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id="toc-Phonation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Phonation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phonation_type" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonation_type"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Phonation type</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonation_type-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_with_tone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_with_tone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Relationship with tone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_with_tone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tone_and_pitch_accent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tone_and_pitch_accent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Tone and pitch accent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tone_and_pitch_accent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tone_and_intonation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tone_and_intonation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Tone and intonation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tone_and_intonation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tonal_polarity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tonal_polarity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Tonal polarity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tonal_polarity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Register_tones_and_contour_tones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Register_tones_and_contour_tones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Register tones and contour tones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Register_tones_and_contour_tones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_tones_and_syllable_tones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_tones_and_syllable_tones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Word tones and syllable tones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_tones_and_syllable_tones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lexical_tones_and_grammatical_tones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexical_tones_and_grammatical_tones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Lexical tones and grammatical tones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexical_tones_and_grammatical_tones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Number_of_tones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Number_of_tones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Number of tones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Number_of_tones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tonal_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tonal_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Tonal change</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tonal_change-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Tonal change subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Tonal_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tone_terracing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tone_terracing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Tone terracing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tone_terracing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tone_sandhi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tone_sandhi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Tone sandhi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tone_sandhi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Right-_and_left-dominant_sandhi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Right-_and_left-dominant_sandhi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Right- and left-dominant sandhi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Right-_and_left-dominant_sandhi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tone_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tone_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Tone change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tone_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses_of_tone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses_of_tone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Uses of tone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uses_of_tone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tone_and_inflection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tone_and_inflection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Tone and inflection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tone_and_inflection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonetic_notation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonetic_notation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Phonetic notation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonetic_notation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonetic notation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonetic_notation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tone_orthographies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tone_orthographies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Tone orthographies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tone_orthographies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Origin and development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origin_and_development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origin and development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origin_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tone_as_an_areal_feature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tone_as_an_areal_feature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Tone as an areal feature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tone_as_an_areal_feature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tonogenesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tonogenesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Tonogenesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tonogenesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Triggers_of_tonogenesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Triggers_of_tonogenesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Triggers of tonogenesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Triggers_of_tonogenesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stages_of_tonogenesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stages_of_tonogenesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Stages of tonogenesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stages_of_tonogenesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_tonal_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_tonal_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>List of tonal languages</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-List_of_tonal_languages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle List of tonal languages subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-List_of_tonal_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Summary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Summary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Summary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Summary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Tone (linguistics)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">41 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A7%B0" title="ভাষিক সুৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ভাষিক সুৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sia%E2%81%BF-ti%C4%81u" title="Siaⁿ-tiāu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Siaⁿ-tiāu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BD_(%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D2%93%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5)" title="Тон (тел ғилеме) – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Тон (тел ғилеме)" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BD_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Тон (лингвистика) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Тон (лингвистика)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonenn_(yezhoniezh)" title="Tonenn (yezhoniezh) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tonenn (yezhoniezh)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_(ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica)" title="To (lingüística) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="To (lingüística)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inzwi" title="Inzwi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Inzwi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B4n_(iaith)" title="Tôn (iaith) – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Tôn (iaith)" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexikalischer_Ton" title="Lexikalischer Ton – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lexikalischer Ton" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toon_(keeleteadus)" title="Toon (keeleteadus) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Toon (keeleteadus)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tono_(ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica)" title="Tono (lingüística) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tono (lingüística)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonu_(hizkuntzalaritza)" title="Tonu (hizkuntzalaritza) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Tonu (hizkuntzalaritza)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA" title="نواخت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نواخت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ton_(linguistique)" title="Ton (linguistique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ton (linguistique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toan_(taalkunde)" title="Toan (taalkunde) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Toan (taalkunde)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B1%EC%A1%B0" title="성조 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="성조" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nada_(linguistik)" title="Nada (linguistik) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Nada (linguistik)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tono_(linguistica)" title="Tono (linguistica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tono (linguistica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F_(%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA)" title="טון (בלשנות) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טון (בלשנות)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu" title="Liu – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Liu" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Тонема – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тонема" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tono_(fonolojia)" title="Tono (fonolojia) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Tono (fonolojia)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B3nus_(nyelv%C3%A9szet)" title="Tónus (nyelvészet) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tónus (nyelvészet)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nada_(linguistik)" title="Nada (linguistik) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Nada (linguistik)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%90%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B6_(%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92)" title="တက်ကျသံ (ဘာသာဗေဒ) – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="တက်ကျသံ (ဘာသာဗေဒ)" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A3%B0%E8%AA%BF" title="声調 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="声調" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B0_(%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8)" title="ਸੁਰ (ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ) – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੁਰ (ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ)" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_(lingu%C3%ADstica)" title="Tom (linguística) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tom (linguística)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ton_(lingvistic%C4%83)" title="Ton (lingvistică) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ton (lingvistică)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BD_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Тон (лингвистика) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Тон (лингвистика)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toni_(gjuh%C3%ABsi)" title="Toni (gjuhësi) – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Toni (gjuhësi)" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tooni" title="Tooni – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tooni" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF_(%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D)" title="தொனி (மொழியியல்) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தொனி (மொழியியல்)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="วรรณยุกต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วรรณยุกต์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ton_(dilbilim)" title="Ton (dilbilim) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ton (dilbilim)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BD_(%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE)" title="Тон (мовознавство) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Тон (мовознавство)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanh_%C4%91i%E1%BB%87u" title="Thanh điệu – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thanh điệu" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ton_(linwince)" title="Ton (linwince) – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Ton (linwince)" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A3%B0%E8%B0%83" title="声调 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="声调" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%81%B2%E8%AA%BF" title="聲調 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="聲調" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Tone%22+linguistics">"Tone" linguistics</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Tone%22+linguistics+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Tone%22+linguistics&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Tone%22+linguistics+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Tone%22+linguistics">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Tone%22+linguistics&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Tone plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Tone" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <b>tone or style may not reflect the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Tone" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">encyclopedic tone</a> used on Wikipedia</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> See Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Tone" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">guide to writing better articles</a> for suggestions.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Six_tones_of_Vietnamese_language.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Six_tones_of_Vietnamese_language.svg/220px-Six_tones_of_Vietnamese_language.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Six_tones_of_Vietnamese_language.svg/330px-Six_tones_of_Vietnamese_language.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Six_tones_of_Vietnamese_language.svg/440px-Six_tones_of_Vietnamese_language.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="100" /></a><figcaption>Six <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Six-tone_analysis" title="Vietnamese phonology">tones of Vietnamese</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:232px;max-width:232px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:56px;max-width:56px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:63px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:First_tone_(Mandarin).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/First_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/54px-First_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="54" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/First_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/81px-First_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/First_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/108px-First_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:56px;max-width:56px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:63px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Second_tone_(Mandarin).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Second_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/54px-Second_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="54" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Second_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/81px-Second_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Second_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/108px-Second_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:56px;max-width:56px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:63px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Third_tone_(Mandarin).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Third_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/54px-Third_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="54" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Third_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/81px-Third_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Third_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/108px-Third_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:56px;max-width:56px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:63px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fourth_tone_(Mandarin).