKertai2013109-153">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurrier2017173–174-154">[148]</a> A frequently used symbol, apparently the royal symbol of the queens themselves, that was used in documents and on objects to designate the queens was a scorpion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGansell2018161-155">[149]</a> Though the queens, like all other female and male members of the royal court, ultimately derived their power and influence from their association with the king, they were not pawns without political power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGansell2018158-156">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeppo2007392-157">[151]</a> The queens had their own say in financial affairs and while they ideally were supposed to produce an heir to the throne, they also had several other duties and responsibilities, often in very high levels of the government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeppo2007392-157">[151]</a> The queens were involved in the arrangement of religious activities, dedicated gifts to the gods, and supported temples financially. They were in charge of their own often considerable financial resources, evidenced not only by surviving texts concerning their household and activities but also the treasures uncovered in the <a href="/wiki/Queens%27_tombs_at_Nimrud" title="Queens' tombs at Nimrud">Queens' tombs at Nimrud</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvärd2015159-158">[152]</a> Under the Sargonid dynasty, military units subservient to the queen were created. Such units were not just an honor guard for the queen, but included commanders, cohorts of <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariots</a> and are sometimes known to have partaken alongside other units in military campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvärd2015163–166-159">[153]</a> Perhaps the most powerful of the Neo-Assyrian queens was Shammuramat, queen of Shamshi-Adad V, who might have ruled as regent in the early reign of her son Adad-nirari III and participated in military campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKertai2013113-160">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvärd2015167-161">[155]</a> Also powerful was Esarhaddon's mother Naqi'a, though whether she held the status of queen is not certain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2014191-162">[156]</a> Naqi'a is the best documented woman of the Neo-Assyrian period, and was perhaps the most influential woman in Assyrian history, influencing politics in the reigns of Sennacherib, Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFink2020-61">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elite_and_administration">Elite and administration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Elite and administration">edit</a>]</div> The unprecedented success of the Neo-Assyrian Empire was not only due to the ability of Assyria to expand but also, and perhaps more importantly, its ability to efficiently incorporate conquered lands into its administrative system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011359-163">[157]</a> It is clear that there was a strong sense of order in the Assyrian mindset, so much so that the Neo-Assyrians have sometimes been referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussians</a> of the ancient Near East".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017162-141">[135]</a> This sense of order manifested in various parts of Neo-Assyrian society, including the more square and regular shape of the characters in Neo-Assyrian writing and in the organized administration of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, which was divided into a set of provinces. The idea of imposing order by creating well-organized hierarchies of power was part of the justifications used by Neo-Assyrian kings for their expansionism: in one of his inscriptions, Sargon II explicitly pointed out that some of the Arab tribes he had defeated had previously "known no overseer or commander".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017162-141">[135]</a> In Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions, the creation of new provinces was usually expressed by writing "I annexed the land (into) the Assyrian border" (ana miṣir māt Aššur utirra) or "I re-organized" (ana eššūti aṣbat). When lands were added to an existing province, this was usually expressed as "I added (the land) to the province X" (ina muhhi pīhat X uraddi).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYamada2000300-164">[158]</a> At the top of the provincial administration was the provincial governor<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011370–371-165">[159]</a> (bēl pīhāti or šaknu).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYamada2000300-164">[158]</a> Second-in-command was probably the šaniu (translated as "deputy" by modern historians, the title literally means "second") and at the bottom of the hierarchy were village managers (rab ālāni), in charge of one or more villages or other settlements with the primary duty to collect taxes in the form of labor and goods. Provincial governors were directly responsible for various aspects of provincial administration, including construction, taxation and security. Security concerns were often mostly relevant only in the frontier provinces, whose governors were also responsible for gathering intelligence about enemies across the border. To this end, a vast network of informants or spies (daiālu) were employed to keep officials informed of events and developments in foreign lands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011370–371-165">[159]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2018_Ashurbanipal_-_Tile.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/2018_Ashurbanipal_-_Tile.jpg/220px-2018_Ashurbanipal_-_Tile.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/2018_Ashurbanipal_-_Tile.jpg/330px-2018_Ashurbanipal_-_Tile.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/2018_Ashurbanipal_-_Tile.jpg/440px-2018_Ashurbanipal_-_Tile.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4154" data-file-height="3210" /></a><figcaption>Glazed tile from Nimrud depicting a Neo-Assyrian king, accompanied by attendants</figcaption></figure> Provincial governors were also responsible for supplying offerings to temples, in particular to the temple of Ashur in Assur. This channeling of revenues from across the empire was not only meant as a method to collect profit but also as a way to connect the elites across the empire to the religious institutions in the Assyrian heartland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011369-166">[160]</a> The royal administration kept close watch of institutions and individual officials across the empire through a system of officials responsible directly to the king, called qēpu (usually translated as "royal delegates"). Control was maintained locally through regularly deploying low-ranking officials to the smaller settlements, i.e. villages and towns, of the empire. <a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée</a> officers (ša bēt-kūdini) kept tallies on the labor performed by forced laborers and the remaining time owed and village managers kept provincial administrators informed of the conditions of the settlements in their provinces. As the Neo-Assyrian Empire grew and time went on, a number of its foreign subject peoples became incorporated into the Assyrian administration, with more and more high officials in the later times of the empire being of non-Assyrian origin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011360-167">[161]</a> The inner elite of the Neo-Assyrian Empire included two main groups, the "magnates" and the "scholars". The "magnates" are a grouping by modern historians for the seven highest-ranking officials in the administration; the masennu (treasurer), nāgir ekalli (palace herald), <a href="/wiki/Rabshakeh" title="Rabshakeh">rab šāqê</a> (chief cupbearer), rab ša-rēši (chief officer/eunuch), sartinnu (chief judge), sukkallu (grand vizier) and <a href="/wiki/Turtanu" title="Turtanu">turtanu</a> (commander-in-chief). There is some evidence that some these offices were, at least at times, occupied by members of the royal family. Occupants of four of the offices, the masennu, nāgir ekalli, rab šāqê and turtanu, are also recorded to have served as governors of important provinces and thus as controllers of local tax revenues and administration. All of the magnates were deeply involved with the Assyrian military, each controlling significant numbers of forces, and they often owned large and tax-free estates. Such estates were scattered across the empire, likely to defuse the power of local provincial authorities and to tie the personal interest of the inner elite to the well-being of the entire empire. The "scholars", called ummânī, included a number of different people specialized in various disciplines, including scribal arts, medicine, exorcism, divination and astrology. Their role was chiefly to protect, advise and guide the kings through interpreting omens, which maintained the ritual purity of the king and protected him from evil. How exactly they were trained is not known but they must have been extremely well versed in Mesopotamian scholarship, science and wisdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011368–370,_377–378-168">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_communications">State communications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: State communications">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/State_communications_in_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="State communications in the Neo-Assyrian Empire">State communications in the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Servants_Dur_Sharrukin_Louvre_AO19878-9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Servants_Dur_Sharrukin_Louvre_AO19878-9.jpg/220px-Servants_Dur_Sharrukin_Louvre_AO19878-9.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Servants_Dur_Sharrukin_Louvre_AO19878-9.jpg/330px-Servants_Dur_Sharrukin_Louvre_AO19878-9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Servants_Dur_Sharrukin_Louvre_AO19878-9.jpg/440px-Servants_Dur_Sharrukin_Louvre_AO19878-9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2650" data-file-height="2125" /></a><figcaption>Neo-Assyrian relief depicting <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a> carrying booty from a war</figcaption></figure> To solve the challenges of governing an empire of unprecedented size, the Neo-Assyrian Empire, probably first under Shalmaneser III, developed a sophisticated state communication system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2012Road_stations_across_the_empire-169">[163]</a> Use of this system was restricted to messages sent by high officials; their messages were stamped with their seals, which demonstrated their authority. Messages without such seals could not be sent through the communication system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2012Authorisation_needed-170">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2015b65-171">[165]</a> Per estimates by <a href="/wiki/Karen_Radner" title="Karen Radner">Karen Radner</a>, a message sent from the western border province <a href="/wiki/Quw%C3%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="Quwê">Quwê</a> to the Assyrian heartland, a distance of 700 kilometers (430 miles) over a stretch of lands featuring many rivers without any bridges, could take less than five days to arrive. Such communication speed was unprecedented before the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and was not surpassed in the Middle East until the <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a> was introduced by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in 1865, nearly two and a half thousand years after the Neo-Assyrian Empire's fall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2012Making_speed-26">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2015b64-27">[23]</a> The quick communications between the imperial court and officials in the provinces was an important contributing factor to the cohesion of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and an important innovation which paved the way for its geopolitical dominance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKessler1997129-172">[166]</a> The Assyrian government exclusively used <a href="/wiki/Mule" title="Mule">mules</a> for long-distance state messengers due to their strength, hardiness and low maintenance. Assyria was the first civilization to use mules for this purpose. It was common for messengers to ride with two mules, which meant that it was possible to alternate between them to keep them fresh and to ensure that the messengers were not stranded if one mule <a href="/wiki/Lameness_(equine)" title="Lameness (equine)">became lame</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2012The_original_hybrid_transport_technology-173">[167]</a> Messages were sent either through a trusted envoy or through a series of relay riders. The relay system, called kalliu, was invented by the Assyrians and allowed for significantly faster speeds in times of need, with each rider only covering a segment of the travel route, ending at a relay station at which the next rider, with a fresh pair of mules, was passed the letter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2015b64-27">[23]</a> To facilitate transport and long-distance travel, the Neo-Assyrian Empire constructed and maintained a vast road system which connected all parts of the empire. Called the hūl šarri ("king's road"), the roads might originally have grown from routes used by the military during campaigns and were continually expanded. The largest phase of road expansion transpired between the reigns of Shalmaneser III and Tiglath-Pileser III.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKessler1997130-174">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Military">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Assyria_Bas-Relief_of_Armed_Soldiers,_Palace_of_King_Sennacherib_(704-689_BC)_(a).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ancient_Assyria_Bas-Relief_of_Armed_Soldiers%2C_Palace_of_King_Sennacherib_%28704-689_BC%29_%28a%29.jpg/170px-Ancient_Assyria_Bas-Relief_of_Armed_Soldiers%2C_Palace_of_King_Sennacherib_%28704-689_BC%29_%28a%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ancient_Assyria_Bas-Relief_of_Armed_Soldiers%2C_Palace_of_King_Sennacherib_%28704-689_BC%29_%28a%29.jpg/255px-Ancient_Assyria_Bas-Relief_of_Armed_Soldiers%2C_Palace_of_King_Sennacherib_%28704-689_BC%29_%28a%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ancient_Assyria_Bas-Relief_of_Armed_Soldiers%2C_Palace_of_King_Sennacherib_%28704-689_BC%29_%28a%29.jpg/340px-Ancient_Assyria_Bas-Relief_of_Armed_Soldiers%2C_Palace_of_King_Sennacherib_%28704-689_BC%29_%28a%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a><figcaption>Relief from Sennacherib's palace at Nineveh depicting two Assyrian spearmen</figcaption></figure> At the height of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Assyrian army was the strongest army yet assembled in world history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAberbach20034-20">[17]</a> The number of soldiers in the Neo-Assyrian army was likely several hundred thousand.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalley2017531-175">[169]</a> The Assyrians pioneered innovative uses and strategies, particularly concerning cavalry and <a href="/wiki/Siege_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege warfare">siege warfare</a>, that would be used in later warfare for millennia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAberbach20034-20">[17]</a> Due to detailed royal records and detailed depictions of soldiers and battle scenes on reliefs, the equipment and organization of the Neo-Assyrian army is relatively well understood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalley2017525-176">[170]</a> Communication within the army and between units was fast and efficient; using the empire's efficient methods of state communication, messages could be sent across vast distances very quickly. Messages could be passed within an army through the use of <a href="/wiki/Fire_signals" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire signals">fire signals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalley2017523,_526-177">[171]</a> While on campaign, the army was symbolically led by two gods; with standards of Nergal and <a href="/wiki/Adad" class="mw-redirect" title="Adad">Adad</a> being hoisted to the left and right of the commander. The commander was typically the king, but other officials could also be assigned to lead the Assyrian army into war. Such officials included family members (for instance Adad-nirari III's mother Shammuramat and Sargon II's brother <a href="/wiki/Sin-ahu-usur" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-ahu-usur">Sin-ahu-usur</a>) or influential generals and courtiers (for instance turtanus such as Dayyan-Assur and Shamshi-ilu). The army was chiefly raised through provincial governors levying troops. Provincial governors could also sometimes lead campaigns on their own and negotiate with foreign rulers. Under the Sargonid dynasty, some reforms appear to have been made to the leadership of armies; the office of turtanu was divided into two and it seems that specific regiments of the army, including their respective land-holdings, were transferred from the king's direct command to the command of the crown prince and the queen. The Neo-Assyrian army was an evolution of the preceding Middle Assyrian army, and inherited the warrior ethic, experience with chariots and levy system of its predecessor. The two most important new developments in the Neo-Assyrian period was the large-scale introduction of cavalry and the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> for armor and weapons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalley2017523,_525,_529–531-178">[172]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:288px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Bas-Relief_of_Assyrian_Soldier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Bas-Relief_of_Assyrian_Soldier.jpg/192px-Bas-Relief_of_Assyrian_Soldier.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Bas-Relief_of_Assyrian_Soldier.jpg/288px-Bas-Relief_of_Assyrian_Soldier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Bas-Relief_of_Assyrian_Soldier.jpg/384px-Bas-Relief_of_Assyrian_Soldier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Relief of a Neo-Assyrian soldier, 900–600 BC, Nimrud</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:288px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Neo-Assyrian_Iron_Helmet,_Nimrud,_800-700_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Neo-Assyrian_Iron_Helmet%2C_Nimrud%2C_800-700_BC.jpg/192px-Neo-Assyrian_Iron_Helmet%2C_Nimrud%2C_800-700_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Neo-Assyrian_Iron_Helmet%2C_Nimrud%2C_800-700_BC.jpg/288px-Neo-Assyrian_Iron_Helmet%2C_Nimrud%2C_800-700_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Neo-Assyrian_Iron_Helmet%2C_Nimrud%2C_800-700_BC.jpg/384px-Neo-Assyrian_Iron_Helmet%2C_Nimrud%2C_800-700_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Neo-Assyrian iron helmet, Nimrud, 800–700 BC</div></div></div></div></div> While the Middle Assyrian army had been composed entirely of levies,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakob2017b152-179">[173]</a> a central standing army was established in the Neo-Assyrian Empire, dubbed the kiṣir šarri ("king's unit"). Closely accompanying the king were also the ša qurubte, or royal bodyguards, some drawn from the infantry. The army was subdivided into kiṣru, composed of perhaps 1,000 soldiers, most of whom would have been infantry soldiers (zūk, zukkû or raksūte). The infantry were divided into three types: light, medium and heavy. The light infantry might have in addition to serving in battles also carried out policing tasks and served in garrisons and was likely mainly composed of Aramean tribesmen, often barefoot and without helmets, wielding bows or spears. Also included in that group were probably expert archers hired from Elam. The medium infantry were also primarily archers or spearmen but were armed with characteristic pointed helmets and a shield, though no body armor before the time of Ashurbanipal. The heavy infantry included spearmen, archers and slingers and wore boots, pointed helmets, round shields and <a href="/wiki/Scale_armour" title="Scale armour">scale armor</a>. In battle, they fought in close formation. Foreign levy troops drafted into the army are often distinguishable in reliefs by distinct headgear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalley2017526,_528-180">[174]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nineveh_-_Neo-Assyrian_soldiers_forming_a_phalanx.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Nineveh_-_Neo-Assyrian_soldiers_forming_a_phalanx.png/220px-Nineveh_-_Neo-Assyrian_soldiers_forming_a_phalanx.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Nineveh_-_Neo-Assyrian_soldiers_forming_a_phalanx.png/330px-Nineveh_-_Neo-Assyrian_soldiers_forming_a_phalanx.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Nineveh_-_Neo-Assyrian_soldiers_forming_a_phalanx.png/440px-Nineveh_-_Neo-Assyrian_soldiers_forming_a_phalanx.png 2x" data-file-width="677" data-file-height="433" /></a><figcaption>Line-drawing of a Neo-Assyrian relief showing soldiers forming a <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a></figcaption></figure> The Neo-Assyrian cavalry (ša pētḫalli) used small horses bred in the northern parts of the Assyrian heartland. The cavalry was commanded by a general with the title rab muggi ša pētḫalli. The cavalry was at some point divided into two distinct groups; the archers (ṣāb qašti) and lancers (ṣāb kabābi), both of whom in addition to their own weapons were also equipped with swords. The army also incorporated foreign cavalry from Urartu, despite Assyria and Urartu often being at war. The role of cavalry changed through the Neo-Assyrian period; early on, cavalrymen worked in pairs, one shooting arrows and the other protecting the bowman with his shield. Later on, <a href="/wiki/Shock_cavalry" class="mw-redirect" title="Shock cavalry">shock cavalry</a> was introduced. Under Ashurbanipal, horses were equipped with leather armor and a bronze plaque on the head, and riders wore scale armor. Though chariots continued to be used ceremonially, and were often used by kings while on campaign, they were largely replaced by cavalry as a prominent element of the army during the Neo-Assyrian period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalley2017526–527-181">[175]</a> While on campaign, the army made heavy use of both interpreters/translators (targumannu) and guides (rādi kibsi), both probably being drawn from foreigners resettled in Assyra. The innovative techniques and siege engines in siege warfare used by Neo-Assyrian armies included tunneling, diverting rivers, blockading to ensure starvation, <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">siege towers</a>, ladders, ramps and <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">battering rams</a>. Another innovation were the camps established by the army while on campaign, which were carefully designed with collapsible furniture and tents so that they could be swifty built and dismantled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalley2017528,_531-182">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Society">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Assyria#Society" title="Assyria">Assyria § Society</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population">Population</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Population">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_classes,_hierarchy_and_economy">Social classes, hierarchy and economy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Social classes, hierarchy and economy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alabaster_Relief_Fragment_of_Tribute-Bearer_from_Palace_at_Nimrud,_883-859_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Alabaster_Relief_Fragment_of_Tribute-Bearer_from_Palace_at_Nimrud%2C_883-859_BC.jpg/170px-Alabaster_Relief_Fragment_of_Tribute-Bearer_from_Palace_at_Nimrud%2C_883-859_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Alabaster_Relief_Fragment_of_Tribute-Bearer_from_Palace_at_Nimrud%2C_883-859_BC.jpg/255px-Alabaster_Relief_Fragment_of_Tribute-Bearer_from_Palace_at_Nimrud%2C_883-859_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Alabaster_Relief_Fragment_of_Tribute-Bearer_from_Palace_at_Nimrud%2C_883-859_BC.jpg/340px-Alabaster_Relief_Fragment_of_Tribute-Bearer_from_Palace_at_Nimrud%2C_883-859_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a><figcaption>Neo-Assyrian relief from Nimrud depicting a tribute-bearer</figcaption></figure> At the undisputed top of Neo-Assyrian society was the king. Belonging to the higher portions of Neo-Assyrian society but below the king were (in descending order of prestige and power) the crown prince, the rest of the royal family, the royal court, administrators and army officers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBedford200936-183">[177]</a> From the time Ashurnasirpal II designated Nimrud as the new capital of the empire onwards, <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a> held a very high position in Neo-Assyrian society. The highest offices both in the civil administration and the army were typically occupied by eunuchs with deliberately obscure and lowly origins, since this ensured that they would be loyal to the king. The members of the royal court were often handpicked from among the urban elites by eunuchs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2017213-184">[178]</a> Below the higher classes were the Assyrian "citizens",<a href="#cite_note-185">[g]</a> semi-free laborers (usually mostly made up of deportees) and then slaves. There were never a significantly large number of slaves and the group was made up of both prisoners of war and of Assyrians who had been unable to pay their debts and were thus reduced to <a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">debt bondage</a>. In many cases, Assyrian family groups, or "clans", formed large population groups within the empire referred to as tribes.<a href="#cite_note-186">[h]</a> It was possible through steady service to the Assyrian state bureaucracy for a family to move up the social ladder; in some cases stellar work conducted by a single individual enhanced the status of their family for generations to come. It is clear that foreigners could reach very high positions in the Neo-Assyrian Empire since individuals with Aramean names are attested in high positions by the end by the late 8th century BC. Though most of the preserved sources only give insight into the higher classes of Neo-Assyrian society, the vast majority of the population of the empire would have been farmers who worked land owned by their families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBedford200936-183">[177]</a> Families and tribes lived together in villages and other settlements near or adjacent to their agricultural lands. It is not clear how local settlements were organized internally beyond each being headed by a local mayor who acted as a local judge (more in the sense of a counselor to involved parties than someone who passed judgement) and represented the settlement within the state bureaucracy. It is possible that the mayors were responsible of forwarding local concerns to the state; no revolts by the common people (only by local governors and high officials) are known to have happened in the Neo-Assyrian period. Though all <a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">means of production</a> were owned by the state, there was also a vibrant private economic sector within the empire, with property rights of individuals ensured by the government. All monumental construction projects were undertaken by the state through levying materials and people from local governors, though sometimes also with the help of private contractors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBedford200936-183">[177]</a> The wealth generated through private investments was dwarfed by the wealth of the state, which was by far the largest employer in the empire and had an obvious monopoly on agriculture, manufacturing and exploitation of minerals. The imperial economy advantaged mainly the elite, since it was structured in a way that ensured that surplus wealth flowed to the government and was then used for the maintenance of the state throughout the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBedford200938-187">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Resettlement_policy">Resettlement policy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Resettlement policy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Resettlement_policy_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nimrud_-_captive_women_drawn_in_an_ox_cart.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Nimrud_-_captive_women_drawn_in_an_ox_cart.png/220px-Nimrud_-_captive_women_drawn_in_an_ox_cart.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Nimrud_-_captive_women_drawn_in_an_ox_cart.png/330px-Nimrud_-_captive_women_drawn_in_an_ox_cart.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Nimrud_-_captive_women_drawn_in_an_ox_cart.png/440px-Nimrud_-_captive_women_drawn_in_an_ox_cart.png 2x" data-file-width="562" data-file-height="293" /></a><figcaption>Line-drawing of a Neo-Assyrian relief depicting a family of deportees leaving a captured Babylonian city in an ox-cart<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2017211-188">[180]</a></figcaption></figure> From the time of the Assyrian reconquista at the beginning of the Neo-Assyrian period onwards, the Assyrians made extensive use of an increasingly complex system of deportations and resettlements. Large-scale resettlement projects were carried out in recently defeated enemy lands and cities in an effort to destroy local identities, which would reduce the risk that local peoples rose up against Assyria,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017177–178-28">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2017209-189">[181]</a> and to make the most of the empire's resources, through settling people in a specific underdeveloped region to cultivate its resources better.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2017209-189">[181]</a> Though it could likely be emotionally devastating for the resettled populations,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017177–178-28">[24]</a> and economically devastating for the regions they were drawn from,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2017212-190">[182]</a> the policy did not include killing any of the resettled people and was only meant to safeguard the empire and make its upkeep more efficient.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017177–178-28">[24]</a> The total number of relocated individuals has been estimated at 1.5–4.5 million people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBedford200933-191">[183]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Babylonian_prisoners_under_Assyrian_guard,_reign_of_Ashurbanipal_668-630_BCE,_Nineveh,_ME_124788.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Babylonian_prisoners_under_Assyrian_guard%2C_reign_of_Ashurbanipal_668-630_BCE%2C_Nineveh%2C_ME_124788.jpg/220px-Babylonian_prisoners_under_Assyrian_guard%2C_reign_of_Ashurbanipal_668-630_BCE%2C_Nineveh%2C_ME_124788.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Babylonian_prisoners_under_Assyrian_guard%2C_reign_of_Ashurbanipal_668-630_BCE%2C_Nineveh%2C_ME_124788.jpg/330px-Babylonian_prisoners_under_Assyrian_guard%2C_reign_of_Ashurbanipal_668-630_BCE%2C_Nineveh%2C_ME_124788.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Babylonian_prisoners_under_Assyrian_guard%2C_reign_of_Ashurbanipal_668-630_BCE%2C_Nineveh%2C_ME_124788.jpg/440px-Babylonian_prisoners_under_Assyrian_guard%2C_reign_of_Ashurbanipal_668-630_BCE%2C_Nineveh%2C_ME_124788.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3738" data-file-height="1559" /></a><figcaption>Relief from the time of Ashurbanipal, depicting Babylonian prisoners under Assyrian guard</figcaption></figure> The Neo-Assyrian state valued deportees highly for their labor and abilities. One of the most important reasons for resettlement was to develop the empire's agricultural infrastructure through introducing Assyrian-developed agricultural techniques to all of the provinces. The economic effects of the policy were enormous, with many regions of the empire experiencing significant improvements in terms of both irrigation and prosperity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2017210-192">[184]</a> Because of the inherent value of the resettled people to the Assyrian state, the resettlements were carefully planned out and organized. The travel of the deportees was typically arranged to be as comfortable and safe as possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2017210-192">[184]</a> Resettled people were allowed to bring their possessions with them, settle and live together with their families, and were free to live their lives in their new home.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalley2017528-193">[185]</a> They were also no longer counted as foreigners, but as Assyrians, which over time contributed to a sense of loyalty to the Assyrian state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalley2017528-193">[185]</a> This recognition as Assyrians was not in name only, as documentary evidence attests to the new settlers not being treated any differently by the Assyrian state than the old populations who had lived in the same locations for generations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2017211-188">[180]</a> The Assyrians appear to have viewed resettlement as an attractive opportunity rather than a punishment given that the people to be resettled were carefully selected through a complex selection process, were transported in relative comfort, and continued to live with their families. It is possible that their original homes had in many cases been devastated or destroyed in war with Assyria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2017211-188">[180]</a> A consequence of the resettlements, and according to Karen Radner "the most lasting legacy of the Assyrian Empire",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2017209–210-194">[186]</a> was a dilution of the cultural diversity of the Near East, forever changing the region's ethnolinguistic composition and facilitating the rise of Aramaic as the local <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017177–178-28">[24]</a> Aramaic remained the lingua franca of the region until suppression of Christians under the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a> in the 14th century AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiloni201737-29">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Languages">Languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Languages">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Akkadian">Akkadian</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Akkadian">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Library_of_Ashurbanipal_synonym_list_tablet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Library_of_Ashurbanipal_synonym_list_tablet.jpg/170px-Library_of_Ashurbanipal_synonym_list_tablet.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Library_of_Ashurbanipal_synonym_list_tablet.jpg/255px-Library_of_Ashurbanipal_synonym_list_tablet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Library_of_Ashurbanipal_synonym_list_tablet.jpg/340px-Library_of_Ashurbanipal_synonym_list_tablet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1829" data-file-height="2676" /></a><figcaption>Neo-Assyrian cuneiform tablet from the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Ashurbanipal" title="Library of Ashurbanipal">Library of Ashurbanipal</a> listing <a href="/wiki/Synonym" title="Synonym">synonyms</a></figcaption></figure> The ancient Assyrians primarily spoke and wrote the Assyrian language, a <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic language</a> (i.e. related to modern <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>) closely related to <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian language">Babylonian</a>, spoken in southern Mesopotamia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner20152-195">[187]</a> Both Assyrian and Babylonian are generally regarded by modern scholars to be distinct dialects of the Akkadian language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner20152-195">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring202039-196">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarfinkle200754-197">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017313-198">[190]</a> This is a modern convention as contemporary ancient authors considered Assyrian and Babylonian to be two separate languages;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017313-198">[190]</a> only Babylonian was referred to as akkadûm, with Assyrian being referred to as aššurû or aššurāyu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017314-199">[191]</a> Though both were written with cuneiform script, the signs look quite different and can be distinguished relatively easily.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner20152-195">[187]</a> The Neo-Assyrian Empire was the last ever state to sponsor writing traditional Akkadian cuneiform in all levels of its administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021147-200">[192]</a> As a result, ancient Mesopotamian textual tradition and writing practices flourished to an unprecedented degree in the Neo-Assyrian period. Texts written in cuneiform were made not just in the traditionally Akkadian-speaking Assyrian heartland and Babylonia, but by officials and scribes all over the empire. At the height of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, cuneiform documents were written in lands today part of countries like Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, Syria, Jordan and Iran, which had not produced any cuneiform writings for centuries, and in cases never before.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021148-201">[193]</a> Three distinct versions, or dialects, of Akkadian were used in the Neo-Assyrian Empire: Standard Babylonian, Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021149-202">[194]</a> Standard Babylonian was a highly codified version of ancient Babylonian, used around 1500 BC, and was used as a language of high culture, for nearly all scholarly documents, literature and poetry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017162-141">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021149-202">[194]</a> The culture of the Neo-Assyrian elite was strongly influenced by Babylonia in the south; in a vein similar to how <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek civilization</a> was respected in, and influenced, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>, the Assyrians had much respect for Babylon and its ancient culture. Though the political relationship between Babylonia and the Assyrian central government was variable and volatile, cultural appreciation of the south was constant throughout the Neo-Assyrian period. Many of the documents written in Standard Babylonian were written by scribes who originally came from southern Mesopotamia but were employed in the north.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017162-141">[135]</a> The Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian forms of Akkadian were <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> languages, i.e. the primary spoken languages of the people of northern and southern Mesopotamia, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021149-202">[194]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nineveh_-_Neo-Assyrian_scribes_writing_down_the_numbers_of_enemies_slain.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nineveh_-_Neo-Assyrian_scribes_writing_down_the_numbers_of_enemies_slain.png/220px-Nineveh_-_Neo-Assyrian_scribes_writing_down_the_numbers_of_enemies_slain.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nineveh_-_Neo-Assyrian_scribes_writing_down_the_numbers_of_enemies_slain.png/330px-Nineveh_-_Neo-Assyrian_scribes_writing_down_the_numbers_of_enemies_slain.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nineveh_-_Neo-Assyrian_scribes_writing_down_the_numbers_of_enemies_slain.png/440px-Nineveh_-_Neo-Assyrian_scribes_writing_down_the_numbers_of_enemies_slain.png 2x" data-file-width="569" data-file-height="502" /></a><figcaption>Line-drawing of a relief depicting Neo-Assyrian scribes recording the number of enemies slain by soldiers</figcaption></figure>Neo-Assyrian was used in some surviving tablets containing poetry and also more prominently in surviving letters of royal correspondence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017317-203">[195]</a> Because of the multilingual nature of the empire, many loan words are attested as entering the Assyrian language during the Neo-Assyrian period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017321-204">[196]</a> The number of surviving documents written in cuneiform grow considerably fewer in the late reign of Ashurbanipal, which suggests that the language was declining since it is probably attributable to an increased use of Aramaic, often written on perishable materials like leather scrolls or papyrus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017318-205">[197]</a> The Neo-Assyrian Akkadian language did not disappear completely until around the end of the 6th century BC however, well into the subsequent post-imperial period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017314-199">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aramaic">Aramaic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Aramaic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></div> The imperialism of the Neo-Assyrian Empire was in some ways different from that of later empires. The perhaps biggest difference was that the Neo-Assyrian kings at no point imposed their religion or language on the foreign peoples they conquered outside the Assyrian heartland; the Assyrian national deity Ashur had no significant temples outside of northern Mesopotamia and the Neo-Assyrian language, though it served as an official language in the sense that it was spoken by provincial governors, was not forced upon conquered peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017180-73">[67]</a> This lack of suppression against foreign languages, and the growing movement of Aramaic-speaking people into the empire during the Middle Assyrian and early Neo-Assyrian periods facilitated the spread of the Aramaic language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017318-205">[197]</a> As the most widely spoken and mutually understandable of the Semitic languages (the language group containing many of the languages spoken through the empire),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021147-200">[192]</a> Aramaic grew in importance throughout the Neo-Assyrian period and increasingly replaced the Neo-Assyrian language even within the Assyrian heartland itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017180-73">[67]</a> From the 9th century BC onwards, Aramaic became the <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> lingua franca of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, with Neo-Assyrian and other forms of Akkadian becoming relegated to a language of the political elite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017318-205">[197]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyrian_Lion_weight.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Assyrian_Lion_weight.png/220px-Assyrian_Lion_weight.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Assyrian_Lion_weight.png/330px-Assyrian_Lion_weight.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Assyrian_Lion_weight.png/440px-Assyrian_Lion_weight.png 2x" data-file-width="789" data-file-height="513" /></a><figcaption>Line drawing of an <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_lion_weights" title="Assyrian lion weights">Assyrian lion weight</a> once belonging to the king <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_V" title="Shalmaneser V">Shalmaneser V</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 727–722 BC). The inscriptions on the weight are in both <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> (on the body) and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> (on the base).</figcaption></figure> Despite its growth, surviving examples of Aramaic from Neo-Assyrian times are significantly fewer in number than Akkadian writings, mostly because Aramaic scribes for the most part used perishable materials for their writings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017320-206">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021168-207">[199]</a> The somewhat lacking record of Aramaic in inscriptions does not reflect that the language held a lower status, since royal inscriptions were almost always written in a highly codified and established manner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021178-208">[200]</a> Some Aramaic-language inscriptions in stone are known and there are even a handful of examples of bilingual inscriptions, with the same text written in both Akkadian and Aramaic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017320-206">[198]</a> Despite the Neo-Assyrian Empire's promotion of Akkadian, Aramaic also grew to become a widespread vernacular language<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021149-202">[194]</a> and it also began to be used in official state-related capacities as early as the reign of Shalmaneser III, given that some examples of Aramaic writings are known from a palace he built in Nimrud.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021149-202">[194]</a> The relationship between Akkadian and Aramaic was somewhat complex, however. Though Sargon II explicitly rejected Aramaic as being unfit for royal correspondence,<a href="#cite_note-210">[i]</a> Aramaic was clearly an officially recognized language under his predecessor Shalmaneser V, who owned a set of <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_lion_weights" title="Assyrian lion weights">lion weights</a> inscribed with text in both Akkadian and Aramaic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017319-209">[201]</a> That the question of using Aramaic in royal correspondence was even raised in Sargon II's time in the first place was a significant development.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2011361-211">[202]</a> In reliefs from palaces built by kings from Tiglath-Pileser III to Ashurbanipal, scribes writing in Akkadian and Aramaic are often depicted side by side, confirming Aramaic having risen to the position of an official language used by the imperial administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021149-202">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017319-209">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_languages">Other languages</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Other languages">edit</a>]</div> The Neo-Assyrian Empire was highly multilingual. Through its expansionism, the empire came to rule a vast stretch of land incorporating regions throughout the Near East, where various languages were spoken.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021147-200">[192]</a> These languages included various Semitic languages (including <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moabite_language" title="Moabite language">Moabite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021147-200">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017320–321-212">[203]</a> as well as many non-Semitic languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a>), <a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian languages</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Urartian_language" title="Urartian language">Urartian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shupria" title="Shupria">Shuprian</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021147-200">[192]</a> <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic languages</a> (<a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017320-206">[198]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language isolates</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Mannean_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mannean language">Mannean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2021147-200">[192]</a> Though it was no longer spoken, some scholarly texts from the Neo-Assyrian period were also written in the ancient <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017321-204">[196]</a> Though they must have been necessary, Neo-Assyrian texts rarely mentioned translators and interpreters (targumānu). Translators are only mentioned in cases when Assyrians communicated with speakers of non-Semitic languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017321-204">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholarship_and_engineering">Scholarship and engineering</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Scholarship and engineering">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Literature">Literature</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_famous_library_of_Ashurbanipal_at_Nineveh.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/The_famous_library_of_Ashurbanipal_at_Nineveh.png/170px-The_famous_library_of_Ashurbanipal_at_Nineveh.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/The_famous_library_of_Ashurbanipal_at_Nineveh.png/255px-The_famous_library_of_Ashurbanipal_at_Nineveh.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/The_famous_library_of_Ashurbanipal_at_Nineveh.png/340px-The_famous_library_of_Ashurbanipal_at_Nineveh.png 2x" data-file-width="635" data-file-height="875" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Ashurbanipal" title="Library of Ashurbanipal">Library of Ashurbanipal</a></figcaption></figure> The beginnings of Assyrian scholarship is conventionally placed near the beginning of the Middle Assyrian Empire in the 14th century BC, when Assyrians began to take a lively interest in Babylonian scholarship, which they themselves adapted and developed into their own scholarship tradition. The rising status of scholarship might be connected to the kings beginning to regard amassing knowledge as a way to strengthen their power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeeßel2017368-213">[204]</a> There was a marked change in royal attitude towards scholarship in the Neo-Assyrian period; while the kings had previously seen preserving knowledge as a responsibility of the temples and of private individuals, it was increasingly also seen as a responsibility of the king himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFincke2017378-214">[205]</a> The history of Neo-Assyrian scholarship appears to have begun already under Tukulti-Ninurta II in the 9th century BC, since he is the first Assyrian king under which the office of chief scholar is attested. In Tukulti-Ninurta's time the office was occupied by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gabbu-ilani-eresh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gabbu-ilani-eresh (page does not exist)">Gabbu-ilani-eresh</a>, an ancestor of a later influential family of advisors and scribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017169-49">[44]</a> Libraries were built to maintain scribal culture and scholarship and to preserve the knowledge of the past. Such libraries were not limited to the temples and royal palaces; there were also private libraries built and kept by individual scholars. Texts found in Neo-Assyrian libraries fall into a wide array of genres, including divinatory texts, divination reports, treatments for the sick (either medical or magical), ritual texts, incantations, prayers and hymns, school texts and literary texts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFincke2017379–380-215">[206]</a> The largest and most important royal library in Mesopotamian history was the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Ashurbanipal" title="Library of Ashurbanipal">Library of Ashurbanipal</a>, an ambitious project for which Ashurbanipal gathered tablets from both Assyrian and Babylonian libraries. The texts in this library were gathered both through amassing existing tablets from throughout the empire and through commissioning (i.e. paying) scribes to copy existing works in their own libraries and send them to the king. In total, the Library of Ashurbanipal included more than 30,000 documents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFincke2017383–385-216">[207]</a> Perhaps a contributing reason for the creation of great royal libraries under the Neo-Assyrian kings was that they no longer regarded divination performed by their diviners as enough, but instead wished to have access to the relevant reference documents themselves and thus collected cuneiform tablets the relevant texts (though the majority of the contents of the libraries were not divinatory texts).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFincke2017379-217">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Civic_technology">Civic technology</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Civic technology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gardens_of_Ashurbanipal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Gardens_of_Ashurbanipal.jpg/510px-Gardens_of_Ashurbanipal.jpg" decoding="async" width="510" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Gardens_of_Ashurbanipal.jpg/765px-Gardens_of_Ashurbanipal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Gardens_of_Ashurbanipal.jpg/1020px-Gardens_of_Ashurbanipal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5974" data-file-height="2101" /></a><figcaption>Relief depicting the gardens of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh (left) with a color reconstruction (right). As can be seen on the right side of the relief, the garden featured sophisticated irrigation <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply)" title="Aqueduct (water supply)">aqueducts</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Neo-Assyrian Empire accomplished several complex technical projects, which indicates sophisticated technical knowledge. Various professionals who performed engineering tasks are attested in Neo-Assyrian sources, such as individuals holding positions like šitimgallu ("chief builder"), šellapajū ("architect"), etinnu ("house builder") and gugallu ("inspector of canals").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg2017511-218">[209]</a> Among the most impressive engineering and construction projects of the Neo-Assyrian period were the repeated constructions and renovations of new capital cities (Nimrud, Dur-Sharrukin and Nineveh). Due to royal inscriptions commemorating the building works at these sites, the process of how they were built is relatively well-known. The level of sophistication in Assyrian engineering is evident from solutions to technical problems like lighting throughout large buildings and canalizations of toilets, roofs and courts. All portions of monumental buildings, such as their foundations, walls and terraces, needed to be exactly planned before construction began due to the manpower and materials that had to be gathered. A frequent challenge was to construct the roofs of large rooms since the Assyrians had to support them using only wooden beams. As a result, large representative rooms were often much longer than they were wide. There was a general tendency of kings wanting to outperform their predecessors: Sennacherib's palace at Nineveh was significantly larger than that of Sargon II, which in turn was significantly larger than that of Shalmaneser III.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg2017511–514-219">[210]</a> All of the Neo-Assyrian capitals were outfitted with great parks, a new innovation of the Neo-Assyrian period. Parks were complex engineering works since they not only exhibited exotic plants from far-away lands but also involved modifying the landscape through adding artificial hills and ponds, as well as pavilions and other small buildings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg2017514-220">[211]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LammasuChicago.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/LammasuChicago.jpg/220px-LammasuChicago.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/LammasuChicago.jpg/330px-LammasuChicago.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/LammasuChicago.jpg/440px-LammasuChicago.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1018" data-file-height="958" /></a><figcaption>A giant <a href="/wiki/Lamassu" title="Lamassu">lamassu</a> from Sargon II's palace at Dur-Sharrukin</figcaption></figure> To supply new and renovated cities with water, the Assyrians constructed advanced hydraulic works to divert and transport water from far-away mountain regions in the east and north. In Babylonia, water was typically simply drawn from the Tigris river, but it was difficult to do so in Assyria due to the river's level vis-à-vis the surrounding lands and changes in the water level. Because periods of drought often threatened Assyrian <a href="/wiki/Dry_Farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Dry Farming">dry farming</a>, several Neo-Assyrian kings also undertook great irrigation projects, often digging new canals. The most ambitious hydraulic engineering project of the Neo-Assyrian period was undertaken by Sennacherib during his renovation of Nineveh. As part of his building project, four large canal systems, together covering more than 150 kilometers (93.2 miles), were connected to the city from four different directions. These systems included not only canals but also tunnels, <a href="/wiki/Weir" title="Weir">weirs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply)" title="Aqueduct (water supply)">aqueducts</a> and natural <a href="/wiki/Watercourse" class="mw-redirect" title="Watercourse">watercourses</a>. Vital, though smaller, hydraulic works also included <a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">sewage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a> systems for buildings which made it possible to dispose of <a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">wastewater</a> and efficiently drain the yards, roofs and toilets of not only palaces and temples, but also private homes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg2017514–517-221">[212]</a> Another engineering challenge was the transportation of goods and material, sometimes involving very heavy loads, from far-away locations. Wood was for instance relatively scarce in the Assyrian heartland and as such had to be gathered from distant lands and transported back home for its vital use as a building material. Per surviving documentation, wood was typically gathered from distant forests, transported to rivers and then brought back to Assyria on rafts or ships. The most challenging type of transportation was the transport of large blocks of stone, necessary for various building projects. Several Assyrian kings in particular note in their royal inscriptions the difficulties involved in the transportation of the single massive blocks of stone needed to create the great <a href="/wiki/Lamassu" title="Lamassu">lamassu</a> (protective stone colossi with the head of a human, wings and the body of a bull) for their palaces. Because the stones had to be transported from sources several kilometers away from the capitals and were typically transported on boats, it was a difficult process and several boats sank on the way. It was first under Sennacherib that a new quarry was opened on the left bank of the Tigris river, which led to the stones being able to be transported fully over land, a more secure but still very labor-intensive project. When transported over land, the great stones were moved by four teams of workers, overseen by supervisors, using wooden planks or rollers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg2017518,_520-222">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_influence_and_legacy">Cultural influence and legacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Cultural influence and legacy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Literary_and_religious_traditions">Literary and religious traditions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Literary and religious traditions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Papyrus_narrating_the_story_of_the_wise_chancellor_Ahiqar._Aramaic_script._5th_century_BCE._From_Elephantine,_Egypt._Neues_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Papyrus_narrating_the_story_of_the_wise_chancellor_Ahiqar._Aramaic_script._5th_century_BCE._From_Elephantine%2C_Egypt._Neues_Museum.jpg/220px-Papyrus_narrating_the_story_of_the_wise_chancellor_Ahiqar._Aramaic_script._5th_century_BCE._From_Elephantine%2C_Egypt._Neues_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Papyrus_narrating_the_story_of_the_wise_chancellor_Ahiqar._Aramaic_script._5th_century_BCE._From_Elephantine%2C_Egypt._Neues_Museum.jpg/330px-Papyrus_narrating_the_story_of_the_wise_chancellor_Ahiqar._Aramaic_script._5th_century_BCE._From_Elephantine%2C_Egypt._Neues_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Papyrus_narrating_the_story_of_the_wise_chancellor_Ahiqar._Aramaic_script._5th_century_BCE._From_Elephantine%2C_Egypt._Neues_Museum.jpg/440px-Papyrus_narrating_the_story_of_the_wise_chancellor_Ahiqar._Aramaic_script._5th_century_BCE._From_Elephantine%2C_Egypt._Neues_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5550" data-file-height="2818" /></a><figcaption>Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500 BC containing the <a href="/wiki/Story_of_Ahikar" title="Story of Ahikar">Story of Ahikar</a></figcaption></figure> The Neo-Assyrian Empire left a cultural legacy of great consequence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017196-30">[26]</a> The population of northern Mesopotamia continued to keep the memory of their ancient civilization alive and positively connected with the Assyrian Empire in local histories written as late as the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHauser2017241-223">[214]</a> Figures like Sargon II,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayne2012214-224">[215]</a> Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, Ashurbanipal and Shamash-shum-ukin long figured in local folklore and literary tradition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalimiRichardson20145-225">[216]</a> In large part, tales from the Sasanian period and later times were invented narratives, based on ancient Assyrian history but applied to local and current landscapes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayne2012209-226">[217]</a> Medieval tales written in Aramaic (or <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a>) by and large characterize Sennacherib as an archetypical pagan king assassinated as part of a family feud, whose children convert to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalimiRichardson20145-225">[216]</a> The legend of the <a href="/wiki/Behnam,_Sarah,_and_the_Forty_Martyrs" title="Behnam, Sarah, and the Forty Martyrs">Saints Behnam and Sarah</a>, set in the 4th century but written long thereafter, casts Sennacherib, under the name <a href="/wiki/Sinharib" title="Sinharib">Sinharib</a>, as their royal father. After Behnam converts to Christianity, Sinharib orders his execution, but is later struck by a dangerous disease that is cured through being baptized by <a href="/wiki/Saint_Matthew" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Matthew">Saint Matthew</a> in Assur. Thankful, Sinharib then converts to Christianity and founds an important monastery near <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Mar_Behnam_Monastery" title="Mar Behnam Monastery">Deir Mar Mattai</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner20157-227">[218]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Semiramis,_Queen_of_Assyria_-_Cesare_Saccaggi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Great_Semiramis%2C_Queen_of_Assyria_-_Cesare_Saccaggi.jpg/170px-Great_Semiramis%2C_Queen_of_Assyria_-_Cesare_Saccaggi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Great_Semiramis%2C_Queen_of_Assyria_-_Cesare_Saccaggi.jpg/255px-Great_Semiramis%2C_Queen_of_Assyria_-_Cesare_Saccaggi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Great_Semiramis%2C_Queen_of_Assyria_-_Cesare_Saccaggi.jpg/340px-Great_Semiramis%2C_Queen_of_Assyria_-_Cesare_Saccaggi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1042" data-file-height="1759" /></a><figcaption>Great Semiramis, Queen of Assyria by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cesare_Saccaggi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cesare Saccaggi (page does not exist)">Cesare Saccaggi</a> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesare_Saccaggi" class="extiw" title="it:Cesare Saccaggi">it</a>]</figcaption></figure>Some Aramaic-language stories spread far beyond northern Mesopotamia. The <a href="/wiki/Story_of_Ahikar" title="Story of Ahikar">Story of Ahikar</a> follows a legendary royal advisor, named Ahikar, of Sennacherib and Esarhaddon<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017195-228">[219]</a> and is first attested on a <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> from <a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a> in Egypt from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500 BC. This story proved popular and was translated into a number of languages. Other tales from Egypt include stories of the Egyptian hero Inarus, a fictionalized version of the rebel <a href="/wiki/Inaros_I" title="Inaros I">Inaros I</a>, fighting against Esarhaddon's invasion of Egypt as well as a tale recounting the civil war between Ashurbanipal and Shamash-shum-ukin. Some Egyptian tales feature a queen of the <a href="/wiki/Amazons" title="Amazons">Amazons</a> named Serpot, possibly based on <a href="/wiki/Shammuramat" title="Shammuramat">Shammuramat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017196-30">[26]</a> Several legends of Assyria are known from Greco-Roman texts, including a fictional narrative of the founding of the Assyrian Empire and Nineveh by the legendary figure <a href="/wiki/Ninus" title="Ninus">Ninus</a>, as well as tales of Ninus's powerful wife <a href="/wiki/Semiramis" title="Semiramis">Semiramis</a>, another fictionalized version of Shammuramat. Also written were legendary accounts of the empire's fall, erroneously linked to the reign of the effeminate <a href="/wiki/Sardanapalus" title="Sardanapalus">Sardanapalus</a>, a fictionalized version of Ashurbanipal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017195-228">[219]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peter_Paul_Rubens_082.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Peter_Paul_Rubens_082.jpg/220px-Peter_Paul_Rubens_082.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Peter_Paul_Rubens_082.jpg/330px-Peter_Paul_Rubens_082.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Peter_Paul_Rubens_082.jpg/440px-Peter_Paul_Rubens_082.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1156" data-file-height="918" /></a><figcaption>The Defeat of Sennacherib by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Peter Paul Rubens</a></figcaption></figure> Though the Neo-Assyrian Empire never imposed forced religious conversions, its mere existence as a large imperialist state reshaped the religious views of the people around it, prominently in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Hebrew kingdoms of Israel and Judah</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> mentions Assyria about 150 times; multiple significant events which involved the Hebrews are mentioned, most prominently Sennacherib's war against Hezekiah, and several Neo-Assyrian kings are mentioned, including Tiglath-Pileser III, Shalmaneser V, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon and possibly Ashurbanipal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017195-228">[219]</a> Though some positive associations of Assyria are included, the Bible generally paints the Neo-Assyrian Empire as an imperialist aggressor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017b560-229">[220]</a> Although apparently originally based on historical sources, the Biblical narratives of Assyria were altered somewhat and can thus for the most part not be regarded as reliable historical accounts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017b558-230">[221]</a> The most prominent alteration is that Sennacherib is described as being defeated by an angel outside Jerusalem, rather than simply returning home.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017b559-231">[222]</a> <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish</a> theology was influenced by the Neo-Assyrian Empire: the Biblical <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy" title="Book of Deuteronomy">Book of Deuteronomy</a> bears a strong resemblance to the loyalty oaths in Assyrian vassal treaties, though with the absolute loyalty to the Assyrian king replaced with absolute loyalty to the <a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic god</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017195-228">[219]</a> Additionally, some stories in the Bible appear to be at least partly drawn from events in Assyrian history; the Biblical story of <a href="/wiki/Jonah" title="Jonah">Jonah</a> and the whale might draw on earlier stories concerning Shammuramat and the story of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_(Genesis)" title="Joseph (Genesis)">Joseph</a> was likely at least partly inspired by Esarhaddon's rise to power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017196-30">[26]</a> Perhaps the greatest influence of the Neo-Assyrian Empire on later Abrahamic religious tradition was that the emergence of a new religious and "national" identity among the Hebrews might have been a direct response to the political and intellectual challenges posed by Assyrian imperialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017b556-232">[223]</a> The most important innovation in Hebrew theology during the period roughly corresponding to the time of the Neo-Assyrian Empire was the elevation of <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a> as the only god and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a> that would later characterize Judaism, Christianity and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>. It has been suggested that this development only followed experiences either with the near-monotheism of the Assyrians in regards to the god Ashur, or the monocratic and universal nature of the imperial rule of the Assyrian kings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017b565-31">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Archaeological_rediscoveries">Archaeological rediscoveries</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Archaeological rediscoveries">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_sculpture#Excavations" title="Assyrian sculpture">Assyrian sculpture § Excavations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Assyriology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-04-p077.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Le_Tour_du_monde-04-p077.jpg/220px-Le_Tour_du_monde-04-p077.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Le_Tour_du_monde-04-p077.jpg/330px-Le_Tour_du_monde-04-p077.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Le_Tour_du_monde-04-p077.jpg/440px-Le_Tour_du_monde-04-p077.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1244" data-file-height="825" /></a><figcaption>1861 illustration by <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Flandin" title="Eugène Flandin">Eugène Flandin</a> of excavations of the ruins of <a href="/wiki/Dur-Sharrukin" title="Dur-Sharrukin">Dur-Sharrukin</a></figcaption></figure> When the Medes and Babylonians conquered the Assyrian heartland, they put the great monuments, palaces, temples and cities of Assyria to the torch; the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian people</a> were dispersed and the great cities were for a long time left largely abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrolle_Larsen2017-233">[224]</a> Though Assyria experienced a resurgence in the later post-imperial period, chiefly under the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a>, the region was later devastated once more during the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> in the 3rd century AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHauser2017241-223">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner201519-234">[225]</a> The only ancient Assyrian city to be continually inhabited as an urban center from the time of the Neo-Assyrian Empire to the present is Arbela, today known as <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Erbil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrolle_Larsen2017584-235">[226]</a> Though the local population of northern Mesopotamia never forgot the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the locations of its great capital cities, knowledge of Assyria in the west survived through the centuries chiefly through the gruesome accounts of the Bible and the works describing the ancient empire by classical authors. Unlike other ancient civilizations, Assyria and other Mesopotamian civilizations left no magnificent ruins above ground; all that remained to see were huge grass-covered mounds in the plains which travellers at times believed to simply be natural features of the landscape.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrolle_Larsen2017583–584-236">[227]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khorsabad_Salle_II._Porte_H_-_attaque_ville_ennemie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Khorsabad_Salle_II._Porte_H_-_attaque_ville_ennemie.jpg/220px-Khorsabad_Salle_II._Porte_H_-_attaque_ville_ennemie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Khorsabad_Salle_II._Porte_H_-_attaque_ville_ennemie.jpg/330px-Khorsabad_Salle_II._Porte_H_-_attaque_ville_ennemie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Khorsabad_Salle_II._Porte_H_-_attaque_ville_ennemie.jpg/440px-Khorsabad_Salle_II._Porte_H_-_attaque_ville_ennemie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3302" data-file-height="1805" /></a><figcaption>1849 illustration of a relief from Dur-Sharrukin by Eugène Flandin</figcaption></figure> In the early 19th century, European explorers and archaeologists first began to investigate the ancient mounds. One of the important early figures in Assyrian archaeology was the British business agent <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Rich" title="Claudius Rich">Claudius Rich</a> (1787–1821), who visited the site of Nineveh in 1820, traded antiquities with the locals and made precise measurements of the mounds. Rich's collection, which eventually ended up in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, and writings inspired <a href="/wiki/Julius_von_Mohl" title="Julius von Mohl">Julius von Mohl</a> (1800–1876), secretary of the French <a href="/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_Asiatique" title="Société Asiatique">Société Asiatique</a>, to persuade the French authorities to create the position of a <a href="/wiki/French_consul" class="mw-redirect" title="French consul">French consul</a> in Mosul, and to start excavations at Nineveh. The first consul to be appointed was <a href="/wiki/Paul-%C3%89mile_Botta" title="Paul-Émile Botta">Paul-Émile Botta</a> (1802–1870) in 1841. Botta conducted, using funds secured by Mohl, extensive excavations at Nineveh, particularly on the huge Kuyunjik mound. Because the ancient ruins of Nineveh were hidden so deep under layers of later settlement and agricultural activities, Botta's excavation never reached them. Upon hearing reports by locals that they had uncovered Assyrian ruins, Botta turned his attention to the site of <a href="/wiki/Khorsabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Khorsabad">Khorsabad</a>, 20 kilometers to the northeast, where he through excavations quickly discovered the ruins of an ancient palace. Botta had uncovered the ancient city of Dur-Sharrukin, Sargon II's capital, though he did not know it yet. In his early writings he simply referred to the site as a "monument". The cuneiform writing system would not be deciphered until ten years later. The great works of art found under Botta's supervision included great reliefs and stone lamassus. The discovery was swiftly communicated in scholarly circles by Mohl in Paris. In 1847, the first ever exhibition on Assyrian sculptures was held in the <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>. After returning to Europe in the late 1840s, Botta compiled an elaborate report on the findings, complete with numerous drawings of the reliefs made by the artist <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Flandin" title="Eugène Flandin">Eugène Flandin</a> (1809–1889). The report, published in 1849, showcased the majesty of Assyrian art and architecture and garnered exceptional interest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrolle_Larsen2017584–585-237">[228]</a> Some 19th-century historians, perhaps partly due to the gruesome depiction of Assyria in the Bible, viewed the Assyrians as lacking artistic talent, perceiving Assyrian statues as monstrous and lacking abstraction compared to Ancient Greek statues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrolle_Larsen2017583–584-236">[227]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Layard_Nineveh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Layard_Nineveh.jpg/220px-Layard_Nineveh.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Layard_Nineveh.jpg/330px-Layard_Nineveh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Layard_Nineveh.jpg/440px-Layard_Nineveh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="598" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>1852 illustration by Austen Henry Layard of excavations at Nineveh</figcaption></figure>Another early explorer to oversee extensive excavations was <a href="/wiki/Austen_Henry_Layard" title="Austen Henry Layard">Austen Henry Layard</a> (1817–1894). Layard was amazed by the ancient Assyrian sites, writing of "mighty ruins in the midst of deserts, defying, by their very desolation and lack of definite form, the description of the traveller". The main inspiration for Layard was, just like it was for Mohl, the work of Claudius Rich. Layard began his activities in November 1845 at Nimrud (though he believed this to be the site of Nineveh), working as a private individual without any permission to excavate from the Ottoman authorities; he initially tried to fool the local <a href="/wiki/Pasha" title="Pasha">pasha</a> through claiming that he was on a hunting trip. The expedition was funded entirely by the <a href="/wiki/British_Ambassador_to_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="British Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire">British Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stratford_Canning,_1st_Viscount_Stratford_de_Redcliffe" title="Stratford Canning, 1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe">Stratford Canning</a> (1786–1880). At Nimrud, Layard discovered ruins of numerous palaces, including the ancient <a href="/w/index.php?title=Northwest_Palace&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northwest Palace (page does not exist)">Northwest Palace</a> of Ashurnasirpal II, with numerous walls covered in reliefs. Layard's illustrated two-volume book presenting his discoveries, Nineveh and its Remains, was published in 1849 and was hugely successful. Nineveh and its Remains included not only information on the discoveries themselves, but also an account of the excavations as well as Layard's own experiences travelling in the Middle East and interacting with the locals. The book was translated into numerous languages and made Layard into a celebrity; the British politician and writer <a href="/wiki/Francis_Egerton,_1st_Earl_of_Ellesmere" title="Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere">Francis Egerton</a> called it "the greatest achievement of our time". Entrusted with greater funds, Layard conducted a second expedition in which he turned his attention to the Kuyunjik mound. There he made significant discoveries, including finding the palace built by Sennacherib.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrolle_Larsen2017584–588-238">[229]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hormuzd.Rassam.reclined.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Hormuzd.Rassam.reclined.jpg/170px-Hormuzd.Rassam.reclined.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Hormuzd.Rassam.reclined.jpg/255px-Hormuzd.Rassam.reclined.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Hormuzd.Rassam.reclined.jpg/340px-Hormuzd.Rassam.reclined.jpg 2x" data-file-width="403" data-file-height="485" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of the Assyrian archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Hormuzd_Rassam" title="Hormuzd Rassam">Hormuzd Rassam</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1854</figcaption></figure> In 1852, the French continued excavations at Khorsabad, with the new consul at Mosul, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Place" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Place">Victor Place</a> (1818–1875), instructed to procure "the largest possible" amount of Assyrian artefacts. Rivalry between the Louvre and the British Museum played a significant role in the intensity of early exploration and excavation of Assyrian sites. Though Layard left Mesopotamia in 1851, the British Museum appointed his close assistant, the Assyrian <a href="/wiki/Hormuzd_Rassam" title="Hormuzd Rassam">Hormuzd Rassam</a> (1826–1910), to continue to maintain excavation projects in the region. Both Rassam and Place conducted excavations at the site of Assur, though they did not know this was the site of the ancient capital and were unable to deal with the complexity of the site, thus making no major discoveries there. Despite agreements as to who should excavate where, Rassam and Place developed an intense rivalry. One night during excavations at Nineveh, Rassam sent out a team of excavators to under the cover of darkness dig in the French portion of the site. These excavators eventually found the ancient palace of Ashurbanipal, where Rassam made several spectacular discoveries. Place's efforts ended in disaster as rafts built to transport some of his most spectacular finds, including reliefs and statues, sank in the marshes south of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and the archaeological finds were lost. After the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> in 1853, archaeology in Assyria remained dead for a long time, though excavations began again in the early 20th century and have continued since.