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Fourth_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/54px-Fourth_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="54" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Fourth_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/81px-Fourth_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Fourth_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/108px-Fourth_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The syllable <span title="Mandarin Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="cmn-Latn">ma</i></span> with each of the primary tones in Standard Chinese<div style="width:100%; height:10px"></div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="6" data-mwtitle="FourMandarinTones.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/FourMandarinTones.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a3/FourMandarinTones.ogg/FourMandarinTones.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <p><b>Tone</b> is the use of <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">pitch</a> in <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning—that is, to distinguish or to <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflect</a> words.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYip20021–3,_17–18_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYip20021–3,_17–18-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All oral languages use pitch to express emotional and other para-linguistic information and to convey emphasis, contrast and other such features in what is called <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a>, but not all languages use tones to distinguish words or their inflections, analogously to consonants and vowels. Languages that have this feature are called tonal languages; the distinctive <a href="/wiki/Tone_pattern" title="Tone pattern">tone patterns</a> of such a language are sometimes called tonemes,<sup id="cite_ref-Trask_2004_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trask_2004-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by analogy with <i><a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a></i>. Tonal languages are common in East and Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas and the Pacific.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYip20021–3,_17–18_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYip20021–3,_17–18-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tonal languages are different from <a href="/wiki/Pitch-accent_language" title="Pitch-accent language">pitch-accent languages</a> in that tonal languages can have each syllable with an independent tone whilst pitch-accent languages may have one syllable in a word or morpheme that is more prominent than the others. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanics">Mechanics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Mechanics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most languages use <a href="/wiki/Pitch-accent_language" title="Pitch-accent language">pitch</a> as <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a> to convey <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosody</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">pragmatics</a>, but this does not make them tonal languages.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In tonal languages, each <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllable</a> has an inherent pitch contour, and thus <a href="/wiki/Minimal_pair" title="Minimal pair">minimal pairs</a> (or larger minimal sets) exist between syllables with the same segmental features (consonants and vowels) but different tones. <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of Chinese">Chinese</a> have heavily studied tone systems, as well as amongst their various dialects. </p><p>Below is a table of the six Vietnamese tones and their corresponding tone accent or diacritics: </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese_tone_northern.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Vietnamese_tone_northern.svg/300px-Vietnamese_tone_northern.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Vietnamese_tone_northern.svg/450px-Vietnamese_tone_northern.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Vietnamese_tone_northern.svg/600px-Vietnamese_tone_northern.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Vietnamese tones <i>ngang</i> ("flat"), <i>huyền</i> ("deep" or "falling"), <i>sắc</i> ("sharp" or "rising"), <i>nặng</i> ("heavy" or "down"), <i>hỏi</i> ("asking"), and <i>ngã</i> ("tumbling")</figcaption></figure> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Tone_name" title="Tone name">Tone name</a> </th> <th rowspan="2">Tone ID </th> <th rowspan="2">Vni/telex/Viqr </th> <th rowspan="2">Description </th> <th colspan="2">Chao Tone Contour </th> <th rowspan="2">Diacritic </th> <th rowspan="2">Example </th></tr> <tr> <th>Northern </th> <th>Southern </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>ngang</i> "flat" </td> <td>A1 </td> <td>[default] </td> <td>mid level </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧</span> (33) or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˦</span> (44) </td> <td style="text-align: center;">◌ </td> <td>ma </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>huyền</i> "deep" </td> <td>A2 </td> <td>2 / f / ` </td> <td>low falling (breathy) </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˩</span> (31) or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩</span> (21) </td> <td style="text-align: center;">◌̀ </td> <td>mà </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>sắc</i> "sharp" </td> <td>B1 </td> <td>1 / s / ' </td> <td>mid rising, tense </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˥</span> (35) or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˦˥</span> (45) </td> <td style="text-align: center;">◌́ </td> <td>má </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>nặng</i> "heavy" </td> <td>B2 </td> <td>5 / j / . </td> <td>mid falling, glottalized, heavy </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧ˀ˨ʔ</span> (3ˀ2ʔ)<small> or </small><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧ˀ˩ʔ</span> (3ˀ1ʔ) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˩˨</span> (12) or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩˨</span> (212) </td> <td style="text-align: center;">़ </td> <td>mạ </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>hỏi</i> "asking" </td> <td>C1 </td> <td>3 / r / ? </td> <td>mid falling(-rising), emphasis </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˩˧</span> (313) or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˨˧</span> (323) or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˩</span> (31) </td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˨˦</span> (324) or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩˦</span> (214) </td> <td style="text-align: center;">◌̉ </td> <td>mả </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ngã</i> "tumbling" </td> <td>C2 </td> <td>4 / x / ~ </td> <td>mid rising, glottalized </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧ˀ˥</span> (3ˀ5) or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˦ˀ˥</span> (4ˀ5) </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%CC%83" class="mw-redirect" title="̃">◌̃</a> </td> <td>mã </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a>, which has <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology#Tones" title="Standard Chinese phonology">five tones</a>, transcribed by letters with diacritics over vowels: </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg/150px-Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg/225px-Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg/300px-Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>The tone contours of Standard Chinese. In the convention for Chinese, 1 is low and 5 is high. The corresponding <a href="/wiki/Tone_letter" title="Tone letter">tone letters</a> are <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˥<span class="wrap"> </span>˧˥<span class="wrap"> </span>˨˩˦<span class="wrap"> </span>˥˩</span>.</figcaption></figure> <ol><li>A high level tone: /á/ (<a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨ā⟩</span>)</li> <li>A tone starting with mid pitch and rising to a high pitch: /ǎ/ (pinyin <span class="nowrap">⟨á⟩</span>)</li> <li>A low tone with a slight fall (if there is no following syllable, it may start with a dip then rise to a high pitch): /à/ (pinyin <span class="nowrap">⟨ǎ⟩</span>)</li> <li>A short, sharply falling tone, starting high and falling to the bottom of the speaker's vocal range: /â/ (pinyin <span class="nowrap">⟨à⟩</span>)</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology#Neutral_tone" title="Standard Chinese phonology">neutral tone</a>, with no specific contour, used on weak syllables; its pitch depends chiefly on the tone of the preceding syllable.