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrolle_Larsen2017588–590-239">[230]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Neo-Assyrian_Empire_as_a_world_empire">The Neo-Assyrian Empire as a world empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: The Neo-Assyrian Empire as a world empire">edit</a>]</div> Though some point to the Akkadian Empire (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2334–2154 BC) or the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1550–1290 BC),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017178-72">[66]</a> many researchers consider the Neo-Assyrian Empire to be the first <a href="/wiki/World_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="World empire">world empire</a> in history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring2020133-21">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017536-23">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017161-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElayi20172-24">[21]</a> Although the Neo-Assyrian Empire covered between 1.4<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurchinAdamsHall2006223-240">[231]</a> and 1.7<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaagepera1978191-241">[232]</a> million square kilometers (0.54–0.66 million square miles; just a little over one percent of the land area of the planet), the terms "world empire" or "universal empire" should not be taken as denoting actual world domination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017536-23">[20]</a> The Neo-Assyrian Empire was at its height the largest empire yet to be formed in history,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring2020133-21">[18]</a> and had ideologically achieved world domination in the sense of ruling most of the entire known world as known to the Assyrians themselves. To the Assyrians, the world was made up of Mesopotamia, the mountains to the northeast, the deserts to the southwest and a global all-encircling ocean surrounding all of it, which they encounted in the west as the Mediterranean (the "Upper Sea") and in the east as the Persian Gulf (the "Lower Sea"). The conquest of a vast empire covering the lands between the two seas was seen by the Assyrians themselves, and many of their contemporaries, as rendering their empire "universal" given that the lands that remained outside their dominions, such as the Arabian desert and the highlands of the Zagros Mountains, could simply be discarded as "empty" lands, inhabited by uncivilized peoples that perhaps belonged on the fringes of the world rather than within civilization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017536-23">[20]</a> A "world empire" can also be interpreted as an imperial state without any competitors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring2020144-46">[41]</a> Though there were other reasonably large kingdoms in the ancient Near East during the Neo-Assyrian period, notably Urartu in the north, Egypt in the west and Elam in the east, none were existential threats to Assyria and could do little else than defend themselves in times of war; whereas Assyrian troops routinely plundered and campaigned in the heartlands of these kingdoms, the Assyrian heartland was not invaded until the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring2020144-46">[41]</a> Nevertheless, the existence of other organized kingdoms undermined the notion of the Assyrians as universal rulers. It is partly because of this that large military campaigns were conducted with the express goal of conquering these kingdoms and fulfilling the ideological mission of ruling the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017536-23">[20]</a> At the height of the Neo-Assyrian Empire under Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, only Urartu remained since Egypt had been conquered and Elam left destroyed and desolate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2009-103">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ideological_influence_on_later_empires">Ideological influence on later empires</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Ideological influence on later empires">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Translatio_imperii.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Translatio_imperii.png/330px-Translatio_imperii.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Translatio_imperii.png/495px-Translatio_imperii.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Translatio_imperii.png/660px-Translatio_imperii.png 2x" data-file-width="1041" data-file-height="837" /></a><figcaption>Chart depicting the ideological <a href="/wiki/Translatio_imperii" title="Translatio imperii">translatio imperii</a>, i.e. supposed transfer of the right to universal rule, from the Neo-Assyrian Empire to (rival) <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern</a> states claiming the same right</figcaption></figure> Ideologically, the Neo-Assyrian Empire formed an important part in the imperial ideologies of succeeding empires in the Middle East. The idea of continuity between successive empires (a phenomenon in later times dubbed <a href="/wiki/Translatio_imperii" title="Translatio imperii">translatio imperii</a>) was a long established tradition in Mesopotamia, going back to the <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_King_List" title="Sumerian King List">Sumerian King List</a> which connected succeeding and sometimes rival dynasties and kingdoms together as predecessors and successors. In the past, the idea of succession between empires had resulted in claims such as that of the <a href="/wiki/Dynasty_of_Isin" title="Dynasty of Isin">Dynasty of Isin</a> being the successor of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a>, or Babylonia being the successor of the Akkadian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017534-242">[233]</a> The idea of translatio imperii supposes that there is only one "true" empire at any given time, and that imperial power and right to rule is inherited from one empire to the next, with Assyria typically seen as the first empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017535-243">[234]</a> Ancient Greek historians such as <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ctesias" title="Ctesias">Ctesias</a> supported a sequence of three world empires and a successive transfer of world domination from the Assyrians to the Medes to the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017534-242">[233]</a> Inscriptions from several of the Achaemenid kings, most notably <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, alludes to their empire being the successor of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeaulieu2017552-244">[235]</a> Shortly after <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> conquered Persia, his Macedonian Empire began to be regarded as the fourth empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017534-242">[233]</a> Texts from the Neo-Babylonian period regard the Neo-Babylonian Empire as the successor of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Babylonian texts from the time Mesopotamia came under the rule of the Seleucid Empire centuries later supported a longer sequence, with imperial power being transferred from the Assyrians to the Babylonians, then to the Achaemenids and finally to the Macedonians, with the Seleucid Empire being viewed as the same empire as Alexander's empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017535-243">[234]</a> Later traditions were somewhat confused in the set of empires, with some conflating Assyria with Babylonia as a single empire, though still counting the Macedonians/Seleucids as the fourth due to counting both Babylonia and the Medes (despite them being contemporaries).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017535-243">[234]</a> The Biblical <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Book of Daniel</a> describes a dream of the Neo-Babylonian king <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> which features a statue with a golden head, silver chest, bronze belly, iron legs and iron/clay feet. This statue is interpreted as an expression of translatio imperii, placing Nebuchadnezzar's empire (the Neo-Babylonian Empire; gold) as the first empire, the Median Empire (silver) as the second, the Achaemenid Empire (bronze) as the third and the Macedonian Empire of Alexander the Great (iron) as the fourth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017534-242">[233]</a> The ancient idea of succession of empires did not end with the fall of the Seleucid Empire; traditions were instead adjusted to include later empires in the sequence. Shortly after the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> conquered the last remnants of the Seleucid Empire in 63 BC, literary traditions began to regard the Roman Empire as the fifth world empire. The Roman Empire spawned its own sequences of successor claimants; in the east it was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, from which both the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a> and Ottoman empires claimed succession. In the west, the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Frankish</a> and eventually <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a> empires considered themselves to be the heirs of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017535-243">[234]</a> Later scholars have sometimes posited a sequence of world empires more focused on the Middle East. In the British scholar <a href="/wiki/George_Rawlinson" title="George Rawlinson">George Rawlinson</a>'s 1862–67 work The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, the five Oriental empires are regarded to have been <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldaea</a> (erroneous since no such empire existed), Assyria, Babylonia, Media and Persia. Rawlinson expanded the sequence in his 1876 The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World to also include the Parthian and Sasanian empires.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017535-243">[234]</a> Though expansive sequences of translatio imperii hold little weight in modern research, scholars today still recognize a basic sequence of imperial succession from the Neo-Assyrian Empire to the Neo-Babylonian Empire to the Achaemenid Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2017535-243">[234]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Administrative_influence_on_later_empires">Administrative influence on later empires</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Administrative influence on later empires">edit</a>]</div> The political structures established by the Neo-Assyrian Empire became the model for the later empires that succeeded it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017196-30">[26]</a> A number of key components of the Neo-Babylonian Empire were based on the Neo-Assyrian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017194–195-245">[236]</a> Though the exact administrative structure of the Neo-Babylonian Empire is not known due to the scant surviving sources, and it is thus unclear to what degree the old provincial divisions and administration of the Neo-Assyrian Empire continued to be in use,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacGinnis2010153-246">[237]</a> the organization of the central palace bureaucracy under the Neo-Babylonian kings was based on that of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, not any established earlier Babylonian models. Additionally, Neo-Babylonian construction projects, such as <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a>'s massive expansion of Babylon, followed Assyrian traditions; as the Neo-Assyrian kings had done in their new capitals, Nebuchadnezzar placed his palace on a raised terrace across the city wall and followed a rectangular plan for the inner city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017195-228">[219]</a> The sophisticated Assyrian road system, first created during the Middle Assyrian period, also continued to be in use and served as a model for sophisticated road systems of the Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid empires.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring2020109-247">[238]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reputation_of_brutality">Reputation of brutality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Reputation of brutality">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyrian_soldier,_using_a_dagger,_about_to_behead_a_prisoner_from_the_city_of_Lachish._Detail_of_a_wall_relief_dating_back_to_the_reign_of_Sennacherib,_700-692_BCE._From_Nineveh,_Iraq,_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Assyrian_soldier%2C_using_a_dagger%2C_about_to_behead_a_prisoner_from_the_city_of_Lachish._Detail_of_a_wall_relief_dating_back_to_the_reign_of_Sennacherib%2C_700-692_BCE._From_Nineveh%2C_Iraq%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Assyrian_soldier%2C_using_a_dagger%2C_about_to_behead_a_prisoner_from_the_city_of_Lachish._Detail_of_a_wall_relief_dating_back_to_the_reign_of_Sennacherib%2C_700-692_BCE._From_Nineveh%2C_Iraq%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Assyrian_soldier%2C_using_a_dagger%2C_about_to_behead_a_prisoner_from_the_city_of_Lachish._Detail_of_a_wall_relief_dating_back_to_the_reign_of_Sennacherib%2C_700-692_BCE._From_Nineveh%2C_Iraq%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Relief of Sennacherib, depicting an Assyrian soldier beheading a prisoner</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exhibition_I_am_Ashurbanipal_king_of_the_world,_king_of_Assyria,_British_Museum_(44156996760).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Exhibition_I_am_Ashurbanipal_king_of_the_world%2C_king_of_Assyria%2C_British_Museum_%2844156996760%29.jpg/220px-Exhibition_I_am_Ashurbanipal_king_of_the_world%2C_king_of_Assyria%2C_British_Museum_%2844156996760%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Exhibition_I_am_Ashurbanipal_king_of_the_world%2C_king_of_Assyria%2C_British_Museum_%2844156996760%29.jpg/330px-Exhibition_I_am_Ashurbanipal_king_of_the_world%2C_king_of_Assyria%2C_British_Museum_%2844156996760%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Exhibition_I_am_Ashurbanipal_king_of_the_world%2C_king_of_Assyria%2C_British_Museum_%2844156996760%29.jpg/440px-Exhibition_I_am_Ashurbanipal_king_of_the_world%2C_king_of_Assyria%2C_British_Museum_%2844156996760%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4801" data-file-height="3180" /></a><figcaption>Relief of Ashurbanipal, depicting <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamite</a> chiefs having their tongues removed and being flayed alive</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I built a pillar over against the city gate and I flayed all the chiefs who had revolted and I covered the pillar with their skins. Some I impaled upon the pillar on stakes and others I bound to stakes round the pillar. I cut the limbs off the officers who had rebelled. Many captives I burned with fire and many I took as living captives. From some I cut off their noses, their ears, and their fingers, of many I put out their eyes. I made one pillar of the living and another of heads and I bound their heads to tree trunks round about the city. Their young men and maidens I consumed with fire. The rest of their warriors I consumed with thirst in the desert of the Euphrates.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Inscription by Ashurnasirpal II (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 883–859 BC)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2014-248">[239]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_beheading_of_King_Teumman_of_Elam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_beheading_of_King_Teumman_of_Elam.jpg/220px-The_beheading_of_King_Teumman_of_Elam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_beheading_of_King_Teumman_of_Elam.jpg/330px-The_beheading_of_King_Teumman_of_Elam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_beheading_of_King_Teumman_of_Elam.jpg/440px-The_beheading_of_King_Teumman_of_Elam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1013" data-file-height="1233" /></a><figcaption>Relief of Ashurbanipal, depicting the beheading of the <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamite</a> king <a href="/wiki/Teumman" title="Teumman">Teumman</a></figcaption></figure> The Neo-Assyrian Empire is perhaps most prominently remembered for the ferocity and brutality of the Neo-Assyrian army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElayi20173-249">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg201657-250">[241]</a> Though various atrocities were enacted against enemy states and peoples by certain Middle Assyrian kings as well,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDewar202171-251">[242]</a> it is chiefly from the Neo-Assyrian period that Assyrian royal inscriptions describe in detail the atrocities carried out by the Assyrian kings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg201657-250">[241]</a> This is probably attributable to the Neo-Assyrian kings using fear to keep their conquered territories in-line; under the less brutal rulers of the Middle Assyrian Empire, Assyrian power declined several times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017167-43">[38]</a> Though Neo-Assyrian inscriptions and artwork are more explicit in descriptions and depictions of various atrocities than those of many other civilizations, often describing them with "terrifying realism",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg201657-250">[241]</a> the idea of a particular "Assyrian brutality" chiefly comes from Assyria's portrayal in the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>. In biblical texts, the Assyrians are described as if they are a physical manifestation of God's divine retribution, destroying the Kingdom of Israel due to its heretical behavior. In the description of the destruction of the Kingdom of Judah, God is described as "raising the King of Assyria and all his army". The Biblical descriptions of Assyrian brutality were reinforced by the 19th-century discoveries of ancient art and inscriptions, as well as by unflattering comparisons drawn between Assyria and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> by the historians and archaeologists who found them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElayi20173-249">[240]</a> Still today, despite the diversity of ancient Assyrian culture, the scenes that dominate museum exhibitions on Assyria are military and brutal scenes. This projected image stands in sharp contrast to exhibitions on other Mesopotamian civilizations, such as those of <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a> and Babylon, generally made out to be more inclined towards culture, wisdom and science.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg201657-250">[241]</a> Though there is no modern scholarly denial that the Assyrians of the Neo-Assyrian period were brutal, the extent to which Neo-Assyrian inscriptions and artwork reflect actual atrocities is debated among modern scholars. Some believe that the Assyrians were more brutal than what was written down because the inscriptions and art do not include all the gruesome details<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg201657-250">[241]</a> whereas others believe that they were significantly less brutal and that the Assyrian kings used exaggerated descriptions of brutal acts as intimidating tools for propaganda and psychological warfare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElayi201822-252">[243]</a> Regardless of opinion, modern scholars generally do not believe in "Assyrian brutality" as a distinct phenomenon; sources from other civilizations demonstrate that the Neo-Assyrian Empire was no more brutal than other states and peoples of the ancient Near East, nor particularly brutal in the context of human history as a whole. War was carried out in roughly the same fashion by all powers in the ancient Near East; standards from <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a> dating to the third millennium BC depict soldiers carrying severed heads, the Bible mentions many atrocities committed by Hebrews and other non-Assyrians, and the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> is known to have used <a href="/wiki/Impalement" title="Impalement">impalement</a> as one of many methods of torture and execution. The sole factor for the higher frequency and more vivid descriptions from the Neo-Assyrian Empire is that the Assyrians were more successful than their contemporaries and thus had more opportunities. According to the Assyriologist Ariel Bagg, the Assyrians, taking brutality by later civilizations into account (examples including the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a>, the <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a>), "would probably not even be among the top-ten in a ranking of human brutality".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg201658-253">[244]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyrian_Relief_Attack_on_Enemy_Town_from_Kalhu_(Nimrud)_Central_Palace_reign_of_Tiglath-pileser_III_British_Museum_-_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Assyrian_Relief_Attack_on_Enemy_Town_from_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29_Central_Palace_reign_of_Tiglath-pileser_III_British_Museum_-_2.jpg/220px-Assyrian_Relief_Attack_on_Enemy_Town_from_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29_Central_Palace_reign_of_Tiglath-pileser_III_British_Museum_-_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Assyrian_Relief_Attack_on_Enemy_Town_from_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29_Central_Palace_reign_of_Tiglath-pileser_III_British_Museum_-_2.jpg/330px-Assyrian_Relief_Attack_on_Enemy_Town_from_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29_Central_Palace_reign_of_Tiglath-pileser_III_British_Museum_-_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Assyrian_Relief_Attack_on_Enemy_Town_from_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29_Central_Palace_reign_of_Tiglath-pileser_III_British_Museum_-_2.jpg/440px-Assyrian_Relief_Attack_on_Enemy_Town_from_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29_Central_Palace_reign_of_Tiglath-pileser_III_British_Museum_-_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7897" data-file-height="4132" /></a><figcaption>Relief from Tiglath-Pileser's palace in Nimrud depicting the Assyrians besieging a town</figcaption></figure> Viewing the Neo-Assyrian Empire as a particularly brutal civilization also fails to take into account the context of brutal acts and that not all atrocities were committed by every king. Brutal punishments after conquests and surrenders were not done after every victorious campaign and were never random, instead applied to intimidate and dissuade foreigners and vassal from fighting against Assyrian dominion. The vast majority of brutal acts were directed against the soldiers and nobility of Assyria's enemies, with civilians only rarely being brutalized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg201671-254">[245]</a> Out of the Neo-Assyrian kings, the vast majority of known described brutal acts are attested only in the reigns of Ashurnasirpal II and Ashurbanipal. Of the four types of brutal acts against civilians mentioned in royal inscriptions (execution and dismemberment, burning of male and female children, impalement, and live flaying), one (burning children) is known only from Ashurnasirpal II's time and two (impalement and live flaying) are known only from Ashurbanipal. The only other kings who wrote that they had done anything to civilians were Tiglath-Pileser III and Esarhaddon, who mention execution and dismemberment. If Assyrians had enacted cruelties against civilians more often, they would not have failed to mention this in their inscriptions. There is not a single mention of <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a> in any inscription, which indicates that although Assyrian soldiers likely did rape civilians after sieges (as did soldiers of every other ancient civilization and up to the present day), this was regarded as a shameful act, prohibited by the kings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg201660-50">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Neo-Assyrian_Empire" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_nationalism" title="Assyrian nationalism">Assyrian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History of Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_dynasties" title="List of Mesopotamian dynasties">List of Mesopotamian dynasties</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Sign-by-sign transliterated as mat Aš-šurᴷᴵ, literally meaning "Country of <a href="/wiki/Ashur_(god)" title="Ashur (god)">Ashur</a>". Equivalent in archaic <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumero-Akkadian</a> cuneiforms: 𒆳𒀭𒊹𒆠 KUR AN-ŠAR₂ᴷᴵ; the same in <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian cuneiform">Assyrian cuneiform</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ashubanipal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashubanipal">Ashubanipal</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Rassam_cylinder" title="Rassam cylinder">Rassam cylinder</a>: 𒆳𒀭𒊹𒆠 KUR AN-ŠAR₂ᴷᴵ,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> pronounced in Assyrian mat Aušarᵏⁱ, then mat Aššurᵏⁱ mat Aššurᵏⁱ, meaning "The country of the city of <a href="/wiki/Ashur_(god)" title="Ashur (god)">god Aššur</a>";<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> also phonetically in another inscription of <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a> 𒆳𒀸𒋩 mat aš-šur (Sumerian: 𒆳𒀸𒋩)<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> or 𒀸𒋩𒆠 aš-šurᵏⁱ (Sumerian 𒀸𒋩𒆠)<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Also 𒆳𒀭𒀀𒋩 mat ᵈa-šur in <a href="/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_15" title="Amarna letter EA 15">Amarna letter EA 15</a> dating to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1340 BC </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Rarely also the Late Assyrian Empire<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring2020148-14">[13]</a> or New Assyrian Empire<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaagepera1978187-15">[14]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Adad-nirari II's accession is the conventional starting date for the Neo-Assyrian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerrillRookerGrisanti201130-17">[15]</a> Some historians alternatively include the reign of his predecessor <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_II" title="Ashur-dan II">Ashur-dan II</a> as well, placing the beginning of the Neo-Assyrian period in 934 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017165-18">[16]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> See the section <a href="#The_Neo-Assyrian_Empire_as_a_world_empire">the Neo-Assyrian Empire as a world empire</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> It has for instance been suggested that Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a>, which developed around this time, followed experiences with the near-monotheism of the Assyrians in regard to Ashur or the monocratic imperial rule of the Neo-Assyrian kings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrahm2017b565-31">[27]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Ashurnasirpal II is one of only four Assyrian kings who claimed to have slaughtered civilians in his inscriptions and the only one to claim to have killed and burnt young children. In terms of the variety and severity of brutal acts, he is rivalled only by the later <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg201659–60-51">[46]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> For a lack of a better term; there was no corresponding ancient Assyrian term or clearly defined legal status.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBedford200936-183">[177]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Not to be confused with modern <a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyrian_tribes" title="List of Assyrian tribes">Assyrian tribes</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> One of Sargon's letters, written in response to an official from <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> in Babylonia who wished to write to the king in Aramaic, reads "Why would you not write and send me messages in Akkadian? Really, the message which you write must be drawn up in this very manner – this is a fixed regulation!".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuukkoVan_Buylaere2017319-209">[201]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Name used in Neo-Babylonian inscriptions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Rassam_cylinder" title="Rassam cylinder">Rassam cylinder</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Rassam cylinder transcription in <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P421807">"CDLI-Archival View"</a>. cdli.ucla.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200613113247/https://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P421807">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-06-13. Retrieved 2020-06-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cdli.ucla.edu&rft.atitle=CDLI-Archival+View&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdli.ucla.edu%2Fsearch%2Farchival_view.php%3FObjectID%3DP421807&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> "The country of Assyria, which in the Assyro-Babylonian literature is known as mat Aššur (ki), "land of Assur," took its name from the ancient city of Aššur" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSayce1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Henry_Sayce" class="mw-redirect" title="Archibald Henry Sayce">Sayce, Archibald Henry</a> (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Assur_(city)">"Assur (city)" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 788.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Assur+%28city%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=788&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Sayce&rft.aufirst=Archibald+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap/rinap4/Q003277/html">"rinap/rinap4"</a>. oracc.museum.upenn.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200805195343/http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap/rinap4/Q003277/html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-08-05. Retrieved 2023-06-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oracc.museum.upenn.edu&rft.atitle=rinap%2Frinap4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foracc.museum.upenn.edu%2Frinap%2Frinap4%2FQ003277%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> "The name Anshar, softened into Aushar, and subsequently into Ashshur, was first applied to the town and then to the whole country" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSayce2005" class="citation book cs1">Sayce, A. H. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/cache/epub/17326/pg17326-images.html">History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 6 (of 12)</a>. Library of Alexandria. p. 223. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4655-4330-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4655-4330-1"><bdi>978-1-4655-4330-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Egypt%2C+Chaldea%2C+Syria%2C+Babylonia%2C+and+Assyria%2C+Volume+6+%28of+12%29&rft.pages=223&rft.pub=Library+of+Alexandria&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4655-4330-1&rft.aulast=Sayce&rft.aufirst=A.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.org%2Fcache%2Fepub%2F17326%2Fpg17326-images.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPongratz-Leisten2015" class="citation book cs1">Pongratz-Leisten, Beate (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LJqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA110">Religion and Ideology in Assyria</a>. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61451-426-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61451-426-8"><bdi>978-1-61451-426-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Ideology+in+Assyria&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-61451-426-8&rft.aulast=Pongratz-Leisten&rft.aufirst=Beate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLJqnCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuentin1895" class="citation journal cs1">Quentin, A. (1895). "Inscription Inédite du Roi Assurbanipal: Copiée Au Musée Britannique le 24 Avril 1886". Revue Biblique (1892–1940). 4 (4): 554. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1240-3032">1240-3032</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44100170">44100170</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+Biblique+%281892%E2%80%931940%29&rft.atitle=Inscription+In%C3%A9dite+du+Roi+Assurbanipal%3A+Copi%C3%A9e+Au+Mus%C3%A9e+Britannique+le+24+Avril+1886&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=554&rft.date=1895&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44100170%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=1240-3032&rft.aulast=Quentin&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oracc.iaas.upenn.edu/epsd2/cbd/sux/A.html">"Sumerian dictionary entry: Aššur [ASSYRIA] (GN)"</a>. oracc.iaas.upenn.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200725011442/http://oracc.iaas.upenn.edu/epsd2/cbd/sux/A.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-07-25. Retrieved 2020-06-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oracc.iaas.upenn.edu&rft.atitle=Sumerian+dictionary+entry%3A+A%C5%A1%C5%A1ur+%5BASSYRIA%5D+%28GN%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foracc.iaas.upenn.edu%2Fepsd2%2Fcbd%2Fsux%2FA.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Brien2002" class="citation book cs1">O'Brien, Patrick Karl (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA43">Atlas of World History</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195219210" title="Special:BookSources/9780195219210"><bdi>9780195219210</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+World+History&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780195219210&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=Patrick+Karl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DffZy5tDjaUkC%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> The Times Atlas of World History, p.57 (1989): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarraclough1997" class="citation book cs1">Barraclough, Geoffrey (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_IYYAQAAMAAJ">The Times Atlas of World History</a>. Times Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7230-0906-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7230-0906-1"><bdi>978-0-7230-0906-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Times+Atlas+of+World+History&rft.pub=Times+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7230-0906-1&rft.aulast=Barraclough&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_IYYAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryceBirkett-Rees2016" class="citation book cs1">Bryce, Trevor; Birkett-Rees, Jessie (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gDAFDAAAQBAJ">Atlas of the Ancient Near East: From Prehistoric Times to the Roman Imperial Period</a>. Routledge. p. 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317562108" title="Special:BookSources/9781317562108"><bdi>9781317562108</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+the+Ancient+Near+East%3A+From+Prehistoric+Times+to+the+Roman+Imperial+Period&rft.pages=167&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781317562108&rft.aulast=Bryce&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rft.au=Birkett-Rees%2C+Jessie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgDAFDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._CetrezG._DonabedMakko2012" class="citation book cs1">A. Cetrez, Onver; G. Donabed, Sargon; Makko, Aryo (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3807063">The Assyrian Heritage. Threads of Continuity and Influence</a>. 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagg201657_250-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagg201657_250-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagg201657_250-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagg201657_250-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagg201657_250-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFBagg2016">Bagg 2016</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDewar202171-251"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDewar202171_251-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDewar2021">Dewar 2021</a>, p. 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElayi201822-252"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElayi201822_252-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFElayi2018">Elayi 2018</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg201658-253"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagg201658_253-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBagg2016">Bagg 2016</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagg201671-254"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagg201671_254-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBagg2016">Bagg 2016</a>, p. 71. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link 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Studia Orientalia Electronica. 9 (2): 67–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.23993%2Fstore.88852">10.23993/store.88852</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245632242">245632242</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220922163157/https://journal.fi/store/article/view/88852">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-09-22. Retrieved 2022-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Orientalia+Electronica&rft.atitle=The+Burning+of+Captives+in+the+Assyrian+Royal+Inscriptions%2C+and+Early+Neo-Assyrian+Conceptions+of+the+Other&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=67-81&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.23993%2Fstore.88852&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245632242%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dewar&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournal.fi%2Fstore%2Farticle%2Fview%2F88852&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDüring2020" class="citation book cs1">Düring, Bleda S. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ">The Imperialisation of Assyria: An Archaeological Approach</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-47874-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-47874-8"><bdi>978-1-108-47874-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperialisation+of+Assyria%3A+An+Archaeological+Approach&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-108-47874-8&rft.aulast=D%C3%BCring&rft.aufirst=Bleda+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1NLKDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElayi2017" class="citation book cs1">Elayi, Josette (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TsctDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Sargon+II%22&pg=PP1">Sargon II, King of Assyria</a>. SBL Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62837-177-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62837-177-2"><bdi>978-1-62837-177-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sargon+II%2C+King+of+Assyria&rft.pub=SBL+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-62837-177-2&rft.aulast=Elayi&rft.aufirst=Josette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTsctDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522Sargon%2BII%2522%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElayi2018" class="citation book cs1">Elayi, Josette (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OVNtDwAAQBAJ">Sennacherib, King of Assyria</a>. Atlanta: SBL Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88414-317-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88414-317-8"><bdi>978-0-88414-317-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sennacherib%2C+King+of+Assyria&rft.place=Atlanta&rft.pub=SBL+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-88414-317-8&rft.aulast=Elayi&rft.aufirst=Josette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOVNtDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFincke2017" class="citation book cs1">Fincke, Jeanette C. (2017). "Assyrian Scholarship and Scribal Culture in Kalḫu and Nineveh". In E. 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London: Routledge. pp. 137–148. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780429434105-15">10.4324/9780429434105-15</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-43410-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-43410-5"><bdi>978-0-429-43410-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224979097">224979097</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Invisible+Mesopotamian+royal+women%3F&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Companion+to+Women+and+Monarchy+in+the+Ancient+Mediterranean+World&rft.place=London&rft.pages=137-148&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224979097%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780429434105-15&rft.isbn=978-0-429-43410-5&rft.aulast=Fink&rft.aufirst=Sebastian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fchapters%2Fedit%2F10.4324%2F9780429434105-15%2Finvisible-mesopotamian-royal-women-sebastian-fink&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiloni2017" class="citation book cs1">Filoni, Fernando (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ">The Church in Iraq</a>. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-2965-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-2965-2"><bdi>978-0-8132-2965-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Church+in+Iraq&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=The+Catholic+University+of+America+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-8132-2965-2&rft.aulast=Filoni&rft.aufirst=Fernando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXp8rDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrahm2014" class="citation book cs1">Frahm, Eckart (2014). "Family Matters: Psychohistorical Reflections on Sennacherib and His Times". 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Leiden: BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-26561-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-26561-5"><bdi>978-90-04-26561-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Family+Matters%3A+Psychohistorical+Reflections+on+Sennacherib+and+His+Times&rft.btitle=Sennacherib+at+the+Gates+of+Jerusalem%3A+Story%2C+History+and+Historiography&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-90-04-26561-5&rft.aulast=Frahm&rft.aufirst=Eckart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbF_bAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrahm2017" class="citation book cs1">Frahm, Eckart (2017). "The Neo-Assyrian Period (ca. 1000–609 BCE)". In E. 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Kirk (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-ancient-history/assyria-ashurdan-ii-to-ashurnirari-v-954745-bc/84301ADF40B1BC99A9865FDFEF816BFA">"Assyria: Ashur-dan II to Ashur-Nirari V (934–745 B.C.)"