</li></ol> <p>These tones combine with a syllable such as <i>ma</i> to produce different words. A minimal set based on <i>ma</i> are, in <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a> transcription: </p> <ol><li><i>mā</i> (<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AA%BD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:媽">媽</a></span>/<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A6%88#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:妈">妈</a></span>) 'mother'</li> <li><i>má</i> (<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BA%BB#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:麻">麻</a></span>/<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BA%BB#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:麻">麻</a></span>) 'hemp'</li> <li><i>mǎ</i> (<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A6%AC#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:馬">馬</a></span>/<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A9%AC#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:马">马</a></span>) 'horse'</li> <li><i>mà</i> (<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%BD%B5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:罵">罵</a></span>/<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%AA%82#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:骂">骂</a></span>) 'scold'</li> <li><i>ma</i> (<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%97%8E#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:嗎">嗎</a></span>/<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:吗">吗</a></span>) (an <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">interrogative particle</a>)</li></ol> <p>These may be combined into a <a href="/wiki/Tongue-twister" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongue-twister">tongue-twister</a>: </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified</a>: <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">妈妈骂马的麻吗?</span></span></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional</a>: <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">媽媽罵馬的麻嗎?</span></span></dd> <dd>Pinyin: <i>Māma mà mǎde má ma?</i></dd> <dd>IPA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/máma<span class="wrap"> </span>mâ<span class="wrap"> </span>màtə<span class="wrap"> </span>mǎ<span class="wrap"> </span>ma/</span></dd> <dd>Translation: 'Is mom scolding the horse's hemp?'</dd></dl> <p>See also <a href="/wiki/One-syllable_article" title="One-syllable article">one-syllable article</a>. </p><p>A well-known tongue-twister in Standard Thai is: </p> <dl><dd><span title="Thai-language text"><span lang="th">ไหมใหม่ไหม้มั้ย.</span></span></dd> <dd>IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mǎi̯<span class="wrap"> </span>mài̯<span class="wrap"> </span>mâi̯<span class="wrap"> </span>mái̯/</span></dd> <dd>Translation: 'Does new silk burn?'<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>A Vietnamese tongue twister: </p> <dl><dd><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Bấy nay bây bầy bảy bẫy bậy.</i></span></dd> <dd>IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɓʌ̌i̯<span class="wrap"> </span>nai̯<span class="wrap"> </span>ɓʌi̯<span class="wrap"> </span>ɓʌ̂i̯<span class="wrap"> </span>ɓa᷉i̯<span class="wrap"> </span>ɓʌ̌ˀi̯<span class="wrap"> </span>ɓʌ̂ˀi̯]</span></dd> <dd>Translation: 'Recently, you've been setting up the seven traps incorrectly.'</dd></dl> <p>A Cantonese tongue twister: </p> <dl><dd><span title="Yue Chinese-language text"><span lang="yue">一人因一日引一刃一印而忍</span></span></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a>: <i>jat<sup>1</sup> jan<sup>4</sup> jan<sup>1</sup> jat<sup>1</sup> jat<sup>6</sup> jan<sup>5</sup> jat<sup>1</sup> jan<sup>6</sup> jat<sup>1</sup> jan<sup>3</sup> ji<sup>4</sup> jan<sup>2</sup></i></dd> <dd>IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jɐ́t̚<span class="wrap"> </span>jɐ̏n<span class="wrap"> </span>jɐ́n<span class="wrap"> </span>jɐ́t̚<span class="wrap"> </span>jɐ̀t̚<span class="wrap"> </span>jɐ᷅n<span class="wrap"> </span>jɐ́t̚<span class="wrap"> </span>jɐ̀n<span class="wrap"> </span>jɐ́t̚<span class="wrap"> </span>jɐn<span class="wrap"> </span>jȉː<span class="wrap"> </span>jɐ᷄n]</span></dd> <dd>Translation: 'One person endures a day with one knife and one print.'</dd></dl> <p>Tone is most frequently manifested on vowels, but in most tonal languages where <a href="/wiki/Voiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced">voiced</a> <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">syllabic consonants</a> occur they will bear tone as well. This is especially common with syllabic nasals, for example in many <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kru_languages" title="Kru languages">Kru languages</a>, but also occurs in <a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbo-Croatian language">Serbo-Croatian</a>. It is also possible for lexically contrastive pitch (or tone) to span entire words or morphemes instead of manifesting on the syllable nucleus (vowels), which is the case in <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tones can interact in complex ways through a process known as <a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">tone sandhi</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonation">Phonation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Phonation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a number of East Asian languages, tonal differences are closely intertwined with <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a> differences. In <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>, for example, the <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ngã</i></span> and <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">sắc</i></span> tones are both high-rising but the former is distinguished by having <a href="/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">glottalization</a> in the middle. Similarly, the <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">nặng</i></span> and <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">huyền</i></span> tones are both low-falling, but the <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">nặng</i></span> tone is shorter and pronounced with <a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky voice</a> at the end, while the <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">huyền</i></span> tone is longer and often has <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy voice</a>. In some languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a>, pitch and phonation are so closely intertwined that the two are combined in a single phonological system, where neither can be considered without the other. The distinctions of such systems are termed <i><a href="/wiki/Register_(phonology)" title="Register (phonology)">registers</a></i>. The <i>tone register</i> here should not be confused with <i>register tone</i> described in the next section. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phonation_type">Phonation type</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Phonation type"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gordon and Ladefoged established a continuum of phonation, where several types can be identified.<sup id="cite_ref-Gordon_Ladefoged_2001_pp._383–406_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gordon_Ladefoged_2001_pp._383–406-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relationship_with_tone">Relationship with tone</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Relationship with tone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kuang identified two types of phonation: <b>pitch-dependent</b> and <b>pitch-independent</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuang2013_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuang2013-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrast of tones has long been thought of as differences in pitch height. However, several studies pointed out that tone is actually multidimensional. Contour, duration, and phonation may all contribute to the differentiation of tones. Investigations from the 2010s using perceptual experiments seem to suggest phonation counts as a perceptual cue.