</a>. In Boardman, John; Edwards, I. E. S.; Hammond, N. G. L.; Sollberger, E. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 3, Part 1: The Prehistory of the Balkans, the Middle East and the Aegean World, Tenth to Eighth Centuries BC (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05428-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05428-7"><bdi>978-1-139-05428-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211211200320/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-ancient-history/assyria-ashurdan-ii-to-ashurnirari-v-954745-bc/84301ADF40B1BC99A9865FDFEF816BFA">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-12-11. 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Retrieved 2022-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+d%27assyriologie+et+d%27arch%C3%A9ologie+orientale&rft.atitle=Die+S%C3%B6hne+Kudurrus+und+die+Herkunft+der+neubabylonischen+Dynastie&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=125-136&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Fassy.101.0125&rft.aulast=Jursa&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cairn.info%2Farticle.php%3FID_ARTICLE%3DASSY_101_0125%23xd_co_f%3DZTdmNTMxODYtZDRmMi00YjMwLThlMjMtZDk3ODdkZDFhNzQz~&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalimiRichardson2014" class="citation book cs1">Kalimi, Isaac; Richardson, Seth (2014). "Sennacherib at the Gates of Jerusalem: Story, History and Historiography: An Introduction". 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Vetus Testamentum. 52 (3): 350–366. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156853302760197494">10.1163/156853302760197494</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vetus+Testamentum&rft.atitle=Nimrod+the+Mighty%2C+King+of+Kish%2C+King+of+Sumer+and+Akkad&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=350-366&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156853302760197494&rft.aulast=Levin&rft.aufirst=Yigal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevine1982" class="citation journal cs1">Levine, Louis D. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1359991">"Sennacherib's Southern Front: 704-689 B.C."</a> Journal of Cuneiform Studies. 34 (1/2): 28–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1359991">10.2307/1359991</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1359991">1359991</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163170919">163170919</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211208015328/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1359991">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-12-08. 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Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-095-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-095-8"><bdi>978-1-57506-095-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+and+Rise+of+Jerusalem%3A+Judah+under+Babylonian+Rule&rft.place=Winona+Lake&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-095-8&rft.aulast=Lipschits&rft.aufirst=Oled&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D78nRWgb-rp8C%26q%3Dfall%2Bof%2Bnimrud%2Bmedes%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiverani2013" class="citation book cs1">Liverani, Mario (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_EtJAgAAQBAJ&q=Subartu+Martu">The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-67906-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-67906-0"><bdi>978-0-415-67906-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Near+East%3A+History%2C+Society+and+Economy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-415-67906-0&rft.aulast=Liverani&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_EtJAgAAQBAJ%26q%3DSubartu%2BMartu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiverani2017" class="citation book cs1">Liverani, Mario (2017). "Thoughts on the Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Kingship". In E. 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Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-32524-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-32524-7"><bdi>978-1-118-32524-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Thoughts+on+the+Assyrian+Empire+and+Assyrian+Kingship&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Assyria&rft.place=Hoboken&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-118-32524-7&rft.aulast=Liverani&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnhsmDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuckenbill1924" class="citation book cs1">Luckenbill, Daniel David (1924). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/publications/oip/oip-2-annals-sennacherib">The Annals of Sennacherib</a>. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/506728">506728</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502051319/https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/publications/oip/oip-2-annals-sennacherib">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-05-02. Retrieved 2022-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Annals+of+Sennacherib&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1924&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F506728&rft.aulast=Luckenbill&rft.aufirst=Daniel+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foi.uchicago.edu%2Fresearch%2Fpublications%2Foip%2Foip-2-annals-sennacherib&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuckenbill1927" class="citation book cs1">Luckenbill, Daniel David (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/publications/misc/ancient-records-assyria-and-babylonia-volume-2-historical-records-assyria">Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia Volume 2: Historical Records of Assyria From Sargon to the End</a>. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/926853184">926853184</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160603024047/https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/publications/misc/ancient-records-assyria-and-babylonia-volume-2-historical-records-assyria">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-06-03. Retrieved 2022-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Records+of+Assyria+and+Babylonia+Volume+2%3A+Historical+Records+of+Assyria+From+Sargon+to+the+End&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1927&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F926853184&rft.aulast=Luckenbill&rft.aufirst=Daniel+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foi.uchicago.edu%2Fresearch%2Fpublications%2Fmisc%2Fancient-records-assyria-and-babylonia-volume-2-historical-records-assyria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuukkoVan_Buylaere2017" class="citation book cs1">Luukko, Mikko; Van Buylaere, Greta (2017). "Languages and Writing Systems in Assyria". In E. Frahm (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ">A Companion to Assyria</a>. 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Studies on War in the Ancient Near East, AOAT 372: 153–163. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220117154753/https://www.academia.edu/9213966">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-17. Retrieved 2022-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+on+War+in+the+Ancient+Near+East%2C+AOAT+372&rft.atitle=Mobilisation+and+Militarisation+in+the+Neo-Babylonian+Empire&rft.pages=153-163&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=MacGinnis&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F9213966&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark2009" class="citation web cs1">Mark, Joshua J. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Ashurbanipal/">"Ashurbanipal"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220923073941/https://www.worldhistory.org/Ashurbanipal/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2022. Retrieved 28 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Ashurbanipal&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Mark&rft.aufirst=Joshua+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FAshurbanipal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark2014" class="citation web cs1">Mark, Joshua A. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Ashurnasirpal_II/">"Ashurnasirpal II"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220422222422/https://www.worldhistory.org/Ashurnasirpal_II/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 13 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Ashurnasirpal+II&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Mark&rft.aufirst=Joshua+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FAshurnasirpal_II%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark2020" class="citation web cs1">Mark, Joshua A. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/729/the-greatest-party-ever-thrown-ashurnasirpal-iis-k/">"The Greatest Party Ever Thrown: Ashurnasirpal II's Kalhu Festival"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220423045156/https://www.worldhistory.org/article/729/the-greatest-party-ever-thrown-ashurnasirpal-iis-k/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2022. 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New York: New York University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5278-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5278-4"><bdi>978-0-8147-5278-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220920174318/https://www.academia.edu/1841210">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-09-20. 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London: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/785860275">785860275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zakutu+%28Naqi%27a%29&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+History&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F785860275&rft.aulast=Melville&rft.aufirst=Sarah+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelville2014" class="citation book cs1">Melville, Sarah C. (2014). "Women in Neo-Assyrian texts". In Chavalas, Mark W. (ed.). Women in the Ancient Near East: A Sourcebook. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-44855-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-44855-0"><bdi>978-0-415-44855-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Women+in+Neo-Assyrian+texts&rft.btitle=Women+in+the+Ancient+Near+East%3A+A+Sourcebook&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-415-44855-0&rft.aulast=Melville&rft.aufirst=Sarah+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerrillRookerGrisanti2011" class="citation book cs1">Merrill, Eugene; Rooker, Mark F.; Grisanti, Michael A (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9iq5AwAAQBAJ">The World and the Word: An Introduction to the Old Testament</a>. Nashville, Tennessee: B&H Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8054-4031-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8054-4031-7"><bdi>978-0-8054-4031-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+and+the+Word%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Old+Testament&rft.place=Nashville%2C+Tennessee&rft.pub=B%26H+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8054-4031-7&rft.aulast=Merrill&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft.au=Rooker%2C+Mark+F.&rft.au=Grisanti%2C+Michael+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9iq5AwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNa'aman1991" class="citation journal cs1">Na'aman, Nadav (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/13458703">"Chronology and History in the Late Assyrian Empire (631—619 B.C.)"</a>. Zeitschrift für Assyriologie. 81 (1–2): 243–267. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fzava.1991.81.1-2.243">10.1515/zava.1991.81.1-2.243</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159785150">159785150</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220920174322/https://www.academia.edu/13458703">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-09-20. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-103358-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-103358-7"><bdi>978-3-11-103358-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+fall+of+Assyria+%28635%E2%80%93609+BC%29&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History+Volume+3+Part+2%3A+The+Assyrian+and+Babylonian+Empires+and+Other+States+of+the+Near+East%2C+from+the+Eighth+to+the+Sixth+Centuries+BC&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-3-11-103358-7&rft.aulast=Oates&rft.aufirst=Joan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOGBGauNBK8kC%26q%3Dsin-shumu-lishir%2Beunuch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker2011" class="citation journal cs1">Parker, Bradley J. 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Journal of Anthropological Research. 67 (3): 357–386. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fjar.0521004.0067.303">10.3998/jar.0521004.0067.303</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41303323">41303323</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145597598">145597598</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Anthropological+Research&rft.atitle=The+Construction+and+Performance+of+Kingship+in+the+Neo-Assyrian+Empire&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=357-386&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145597598%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41303323%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3998%2Fjar.0521004.0067.303&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Bradley+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParpola2004" class="citation journal cs1">Parpola, Simo (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201119042653/http://media.hujada.nu/2019/03/Parpola-identity_Article_-Final1.pdf">"National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times"</a> (PDF). 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(2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf">"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_World-Systems_Research" title="Journal of World-Systems Research">Journal of World-Systems Research</a>. 12 (2): 222–223. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1076-156X">1076-156X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200707181315/http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2020-07-07. Retrieved 2020-07-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World-Systems+Research&rft.atitle=East-West+Orientation+of+Historical+Empires&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=222-223&rft.date=2006&rft.issn=1076-156X&rft.aulast=Turchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Adams%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Hall%2C+Thomas+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeterturchin.com%2FPDF%2FTurchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatanabe1999" class="citation book cs1">Watanabe, Kazuko (1999). "Seals of Neo-Assyrian Officials". In Watanabe, Kazuko (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/35485558">Priests and Officials in the Ancient Near East</a>. Universitätsverlag C. Winter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8253-0533-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8253-0533-8"><bdi>978-3-8253-0533-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Seals+of+Neo-Assyrian+Officials&rft.btitle=Priests+and+Officials+in+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pub=Universit%C3%A4tsverlag+C.+Winter&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-3-8253-0533-8&rft.aulast=Watanabe&rft.aufirst=Kazuko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F35485558&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYamada2000" class="citation book cs1">Yamada, Shiego (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xovifEBCsAgC">The Construction of the Assyrian Empire: A Historical Study of the Inscriptions of Shalmanesar III (859–824 B.C.) Relating to His Campaigns to the West</a>. Leiden: BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11772-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11772-3"><bdi>978-90-04-11772-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Construction+of+the+Assyrian+Empire%3A+A+Historical+Study+of+the+Inscriptions+of+Shalmanesar+III+%28859%E2%80%93824+B.C.%29+Relating+to+His+Campaigns+to+the+West&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11772-3&rft.aulast=Yamada&rft.aufirst=Shiego&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxovifEBCsAgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYamadaYamada2017" class="citation book cs1">Yamada, Keiko; Yamada, Shiego (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/35496181">"Shalmaneser V and His Era, Revisited"</a>. In Baruchi-Unna, Amitai; Forti, Tova; Aḥituv, Shmuel; Ephʿal, Israel; Tigay, Jeffrey H. (eds.). "Now It Happened in Those Days": Studies in Biblical, Assyrian, and Other Ancient Near Eastern Historiography Presented to Mordechai Cogan on His 75th Birthday. Vol. 2. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-761-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-761-2"><bdi>978-1-57506-761-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220209215302/https://www.academia.edu/35496181">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-09. Retrieved 2022-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Shalmaneser+V+and+His+Era%2C+Revisited&rft.btitle=%22Now+It+Happened+in+Those+Days%22%3A+Studies+in+Biblical%2C+Assyrian%2C+and+Other+Ancient+Near+Eastern+Historiography+Presented+to+Mordechai+Cogan+on+His+75th+Birthday&rft.place=Winona+Lake%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-761-2&rft.aulast=Yamada&rft.aufirst=Keiko&rft.au=Yamada%2C+Shiego&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F35496181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaia2019" class="citation journal cs1">Zaia, Shana (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/39904169">"Going Native: Šamaš-šuma-ukīn, Assyrian King of Babylon"</a>. IRAQ. 81: 247–268. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Firq.2019.1">10.1017/irq.2019.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:200251092">200251092</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220122133535/https://www.academia.edu/39904169">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-22. Retrieved 2022-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IRAQ&rft.atitle=Going+Native%3A+%C5%A0ama%C5%A1-%C5%A1uma-uk%C4%ABn%2C+Assyrian+King+of+Babylon&rft.volume=81&rft.pages=247-268&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Firq.2019.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A200251092%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Zaia&rft.aufirst=Shana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F39904169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZawadzki1994" class="citation journal cs1">Zawadzki, Stefan (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.helsinki.fi/science/saa/8.1%2006%20Zawadzki.pdf">"The Revolt of 746 B.C and the Coming of Tiglath-pileser III to the Throne"</a> (PDF). State Archives of Assyria Bulletin. 8: 53–54. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200712181535/http://www.helsinki.fi/science/saa/8.1%2006%20Zawadzki.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2020-07-12. Retrieved 2022-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=State+Archives+of+Assyria+Bulletin&rft.atitle=The+Revolt+of+746+B.C+and+the+Coming+of+Tiglath-pileser+III+to+the+Throne&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=53-54&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Zawadzki&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.helsinki.fi%2Fscience%2Fsaa%2F8.1%252006%2520Zawadzki.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output 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Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resettlement_policy_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Resettlement policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queens_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Queens of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Queens</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Rulers" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rulers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_II" title="Adad-nirari II">Adad-nirari II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_II" title="Tukulti-Ninurta II">Tukulti-Ninurta II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_V" title="Shamshi-Adad V">Shamshi-Adad V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shammuramat" title="Shammuramat">Shammuramat</a> (regent?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_III" title="Adad-nirari III">Adad-nirari III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_IV" title="Shalmaneser IV">Shalmaneser IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_III" title="Ashur-dan III">Ashur-Dan III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_V" title="Ashur-nirari V">Ashur-nirari V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_V" title="Shalmaneser V">Shalmaneser V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashur-etil-ilani" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-etil-ilani">Ashur-etil-ilani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinsharishkun" title="Sinsharishkun">Sinsharishkun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin-shumu-lishir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-shumu-lishir">Sin-shumu-lishir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_II" title="Ashur-uballit II">Ashur-uballit II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_communications_in_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="State communications in the Neo-Assyrian Empire">State communications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_sculpture" title="Assyrian sculpture">Assyrian sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_Hunt_of_Ashurbanipal" title="Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal">Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachish_Reliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Lachish Reliefs">Lachish Reliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Obelisk_of_Shalmaneser_III" title="Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III">Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balawat_Gates" title="Balawat Gates">Balawat Gates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Category:Neo-Assyrian Empire">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mesopotamia" title="Geography of Mesopotamia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armani_(kingdom)" title="Armani (kingdom)">Armani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamazi" title="Hamazi">Hamazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turukkaeans" title="Turukkaeans">Tukri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="List of cities of the ancient Near East">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtar_Gate.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon"><img alt="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/110px-Ishtar_Gate.gif" decoding="async" width="110" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/165px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/220px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 2x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="300" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(Pre)history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Mesopotamia" title="Prehistory of Mesopotamia">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trialetian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trialetian">Trialetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrik_9" title="Nemrik 9">Nemrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiamian">Khiamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna</a>/<a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Babylonian_period" title="Middle Babylonian period">Middle Babylonian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neo-Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartian_language" title="Urartian language">Urartian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture/society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia" title="Art of Mesopotamia">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sumer" title="Economy of Sumer">Economy of Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warfare_in_Sumer" title="Warfare in Sumer">Warfare in Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerian_cuisine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumerian cuisine (page does not exist)">Sumerian cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_royal_titulary" title="Akkadian royal titulary">Royal titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_dynasties" title="List of Mesopotamian dynasties">List of rulers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting_in_Iraq" title="Archaeological looting in Iraq">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL">Destruction by ISIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)" title="Tell (archaeology)">Tell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_deities" title="List of Mesopotamian deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian myths">Mesopotamian myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_divination" title="Mesopotamian divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_prayer" title="Mesopotamian prayer">Prayers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurat (Temple)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Assyriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyriologists" title="List of Assyriologists">Assyriologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittitology" title="Hittitology">Hittitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Sumerian_Dictionary" title="Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary">Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Assyrian_Dictionary" title="Chicago Assyrian Dictionary">Chicago Assyrian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Hittite_Dictionary" title="Chicago Hittite Dictionary">Chicago Hittite Dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Provinces_of_the_Assyrian_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Assyrian_provinces" title="Template:Assyrian provinces"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Assyrian_provinces" title="Template talk:Assyrian provinces"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Assyrian_provinces" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Assyrian provinces"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Provinces_of_the_Assyrian_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Provinces of the Assyrian Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amadiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Amadiya">Amadiya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbaiil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbaiil (page does not exist)">Arbaiil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrapha" title="Arrapha">Arrapha</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arzuhina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arzuhina (page does not exist)">Arzuhina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashdod" title="Ashdod">Ashdod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Barhalzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barhalzi (page does not exist)">Barhalzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birtum" title="Birtum">Birtum</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dur-Sarrukin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dur-Sarrukin (page does not exist)">Dur-Sarrukin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dur-Sarrukku&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dur-Sarrukku (page does not exist)">Dur-Sarrukku</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guzaana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guzaana (page does not exist)">Guzaana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habruri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Habruri (page does not exist)">Habruri</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Haiarikka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Haiarikka (page does not exist)">Haiarikka</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Halzi-atbari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Halzi-atbari (page does not exist)">Halzi-atbari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harran" title="Harran">Harran</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hatallu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hatallu (page does not exist)">Hatallu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Haurina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Haurina (page does not exist)">Haurina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hindanu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hindanu (page does not exist)">Hindanu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isana_(province)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isana (province) (page does not exist)">Isana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalha_(province)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kalha (province) (page does not exist)">Kalha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimrud" title="Nimrud">Kalhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karkemis" class="mw-redirect" title="Karkemis">Karkemis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kilizi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kilizi (page does not exist)">Kilizi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kulimmen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kulimmen (page does not exist)">Kulimmen</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kullania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kullania (page does not exist)">Kullania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kurbal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kurbal (page does not exist)">Kurbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lahiru" title="Lahiru">Lahiru</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laqe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laqe (page does not exist)">Laqe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lubda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lubda (page does not exist)">Lubda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mansuate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mansuate (page does not exist)">Mansuate</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marqusa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marqusa (page does not exist)">Marqusa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mazamua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mazamua (page does not exist)">Mazamua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tel_Megiddo" title="Tel Megiddo">Megiddo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nasilbina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nasilbina (page does not exist)">Nasilbina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nemed_Istar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nemed Istar (page does not exist)">Nemed Istar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninevah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ninevah">Ninevah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qamina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qamina (page does not exist)">Qamina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quw%C3%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="Quwê">Que</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raqamatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Raqamatu">Raqamatu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasappa" class="mw-redirect" title="Rasappa">Rasappa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sahuppa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sahuppa (page does not exist)">Sahuppa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sam%27alla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sam'alla (page does not exist)">Sam'alla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Samas-nasir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samas-nasir (page does not exist)">Samas-nasir</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Si%27imma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Si'imma (page does not exist)">Si'imma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simirra" class="mw-redirect" title="Simirra">Simirra</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Simu_(province)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Simu (province) (page does not exist)">Simu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Suburu_(province)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Suburu (province) (page does not exist)">Suburu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabal_(state)" title="Tabal (state)">Tabal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Talmusa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Talmusa (page does not exist)">Talmusa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamnuna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tamnuna (page does not exist)">Tamnuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Til-Barsip" class="mw-redirect" title="Til-Barsip">Til-Barsip</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tille_(province)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tille (province) (page does not exist)">Tille</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lower_Turtanu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lower Turtanu (page does not exist)">Lower Turtanu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_Turtanu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Upper Turtanu (page does not exist)">Upper Turtanu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tu%27ammu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tu'ammu (page does not exist)">Tu'ammu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upumu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Upumu (page does not exist)">Upumu</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Territorial_organization_of_the_Assyrian_Empire_in_times_of_Ashurbanipal.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Assyrian Empire at its greatest extent, at the time of Esarhaddon (671 AD)"><img alt="The Assyrian Empire at its greatest extent, at the time of Esarhaddon (671 AD)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Territorial_organization_of_the_Assyrian_Empire_in_times_of_Ashurbanipal.svg/150px-Territorial_organization_of_the_Assyrian_Empire_in_times_of_Ashurbanipal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Territorial_organization_of_the_Assyrian_Empire_in_times_of_Ashurbanipal.svg/225px-Territorial_organization_of_the_Assyrian_Empire_in_times_of_Ashurbanipal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Territorial_organization_of_the_Assyrian_Empire_in_times_of_Ashurbanipal.svg/300px-Territorial_organization_of_the_Assyrian_Empire_in_times_of_Ashurbanipal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="46995" data-file-height="43029" /></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" style="display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Template talk:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"> <table style="width:100%"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;"> </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Northwestern Mesopotamia </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Northern Mesopotamia </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Southern Mesopotamia </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 3500–2350 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:white">Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD380"><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic period</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2350–2200 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFB080"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2200–2100 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#F8F3C6"><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutians</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2100–2000 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFA380"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2000–1800 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD0BD"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a> city-states </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFFF80"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyrian period</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:palegoldenrod"><a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a> city-states </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1800–1600 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F7C1F7"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Old Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td colspan="7" style="background:#B2CAF6"><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian Empire</a> (Southern Akkadians) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1600–1400 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:#E6C29F"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a>) </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="3" style="background:#88D0CC"><a href="/wiki/Kardunia%C5%A1" title="Karduniaš">Karduniaš</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1400–1200 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FFB4DA"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Middle Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td style="background:#FFEB80"> </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#FFEB80"><a href="/wiki/Assyria#Middle_Assyrian_Empire_—_Assyrian_resurgence" title="Assyria">Middle Assyria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1200–1150 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FF8080"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Collapse">Bronze Age Collapse</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a>") </td> <td style="background:moccasin"><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1150–911 BCE </th> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#C590C5"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#FF8CB9"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Neo-Hittite</a> <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">city-states</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:peachpuff"><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-</a> <a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Damascus</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:moccasin"><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="background:#A0B4F0"><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Middle Babylonia</a> </td> <td rowspan="3" style="background:lightblue"><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chal-</a> <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">de-</a> <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">ans</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">911–729 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">729–609 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">626–539 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#8EC8FF"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">539–331 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:mediumspringgreen"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">336–301 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#BEFD80"><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Ancient Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">311–129 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">129–63 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td> <td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="background:#80C0C0"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">63 BCE–224 CE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="4" style="background:#D29595"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Syria</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">224–mid 7C </th> <td colspan="6" rowspan="3" style="background:#90D9D5"><a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Timeline_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Near_East" title="Template:Ancient Near East"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Near_East" title="Template talk:Ancient Near East"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Near_East" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Near East"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Timeline_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="timeline-wrapper"><map 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title="Enheduanna" alt="Enheduanna" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ur%2DNanshe" coords="287,186,373,207" title="Ur-Nanshe" alt="Ur-Nanshe" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Great_Sphinx" coords="230,171,333,191" title="Great Sphinx" alt="Great Sphinx" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Narmer_Palette" coords="83,155,197,176" title="Narmer Palette" alt="Narmer Palette" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Warka_Vase" coords="69,139,160,160" title="Warka Vase" alt="Warka Vase" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kish_tablet" coords="9,124,107,145" title="Kish tablet" alt="Kish tablet" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_4g7sw1bwtks9xff1egkl1osg5qy2kno" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/4g7sw1bwtks9xff1egkl1osg5qy2kno.png" /></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Near_East" title="Category:Ancient Near East">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Assyrian_people" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Assyrian_people_footer" title="Template:Assyrian people footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Assyrian_people_footer" title="Template talk:Assyrian people footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Assyrian_people_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Assyrian people footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Assyrian_people" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian people</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>Ethno-linguistic group(s) indigenous to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> with various additional/alternate self-identifications, such as Syriacs, Arameans, or Chaldeans</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Identity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_continuity" title="Assyrian continuity">Assyrian continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian%E2%80%93Chaldean%E2%80%93Syriac_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora">Assyrian diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Catholics" title="Chaldean Catholics">Chaldean Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terms_for_Syriac_Christians" title="Terms for Syriac Christians">Terms for Syriac Christians</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Assyrians_(gold_and_blue_Assur).