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuang2013_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuang2013-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yu_Lam_2014_pp._1320–1333_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yu_Lam_2014_pp._1320–1333-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tone_and_pitch_accent">Tone and pitch accent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tone and pitch accent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many languages use tone in a more limited way. In <a href="/wiki/Japanese_pitch_accent" title="Japanese pitch accent">Japanese</a>, fewer than half of the words have a <a href="/wiki/Downstep" title="Downstep">drop in pitch</a>; words contrast according to which syllable this drop follows. Such minimal systems are sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">pitch accent</a> since they are reminiscent of <a href="/wiki/Stress_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress accent">stress accent</a> languages, which typically allow one principal stressed syllable per word. However, there is debate over the definition of pitch accent and whether a coherent definition is even possible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHyman2009_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHyman2009-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tone_and_intonation">Tone and intonation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tone and intonation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both lexical or grammatical tone and prosodic <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a> are cued by changes in pitch, as well as sometimes by changes in phonation. Lexical tone coexists with intonation, with the lexical changes of pitch like waves superimposed on larger swells. For example, Luksaneeyanawin (1993) describes three intonational patterns in Thai: falling (with semantics of "finality, closedness, and definiteness"), rising ("non-finality, openness and non-definiteness") and "convoluted" (contrariness, conflict and emphasis). The phonetic realization of these intonational patterns superimposed on the five lexical tones of Thai (in citation form) are as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-Laver_John_1994_pp._477-478_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laver_John_1994_pp._477-478-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Tone plus intonation in Thai </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Falling <br />intonation</th> <th>Rising <br />intonation</th> <th>Convoluted <br />intonation </th></tr> <tr> <th>High level tone </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˦˥˦</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˥</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˦˥˨</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Mid level tone </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˨</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˦</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˦˨</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Low level tone </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˧˦</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Falling tone </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˦˧˨,<span class="wrap"> </span>˦˦˨</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˦˦˧,<span class="wrap"> </span>˥˥˦</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˦˥˨</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Rising tone </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˩˩˦</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˧˦</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩˦</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>With convoluted intonation, it appears that high and falling tone conflate, while the low tone with convoluted intonation has the same contour as rising tone with rising intonation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tonal_polarity">Tonal polarity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Tonal polarity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Languages with simple tone systems or <a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">pitch accent</a> may have one or two syllables specified for tone, with the rest of the word taking a default tone. Such languages differ in which tone is marked and which is the default. In <a href="/wiki/Navajo_language" title="Navajo language">Navajo</a>, for example, syllables have a low tone by default, whereas marked syllables have high tone. In the related language <a href="/wiki/Sekani_language" title="Sekani language">Sekani</a>, however, the default is high tone, and marked syllables have low tone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKingston2005_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKingston2005-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are parallels with stress: English stressed syllables have a higher pitch than unstressed syllables.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Register_tones_and_contour_tones">Register tones and contour tones<span class="anchor" id="register"></span><span class="anchor" id="contour"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Register tones and contour tones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"High tone" redirects here. For the tones in telephony, see <a href="/wiki/High_tone_(telephony)" class="mw-redirect" title="High tone (telephony)">High tone (telephony)</a>. For the French band, see <a href="/wiki/High_Tone" title="High Tone">High Tone</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tone_contour" title="Tone contour">Tone contour</a></div> <p>In many <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a>, tones are distinguished by their pitch level relative to each other. In multisyllable words, a single tone may be carried by the entire word rather than a different tone on each syllable. Often, grammatical information, such as past versus present, "I" versus "you", or positive versus negative, is conveyed solely by tone. </p><p>In the most widely spoken tonal language, <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a>, tones are distinguished by their distinctive shape, known as <b>contour</b>, with each tone having a different internal pattern of rising and falling pitch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYip2002178–184_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYip2002178–184-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many words, especially monosyllabic ones, are differentiated solely by tone. In a multisyllabic word, each syllable often carries its own tone. Unlike in Bantu systems, tone plays little role in the grammar of modern standard Chinese, though the tones descend from features in <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> that had <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> significance (such as changing a verb to a noun or vice versa). </p><p>Most tonal languages have a combination of register and contour tones. Tone is typical of languages including <a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietic_languages" title="Vietic languages">Vietic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages">Khoisan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niger-Congo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Niger-Congo languages">Niger-Congo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a> languages. Most tonal languages combine both register and contour tones, such as <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a>, which produces three varieties of contour tone at three different pitch levels,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYip2002174–178_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYip2002174–178-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Omotic (Afroasiatic) language <a href="/wiki/Bench_language" title="Bench language">Bench</a>, which employs five level tones and one or two rising tones across levels.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a> use contour tones, where the distinguishing feature of the tones are their shifts in pitch (that is, the pitch is a <a href="/wiki/Contour_(linguistics)" title="Contour (linguistics)">contour</a>), such as rising, falling, dipping, or level. Most Bantu languages (except northwestern Bantu) on the other hand, have simpler tone systems usually with high, low and one or two contour tone (usually in long vowels). In such systems there is a default tone, usually low in a two-tone system or mid in a three-tone system, that is more common and less salient than other tones. There are also languages that combine relative-pitch and contour tones, such as many <a href="/wiki/Kru_languages" title="Kru languages">Kru languages</a> and other Niger-Congo languages of West Africa. </p><p>Falling tones tend to fall further than rising tones rise; high–low tones are common, whereas low–high tones are quite rare. A language with contour tones will also generally have as many or more falling tones than rising tones. However, exceptions are not unheard of; <a href="/wiki/Mpi_language" title="Mpi language">Mpi</a>, for example, has three level and three rising tones, but no falling tones. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word_tones_and_syllable_tones">Word tones and syllable tones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Word tones and syllable tones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another difference between tonal languages is whether the tones apply independently to each syllable or to the word as a whole. In <a href="/wiki/Standard_Cantonese" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Cantonese">Cantonese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kru_languages" title="Kru languages">Kru languages</a>, each syllable may have a tone, whereas in <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> and many <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a>, the contour of each tone operates at the word level. That is, a trisyllabic word in a three-tone syllable-tone language has many more tonal possibilities (3 × 3 × 3 = 27) than a monosyllabic word (3), but there is no such difference in a word-tone language. For example, Shanghainese has two contrastive (phonemic) tones no matter how many syllables are in a word.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Many languages described as having <a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">pitch accent</a> are word-tone languages. </p><p>Tone sandhi is an intermediate situation, as tones are carried by individual syllables, but affect each other so that they are not independent of each other. For example, a number of Mandarin Chinese suffixes and grammatical particles have what is called (when describing Mandarin Chinese) a "neutral" tone, which has no independent existence. If a syllable with a neutral tone is added to a syllable with a full tone, the pitch contour of the resulting word is entirely determined by that other syllable: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>Realization of neutral tones in Mandarin Chinese </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Tone in isolation </th> <th>Tone pattern with<br />added neutral tone </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Pinyin </th> <th>English meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td>high <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˥</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˥꜋</span> </td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">玻璃</span></span> </td> <td>bōli </td> <td>glass </td></tr> <tr> <td>rising <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˥</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˥꜊</span> </td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">伯伯</span></span> </td> <td>bóbo </td> <td>elder uncle </td></tr> <tr> <td>dipping <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩˦</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩꜉</span> </td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">喇叭</span></span> </td> <td>lǎba </td> <td>horn </td></tr> <tr> <td>falling <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˥˩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˥˩꜌</span> </td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">兔子</span></span> </td> <td>tùzi </td> <td>rabbit </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>After high level and high rising tones, the neutral syllable has an independent pitch that looks like a mid-register tone – the default tone in most register-tone languages. However, after a falling tone it takes on a low pitch; the contour tone remains on the first syllable, but the pitch of the second syllable matches where the contour leaves off. And after a low-dipping tone, the contour spreads to the second syllable: the contour remains the same (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩˦</span>) whether the word has one syllable or two. In other words, the tone is now the property of the word, not the syllable. Shanghainese has taken this pattern to its extreme, as the pitches of all syllables are determined by the tone before them, so that only the tone of the initial syllable of a word is distinctive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lexical_tones_and_grammatical_tones">Lexical tones and grammatical tones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Lexical tones and grammatical tones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lexical tones are used to distinguish lexical meanings. Grammatical tones, on the other hand, change the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_category" title="Grammatical category">grammatical categories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SIL_Glossary_of_Linguistic_Terms_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SIL_Glossary_of_Linguistic_Terms-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To some authors, the term includes both inflectional and derivational morphology.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyman_2016_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyman_2016-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tian described a grammatical tone, the <i>induced creaky tone</i>, in <a href="/wiki/Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tian_2018_pp._192–218_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tian_2018_pp._192–218-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Number_of_tones">Number of tones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Number of tones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Languages may distinguish up to five levels of pitch, though the <a href="/wiki/Chori_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Chori language">Chori language</a> of Nigeria is described as distinguishing six surface tone registers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdden202037_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdden202037-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since tone contours may involve up to two shifts in pitch, there are theoretically 5 × 5 × 5 = 125 distinct tones for a language with five registers. However, the most that are actually used in a language is a tenth of that number. </p><p>Several <a href="/wiki/Kam%E2%80%93Sui_languages" title="Kam–Sui languages">Kam–Sui languages</a> of southern China have nine contrastive tones, including contour tones. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Kam_language" title="Kam language">Kam language</a> has 9 tones: 3 more-or-less fixed tones (high, mid and low); 4 unidirectional tones (high and low rising, high and low falling); and 2 bidirectional tones (dipping and peaking). This assumes that <a href="/wiki/Checked_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Checked syllable">checked syllables</a> are not counted as having additional tones, as they traditionally are in China. For example, in the traditional reckoning, the <a href="/wiki/Kam_language" title="Kam language">Kam language</a> has 15 tones, but 6 occur only in syllables closed with the voiceless <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop consonants</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> and the other 9 occur only in syllables not ending in one of these sounds. </p><p>Preliminary work on the <a href="/wiki/Wobe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Wobe language">Wobe language</a> (part of the Wee continuum) of Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire, the <a href="/wiki/Ticuna_language" title="Ticuna language">Ticuna language</a> of the Amazon and the <a href="/wiki/Chatino_language" title="Chatino language">Chatino languages</a> of southern Mexico suggests that some dialects may distinguish as many as fourteen tones or more. The <a href="/wiki/Guere_language" title="Guere language">Guere language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dan_language" title="Dan language">Dan language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mano_language" title="Mano language">Mano language</a> of Liberia and Ivory Coast have around 10 tones, give or take. The <a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean" class="mw-redirect" title="Oto-Manguean">Oto-Manguean</a> languages of Mexico have a huge number of tones as well. The most complex tonal systems are actually found in Africa and the Americas, not east Asia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tonal_change">Tonal change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Tonal change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tone_terracing">Tone terracing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tone terracing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tone_terracing" title="Tone terracing">Tone terracing</a></div> <p>Tones are realized as pitch only in a relative sense. "High tone" and "low tone" are only meaningful relative to the speaker's vocal range and in comparing one syllable to the next, rather than as a contrast of absolute pitch such as one finds in music. As a result, when one combines tone with sentence <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosody</a>, the absolute pitch of a high tone at the end of a <a href="/wiki/Prosodic_unit" title="Prosodic unit">prosodic unit</a> may be lower than that of a low tone at the beginning of the unit, because of the universal tendency (in both tonal and non-tonal languages) for pitch to decrease with time in a process called <a href="/wiki/Downdrift" title="Downdrift">downdrift</a>. </p><p>Tones may affect each other just as consonants and vowels do. In many register-tone languages, low tones may cause a <a href="/wiki/Downstep" title="Downstep">downstep</a> in following high or mid tones; the effect is such that even while the low tones remain at the lower end