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Assyrian flag"><img alt="The Assyrian flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_the_Assyrians_%28gold_and_blue_Assur%29.svg/100px-Flag_of_the_Assyrians_%28gold_and_blue_Assur%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_the_Assyrians_%28gold_and_blue_Assur%29.svg/150px-Flag_of_the_Assyrians_%28gold_and_blue_Assur%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_the_Assyrians_%28gold_and_blue_Assur%29.svg/200px-Flag_of_the_Assyrians_%28gold_and_blue_Assur%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_flag" title="Assyrian flag">Assyrian flag</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Syriac-Aramaic_People.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Syriac-Aramean flag"><img alt="The Syriac-Aramean flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_Syriac-Aramaic_People.svg/100px-Flag_of_the_Syriac-Aramaic_People.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_Syriac-Aramaic_People.svg/150px-Flag_of_the_Syriac-Aramaic_People.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_Syriac-Aramaic_People.svg/200px-Flag_of_the_Syriac-Aramaic_People.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="750" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Aramean-Syriac_flag" title="Aramean-Syriac flag">Aramean-Syriac flag</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Chaldean_flag.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Chaldean flag"><img alt="The Chaldean flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chaldean_flag.svg/100px-Chaldean_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chaldean_flag.svg/150px-Chaldean_flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chaldean_flag.svg/200px-Chaldean_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="500" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Chaldean_flag" title="Chaldean flag">Chaldean flag</a> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Syriac_Rite" title="West Syriac Rite">West Syriac Rite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Syriac Orthodox Church</a> (518–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Catholic_Church" title="Syriac Catholic Church">Syriac Catholic Church</a> (1662–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Evangelical_Church" title="Assyrian Evangelical Church">Assyrian Evangelical Church</a> (1870–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Pentecostal_Church" title="Assyrian Pentecostal Church">Assyrian Pentecostal Church</a> (1940–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Syriac_Rite" title="East Syriac Rite">East Syriac Rite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Catholic_Church" title="Chaldean Catholic Church">Chaldean Catholic Church</a> (1552–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian Church of the East</a> (1692–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient Church of the East</a> (1968–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Assyrian Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Chaldean Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Turoyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Bohtan" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan">Bohtan Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Hertevin" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin">Hertevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Senaya" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Senaya">Senaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mla%E1%B8%A5s%C3%B4_language" title="Mlaḥsô language">Mlaḥsô</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac script</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_culture" title="Assyrian culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_folk/pop_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian folk/pop music">Assyrian folk/pop music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music of Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_sacral_music" title="Syriac sacral music">Syriac sacral music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_folk_dance" title="Assyrian folk dance">Folk dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_cuisine" title="Assyrian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian clothing">Clothing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Assyrian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Assyrian people">History</a> (including related contexts)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_ancient_Assyria" title="Timeline of ancient Assyria">Ancient Assyria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Assyrian_period" title="Early Assyrian period">Early Assyrian period</a> (2600–2025 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyrian period</a> (2025–1364 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a> (1363–912 BCE)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (911–609 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-imperial_Assyria" title="Post-imperial Assyria">Post-imperial Assyria</a> (609 BCE–240 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyrian_tribes" title="List of Assyrian tribes">Assyrian tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classical antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> (312–63 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> (247 BCE–224 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a> (132 BCE–244 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Syrian Wars</a> (66 BCE–217 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a> (64 BCE–637 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> (15–116)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria_(Roman_province)" title="Assyria (Roman province)">Roman Assyria</a> (116–118)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Christianization</a> (1st to 3rd c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorian_schism" title="Nestorian schism">Nestorian schism</a> (5th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> (<a href="/wiki/Council_of_Seleucia-Ctesiphon" title="Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon">410</a>-<a href="/wiki/Schism_of_1552" title="Schism of 1552">1552</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Asoristan</a> (226–651)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Sasanian wars">Byzantine–Sasanian wars</a> (502–628)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia</a> (630s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of Syria</a> (630s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> (750–1258)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Mosul" title="List of rulers of Mosul">Emirs of Mosul</a> (905–1383)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid amirate</a> (945–1055)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a> (1098–1268)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a> (1258–1335)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalayirid_Sultanate" title="Jalayirid Sultanate">Jalayirid Sultanate</a> (1335–1432)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a> (1375–1468)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a> (1453–1501)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern era</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Assyrian_people#Islamic_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Assyrian people">Safavid Empire</a> (1508–55)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Assyrian_people#Islamic_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Assyrian people">Ottoman Empire</a> (1555–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schism_of_1552" title="Schism of 1552">Schism of 1552</a> (16th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1843_and_1846_massacres_in_Hakkari" title="1843 and 1846 massacres in Hakkari">Massacres of Badr Khan</a> (1840s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Diyarbekir_(1895)" title="Massacres of Diyarbekir (1895)">Massacres of Diyarbekir</a> (1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_nationalism" title="Assyrian nationalism">Rise of nationalism</a> (19th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adana_massacre" title="Adana massacre">Adana massacre</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrian genocide</a> (1914–20)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_independence_movement" title="Assyrian independence movement">Independence movement</a> (1919–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simele_massacre" title="Simele massacre">Simele massacre</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Iraq#Post-Saddam_Iraq" title="Assyrians in Iraq">Post-Saddam Iraq</a> (2003–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Christians_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocide of Christians by ISIL">Genocide of Christians by ISIL</a> (2014–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_population_by_country" title="Assyrian population by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_homeland" title="Assyrian homeland">Homeland</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyrian_settlements" title="List of Assyrian settlements">Settlements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Iraq" title="Assyrians in Iraq">Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nineveh_Plains" title="Nineveh Plains">Nineveh Plains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qaraqosh" title="Qaraqosh">Qaraqosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alqosh" title="Alqosh">Alqosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tel_Keppe" title="Tel Keppe">Tel Keppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartella" title="Bartella">Bartella</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankawa" title="Ankawa">Ankawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaqlawa" title="Shaqlawa">Shaqlawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakho" title="Zakho">Zakho</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Iran" title="Assyrians in Iran">Iran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urmia" title="Urmia">Urmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmas" title="Salmas">Salmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanandaj" title="Sanandaj">Sanandaj</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Syria" title="Assyrians in Syria">Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah_Governorate" title="Al-Hasakah Governorate">Al-Hasakah Governorate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah" title="Al-Hasakah">Al-Hasakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Tamer" title="Tell Tamer">Tell Tamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qamishli" title="Qamishli">Qamishli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khabur_(Euphrates)" title="Khabur (Euphrates)">Khabur</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Turkey" title="Assyrians in Turkey">Turkey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hakkari_(historical_region)" title="Hakkari (historical region)">Hakkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diyarbak%C4%B1r" title="Diyarbakır">Diyarbakır</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaz%C4%B1%C4%9F" title="Elazığ">Elazığ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mardin_Province" title="Mardin Province">Mardin Province</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mardin" title="Mardin">Mardin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maz%C4%B1da%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Mazıdağı">Mazıdağı</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tur_Abdin" title="Tur Abdin">Tur Abdin</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian%E2%80%93Chaldean%E2%80%93Syriac_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Armenia" title="Assyrians in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Australians" title="Assyrian Australians">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Belgium" title="Assyrians in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Canadians" title="Assyrian Canadians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Finland" title="Assyrians in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_France" title="Assyrians in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Georgia" title="Assyrians in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Assyrians" title="German Assyrians">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Greece" title="Assyrians in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Israel" title="Assyrians in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Jordan" title="Assyrians in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Lebanon" title="Assyrians in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Mexicans" title="Assyrian Mexicans">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_the_Netherlands" title="Assyrians in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_New_Zealand" title="Assyrians in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Assyrians in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Russia" title="Assyrians in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians/Syriacs_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrians/Syriacs in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Assyrians" title="British Assyrians">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Americans" title="Assyrian Americans">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_Eastern_people_in_Metro_Detroit" title="History of the Middle Eastern people in Metro Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Uruguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrians in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_nationalism" title="Assyrian nationalism">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Democratic_Movement" title="Assyrian Democratic Movement">Assyrian Democratic Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Democratic_Organization" title="Assyrian Democratic Organization">Assyrian Democratic Organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Universal_Alliance" title="Assyrian Universal Alliance">Assyrian Universal Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawronoye" title="Dawronoye">Dawronoye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Union_Party_(Syria)" title="Syriac Union Party (Syria)">Syriac Union Party (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Union_Party_(Lebanon)" title="Syriac Union Party (Lebanon)">Syriac Union Party (Lebanon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Military_Council" title="Syriac Military Council">Syriac Military Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutoro" title="Sutoro">Sutoro</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/16px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/24px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/32px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iraq&#124;link=Iraq_Iraq_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iraq_topics" title="Template:Iraq topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iraq_topics" title="Template talk:Iraq topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iraq_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iraq topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iraq&#124;link=Iraq_Iraq_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq"><img alt="Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/45px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf-Ubaid_Transitional_period" title="Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period">Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">First Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Period">Old Assyrian Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Sassanid Asorestan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">638–1958</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Iraq" title="Ottoman Iraq">Ottoman Iraq</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)">Mamluk dynasty</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Mesopotamia" title="Mandate for Mesopotamia">Mandate for Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Mandatory Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Iraq" title="List of kings of Iraq">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_(1958%E2%80%931968)" title="Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)">1958–1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">1968–2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Iraq_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)">2003–2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">2011–present</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">National Command</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_Shatt_al-Arab_conflict" title="1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict">1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1977 Shia uprising in Iraq">1977 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979%E2%80%931980_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq">1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Opera" title="Operation Opera">Operation Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Kuwait">Invasion of Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">1991 uprisings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">Sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">U.S. invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)">Iraqi insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_of_United_States_troops_from_Iraq_(2007%E2%80%932011)" title="Withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2007–2011)">U.S. troop withdrawal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2011%E2%80%932013)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)">Insurgency (2011–2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Iraq_(2013%E2%80%932017)" title="War in Iraq (2013–2017)">War (2014–2017)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Mosul" title="Fall of Mosul">Fall of Mosul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mosul_(2016%E2%80%932017)" title="Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)">Mosul liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_insurgency_in_Iraq_(2017%E2%80%93present)" title="Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present)">Insurgency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932021_Iraqi_protests" title="2019–2021 Iraqi protests">2019–2021 protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iraqi_political_crisis" title="2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis">2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iraq" title="Geography of Iraq">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Faw_peninsula" title="Al-Faw peninsula">Faw peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Iraq" title="Template:Borders of Iraq">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan">Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lakes_of_Iraq" title="Category:Lakes of Iraq">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iraq" title="List of islands of Iraq">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_Iraq" title="List of places in Iraq">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Qasr" title="Umm Qasr">Umm Qasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iraq" title="Wildlife of Iraq">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iraq" title="Politics of Iraq">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Iraq" title="Governorates of Iraq">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iraq" title="Constitution of Iraq">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Representatives_of_Iraq" title="Council of Representatives of Iraq">Council of Representatives (legislative)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Iraq" title="Democracy in Iraq">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iraq" title="Elections in Iraq">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_Iraq" title="Foreign aid to Iraq">Foreign aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iraq" title="Foreign relations of Iraq">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_Iraq" title="Federal government of Iraq">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Iraq)" title="Council of Ministers (Iraq)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_Council_of_Iraq" title="Presidency Council of Iraq">Presidency Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="List of prime ministers of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iraq" title="Human rights in Iraq">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq" title="Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq">in pre-Saddam Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Saddam_Hussein%27s_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq">in Saddam Hussein's Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Human rights in post-invasion Iraq">in post-invasion Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Islamic_State-controlled_territory" title="Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory">in ISIL-controlled territory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iraq">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iraq" title="Freedom of religion in Iraq">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iraq" title="Women in Iraq">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iraq" title="Law of Iraq">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armed_Forces" title="Iraqi Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Police" title="Iraqi Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iraq" title="List of political parties in Iraq">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Iraq" title="Judiciary of Iraq">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iraq" title="List of wars involving Iraq">Wars and conflicts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iraq" title="Economy of Iraq">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Iraq" title="List of banks in Iraq">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iraq" title="Central Bank of Iraq">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iraq" title="List of companies of Iraq">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iraq" title="Corruption in Iraq">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_dinar" title="Iraqi dinar">Dinar (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_of_Iraq" title="Infrastructure of Iraq">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Foreign Investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iraq" title="Petroleum industry in Iraq">Oil Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Iraq" title="Oil reserves in Iraq">Oil reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_Stock_Exchange" title="Iraq Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iraq" title="Transport in Iraq">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iraq" title="List of airlines of Iraq">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_Railways" title="Iraqi Republic Railways">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iraq" title="Tourism in Iraq">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iraq" title="Category:Society of Iraq">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iraq" title="Demographics of Iraq">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqis" title="Iraqis">Iraqis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iraq" title="Languages of Iraq">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen#Language" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minorities_in_Iraq" title="Minorities in Iraq">Minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armenians" title="Iraqi Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iraq" title="Circassians in Iraq">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajam_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajam of Iraq">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solluba" title="Solluba">Solluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen</a>/Turkoman</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_Iraq" title="Secularism in Iraq">Secularism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iraq" title="Islam in Iraq">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Iraq" title="Irreligion in Iraq">Irreligion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_art" title="Iraqi art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iraq" title="Cinema of Iraq">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_cuisine" title="Iraqi cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iraq" title="Culture of Iraq">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Iraq">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Iraq" title="Health in Iraq">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Iraq" title="Mass media in Iraq">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Iraq" title="Television in Iraq">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iraq" title="Music of Iraq">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Iraq" title="Smoking in Iraq">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Iraq" title="Sport in Iraq">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Iraq" title="Squatting in Iraq">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Iraq" title="Public holidays in Iraq">Public holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehwa_Rabba" title="Dehwa Rabba">Mandaean New Year</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Iraq" title="Category:Iraq">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Iraq" title="Portal:Iraq">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Iraq" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Iraq">WikiProject</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Iraq" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Iraq">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Turkey&#124;link=Turkey_Turkey" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Turkey_topics" title="Template:Turkey topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Turkey_topics" title="Template talk:Turkey topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Turkey_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Turkey topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Turkey&#124;link=Turkey_Turkey" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey"><img alt="Turkey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal">Ancient and Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Anatolia" title="Prehistory of Anatolia">Prehistory of Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Anatolia" title="Classical Anatolia">Classical Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Anatolia" title="Byzantine Anatolia">Byzantine Anatolia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_dynasty" title="Seljuk dynasty">Seljuks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_beyliks" title="Anatolian beyliks">Beyliks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" title="Battle of Manzikert">Battle of Manzikert</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Sultanate of Rum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_beyliks" title="Anatolian beyliks">Anatolian beyliks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Age_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire">Classical Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Conquest of Constantinople</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Transformation of the Ottoman Empire">Transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Old_Regime" title="Ottoman Old Regime">Ottoman Old Regime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulip period">Tulip era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Decline and modernization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era" title="First Constitutional Era">First Constitutional Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era" title="Second Constitutional Era">Second Constitutional Era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">Dissolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">Partition</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey" title="History of the Republic of Turkey">Republic of Türkiye</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey" title="Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey">Proclamation of the republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk%27s_reforms" title="Atatürk's reforms">Atatürk's reforms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_language_reform" title="Turkish language reform">Language reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_Turkey" title="Secularism in Turkey">Secularism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-party_period_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey" title="One-party period of the Republic of Turkey">One-party period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-party_period_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey" title="Multi-party period of the Republic of Turkey">Multi-party period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history_of_Turkey" title="Constitutional history of Turkey">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Turkey" title="Economic history of Turkey">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Economic history of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Turkey" title="Military history of Turkey">Military</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_migration" title="Turkic migration">Turkic migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Oghuz Turks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkification" title="Turkification">Turkification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Anatolia" title="List of ancient peoples of Anatolia">Ancient peoples of Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anatolia" title="History of Anatolia">History of Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thrace">History of Thrace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Turkey" title="Geography of Turkey">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><a href="/wiki/Geographical_regions_of_Turkey" title="Geographical regions of Turkey">Regions</a> (west to east)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marmara_region" title="Marmara region">Marmara region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_region" title="Aegean region">Aegean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Region,_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Region, Turkey">Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_region" title="Black Sea region">Black Sea region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Anatolia_region" title="Central Anatolia region">Central Anatolia region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Anatolia_region" title="Eastern Anatolia region">Eastern Anatolia region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Anatolia_region" title="Southeastern Anatolia region">Southeastern Anatolia region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Turkey" title="Climate of Turkey">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Turkey" title="Climate change in Turkey">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Turkey" title="List of earthquakes in Turkey">Earthquakes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Anatolian_Fault" title="East Anatolian Fault">East Anatolian Fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Anatolian_Fault" title="North Anatolian Fault">North Anatolian Fault</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Turkey" title="Environmental issues in Turkey">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution_in_Turkey" title="Air pollution in Turkey">Air pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Turkey" title="Waste management in Turkey">Waste management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Turkey" title="Fauna of Turkey">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_and_vegetation_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora and vegetation of Turkey">Flora and vegetation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Turkey" title="Geology of Turkey">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Turkey" title="List of lakes of Turkey">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Turkey" title="List of mountains in Turkey">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Turkey" title="List of national parks of Turkey">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Turkey" title="List of rivers of Turkey">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Riviera" title="Turkish Riviera">Turkish Riviera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Turkey" title="Wildlife of Turkey">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Turkey" title="Government of Turkey">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey" title="Grand National Assembly of Turkey">Legislative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Turkey" title="President of Turkey">Executive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Turkey" title="Cabinet of Turkey">Cabinet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_Turkey" title="Judicial system of Turkey">Judicial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Turkey" title="Constitutional Court of Turkey">Constitutional Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_Cassation_(Turkey)" title="Court of Cassation (Turkey)">Court of Cassation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_Jurisdictional_Disputes" title="Court of Jurisdictional Disputes">Court of Jurisdictional Disputes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_State_(Turkey)" title="Council of State (Turkey)">Council of State</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Turkey" title="Politics of Turkey">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Turkey" title="Elections in Turkey">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_elections_in_Turkey" title="Parliamentary elections in Turkey">Parliamentary elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_presidential_elections" title="Turkish presidential elections">Presidential elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_system_of_Turkey" title="Electoral system of Turkey">Electoral system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Turkey" title="List of political parties in Turkey">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Referendums_in_Turkey" title="Referendums in Turkey">Referendums</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Turkey" title="Administrative divisions of Turkey">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Turkey" title="Foreign relations of Turkey">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Intelligence_Organization" title="National Intelligence Organization">Intelligence Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Interior_(Turkey)" title="Ministry of the Interior (Turkey)">Ministry of the Interior</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Directorate_of_Security_(Turkey)" title="General Directorate of Security (Turkey)">National Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendarmerie_General_Command" title="Gendarmerie General Command">Gendarmerie</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Turkey" title="Constitution of Turkey">The constitutional system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Armed_Forces" title="Turkish Armed Forces">Turkish Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Air_Force" title="Turkish Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Land_Forces" title="Turkish Land Forces">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Naval_Forces" title="Turkish Naval Forces">Navy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Turkey" title="Economy of Turkey">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Turkey" title="Automotive industry in Turkey">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Turkey" title="Banking in Turkey">Banking and Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_construction_and_contracting_industry" title="Turkish construction and contracting industry">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_lira" title="Turkish lira">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_industry_of_Turkey" title="Defense industry of Turkey">Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Turkey" title="Energy in Turkey">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_Turkey" title="Coal in Turkey">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_in_Turkey" title="Gas in Turkey">Gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_in_Turkey" title="Oil in Turkey">Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Turkey" title="Renewable energy in Turkey">Renewables</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade_agreements_of_Turkey" title="Free trade agreements of Turkey">Free trade agreements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Turkey" title="Science and technology in Turkey">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in Turkey">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Turkey" title="Tourism in Turkey">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Turkey" title="Transport in Turkey">Transportation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_Turkey" title="Aviation in Turkey">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Airlines" title="Turkish Airlines">Turkish Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Turkey" title="Rail transport in Turkey">Railways</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Turkey" title="Demographics of Turkey">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turkish people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Turkey" title="Kurds in Turkey">Ethnic Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minorities_in_Turkey" title="Minorities in Turkey">Minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Turkey" title="Languages of Turkey">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish language</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkey" title="Religion in Turkey">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Turkey" title="Islam in Turkey">Islam in Turkey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_and_towns_in_Turkey" title="List of largest cities and towns in Turkey">Cities and towns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankara" title="Ankara">Ankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmir" title="İzmir">İzmir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Turkey" title="Immigration to Turkey">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Turkish provinces by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Turkey" title="List of universities in Turkey">Universities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_Turkey" title="Health care in Turkey">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Turkey" title="Human rights in Turkey">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Turkey">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_people" title="List of Turkish people">Individuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Turkey" title="Law enforcement in Turkey">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Turkey" title="Crime in Turkey">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Turkey" title="Corruption in Turkey">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Turkey" title="Terrorism in Turkey">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Turkey" title="Marriage in Turkey">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Turkey" title="Poverty in Turkey">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Turkey" title="Women in Turkey">Women in Turkey</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Culture" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Turkey" title="Culture of Turkey">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%B0stiklal_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="İstiklal Marşı">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Turkey" title="Architecture of Turkey">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Seljuk_architecture" title="Anatolian Seljuk architecture">Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_architecture" title="Ottoman architecture">Ottoman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_art" title="Turkish art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_rug" title="Anatolian rug">Carpet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Turkey" title="Cinema of Turkey">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_cuisine" title="Turkish cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_cuisine" title="Ottoman cuisine">Ottoman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_Turkey" title="List of festivals in Turkey">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Turkey" title="Flag of Turkey">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_folk_dance" title="Turkish folk dance">Folk dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_folklore" title="Turkish folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_illumination" title="Ottoman illumination">Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Intangible_Cultural_Heritage_elements_in_Turkey" title="List of Intangible Cultural Heritage elements in Turkey">Intangible cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_literature" title="Turkish literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Turkey" title="Mass media in Turkey">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Turkey" title="Television in Turkey">TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Turkey" title="List of newspapers in Turkey">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_radio_stations_in_Turkey" title="List of radio stations in Turkey">Radio stations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Miniature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Turkey" title="Music of Turkey">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_name" title="Turkish name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Modern_Turkish_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Modern Turkish painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iznik_pottery" title="Iznik pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Turkey" title="Sport in Turkey">Sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Football_in_Turkey" title="Football in Turkey">Football</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Turkey" title="Theatre of Turkey">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_television_drama" title="Turkish television drama">TV series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Turkey" title="Video games in Turkey">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_wine" title="Turkish wine">Wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Turkey" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey">World heritage sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Turkey" title="Portal:Turkey">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Turkey" title="Category:Turkey">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Turkey" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Turkey">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/72/Symbol_project_class.svg/16px-Symbol_project_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/72/Symbol_project_class.svg/23px-Symbol_project_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/72/Symbol_project_class.svg/31px-Symbol_project_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Turkey" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Turkey">WikiProject</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Turkey" title="Outline of Turkey">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Syria_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Syria_topics" title="Template:Syria topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Syria_topics" title="Template talk:Syria topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Syria_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Syria topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Syria_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Syria-related_articles" title="Index of Syria-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Syrian_history" title="Timeline of Syrian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Syria" title="List of years in Syria">Years in Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prehistorical Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_corridor" title="Levantine corridor">Levantine corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hureyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Hureyra">Abu Hureyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Aswad" title="Tell Aswad">Aswad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarmukian_culture" title="Yarmukian culture">Yarmukian culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Syria">Ancient Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Canaanites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Achaemenid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid Syria">Seleucid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Syria">Medieval Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest</a> (636)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Caliphal Syria (Bilad al-Sham)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulunid dynasty">Tulunid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zangid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Zangid dynasty">Zangid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirdasid_dynasty" title="Mirdasid dynasty">Mirdasid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid Syria">Fatimid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saljuqid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Saljuqid Syria">Saljuqid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">County of Edessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">County of Tripoli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid Syria">Ayyubid Syria</a> (1174–1260)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Syria">Mamluk Syria</a> (1260–1516)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early modern Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a> (1516–1918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Syria" title="Modern history of Syria">Modern Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Arab kingdom</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haj_Fadel_Government" title="Haj Fadel Government">Haj Fadel Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandate for Syria and Lebanon">French Mandate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Federation" title="Syrian Federation">Syrian Federation</a> (1922–25)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1925%E2%80%931930)" title="State of Syria (1925–1930)">State of Syria</a> (1925–30)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandatory Syrian Republic">Mandatory Republic</a> (1930–46)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_First_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent First Syrian Republic">independent First Republic</a> (1946–50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Syrian_Republic" title="Second Syrian Republic">Second Republic</a> (1950–1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Civil war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria"><img alt="Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Insigne_Syriae.svg/80px-Insigne_Syriae.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Insigne_Syriae.svg/120px-Insigne_Syriae.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Insigne_Syriae.svg/160px-Insigne_Syriae.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="403" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Syria" title="Geography of Syria">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Syria" title="Template:Borders of Syria">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Syria" title="List of cities in Syria">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Syria" title="Districts of Syria">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Syria" title="Governorates of Syria">Governorates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Syria" title="List of rivers of Syria">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Syria" title="List of volcanoes in Syria">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia">Al-Jazira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Lebanon Mountains">Anti-Lebanon Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Hermon" title="Mount Hermon">Hermon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orontes_River" title="Orontes River">Orontes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria (region)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Syria" title="Southern Syria">Southern Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Syria" title="Politics of Syria">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Syria" title="Constitution of Syria">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Syria" title="Corruption in Syria">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Syria" title="List of presidents of Syria">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Syria" title="Vice President of Syria">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Syria)" title="Council of Ministers (Syria)">Council of Ministers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Syria" title="Prime Minister of Syria">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of Syria">list</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Syria" title="Elections in Syria">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Syria" title="Foreign relations of Syria">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights#Territorial_claims" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatay_Province#Turkish–Syrian_dispute" title="Hatay Province">Iskandaron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_ministries_of_Syria" title="Government ministries of Syria">Government ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Syria" title="Human rights in Syria">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Syria">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Syria" title="Judiciary of Syria">Judiciary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Judicial_Council" title="High Judicial Council">High council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Constitutional_Court_of_Syria" title="Supreme Constitutional Court of Syria">Supreme Constitutional Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Council_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Council of Syria">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_People%27s_Council_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Speaker of the People's Council of Syria">Speakers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Syria" title="List of political parties in Syria">Political parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">national</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">regional command</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Syria)" title="National Progressive Front (Syria)">National Progressive Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_Change_and_Liberation" title="Popular Front for Change and Liberation">Popular Front for Change and Liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_of_the_Golan_Heights" class="mw-redirect" title="Status of the Golan Heights">Political status of the Golan Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria (region)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Syria" title="Terrorism in Syria">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Syria">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Army" title="Syrian Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air_Force" title="Syrian Air Force">Air force</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air_Defense_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Air Defense Force">air defense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Navy" title="Syrian Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_General_Staff_(Syria)" title="Chief of the General Staff (Syria)">Chief of the General Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Syria and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Syria" title="Agriculture in Syria">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Syria" title="Central Bank of Syria">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Syria" title="List of companies of Syria">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_in_Syria" title="Industry in Syria">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Syria" title="International rankings of Syria">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_pound" title="Syrian pound">Pound (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Securities_Exchange" title="Damascus Securities Exchange">Securities Exchange (stock exchange)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria#Energy_and_mineral_resources" title="Economy of Syria">Energy and mineral resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Syria" title="Petroleum industry in Syria">Petroleum industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in Syria">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Syria" title="Transport in Syria">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Syria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Syria">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Syria" title="Category:Society of Syria">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Censorship in Syria">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Syria" title="Demographics of Syria">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Syria" title="Education in Syria">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Syria" title="Health in Syria">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_Syria" title="Hunger in Syria">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrians" title="Syrians">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_diaspora" title="Syrian diaspora">diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugees of the Syrian Civil War">refugees (2011–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Syria" title="Public holidays in Syria">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scouts_of_Syria" title="Scouts of Syria">Scouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Syria" title="Squatting in Syria">Squatting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Syria" title="Culture of Syria">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="National anthem of Syria">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Syria" title="Coat of arms of Syria">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_cuisine" title="Syrian cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syrian_wine" title="Syrian wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Syrian_films" title="List of Syrian films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Syria" title="Flag of Syria">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Syria" title="Mass media in Syria">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Organization_of_Radio_and_TV_(Syria)" title="General Organization of Radio and TV (Syria)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Syria" title="Television in Syria">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Syria" title="Music of Syria">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Syria" title="Smoking in Syria">Smoking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Syria" title="Outline of Syria">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Syria-related_articles" title="Index of Syria-related articles">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syria" title="Category:Syria">Category</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a> (<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magadhan_Empire" title="Magadhan Empire">Magadha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Muscovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Perm" title="Great Perm">Permian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Kyivan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" style="display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" title="Template:Rulers of the Ancient Near East"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" title="Template talk:Rulers of the Ancient Near East"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rulers of the Ancient Near East"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"><div style="overflow:auto"> <table style="width:100%" class="wraplinks"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:0; font-size:96.6%;"> <table class="wikitable" style="width:100%; margin:0; font-size:96.6%;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Territories/ dates <a href="#cite_note-255">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-257">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[5]</a></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Akshak" title="Akshak">Akshak</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td rowspan="2">4000–3200 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Naqada_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada I">Naqada I</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerzeh_culture" title="Gerzeh culture">Naqada II</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_(front_top_part_detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gebel el-Arak Knife"><img alt="Gebel el-Arak Knife" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/50px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/75px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/100px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1582" data-file-height="1100" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="1" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a> </td> <td colspan="9" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">Pre-Dynastic period</a> (4000–2900 BCE) </td> <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="9" rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"> <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> (4000–3100 BCE) <a href="/wiki/File:White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/100px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/150px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/200px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1952" data-file-height="1158" /></a> (<a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Anu Ziggurat</a>, 4000 BCE) <a href="/wiki/File:Rolzegel.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/100px-Rolzegel.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/150px-Rolzegel.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/200px-Rolzegel.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1726" data-file-height="714" /></a> (Anonymous "King-priests") </td> <td colspan="1" rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa II</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Susa II Priest-King with bow and arrows"><img alt="Susa II Priest-King with bow and arrows" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/35px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/53px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/70px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1283" data-file-height="1663" /></a> (Uruk influence or control) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">3200–3100 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Proto-Dynastic period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Naqada III</a>) Early or legendary kings: </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Finger_Snail" title="Finger Snail">Finger Snail</a> <a href="/wiki/Fish_(pharaoh)" title="Fish (pharaoh)">Fish</a> <a href="/wiki/Elephant_(pharaoh)" title="Elephant (pharaoh)">Pen-Abu</a> Animal <a href="/wiki/Stork_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stork (Pharaoh)">Stork</a> <a href="/wiki/Canide_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canide (Pharaoh)">Canide</a> <a href="/wiki/Bull_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bull (Pharaoh)">Bull</a> <a href="/wiki/Scorpion_I" title="Scorpion I">Scorpion I</a> <a href="/wiki/Crocodile_(pharaoh)" title="Crocodile (pharaoh)">Shendjw</a> <a href="/wiki/Iry-Hor" title="Iry-Hor">Iry-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ka_(pharaoh)" title="Ka (pharaoh)">Ka</a> <a href="/wiki/Scorpion_II" title="Scorpion II">Scorpion II</a> <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Hedju_Hor" title="Hedju Hor">Hedju Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ny-Hor" title="Ny-Hor">Ny-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Hsekiu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hsekiu">Hsekiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Khayu" class="mw-redirect" title="Khayu">Khayu</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiu_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiu (pharaoh)">Tiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Thesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Thesh">Thesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Neheb" class="mw-redirect" title="Neheb">Neheb</a> <a href="/wiki/Wazner" class="mw-redirect" title="Wazner">Wazner</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nat-Hor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nat-Hor (page does not exist)">Nat-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Mekh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mekh">Mekh</a> <a href="/wiki/Double_Falcon" title="Double Falcon">Double Falcon</a> <a href="/wiki/Wash_(pharaoh)" title="Wash (pharaoh)">Wash</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">3100–2900 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" rowspan="1" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a> <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">First Dynasty of Egypt</a><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Narmer Palette"><img alt="Narmer Palette" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/40px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/60px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/80px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1611" data-file-height="2404" /></a><figcaption>Narmer Palette</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> <a href="/wiki/Neithhotep" title="Neithhotep">Neithhotep</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Hor-Aha" title="Hor-Aha">Hor-Aha</a> <a href="/wiki/Djer" title="Djer">Djer</a> <a href="/wiki/Djet" title="Djet">Djet</a> <a href="/wiki/Merneith" title="Merneith">Merneith</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Den_(pharaoh)" title="Den (pharaoh)">Den</a> <a href="/wiki/Anedjib" title="Anedjib">Anedjib</a> <a href="/wiki/Semerkhet" title="Semerkhet">Semerkhet</a> <a href="/wiki/Qa%27a" title="Qa'a">Qa'a</a> <a href="/wiki/Sneferka" title="Sneferka">Sneferka</a> <a href="/wiki/Horus_Bird_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Horus Bird (Pharaoh)">Horus Bird</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="1" rowspan="13"><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanites</a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> (3100–2900 BCE) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite</a> <a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa III</a>) (3100–2700 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2900 BCE </td> <td rowspan="8" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Second Dynasty of Egypt">Second Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Hotepsekhemwy" title="Hotepsekhemwy">Hotepsekhemwy</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebra_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebra (Pharaoh)">Nebra/Raneb</a> <a href="/wiki/Nynetjer" title="Nynetjer">Nynetjer</a> <a href="/wiki/Ba_(pharaoh)" title="Ba (pharaoh)">Ba</a> <a href="/wiki/Nubnefer" title="Nubnefer">Nubnefer</a> <a href="/wiki/Horus_Sa" title="Horus Sa">Horus Sa</a> <a href="/wiki/Weneg_(pharaoh)" title="Weneg (pharaoh)">Weneg-Nebty</a> <a href="/wiki/Wadjenes" title="Wadjenes">Wadjenes</a> <a href="/wiki/Senedj" title="Senedj">Senedj</a> <a href="/wiki/Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Seth-Peribsen</a> <a href="/wiki/Sekhemib-Perenmaat" title="Sekhemib-Perenmaat">Sekhemib-Perenmaat</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkara_I" title="Neferkara I">Neferkara I</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkasokar" title="Neferkasokar">Neferkasokar</a> <a href="/wiki/Hudjefa_I" title="Hudjefa I">Hudjefa I</a> <a href="/wiki/Khasekhemwy" title="Khasekhemwy">Khasekhemwy</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Khasekhemwy"><img alt="Khasekhemwy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/30px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/45px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/60px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4103" data-file-height="5203" /></a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period I</a> (2900–2700 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">First Eblaite</a> Kingdom </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">First kingdom of Mari</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Jushur" title="Jushur">Jushur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kullassina-bel" title="Kullassina-bel">Kullassina-bel</a> <a href="/wiki/Nangishlishma" title="Nangishlishma">Nangishlishma</a>, <a href="/wiki/En-tarah-ana" title="En-tarah-ana">En-tarah-ana</a> <a href="/wiki/Babum" title="Babum">Babum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puannum" title="Puannum">Puannum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalibum" title="Kalibum">Kalibum</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2800 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Kalumum" title="Kalumum">Kalumum</a> <a href="/wiki/Zuqaqip" title="Zuqaqip">Zuqaqip</a> <a href="/wiki/Atab" title="Atab">Atab</a> <a href="/wiki/Mashda" title="Mashda">Mashda</a> <a href="/wiki/Arwium" title="Arwium">Arwium</a> <a href="/wiki/Etana" title="Etana">Etana</a> <a href="/wiki/Balih" title="Balih">Balih</a> <a href="/wiki/En-me-nuna" title="En-me-nuna">En-me-nuna</a> <a href="/wiki/Melem-Kish" title="Melem-Kish">Melem-Kish</a> <a href="/wiki/Barsal-nuna" title="Barsal-nuna">Barsal-nuna</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Mesh-ki-ang-gasher" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesh-ki-ang-gasher">Mesh-ki-ang-gasher</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Enmerkar" title="Enmerkar">Enmerkar</a> ("conqueror of <a href="/wiki/Aratta" title="Aratta">Aratta</a>") </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">2700 BCE </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period II</a> (2700–2600 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Zamug" title="Zamug">Zamug</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tizqar" title="Tizqar">Tizqar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilku" title="Ilku">Ilku</a> <a href="/wiki/Iltasadum" title="Iltasadum">Iltasadum</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Lugalbanda" title="Lugalbanda">Lugalbanda</a> <a href="/wiki/Dumuzid,_the_Fisherman" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumuzid, the Fisherman">Dumuzid, the Fisherman</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Enmebaragesi" title="Enmebaragesi">Enmebaragesi</a> ("made the land of Elam submit")<a href="#cite_note-SKL-260">[6]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Aga_of_Kish" title="Aga of Kish">Aga of Kish</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ak_gal-ukkin_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aga of Kish"><img alt="Aga of Kish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/22px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="22" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/33px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/44px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="559" data-file-height="826" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh" title="Gilgamesh">Gilgamesh</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/15px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/20px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda,_2600_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/30px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="29" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/45px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/60px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="595" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Old Elamite period</a> (2700–1500 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2600 BCE </td> <td rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">Third Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Saqqara,_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2,_Ancient_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Saqqarah Djeser pyramid"><img alt="Saqqarah Djeser pyramid" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/50px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/75px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/100px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a> (First <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sekhemkhet" title="Sekhemkhet">Sekhemkhet</a> <a href="/wiki/Sanakht" title="Sanakht">Sanakht</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebka" title="Nebka">Nebka</a> <a href="/wiki/Khaba" title="Khaba">Khaba</a> <a href="/wiki/Qahedjet" title="Qahedjet">Qahedjet</a> <a href="/wiki/Huni" title="Huni">Huni</a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period III</a> (2600–2340 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Sagisu" title="Sagisu">Sagisu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abur-lim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abur-lim (page does not exist)">Abur-lim</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Agur-lim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agur-lim (page does not exist)">Agur-lim</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibbi-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibbi-Damu (page does not exist)">Ibbi-Damu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Baba-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baba-Damu (page does not exist)">Baba-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> II dynasty (5 kings) <a href="/wiki/Uhub" title="Uhub">Uhub</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesilim" title="Mesilim">Mesilim</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Nungal" title="Ur-Nungal">Ur-Nungal</a> <a href="/wiki/Udul-kalama" title="Udul-kalama">Udulkalama</a> <a href="/wiki/La-ba%27shum" title="La-ba'shum">Labashum</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> <a href="/wiki/En-hegal" title="En-hegal">En-hegal</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugalshaengur" title="Lugalshaengur">Lugal- shaengur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ur_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ur I">Ur</a> <a href="/wiki/A-Imdugud" title="A-Imdugud">A-Imdugud</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Pabilsag" title="Ur-Pabilsag">Ur-Pabilsag</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ur-Palbisag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/30px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="48" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/45px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/60px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1385" data-file-height="2201" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Meskalamdug" title="Meskalamdug">Meskalamdug</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Puabi" title="Puabi">Puabi</a>) <a href="/wiki/Akalamdug" title="Akalamdug">Akalamdug</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/En-nun-tarah-ana" title="En-nun-tarah-ana">Enun-dara-anna</a> <a href="/wiki/Mes-he" class="mw-redirect" title="Mes-he">Mes-he</a> <a href="/wiki/Melamanna" class="mw-redirect" title="Melamanna">Melamanna</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-kitun" title="Lugal-kitun">Lugal-kitun</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a> <a href="/wiki/Nin-kisalsi" title="Nin-kisalsi">Nin-kisalsi</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Me-durba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Me-durba (page does not exist)">Me-durba</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-dalu" title="Lugal-dalu">Lugal-dalu</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2575 BCE </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Sneferu" title="Sneferu">Snefru</a> <a href="/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Kheops-Pyramid.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/50px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/75px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/100px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1581" data-file-height="971" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Djedefre" title="Djedefre">Djedefre</a> <a href="/wiki/Khafre" title="Khafre">Khafre</a> <a href="/wiki/Bikheris" title="Bikheris">Bikheris</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a> <a href="/wiki/Shepseskaf" title="Shepseskaf">Shepseskaf</a> <a href="/wiki/Thamphthis" title="Thamphthis">Thamphthis</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="First Dynasty of Ur">Ur I dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesannepada" title="Mesannepada">Mesannepada</a> "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk </td></tr> <tr> <td>2500 BCE </td> <td rowspan="22" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> (2500-539 BCE) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/The_second_kingdom_of_Mari" class="mw-redirect" title="The second kingdom of Mari">Second kingdom of Mari</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikun-Shamash" title="Ikun-Shamash">Ikun-Shamash</a> <a href="/wiki/Iku-Shamagan" title="Iku-Shamagan">Iku-Shamagan</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Iku-Shamagan"><img alt="Iku-Shamagan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/30px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="52" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/45px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/60px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="2102" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ansud" title="Ansud">Ansud</a> <a href="/wiki/Sa%27umu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'umu">Sa'umu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishtup-Ishar" title="Ishtup-Ishar">Ishtup-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikun-Mari" title="Ikun-Mari">Ikun-Mari</a> <a href="/wiki/Iblul-Il" title="Iblul-Il">Iblul-Il</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nizi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nizi (page does not exist)">Nizi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="3">Kish III dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ku-Baba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ku-Baba">Ku-Baba</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Akshak" title="Akshak">Akshak dynasty</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Unzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unzi (page does not exist)">Unzi</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Undalulu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Undalulu (page does not exist)">Undalulu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Enshakushanna" title="Enshakushanna">Ensha- kushanna</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Mug-si" title="Mug-si">Mug-si</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Pabilgagaltuku" title="Pabilgagaltuku">Pabilgagaltuku</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nanshe" title="Ur-Nanshe">Ur-Nanshe</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ur-Nanshe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/30px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/45px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/60px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="663" data-file-height="918" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Akurgal" title="Akurgal">Akurgal</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/A%27annepada" title="A'annepada">A'annepada</a> <a href="/wiki/Meskiagnun" title="Meskiagnun">Meskiagnun</a> <a href="/wiki/Elulu" title="Elulu">Elulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Balulu" title="Balulu">Balulu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Awan_dynasty" title="Awan dynasty">Awan dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Peli_(king_of_Awan)" title="Peli (king of Awan)">Peli</a> <a href="/wiki/Tata_(king_of_Awan)" title="Tata (king of Awan)">Tata</a> <a href="/wiki/Ukku-Tanhish" title="Ukku-Tanhish">Ukkutahesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Hishutash" title="Hishutash">Hishur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2450 BCE </td> <td rowspan="4" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Userkaf" title="Userkaf">Userkaf</a> <a href="/wiki/Sahure" title="Sahure">Sahure</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferirkare_Kakai" title="Neferirkare Kakai">Neferirkare Kakai</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferefre" title="Neferefre">Neferefre</a> <a href="/wiki/Shepseskare" title="Shepseskare">Shepseskare</a> <a href="/wiki/Nyuserre_Ini" title="Nyuserre Ini">Nyuserre Ini</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkauhor_Kaiu" title="Menkauhor Kaiu">Menkauhor Kaiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Isesi" title="Djedkare Isesi">Djedkare Isesi</a> <a href="/wiki/Unas" title="Unas">Unas</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enar-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enar-Damu (page does not exist)">Enar-Damu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ishar-Malik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ishar-Malik (page does not exist)">Ishar-Malik</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ush,_king_of_Umma" title="Ush, king of Umma">Ush</a> <a href="/wiki/Enakalle" title="Enakalle">Enakalle</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamite</a> invasions (3 kings)<a href="#cite_note-SKL-260">[6]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Shushun-Tarana" title="Shushun-Tarana">Shushun- tarana</a> <a href="/wiki/Napi-Ilhush" title="Napi-Ilhush">Napilhush</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2425 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;"><a href="/wiki/Kun-Damu" title="Kun-Damu">Kun-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/Eannatum" title="Eannatum">Eannatum</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/30px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/45px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/60px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="2595" /></a> (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2400 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adub-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adub-Damu (page does not exist)">Adub-Damu</a> <a href="/wiki/Igrish-Halam" title="Igrish-Halam">Igrish-Halam</a> <a href="/wiki/Irkab-Damu" title="Irkab-Damu">Irkab-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> IV dynasty <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Suen" title="Puzur-Suen">Puzur-Suen</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Zababa" title="Ur-Zababa">Ur-Zababa</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urur (page does not exist)">Urur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Lugal-kinishe-dudu" title="Lugal-kinishe-dudu">Lugal-kinishe-dudu</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-kisalsi" title="Lugal-kisalsi">Lugal-kisalsi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/wiki/E-iginimpa%27e" title="E-iginimpa'e">E-iginimpa'e</a> <a href="/wiki/Meskigal" title="Meskigal">Meskigal</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Lumma" title="Ur-Lumma">Ur-Lumma</a> <a href="/wiki/Il,_king_of_Umma" title="Il, king of Umma">Il</a> <a href="/wiki/Gishakidu" title="Gishakidu">Gishakidu</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Bara-irnun" title="Bara-irnun">Bara-irnun</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;"><a href="/wiki/Enannatum_I" title="Enannatum I">Enannatum</a> <a href="/wiki/Entemena" title="Entemena">Entemena</a> <a href="/wiki/Enannatum_II" title="Enannatum II">Enannatum II</a> <a href="/wiki/Enentarzi" title="Enentarzi">Enentarzi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;"><a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> II dynasty Nanni <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II (page does not exist)">Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;"><a href="/wiki/Kikku-Siwe-Temti" title="Kikku-Siwe-Temti">Kiku-siwe-tempti</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2380 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Teti" title="Teti">Teti</a> <a href="/wiki/Userkare" title="Userkare">Userkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Pepi_I_Meryre" title="Pepi I Meryre">Pepi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_I" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf I">Merenre Nemtyemsaf I</a> <a href="/wiki/Pepi_II_Neferkare" title="Pepi II Neferkare">Pepi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_II" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf II">Merenre Nemtyemsaf II</a> <a href="/wiki/Netjerkare_Siptah" title="Netjerkare Siptah">Netjerkare Siptah</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I,_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.,_39.121.