of the speaker's vocal range (which is itself descending due to downdrift), the high tones drop incrementally like steps in a stairway or <a href="/wiki/Terrace_(agriculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrace (agriculture)">terraced</a> rice fields, until finally the tones merge and the system has to be reset. This effect is called <a href="/wiki/Tone_terracing" title="Tone terracing">tone terracing</a>. </p><p>Sometimes a tone may remain as the sole realization of a grammatical particle after the original consonant and vowel disappear, so it can only be heard by its effect on other tones. It may cause downstep, or it may combine with other tones to form contours. These are called <a href="/wiki/Floating_tone" title="Floating tone">floating tones</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tone_sandhi">Tone sandhi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Tone sandhi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">Tone sandhi</a></div> <p>In many contour-tone languages, one tone may affect the shape of an adjacent tone. The affected tone may become something new, a tone that only occurs in such situations, or it may be changed into a different existing tone. This is called tone sandhi. In Mandarin Chinese, for example, a dipping tone between two other tones is reduced to a simple low tone, which otherwise does not occur in Mandarin Chinese, whereas if two dipping tones occur in a row, the first becomes a rising tone, indistinguishable from other rising tones in the language. For example, the words 很 <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[xɤn˨˩˦]</span> ('very') and 好 <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[xaʊ˨˩˦]</span> ('good') produce the phrase 很好 <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[xɤn˧˥<span class="wrap"> </span>xaʊ˨˩˦]</span> ('very good'). The two transcriptions may be conflated with reversed tone letters as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[xɤn˨˩˦꜔꜒xaʊ˨˩˦]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Right-_and_left-dominant_sandhi">Right- and left-dominant sandhi</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Right- and left-dominant sandhi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tone sandhi in <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Sinitic languages</a> can be classified with a left-dominant or right-dominant system. In a language of the right-dominant system, the right-most syllable of a word retains its citation tone (i.e., the tone in its isolation form). All the other syllables of the word must take their sandhi form.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhang_2007_pp._259–302_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang_2007_pp._259–302-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese Southern Min</a> is known for its complex sandhi system. Example: 鹹kiam<sup>5</sup> 'salty'; 酸sng<sup>1</sup> 'sour'; 甜tinn<sup>1</sup> 'sweet'; 鹹酸甜kiam<sub>7</sub> sng<sub>7</sub> tinn<sup>1</sup> 'candied fruit'. In this example, only the last syllable remains unchanged. Subscripted numbers represent the changed tone. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tone_change">Tone change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Tone change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Tone change</b> must be distinguished from <b>tone sandhi</b>. <a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">Tone sandhi</a> is a compulsory change that occurs when certain tones are juxtaposed. Tone change, however, is a morphologically conditioned <a href="/wiki/Alternation_(linguistics)" title="Alternation (linguistics)">alternation</a> and is used as an inflectional or a derivational strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen2004_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen2004-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lien indicated that causative verbs in modern <a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a> are expressed with tonal alternation, and that tonal alternation may come from earlier affixes. Examples: 長 tng<sup>5</sup> 'long' vs. tng<sup>2</sup> 'grow'; 斷 tng<sup>7</sup> 'break' vs. tng<sup>2</sup> 'cause to break'.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, 毒 in <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese Southern Min</a> has two pronunciations: to̍k (entering tone) means 'poison' or 'poisonous', while thāu (departing tone) means 'to kill with poison'.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same usage can be found in Min, Yue, and Hakka.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses_of_tone">Uses of tone</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Uses of tone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In East Asia, tone is typically lexical. That is, tone is used to distinguish words which would otherwise be <a href="/wiki/Homonyms" class="mw-redirect" title="Homonyms">homonyms</a>. This is characteristic of heavily tonal languages such as Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, and <a href="/wiki/Hmong_language" title="Hmong language">Hmong</a>. </p><p>However, in many African languages, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Niger–Congo">Niger–Congo</a> family, tone can be both lexical and grammatical. In the <a href="/wiki/Kru_languages" title="Kru languages">Kru languages</a>, a combination of these patterns is found: nouns tend to have complex tone systems but are not much affected by grammatical inflections, whereas verbs tend to have simple tone systems, which are inflected to indicate <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense and mood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_polarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical polarity">polarity</a>, so that tone may be the only distinguishing feature between "you went" and "I won't go". </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_language" title="Yoruba language">Yoruba</a>, much of the lexical and grammatical information is carried by tone. In languages of West Africa such as Yoruba, people may even communicate with so-called "<a href="/wiki/Talking_drum" title="Talking drum">talking drums</a>", which are modulated to imitate the tones of the language,<sup id="cite_ref-Adekanmbi_1989_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adekanmbi_1989-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or by <a href="/wiki/Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">whistling</a> the tones of speech.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Note that tonal languages are not distributed evenly across the same range as non-tonal languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Maddieson_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maddieson-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, the majority of tone languages belong to the Niger-Congo, Sino-Tibetan and Vietic groups, which are then composed by a large majority of tone languages and dominate a single region. Only in limited locations (South Africa, New Guinea, Mexico, Brazil and a few others) do tone languages occur as individual members or small clusters within a non-tone dominated area. In some locations, like Central America, it may represent no more than an incidental effect of which languages were included when one examines the distribution; for groups like Khoi-San in Southern Africa and Papuan languages, whole families of languages possess tonality but simply have relatively few members, and for some North American tone languages, multiple independent origins are suspected. </p><p>If generally considering only complex-tone vs. no-tone, it might be concluded that tone is almost always an ancient feature within a language family that is highly conserved among members. However, when considered in addition to "simple" tone systems that include only two tones, tone, as a whole, appears to be more labile, appearing several times within Indo-European languages, several times in American languages, and several times in Papuan families.<sup id="cite_ref-Maddieson_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maddieson-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That may indicate that rather than a trait unique to some language families, tone is a latent feature of most language families that may more easily arise and disappear as languages change over time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHombertOhalaEwan1979_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHombertOhalaEwan1979-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2015 study by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Caleb_Everett&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caleb Everett (page does not exist)">Caleb Everett</a> argued that tonal languages are more common in hot and humid climates, which make them easier to pronounce, even when considering familial relationships. If the conclusions of Everett's work are sound, this is perhaps the first known case of influence of the environment on the structure of the languages spoken in it.