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kneeling statuette of Pepy I"><img alt="Kneeling statuette of Pepy I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/30px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/45px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/60px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1148" data-file-height="1536" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="10" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a> dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugalannemundu" class="mw-redirect" title="Lugalannemundu">Lugalannemundu</a> "King of the four quarters of the world" </td></tr> <tr> <td>2370 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Isar-Damu" title="Isar-Damu">Isar-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enna-Dagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enna-Dagan (page does not exist)">Enna-Dagan</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ikun-Ishar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ikun-Ishar (page does not exist)">Ikun-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishqi-Mari" title="Ishqi-Mari">Ishqi-Mari</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="4" rowspan="1">Invasion by <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter<a href="#cite_note-SKL-260">[6]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ukush" title="Ukush">Ukush</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lugalanda" title="Lugalanda">Lugalanda</a> <a href="/wiki/Urukagina" title="Urukagina">Urukagina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Luh-ishan" title="Luh-ishan">Luh-ishan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2350 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puzur-Nirah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puzur-Nirah (page does not exist)">Puzur-Nirah</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ishu-Il&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ishu-Il (page does not exist)">Ishu-Il</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shu-Sin_(Akshak)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shu-Sin (Akshak) (page does not exist)">Shu-Sin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> III dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugal-zage-si" title="Lugal-zage-si">Lugalzagesi</a> (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2340 BCE </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="10" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Period</a> (2340–2150 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="9"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a> <a href="/wiki/Rimush" title="Rimush">Rimush</a> <a href="/wiki/Manishtushu" title="Manishtushu">Manishtushu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="1" rowspan="3">Akkadian Governors: <a href="/wiki/Eshpum" title="Eshpum">Eshpum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ilshu-rabi" title="Ilshu-rabi">Ilshu-rabi</a> <a href="/wiki/Epirmupi" title="Epirmupi">Epirmupi</a> <a href="/wiki/Ili-ishmani" title="Ili-ishmani">Ili-ishmani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2250 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_of_Naram-Sin_(portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/25px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/38px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/50px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1567" data-file-height="2300" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lugal-ushumgal" title="Lugal-ushumgal">Lugal-ushumgal</a> (vassal of the Akkadians) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2200 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Seventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkare" title="Menkare">Menkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_II" title="Neferkare II">Neferkare II</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Neby" title="Neferkare Neby">Neferkare Neby</a> <a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Shemai" title="Djedkare Shemai">Djedkare Shemai</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Khendu" title="Neferkare Khendu">Neferkare Khendu</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenhor" title="Merenhor">Merenhor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkamin" title="Neferkamin">Neferkamin</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikare" title="Nikare">Nikare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Tereru" title="Neferkare Tereru">Neferkare Tereru</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkahor" title="Neferkahor">Neferkahor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Pepiseneb" title="Neferkare Pepiseneb">Neferkare Pepiseneb</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkamin_Anu" title="Neferkamin Anu">Neferkamin Anu</a> <a href="/wiki/Qakare_Ibi" title="Qakare Ibi">Qakare Ibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkaure" title="Neferkaure">Neferkaure</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkauhor" title="Neferkauhor">Neferkauhor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferirkare" title="Neferirkare">Neferirkare</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="6">Second <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Eblaite</a> Kingdom </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Third kingdom of Mari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shakkanakku" title="Shakkanakku">Shakkanakku</a> dynasty) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ididish&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ididish (page does not exist)">Ididish</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shu-Dagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shu-Dagan (page does not exist)">Shu-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishma-Dagan" title="Ishma-Dagan">Ishma-Dagan</a> (Vassals of the Akkadians) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="5"> <a href="/wiki/Shar-Kali-Sharri" title="Shar-Kali-Sharri">Shar-Kali-Sharri</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Igigi_of_Akkad" title="Igigi of Akkad">Igigi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imi" title="Imi">Imi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanum_of_Akkad" title="Nanum of Akkad">Nanum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilulu" title="Ilulu">Ilulu</a> (3 years) <a href="/wiki/Dudu_of_Akkad" title="Dudu of Akkad">Dudu</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-turul" title="Shu-turul">Shu-turul</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> IV dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ur-nigin" title="Ur-nigin">Ur-nigin</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-gigir" title="Ur-gigir">Ur-gigir</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="2"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="1" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Puzer-Mama" title="Puzer-Mama">Puzer-Mama</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ningirsu_I" title="Ur-Ningirsu I">Ur-Ningirsu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Pirig-me" title="Pirig-me">Pirig-me</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lu-Baba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lu-Baba (page does not exist)">Lu-Baba</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lu-gula&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lu-gula (page does not exist)">Lu-gula</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaku_of_Lagash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaku of Lagash (page does not exist)">Ka-ku</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Hishep-Ratep" class="mw-redirect" title="Hishep-Ratep">Hishep-Ratep</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Helu_(Awan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Helu (Awan) (page does not exist)">Helu</a> <a href="/wiki/Khita" title="Khita">Khita</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Inshushinak" title="Puzur-Inshushinak">Puzur-Inshushinak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2150 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Ninth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Meryibre_Khety" title="Meryibre Khety">Meryibre Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare,_ninth_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Neferkare, ninth dynasty">Neferkare VII</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebkaure_Khety" title="Nebkaure Khety">Nebkaure Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Setut" title="Setut">Setut</a> </td> <td colspan="8" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III period</a> (2150–2000 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BBr-M%C3%AAr" title="Nûr-Mêr">Nûr-Mêr</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishtup-Ilum" title="Ishtup-Ilum">Ishtup-Ilum</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ishtup-Ilum_statue_(head).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/25px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="36" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/38px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/50px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="568" data-file-height="810" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ishgum-Addu" title="Ishgum-Addu">Ishgum-Addu</a> <a href="/wiki/Apil-kin" title="Apil-kin">Apil-kin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dynasty_of_Sumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutian dynasty of Sumer">Gutian dynasty</a> (21 kings) <a href="/wiki/La-erabum" title="La-erabum">La-erabum</a> <a href="/wiki/Si%27um" title="Si'um">Si'um</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kuda_(Uruk)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kuda (Uruk) (page does not exist)">Kuda (Uruk)</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Puzur-ili&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puzur-ili (page does not exist)">Puzur-ili</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ur-Utu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ur-Utu (page does not exist)">Ur-Utu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE; rowspan=2"><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugalannatum" title="Lugalannatum">Lugalannatum</a> (vassal of the Gutians) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Baba" title="Ur-Baba">Ur-Baba</a> <a href="/wiki/Gudea" title="Gudea">Gudea</a><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/30px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/45px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/60px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="3900" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ningirsu" title="Ur-Ningirsu">Ur-Ningirsu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-gar" title="Ur-gar">Ur-gar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nam-mahani" title="Nam-mahani">Nam-mahani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Tirigan" title="Tirigan">Tirigan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2125 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Tenth Dynasty of Egypt">Tenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Meryhathor" title="Meryhathor">Meryhathor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_VIII" title="Neferkare VIII">Neferkare VIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Wahkare_Khety" title="Wahkare Khety">Wahkare Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Merikare" title="Merikare">Merykare</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> V dynasty <a href="/wiki/Utu-hengal" title="Utu-hengal">Utu-hengal</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2100 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="1">(Vassals of UR III) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Iddi-ilum" title="Iddi-ilum">Iddi-ilum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ili-Ishar" title="Ili-Ishar">Ili-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Tura-Dagan" title="Tura-Dagan">Tura-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ishtar" title="Puzur-Ishtar">Puzur-Ishtar</a> (Vassals of Ur III)<a href="#cite_note-261">[7]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Third_dynasty_of_Ur" class="mw-redirect" title="Third dynasty of Ur">Ur III dynasty</a> "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"<a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:King_Ur-Nammu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/35px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/53px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/70px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="734" data-file-height="632" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nammu" title="Ur-Nammu">Ur-Nammu</a> <a href="/wiki/Shulgi" title="Shulgi">Shulgi</a> <a href="/wiki/Amar-Sin" title="Amar-Sin">Amar-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Sin" title="Shu-Sin">Shu-Sin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">2025-1763 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> invasions </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ibbi-Sin" title="Ibbi-Sin">Ibbi-Sin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Elamite</a> invasions <a href="/wiki/Kindattu" title="Kindattu">Kindattu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shimashki_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shimashki Dynasty">Shimashki Dynasty</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_I" title="Mentuhotep I">Mentuhotep I</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_I" title="Intef I">Intef I</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_II" title="Intef II">Intef II</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_III" title="Intef III">Intef III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_III" title="Mentuhotep III">Mentuhotep III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_IV" title="Mentuhotep IV">Mentuhotep IV</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Third Eblaite</a> Kingdom (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Ibbit-Lim" title="Ibbit-Lim">Ibbit-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ibbit-Lim.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/30px-Ibbit-Lim.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/45px-Ibbit-Lim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/60px-Ibbit-Lim.png 2x" data-file-width="343" data-file-height="345" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Immeya" title="Immeya">Immeya</a> <a href="/wiki/Indilimma" title="Indilimma">Indilimma</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" rowspan="2">(<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> <a href="/wiki/Shakkanakku" title="Shakkanakku">Shakkanakkus</a>) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hitial-Erra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hitial-Erra (page does not exist)">Hitial-Erra</a> <a href="/wiki/Hanun-Dagan" title="Hanun-Dagan">Hanun-Dagan</a> (...) Lim Dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Yaggid-Lim" title="Yaggid-Lim">Yaggid-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/Yahdun-Lim" title="Yahdun-Lim">Yahdun-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/Yasmah-Adad" title="Yasmah-Adad">Yasmah-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Zimri-Lim" title="Zimri-Lim">Zimri-Lim</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Shibtu" title="Shibtu">Shibtu</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyria</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_I" title="Puzur-Ashur I">Puzur-Ashur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalim-ahum" title="Shalim-ahum">Shalim-ahum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ilu-shuma" title="Ilu-shuma">Ilu-shuma</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_I" title="Erishum I">Erishum I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikunum" title="Ikunum">Ikunum</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_I" title="Sargon I">Sargon I</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_II" title="Puzur-Ashur II">Puzur-Ashur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Assyria" title="Naram-Sin of Assyria">Naram-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_II" title="Erishum II">Erishum II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_(1940).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/30px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/45px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/60px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1072" data-file-height="1558" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Dynasty_of_Isin" title="Dynasty of Isin">Dynasty of Isin</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ishbi-Erra" title="Ishbi-Erra">Ishbi-Erra</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Ilishu" title="Shu-Ilishu">Shu-Ilishu</a> <a href="/wiki/Iddin-Dagan" title="Iddin-Dagan">Iddin-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan" title="Ishme-Dagan">Ishme-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Lipit-Eshtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipit-Eshtar">Lipit-Eshtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ninurta" title="Ur-Ninurta">Ur-Ninurta</a> <a href="/wiki/Bur-Suen" title="Bur-Suen">Bur-Suen</a> <a href="/wiki/Lipit-Enlil" title="Lipit-Enlil">Lipit-Enlil</a> <a href="/wiki/Erra-imitti" title="Erra-imitti">Erra-imitti</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-bani" title="Enlil-bani">Enlil-bani</a> <a href="/wiki/Zambiya" title="Zambiya">Zambiya</a> <a href="/wiki/Iter-pisha" title="Iter-pisha">Iter-pisha</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-du-kuga" title="Ur-du-kuga">Ur-du-kuga</a> <a href="/wiki/Suen-magir" title="Suen-magir">Suen-magir</a> <a href="/wiki/Damiq-ilishu" title="Damiq-ilishu">Damiq-ilishu</a> Dynasty of Larsa: <a href="/wiki/Naplanum" title="Naplanum">Naplanum</a> <a href="/wiki/Emisum" title="Emisum">Emisum</a> <a href="/wiki/Samium" title="Samium">Samium</a> <a href="/wiki/Zabaia" title="Zabaia">Zabaia</a> <a href="/wiki/Gungunum" title="Gungunum">Gungunum</a> <a href="/wiki/Abisare" title="Abisare">Abisare</a> <a href="/wiki/Sumuel" title="Sumuel">Sumuel</a> <a href="/wiki/Nur-Adad" title="Nur-Adad">Nur-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Iddinam" title="Sin-Iddinam">Sin-Iddinam</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Eribam" title="Sin-Eribam">Sin-Eribam</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Iqisham" title="Sin-Iqisham">Sin-Iqisham</a> <a href="/wiki/Silli-Adad" title="Silli-Adad">Silli-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Warad-Sin" title="Warad-Sin">Warad-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Rim-Sin_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Rim-Sin I">Rim-Sin I</a> (...) <a href="/wiki/Rim-Sin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Rim-Sin II">Rim-Sin II</a> Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk <a href="/wiki/S%C3%AEn-k%C4%81%C5%A1id" title="Sîn-kāšid">Sîn-kāšid</a> Sîn-iribam <a href="/wiki/S%C3%AEn-g%C4%81mil" title="Sîn-gāmil">Sîn-gāmil</a> Ilum-gamil <a href="/wiki/An-am" title="An-am">An-am</a> <a href="/wiki/Irdanene" title="Irdanene">Irdanene</a> <a href="/wiki/R%C3%AEm-Anum" title="Rîm-Anum">Rîm-Anum</a> Nabi-ilišu </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Sukkalmah_dynasty" title="Sukkalmah dynasty">Sukkalmah dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Siwe-Palar-Khuppak" title="Siwe-Palar-Khuppak">Siwe-Palar-Khuppak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhat I</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_II" title="Amenemhat II">Amenemhat II</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_II" title="Senusret II">Senusret II</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_III" title="Senusret III">Senusret III</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_III" title="Amenemhat III">Amenemhat III</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_IV" title="Amenemhat IV">Amenemhat IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Sobekneferu" title="Sobekneferu">Sobekneferu</a>♀ </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1800–1595 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> (<a href="/wiki/Biblical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical">Biblical</a>) <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yamhad_dynasty" title="Yamhad dynasty">Yamhad dynasty</a>) (Amorites) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyria</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyrian_kings" title="List of Assyrian kings">Shamshi-Adad</a> dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_I" title="Shamshi-Adad I">Shamshi-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan_I" title="Ishme-Dagan I">Ishme-Dagan I</a> <a href="/wiki/Mut-Ashkur" title="Mut-Ashkur">Mut-Ashkur</a> <a href="/wiki/Rimush_of_Assyria" title="Rimush of Assyria">Rimush</a> <a href="/wiki/Asinum" title="Asinum">Asinum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dugul" title="Ashur-dugul">Ashur-dugul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-apla-idi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-apla-idi">Ashur-apla-idi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nasir-Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasir-Sin">Nasir-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-namir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-namir">Sin-namir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ipqi-Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipqi-Ishtar">Ipqi-Ishtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-salulu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adad-salulu">Adad-salulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Adasi_(Assyria)" title="Adasi (Assyria)">Adasi</a> (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Sin" title="Puzur-Sin">Puzur-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dugul" title="Ashur-dugul">Ashur-dugul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-apla-idi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-apla-idi">Ashur-apla-idi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nasir-Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasir-Sin">Nasir-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-namir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-namir">Sin-namir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ipqi-Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipqi-Ishtar">Ipqi-Ishtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-salulu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adad-salulu">Adad-salulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Adasi_(Assyria)" title="Adasi (Assyria)">Adasi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Adaside_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaside dynasty">Adaside dynasty</a> 1700–722 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Bel-bani" title="Bel-bani">Bel-bani</a> <a href="/wiki/Libaya" title="Libaya">Libaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharma-Adad_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharma-Adad I">Sharma-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Iptar-Sin" title="Iptar-Sin">Iptar-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Bazaya" title="Bazaya">Bazaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Lullaya" title="Lullaya">Lullaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Ninua" title="Shu-Ninua">Shu-Ninua</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharma-Adad_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharma-Adad II">Sharma-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Erishum III">Erishum III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_II" title="Shamshi-Adad II">Shamshi-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan_II" title="Ishme-Dagan II">Ishme-Dagan II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_III" title="Shamshi-Adad III">Shamshi-Adad III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_I" title="Ashur-nirari I">Ashur-nirari I</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_III" title="Puzur-Ashur III">Puzur-Ashur III</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nasir_I" title="Enlil-nasir I">Enlil-nasir I</a> <a href="/wiki/Nur-ili" title="Nur-ili">Nur-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-shaduni" title="Ashur-shaduni">Ashur-shaduni</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rabi_I" title="Ashur-rabi I">Ashur-rabi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-ahhe_I" title="Ashur-nadin-ahhe I">Ashur-nadin-ahhe I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-Nasir_II" title="Enlil-Nasir II">Enlil-Nasir II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_II" title="Ashur-nirari II">Ashur-nirari II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-nisheshu" title="Ashur-bel-nisheshu">Ashur-bel-nisheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rim-nisheshu" title="Ashur-rim-nisheshu">Ashur-rim-nisheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-ahhe_II" title="Ashur-nadin-ahhe II">Ashur-nadin-ahhe II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="4" rowspan="2"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/40px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/60px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/80px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3170" data-file-height="3500" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian dynasty">First Babylonian dynasty</a> ("Old Babylonian Period") (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sumu-abum" title="Sumu-abum">Sumu-abum</a> <a href="/wiki/Sumu-la-El" title="Sumu-la-El">Sumu-la-El</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-muballit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-muballit">Sin-muballit</a><a href="/wiki/Sabium" title="Sabium">Sabium</a> <a href="/wiki/Apil-Sin" title="Apil-Sin">Apil-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-muballit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-muballit">Sin-muballit</a> <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> <a href="/wiki/Samsu-iluna" title="Samsu-iluna">Samsu-iluna</a> <a href="/wiki/Abi-eshuh" class="mw-redirect" title="Abi-eshuh">Abi-eshuh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammi-ditana" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammi-ditana">Ammi-ditana</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammi-saduqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammi-saduqa">Ammi-saduqa</a> <a href="/wiki/Samsu-Ditana" title="Samsu-Ditana">Samsu-Ditana</a> <a href="/wiki/Early_Kassite_rulers" title="Early Kassite rulers">Early Kassite rulers</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"> Second Babylonian dynasty ("<a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealand Dynasty">Sealand Dynasty</a>") <a href="/wiki/Ilum-ma-ili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilum-ma-ili">Ilum-ma-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Itti-ili-nibi" class="mw-redirect" title="Itti-ili-nibi">Itti-ili-nibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Damqi-ilishu" class="mw-redirect" title="Damqi-ilishu">Damqi-ilishu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishkibal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishkibal">Ishkibal</a> <a href="/wiki/Shushushi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shushushi">Shushushi</a> <a href="/wiki/Gulkishar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulkishar">Gulkishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealand Dynasty">mDIŠ+U-EN</a> <a href="/wiki/Peshgaldaramesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Peshgaldaramesh">Peshgaldaramesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ayadaragalama" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayadaragalama">Ayadaragalama</a> <a href="/wiki/Akurduana" class="mw-redirect" title="Akurduana">Akurduana</a> <a href="/wiki/Melamkurkurra" class="mw-redirect" title="Melamkurkurra">Melamkurkurra</a> <a href="/wiki/Ea-gamil" class="mw-redirect" title="Ea-gamil">Ea-gamil</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Intermediate Period">Second Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixteenth</a> Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Abydos_Dynasty" title="Abydos Dynasty">Abydos</a> Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt">Seventeenth</a> Dynasty </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>") <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_(axe_of_Ahmose_I,_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II)_Colorized_per_source.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos"><img alt="Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/35px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/53px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/70px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Semqen" title="Semqen">Semqen</a> <a href="/wiki/Aperanat" title="Aperanat">'Aper-'Anati</a> <a href="/wiki/Sakir-Har" title="Sakir-Har">Sakir-Har</a> <a href="/wiki/Khyan" title="Khyan">Khyan</a> <a href="/wiki/Apepi_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Apepi (pharaoh)">Apepi</a> <a href="/wiki/Khamudi" title="Khamudi">Khamudi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> (1600–1260 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Kirta" title="Kirta">Kirta</a> <a href="/wiki/Shuttarna_I" title="Shuttarna I">Shuttarna I</a> <a href="/wiki/Parshatatar" class="mw-redirect" title="Parshatatar">Parshatatar</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">1531–1155 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tutankhamun"><img alt="Tutankhamun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/30px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/45px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/60px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Tutankhamun</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmose_I" title="Ahmose I">Ahmose I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_I" title="Amenhotep I">Amenhotep I</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6" rowspan="3"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/30px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/45px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/60px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2639" data-file-height="3973" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure>Third Babylonian dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Agum-Kakrime" class="mw-redirect" title="Agum-Kakrime">Agum-Kakrime</a> <a href="/wiki/Burnaburiash_I" title="Burnaburiash I">Burnaburiash I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashtiliash_III" title="Kashtiliash III">Kashtiliash III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulamburiash" title="Ulamburiash">Ulamburiash</a> <a href="/wiki/Agum_III" title="Agum III">Agum III</a> <a href="/wiki/Karaindash" title="Karaindash">Karaindash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-harbe_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadashman-harbe I">Kadashman-harbe I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurigalzu_I" title="Kurigalzu I">Kurigalzu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Enlil_I" title="Kadashman-Enlil I">Kadashman-Enlil I</a> <a href="/wiki/Burnaburiash_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Burnaburiash II">Burnaburiash II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kara-hardash" title="Kara-hardash">Kara-hardash</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi-Bugash" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi-Bugash">Nazi-Bugash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurigalzu_II" title="Kurigalzu II">Kurigalzu II</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi-Maruttash" title="Nazi-Maruttash">Nazi-Maruttash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Turgu" title="Kadashman-Turgu">Kadashman-Turgu</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Enlil_II" title="Kadashman-Enlil II">Kadashman-Enlil II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kudur-Enlil" title="Kudur-Enlil">Kudur-Enlil</a> <a href="/wiki/Shagarakti-Shuriash" title="Shagarakti-Shuriash">Shagarakti-Shuriash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashtiliashu_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashtiliashu IV">Kashtiliashu IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-shumi" title="Enlil-nadin-shumi">Enlil-nadin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Harbe_II" title="Kadashman-Harbe II">Kadashman-Harbe II</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-shuma-iddina" title="Adad-shuma-iddina">Adad-shuma-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-shuma-usur" title="Adad-shuma-usur">Adad-shuma-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Meli-Shipak_II" title="Meli-Shipak II">Meli-Shipak II</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_I" title="Marduk-apla-iddina I">Marduk-apla-iddina I</a> <a href="/wiki/Zababa-shuma-iddin" title="Zababa-shuma-iddin">Zababa-shuma-iddin</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-ahi" title="Enlil-nadin-ahi">Enlil-nadin-ahi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Middle Elamite period</a> (1500–1100 BCE) <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Elam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Elam">Kidinuid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Elam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Elam">Igehalkid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Untash-Napirisha" title="Untash-Napirisha">Untash-Napirisha</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Thutmose_I" title="Thutmose I">Thutmose I</a> <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_II" title="Thutmose II">Thutmose II</a> <a href="/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_II" title="Amenhotep II">Amenhotep II</a> <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_IV" title="Thutmose IV">Thutmose IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_III" title="Amenhotep III">Amenhotep III</a> <a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a> <a href="/wiki/Smenkhkare" title="Smenkhkare">Smenkhkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferneferuaten" title="Neferneferuaten">Neferneferuaten</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Ay_(pharaoh)" title="Ay (pharaoh)">Ay</a> <a href="/wiki/Horemheb" title="Horemheb">Horemheb</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hittite Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_I" title="Ramesses I">Ramesses I</a> <a href="/wiki/Seti_I" title="Seti I">Seti I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a> <a href="/wiki/Merneptah" title="Merneptah">Merneptah</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenmesse" title="Amenmesse">Amenmesses</a> <a href="/wiki/Seti_II" title="Seti II">Seti II</a> <a href="/wiki/Siptah" title="Siptah">Siptah</a> <a href="/wiki/Twosret" class="mw-redirect" title="Twosret">Twosret</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Elamite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Elamite Empire">Elamite Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Shutrukid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutrukid Dynasty">Shutrukid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Shutruk-Nakhunte" title="Shutruk-Nakhunte">Shutruk-Nakhunte</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1155–1025 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Setnakhte" title="Setnakhte">Setnakhte</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_III" title="Ramesses III">Ramesses III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IV" title="Ramesses IV">Ramesses IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_V" title="Ramesses V">Ramesses V</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VI" title="Ramesses VI">Ramesses VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VII" title="Ramesses VII">Ramesses VII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VIII" title="Ramesses VIII">Ramesses VIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IX" title="Ramesses IX">Ramesses IX</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_X" title="Ramesses X">Ramesses X</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a> <a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Intermediate Period">Third Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Smendes" title="Smendes">Smendes</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemnisu" title="Amenemnisu">Amenemnisu</a> <a href="/wiki/Psusennes_I" title="Psusennes I">Psusennes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemope_(pharaoh)" title="Amenemope (pharaoh)">Amenemope</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_the_Elder" title="Osorkon the Elder">Osorkon the Elder</a> <a href="/wiki/Siamun" title="Siamun">Siamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Psusennes_II" title="Psusennes II">Psusennes II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">Kingdom of Israel</a> <a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ish-bosheth" title="Ish-bosheth">Ish-bosheth</a> <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a> <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyria</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Adad_I" title="Eriba-Adad I">Eriba-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_I" title="Ashur-uballit I">Ashur-uballit I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nirari" title="Enlil-nirari">Enlil-nirari</a> <a href="/wiki/Arik-den-ili" title="Arik-den-ili">Arik-den-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_I" title="Adad-nirari I">Adad-nirari I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_I" title="Shalmaneser I">Shalmaneser I</a> <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_I" title="Tukulti-Ninurta I">Tukulti-Ninurta I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-apli" title="Ashur-nadin-apli">Ashur-nadin-apli</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_III" title="Ashur-nirari III">Ashur-nirari III</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-kudurri-usur" title="Enlil-kudurri-usur">Enlil-kudurri-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-apal-Ekur" title="Ninurta-apal-Ekur">Ninurta-apal-Ekur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_I" title="Ashur-dan I">Ashur-dan I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur" title="Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur">Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur</a> <a href="/wiki/Mutakkil-Nusku" title="Mutakkil-Nusku">Mutakkil-Nusku</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-resh-ishi_I" title="Ashur-resh-ishi I">Ashur-resh-ishi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_I" title="Tiglath-Pileser I">Tiglath-Pileser I</a> <a href="/wiki/Asharid-apal-Ekur" title="Asharid-apal-Ekur">Asharid-apal-Ekur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-kala" title="Ashur-bel-kala">Ashur-bel-kala</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Adad_II" title="Eriba-Adad II">Eriba-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_IV" title="Shamshi-Adad IV">Shamshi-Adad IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_I" title="Ashurnasirpal I">Ashurnasirpal I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_II" title="Shalmaneser II">Shalmaneser II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_IV" title="Ashur-nirari IV">Ashur-nirari IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rabi_II" title="Ashur-rabi II">Ashur-rabi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-resh-ishi_II" title="Ashur-resh-ishi II">Ashur-resh-ishi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_II" title="Tiglath-Pileser II">Tiglath-Pileser II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_II" title="Ashur-dan II">Ashur-dan II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6">Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("<a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Isin" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Dynasty of Isin">Second Dynasty of Isin</a>") <a href="/wiki/Marduk-kabit-ahheshu" title="Marduk-kabit-ahheshu">Marduk-kabit-ahheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Itti-Marduk-balatu_(king)" title="Itti-Marduk-balatu (king)">Itti-Marduk-balatu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-nadin-shumi" title="Ninurta-nadin-shumi">Ninurta-nadin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_I" title="Nebuchadnezzar I">Nebuchadnezzar I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-apli" title="Enlil-nadin-apli">Enlil-nadin-apli</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-nadin-ahhe" title="Marduk-nadin-ahhe">Marduk-nadin-ahhe</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-shapik-zeri" title="Marduk-shapik-zeri">Marduk-shapik-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-apla-iddina" title="Adad-apla-iddina">Adad-apla-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-ahhe-eriba" title="Marduk-ahhe-eriba">Marduk-ahhe-eriba</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zer-X" title="Marduk-zer-X">Marduk-zer-X</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shum-libur" title="Nabu-shum-libur">Nabu-shum-libur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Neo-Elamite period</a> (1100–540 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1025–934 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6">Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") <a href="/wiki/Simbar-shipak" title="Simbar-shipak">Simbar-shipak</a> <a href="/wiki/Ea-mukin-zeri" title="Ea-mukin-zeri">Ea-mukin-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashshu-nadin-ahi" title="Kashshu-nadin-ahi">Kashshu-nadin-ahi</a> <a href="/wiki/Eulmash-shakin-shumi" title="Eulmash-shakin-shumi">Eulmash-shakin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-kudurri-usur_I" title="Ninurta-kudurri-usur I">Ninurta-kudurri-usur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shirikti-shuqamuna" title="Shirikti-shuqamuna">Shirikti-shuqamuna</a> <a href="/wiki/Mar-biti-apla-usur" title="Mar-biti-apla-usur">Mar-biti-apla-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Nab%C3%BB-mukin-apli" title="Nabû-mukin-apli">Nabû-mukin-apli</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>911–745 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_I" title="Shoshenq I">Shoshenq I</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_I" title="Osorkon I">Osorkon I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_II" title="Shoshenq II">Shoshenq II</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_I" title="Takelot I">Takelot I</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_II" title="Osorkon II">Osorkon II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_III" title="Shoshenq III">Shoshenq III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_IV" title="Shoshenq IV">Shoshenq IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Pami" title="Pami">Pami</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_V" title="Shoshenq V">Shoshenq V</a> <a href="/wiki/Pedubast_II" title="Pedubast II">Pedubast II</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_IV" title="Osorkon IV">Osorkon IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Harsiese_A" title="Harsiese A">Harsiese A</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_II" title="Takelot II">Takelot II</a> <a href="/wiki/Pedubast_I" title="Pedubast I">Pedubast I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_VI" title="Shoshenq VI">Shoshenq VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_III" title="Osorkon III">Osorkon III</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_III" title="Takelot III">Takelot III</a> <a href="/wiki/Rudamun" title="Rudamun">Rudamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Ini_(pharaoh)" title="Ini (pharaoh)">Menkheperre Ini</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Tefnakht" title="Tefnakht">Tefnakht</a> <a href="/wiki/Bakenranef" title="Bakenranef">Bakenranef</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Samaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Samaria">Kingdom of Samaria</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_II" title="Adad-nirari II">Adad-nirari II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_II" title="Tukulti-Ninurta II">Tukulti-Ninurta II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_V" title="Shamshi-Adad V">Shamshi-Adad V</a> <a href="/wiki/Shammuramat" title="Shammuramat">Shammuramat</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_III" title="Adad-nirari III">Adad-nirari III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_IV" title="Shalmaneser IV">Shalmaneser IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_III" title="Ashur-dan III">Ashur-Dan III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_V" title="Ashur-nirari V">Ashur-nirari V</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/45px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg" decoding="async" width="45" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/68px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/90px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1154" data-file-height="937" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure>Eight Babylonian Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-kudurri-usur_II" title="Ninurta-kudurri-usur II">Ninurta-kudurri-usur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina" title="Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina">Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamash-mudammiq" title="Shamash-mudammiq">Shamash-mudammiq</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ukin_I" title="Nabu-shuma-ukin I">Nabu-shuma-ukin I</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-apla-iddina" title="Nabu-apla-iddina">Nabu-apla-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_I" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi I">Marduk-zakir-shumi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-balassu-iqbi" title="Marduk-balassu-iqbi">Marduk-balassu-iqbi</a> <a href="/wiki/Baba-aha-iddina" title="Baba-aha-iddina">Baba-aha-iddina</a> (five kings) <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-apla-X" title="Ninurta-apla-X">Ninurta-apla-X</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-bel-zeri" title="Marduk-bel-zeri">Marduk-bel-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-usur" title="Marduk-apla-usur">Marduk-apla-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Marduk" title="Eriba-Marduk">Eriba-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ishkun" title="Nabu-shuma-ishkun">Nabu-shuma-ishkun</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabonassar" title="Nabonassar">Nabonassar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-nadin-zeri" title="Nabu-nadin-zeri">Nabu-nadin-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ukin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabu-shuma-ukin II">Nabu-shuma-ukin II</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-mukin-zeri" title="Nabu-mukin-zeri">Nabu-mukin-zeri</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Elam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Elam">Humban-Tahrid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Urtak_(king_of_Elam)" title="Urtak (king of Elam)">Urtak</a> <a href="/wiki/Teumman" title="Teumman">Teumman</a> <a href="/wiki/Ummanigash_(son_of_Urtak)" title="Ummanigash (son of Urtak)">Ummanigash</a> <a href="/wiki/Tammaritu_(son_of_Urtak)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tammaritu (son of Urtak)">Tammaritu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Indabibi" title="Indabibi">Indabibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Humban-haltash_III" title="Humban-haltash III">Humban-haltash III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">745–609 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Taharqa"><img alt="Taharqa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/30px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/45px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/60px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>Taharqa</figcaption></figure>("<a href="/wiki/Black_Pharaohs" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Pharaohs">Black Pharaohs</a>") <a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a> <a href="/wiki/Shebitku" title="Shebitku">Shebitku</a> <a href="/wiki/Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a> <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a> <a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tanutamun</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="10" rowspan="2"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sargonid_dynasty" title="Sargonid dynasty">Sargonid dynasty</a>) <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser</a>† <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_V" title="Shalmaneser V">Shalmaneser</a>† <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon</a>† <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a>† <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_II" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi II">Marduk-zakir-shumi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bel-ibni" title="Bel-ibni">Bel-ibni</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-shumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-nadin-shumi">Ashur-nadin-shumi</a>† <a href="/wiki/Nergal-ushezib" title="Nergal-ushezib">Nergal-ushezib</a> <a href="/wiki/Mushezib-Marduk" title="Mushezib-Marduk">Mushezib-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a>† <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-etil-ilani" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-etil-ilani">Ashur-etil-ilani</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinsharishkun" title="Sinsharishkun">Sinsharishkun</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-shumu-lishir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-shumu-lishir">Sin-shumu-lishir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_II" title="Ashur-uballit II">Ashur-uballit II</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">Assyrian conquest of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Elam" title="Assyrian conquest of Elam">Assyrian conquest of Elam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>626–539 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Necho_I" title="Necho I">Necho I</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a> <a href="/wiki/Necho_II" title="Necho II">Necho II</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_II" title="Psamtik II">Psamtik II</a> <a href="/wiki/Apries" title="Apries">Wahibre</a> <a href="/wiki/Amasis_II" title="Amasis II">Ahmose II</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_III" title="Psamtik III">Psamtik III</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabopolassar" title="Nabopolassar">Nabopolassar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> <a href="/wiki/Amel-Marduk" title="Amel-Marduk">Amel-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Neriglissar" title="Neriglissar">Neriglissar</a> <a href="/wiki/Labashi-Marduk" title="Labashi-Marduk">Labashi-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Median Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Deioces" title="Deioces">Deioces</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraortes" title="Phraortes">Phraortes</a> <a href="/wiki/Madyes" title="Madyes">Madyes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyaxares" title="Cyaxares">Cyaxares</a> <a href="/wiki/Astyages" title="Astyages">Astyages</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">539–331 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="1" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="10" rowspan="3"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Darius_In_Parse.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/30px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/45px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/60px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1775" data-file-height="3130" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus</a> <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a> <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes IV">Artaxerxes IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>331–141 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Keraunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy Keraunos">Ptolemy Keraunos</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_II" title="Arsinoe II">Arsinoe II</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a> <a href="/wiki/Berenice_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice II">Berenice II Euergetis</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy IV Philopator">Ptolemy IV Philopator</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_III_Philopator" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsinoe III Philopator">Arsinoe III Philopator</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes" title="Ptolemy V Epiphanes">Ptolemy V Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_I_Syra" title="Cleopatra I Syra">Cleopatra I Syra</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VII_Neos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator">Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_II_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra II of Egypt">Cleopatra II Philometor Soter</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Physcon</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra III of Egypt">Cleopatra III</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy IX Lathyros">Ptolemy IX Lathyros</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_IV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra IV of Egypt">Cleopatra IV</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_X_Alexander_I" title="Ptolemy X Alexander I">Ptolemy X Alexander</a> <a href="/wiki/Berenice_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice III of Egypt">Berenice III</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XI_Alexander_II" title="Ptolemy XI Alexander II">Ptolemy XI Alexander</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XII_Auletes" title="Ptolemy XII Auletes">Ptolemy XII Auletes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_V" title="Cleopatra V">Cleopatra V</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VI_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VI of Egypt">Cleopatra VI Tryphaena</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Berenice_IV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice IV of Egypt">Berenice IV Epiphanea</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator">Ptolemy XIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy XIV of Egypt">Ptolemy XIV</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII Philopator</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Caesarion" title="Caesarion">Ptolemy XV Caesarion</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_IV" title="Arsinoe IV">Arsinoe IV</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="11">Hellenistic Period <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon"><img alt="Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/60px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/90px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/120px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander III</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid dynasty</a>: <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>: <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Soter" title="Antiochus I Soter">Antiochus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II_Theos" title="Antiochus II Theos">Antiochus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_II_Callinicus" title="Seleucus II Callinicus">Seleucus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_III_Ceraunus" title="Seleucus III Ceraunus">Seleucus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_IV_Philopator" title="Seleucus IV Philopator">Seleucus IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochus IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_V_Eupator" title="Antiochus V Eupator">Antiochus V</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_Soter" title="Demetrius I Soter">Demetrius I</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Balas" title="Alexander Balas">Alexander III</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Nicator" title="Demetrius II Nicator">Demetrius II</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VI_Dionysus" title="Antiochus VI Dionysus">Antiochus VI Dionysus</a> <a href="/wiki/Diodotus_Tryphon" title="Diodotus Tryphon">Diodotus Tryphon</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VII_Sidetes" title="Antiochus VII Sidetes">Antiochus VII Sidetes</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>141–30 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Kingdom of Judea</a> <a href="/wiki/Simon_Thassi" title="Simon Thassi">Simon Thassi</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Hyrcanus" title="John Hyrcanus">John Hyrcanus</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_I" title="Aristobulus I">Aristobulus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Jannaeus" title="Alexander Jannaeus">Alexander Jannaeus</a> <a href="/wiki/Salome_Alexandra" title="Salome Alexandra">Salome Alexandra</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanus_II" title="Hyrcanus II">Hyrcanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_II" title="Aristobulus II">Aristobulus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Mattathias" title="Antigonus II Mattathias">Antigonus II Mattathias</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_Zabinas" title="Alexander II Zabinas">Alexander II Zabinas</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_V_Philometor" title="Seleucus V Philometor">Seleucus V Philometor</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VIII_Grypus" title="Antiochus VIII Grypus">Antiochus VIII Grypus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IX_Cyzicenus" title="Antiochus IX Cyzicenus">Antiochus IX Cyzicenus</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_VI_Epiphanes" title="Seleucus VI Epiphanes">Seleucus VI Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_X_Eusebes" title="Antiochus X Eusebes">Antiochus X Eusebes</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XI_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus XI Epiphanes">Antiochus XI Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_III_Eucaerus" title="Demetrius III Eucaerus">Demetrius III Eucaerus</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_I_Philadelphus" title="Philip I Philadelphus">Philip I Philadelphus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XII_Dionysus" title="Antiochus XII Dionysus">Antiochus XII Dionysus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XIII_Asiaticus" title="Antiochus XIII Asiaticus">Antiochus XIII Asiaticus</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_Philoromaeus" title="Philip II Philoromaeus">Philip II Philoromaeus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDEAD;" colspan="9" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates I of Parthia">Mithridates I</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_II" title="Phraates II">Phraates</a> <a href="/wiki/Hyspaosines" title="Hyspaosines">Hyspaosines</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_I_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus I of Parthia">Artabanus</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates II of Parthia">Mithridates II</a> <a href="/wiki/Gotarzes_I" title="Gotarzes I">Gotarzes</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_III_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates III of Parthia">Mithridates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_I_of_Parthia" title="Orodes I of Parthia">Orodes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinatruces_of_Parthia" title="Sinatruces of Parthia">Sinatruces</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_III" title="Phraates III">Phraates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_IV_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates IV of Parthia">Mithridates IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_II" title="Orodes II">Orodes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_IV" title="Phraates IV">Phraates IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Tiridates II of Parthia">Tiridates II</a> <a href="/wiki/Musa_of_Parthia" title="Musa of Parthia">Musa</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_V" title="Phraates V">Phraates V</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_III_of_Parthia" title="Orodes III of Parthia">Orodes III</a> <a href="/wiki/Vonones_I" title="Vonones I">Vonones I</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus II of Parthia">Artabanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_III_of_Parthia" title="Tiridates III of Parthia">Tiridates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus II of Parthia">Artabanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vardanes_I" title="Vardanes I">Vardanes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Gotarzes_II_of_Parthia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotarzes II of Parthia">Gotarzes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Meherdates" title="Meherdates">Meherdates</a> <a href="/wiki/Vonones_II" title="Vonones II">Vonones II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_I_of_Parthia" title="Vologases I of Parthia">Vologases I</a> <a href="/wiki/Vardanes_II" title="Vardanes II">Vardanes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Pacorus_II" title="Pacorus II">Pacorus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_II_of_Parthia" title="Vologases II of Parthia">Vologases II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_III_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus III of Parthia">Artabanus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Osroes_I" title="Osroes I">Osroes I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">30 BCE–116 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="4">(<a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman conquest of Egypt">Roman conquest of Egypt</a>) <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Province of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Judea</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">116–117 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> under <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Parthamaspates_of_Parthia" title="Parthamaspates of Parthia">Parthamaspates of Parthia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>117–224 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDEAD;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Sinatruces_II_of_Parthia" title="Sinatruces II of Parthia">Sinatruces II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_V_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates V of Parthia">Mithridates V</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_IV" title="Vologases IV">Vologases IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Osroes_II" title="Osroes II">Osroes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_V" title="Vologases V">Vologases V</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_VI" title="Vologases VI">Vologases VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_IV_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus IV of Parthia">Artabanus IV</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>224–270 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="8" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Province of Asoristan</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_Ardashir_I_(phase_3),_Hamadan_mint.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint."><img alt="Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/40px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/60px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/80px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_I" title="Hormizd I">Hormizd I</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_I" title="Bahram I">Bahram I</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_II" title="Bahram II">Bahram II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_III" title="Bahram III">Bahram III</a> <a href="/wiki/Narseh" title="Narseh">Narseh</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_II" title="Hormizd II">Hormizd II</a> <a href="/wiki/Adur_Narseh" title="Adur Narseh">Adur Narseh</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_II" title="Ardashir II">Ardashir II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_III" title="Shapur III">Shapur III</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_IV" title="Bahram IV">Bahram IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_I" title="Yazdegerd I">Yazdegerd I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_IV" title="Shapur IV">Shapur IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_(son_of_Bahram_IV)" title="Khosrow (son of Bahram IV)">Khosrow</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_III" title="Hormizd III">Hormizd III</a> <a href="/wiki/Peroz_I" title="Peroz I">Peroz I</a> <a href="/wiki/Balash" title="Balash">Balash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Jamasp" title="Jamasp">Jamasp</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram VI Chobin</a> <a href="/wiki/Vistahm" title="Vistahm">Vistahm</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>270–273 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#48D1CC;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a> <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Antiochus" title="Septimius Antiochus">Antiochus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">273–395 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Province of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">395–618 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina Prima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Palaestina Secunda</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Byzantine Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>618–628 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2">(<a href="/wiki/Sasanian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Sasanian conquest of Egypt">Sasanian conquest of Egypt</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Province of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Sahralanyozan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahralanyozan">Sahralanyozan</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="11" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Province of Asoristan</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">628–641 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="8" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_III" title="Ardashir III">Ardashir III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_III" title="Khosrow III">Khosrow III</a> <a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Shapur-i_Shahrvaraz" title="Shapur-i Shahrvaraz">Shapur-i Shahrvaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Azarmidokht" title="Azarmidokht">Azarmidokht</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Farrukh_Hormizd" title="Farrukh Hormizd">Farrukh Hormizd</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_VI" title="Hormizd VI">Hormizd VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_IV" title="Khosrow IV">Khosrow IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a> <a href="/wiki/Peroz_III" title="Peroz III">Peroz III</a> <a href="/wiki/Narsieh" title="Narsieh">Narsieh</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina Prima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Palaestina Secunda</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Byzantine Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>639–651 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="9"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left; background:#F5F5F5; border:0px" rowspan="1" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/File:Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/10px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/15px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/20px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="585" /></a><a href="/wiki/Template:Neolithic_Chronology" title="Template:Neolithic Chronology"> Chronology of the Neolithic period</a> </td> <td style="text-align:right; background:#F5F5F5; border:0px" colspan="7" align="right"><a href="/wiki/File:Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/12px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/18px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/24px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="585" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Template:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Rulers of the Ancient Central Asia">Rulers of Ancient Central Asia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="14"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional. </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalloSimpson1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_W._Hallo" title="William W. Hallo">Hallo, W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/William_Kelly_Simpson" title="William Kelly Simpson">Simpson, W.</a> (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=48-49&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Harcourt%2C+Brace%2C+Jovanovich&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Hallo&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Simpson%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdli.ox.ac.uk/wiki/rulers_of_mesopotamia">"Rulers of Mesopotamia"</a>. cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rulers+of+Mesopotamia&rft.pub=University+of+Oxford%2C+CNRS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdli.ox.ac.uk%2Fwiki%2Frulers_of_mesopotamia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomasPotts2020" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Ariane; <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Potts" title="Timothy Potts">Potts, Timothy</a> (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VsHEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14">Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins</a>. Getty Publications. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-649-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-649-2"><bdi>978-1-60606-649-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mesopotamia%3A+Civilization+Begins&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Getty+Publications&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-60606-649-2&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Ariane&rft.au=Potts%2C+Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVsHEDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoux1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Roux" title="Georges Roux">Roux, Georges</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=klZX8B_RzzYC&pg=PT534">Ancient Iraq</a>. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-193825-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-193825-7"><bdi>978-0-14-193825-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Iraq&rft.pages=532-534+%28Chronological+Tables%29&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Limited&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-14-193825-7&rft.aulast=Roux&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DklZX8B_RzzYC%26pg%3DPT534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SKL-260">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_260-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_260-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_260-2">c</a> Per <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_King_List" title="Sumerian King List">Sumerian King List</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnger2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Merrill_Unger" title="Merrill Unger">Unger, Merrill F.</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qw6vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History</a>. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62564-606-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62564-606-4"><bdi>978-1-62564-606-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Israel+and+the+Aramaeans+of+Damascus%3A+A+Study+in+Archaeological+Illumination+of+Bible+History&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-62564-606-4&rft.aulast=Unger&rft.aufirst=Merrill+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqw6vCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeo-Assyrian+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf-Ubaid_Transitional_period" title="Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period">Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">First Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Period">Old Assyrian Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Sassanid Asorestan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">638–1958</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Iraq" title="Ottoman Iraq">Ottoman Iraq</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)">Mamluk dynasty</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Mesopotamia" title="Mandate for Mesopotamia">Mandate for Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Mandatory Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Iraq" title="List of kings of Iraq">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_(1958%E2%80%931968)" title="Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)">1958–1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">1968–2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Iraq_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)">2003–2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">2011–present</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">National Command</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_Shatt_al-Arab_conflict" title="1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict">1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1977 Shia uprising in Iraq">1977 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979%E2%80%931980_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq">1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Opera" title="Operation Opera">Operation Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Kuwait">Invasion of Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">1991 uprisings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">Sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">U.S. invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)">Iraqi insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_of_United_States_troops_from_Iraq_(2007%E2%80%932011)" title="Withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2007–2011)">U.S. troop withdrawal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2011%E2%80%932013)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)">Insurgency (2011–2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Iraq_(2013%E2%80%932017)" title="War in Iraq (2013–2017)">War (2014–2017)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Mosul" title="Fall of Mosul">Fall of Mosul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mosul_(2016%E2%80%932017)" title="Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)">Mosul liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_insurgency_in_Iraq_(2017%E2%80%93present)" title="Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present)">Insurgency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932021_Iraqi_protests" title="2019–2021 Iraqi protests">2019–2021 protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iraqi_political_crisis" title="2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis">2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iraq" title="Geography of Iraq">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Faw_peninsula" title="Al-Faw peninsula">Faw peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Iraq" title="Template:Borders of Iraq">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan">Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lakes_of_Iraq" title="Category:Lakes of Iraq">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iraq" title="List of islands of Iraq">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_Iraq" title="List of places in Iraq">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Qasr" title="Umm Qasr">Umm Qasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iraq" title="Wildlife of Iraq">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iraq" title="Politics of Iraq">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Iraq" title="Governorates of Iraq">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iraq" title="Constitution of Iraq">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Representatives_of_Iraq" title="Council of Representatives of Iraq">Council of Representatives (legislative)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Iraq" title="Democracy in Iraq">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iraq" title="Elections in Iraq">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_Iraq" title="Foreign aid to Iraq">Foreign aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iraq" title="Foreign relations of Iraq">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_Iraq" title="Federal government of Iraq">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Iraq)" title="Council of Ministers (Iraq)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_Council_of_Iraq" title="Presidency Council of Iraq">Presidency Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="List of prime ministers of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iraq" title="Human rights in Iraq">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq" title="Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq">in pre-Saddam Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Saddam_Hussein%27s_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq">in Saddam Hussein's Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Human rights in post-invasion Iraq">in post-invasion Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Islamic_State-controlled_territory" title="Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory">in ISIL-controlled territory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iraq">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iraq" title="Freedom of religion in Iraq">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iraq" title="Women in Iraq">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iraq" title="Law of Iraq">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armed_Forces" title="Iraqi Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Police" title="Iraqi Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iraq" title="List of political parties in Iraq">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Iraq" title="Judiciary of Iraq">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iraq" title="List of wars involving Iraq">Wars and conflicts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iraq" title="Economy of Iraq">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Iraq" title="List of banks in Iraq">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iraq" title="Central Bank of Iraq">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iraq" title="List of companies of Iraq">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iraq" title="Corruption in Iraq">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_dinar" title="Iraqi dinar">Dinar (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_of_Iraq" title="Infrastructure of Iraq">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Foreign Investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iraq" title="Petroleum industry in Iraq">Oil Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Iraq" title="Oil reserves in Iraq">Oil reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_Stock_Exchange" title="Iraq Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iraq" title="Transport in Iraq">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iraq" title="List of airlines of Iraq">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_Railways" title="Iraqi Republic Railways">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iraq" title="Tourism in Iraq">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iraq" title="Category:Society of Iraq">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iraq" title="Demographics of Iraq">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqis" title="Iraqis">Iraqis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iraq" title="Languages of Iraq">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen#Language" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minorities_in_Iraq" title="Minorities in Iraq">Minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armenians" title="Iraqi Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iraq" title="Circassians in Iraq">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajam_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajam of Iraq">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solluba" title="Solluba">Solluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen</a>/Turkoman</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_Iraq" title="Secularism in Iraq">Secularism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iraq" title="Islam in Iraq">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Iraq" title="Irreligion in Iraq">Irreligion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_art" title="Iraqi art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iraq" title="Cinema of Iraq">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_cuisine" title="Iraqi cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iraq" title="Culture of Iraq">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Iraq">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Iraq" title="Health in Iraq">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Iraq" title="Mass media in Iraq">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Iraq" title="Television in Iraq">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iraq" title="Music of Iraq">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Iraq" title="Smoking in Iraq">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Iraq" title="Sport in Iraq">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Iraq" title="Squatting in Iraq">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Iraq" title="Public holidays in Iraq">Public holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehwa_Rabba" title="Dehwa Rabba">Mandaean New Year</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Iraq" title="Category:Iraq">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Iraq" title="Portal:Iraq">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Iraq" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Iraq">WikiProject</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Iraq" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Iraq">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&oldid=1256327630">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neo-Assyrian_Empire&oldid=1256327630</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Category:Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:11th_century_BC" title="Category:11th century BC">11th century BC</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1st_millennium_BC_in_Assyria" title="Category:1st millennium BC in Assyria">1st millennium BC in Assyria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:2nd-millennium_BC_establishments" title="Category:2nd-millennium BC establishments">2nd-millennium BC establishments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:609_BC" title="Category:609 BC">609 BC</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Anatolia" title="Category:Ancient Anatolia">Ancient Anatolia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Armenia" title="Category:Ancient Armenia">Ancient Armenia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Levant" title="Category:Ancient Levant">Ancient Levant</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Mesopotamia" title="Category:Ancient Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_history_of_Iran" title="Category:Ancient history of Iran">Ancient 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