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proposed relationship between climate and tone is controversial, and logical and statistical issues have been raised by various scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tone_and_inflection">Tone and inflection</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Tone and inflection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tone has long been viewed as a phonological system. It was not until recent years that tone was found to play a role in <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional morphology</a>. Palancar and Léonard (2016)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> provided an example with Tlatepuzco <a href="/wiki/Chinantecan_languages" title="Chinantecan languages">Chinantec</a> (an <a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean_languages" title="Oto-Manguean languages">Oto-Manguean language</a> spoken in Southern <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>), where tones are able to distinguish <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a>: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Forms of 'bend' in Tlatepuzco Chinantec </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col"> </th> <th scope="col">1 SG </th> <th scope="col">1 PL </th> <th scope="col">2 </th> <th scope="col">3 </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Completive </th> <td>húʔ˩</td> <td>húʔ˩˥</td> <td>húʔ˩</td> <td>húʔ˧ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Incompletive </th> <td>húʔ˩˧</td> <td>húʔ˩˧</td> <td>húʔ˩˧</td> <td>húʔ˧ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Irrealis </th> <td>húʔ˩˥</td> <td>húʔ˩˥</td> <td>húʔ˩˥</td> <td>húʔ˧ </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Iau_language" title="Iau language">Iau language</a> (the most tonally complex <a href="/wiki/Lakes_Plain_languages" title="Lakes Plain languages">Lakes Plain language</a>, predominantly monosyllabic), nouns have an inherent tone (e.g. be˧ 'fire' but be˦˧ 'flower'), but verbs don't have any inherent tone. For verbs, a tone is used to mark <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a>. The first work that mentioned this was published in 1986.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Example paradigms:<sup id="cite_ref-Foley-NWNG_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foley-NWNG-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable IPA"> <caption>Aspects in Iau </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Tone</th> <th>Aspect</th> <th>ba 'come'</th> <th>tai 'moving s.t. toward'</th> <th>da 'locate s.t. inside' </th></tr> <tr> <td>tone 2</td> <td>totality of action, punctual</td> <td>ba˦ 'came'</td> <td>tai˦ 'pulled'</td> <td>da˦ 'ate, put it in (stomach)' </td></tr> <tr> <td>tone 3</td> <td>resultative durative</td> <td>ba˧ 'has come'</td> <td>tai˧ 'has been pulled off'</td> <td>da˧ 'has been loaded onto s.t.' </td></tr> <tr> <td>tone 21</td> <td>totality of action, incomplete</td> <td>ba˦˥ 'might come'</td> <td>tai˦˥ 'might pull'</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tone 43</td> <td>resultative punctual</td> <td>ba˨˧ 'came to get'</td> <td>tai˨˧ 'land on s.t.'</td> <td>da˨˧ 'dip into water, wash s.t.' </td></tr> <tr> <td>tone 24</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Telicity" title="Telicity">telic</a> punctual</td> <td>ba˦˨ 'came to end'</td> <td>tai˦˨ 'fell to ground'</td> <td>da˦˨ 'eaten it all up' </td></tr> <tr> <td>tone 23</td> <td>telic, incomplete</td> <td>ba˦˧ 'still coming'</td> <td>tai˦˧ 'still falling'</td> <td>da˦˧ 'still eating it up' </td></tr> <tr> <td>tone 34</td> <td>totality of action, durative</td> <td>ba˧˨ 'be coming'</td> <td>tai˧˨ 'be pulling'</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tone 243</td> <td>telic durative</td> <td>ba˦˨˧ 'sticking to'</td> <td>tai˦˨˧ 'be falling'</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>tai˦˥–˧˨ 'pull on s.t., shake hands'</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>tai˦˥–˧ 'have pulled s.t., shook hands'</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Tones are used to differentiate <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">cases</a> as well, as in <a href="/wiki/Maasai_language" title="Maasai language">Maasai language</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan language</a> spoken in <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>):<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Case difference in Maasai </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">gloss </th> <th scope="col">Nominative </th> <th scope="col">Accusative </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">'head' </th> <td>èlʊ̀kʊ̀nyá</td> <td>èlʊ́kʊ́nyá </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">'rat' </th> <td>èndérònì</td> <td>èndèrónì </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>Certain <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a> are known to express meaning by means of tone change although further investigations are required. Examples from two <a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue dialects</a> spoken in <a href="/wiki/Guangdong_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Guangdong Province">Guangdong Province</a> are shown below.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen2004_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen2004-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Taishanese" title="Taishanese">Taishan</a>, tone change indicates the grammatical number of personal pronouns. In Zhongshan, <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective</a> verbs are marked with tone change. </p> <ul><li>Taishan</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>ngwoi˧</td> <td>'I' (singular) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ngwoi˨</td> <td>'we' (plural) </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Zhongshan</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>hy˨</td> <td>'go' </td></tr> <tr> <td>hy˧˥</td> <td>'gone' (perfective) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The following table compares the personal pronouns of Sixian dialect (a dialect of <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hakka" title="Taiwanese Hakka">Taiwanese Hakka</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with Zaiwa and Jingpho<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (both <a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman languages</a> spoken in <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a>). From this table, we find the distinction between nominative, genitive, and accusative is marked by tone change and <a href="/wiki/Alternation_(linguistics)" title="Alternation (linguistics)">sound alternation</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Comparison of personal pronouns </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col"> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Sixian_dialect" title="Sixian dialect">Sixian</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Zaiwa_language" title="Zaiwa language">Zaiwa</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Jingpho_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Jingpho language">Jingpho</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">1 Nom </th> <td>ŋai˩</td> <td>ŋo˥˩</td> <td>ŋai˧ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">1 Gen </th> <td>ŋa˨˦ or ŋai˩ ke˥</td> <td>ŋa˥</td> <td>ŋjeʔ˥ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">1 Acc </th> <td>ŋai˩</td> <td>ŋo˧˩</td> <td>ŋai˧ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">2 Nom </th> <td>ŋ̍˩</td> <td>naŋ˥˩</td> <td>naŋ˧ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">2 Gen </th> <td>ŋia˨˦ or ŋ̍˩ ke˥</td> <td>naŋ˥</td> <td>naʔ˥ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">2 Acc </th> <td>ŋ̍˩</td> <td>naŋ˧˩</td> <td>naŋ˧ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">3 Nom </th> <td>ki˩</td> <td>jaŋ˧˩</td> <td>khji˧ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">3 Gen </th> <td>kia˨˦ or ki˩ ke˥</td> <td>jaŋ˥˩</td> <td>khjiʔ˥ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">3 Acc </th> <td>ki˩</td> <td>jaŋ˧˩</td> <td>khji˧ </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonetic_notation">Phonetic notation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Phonetic notation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">Phonetic transcription</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tone_letter" title="Tone letter">Tone letter</a></div> <p>There are several approaches to notating tones in the description of a language. A fundamental difference is between <i>phonemic</i> and <i>phonetic</i> transcription. </p><p>A phonemic notation will typically lack any consideration of the actual phonetic values of the tones. Such notations are especially common when comparing dialects with wildly different phonetic realizations of what are historically the same set of tones. In Chinese, for example, the "<a href="/wiki/Four_tones_(Middle_Chinese)" title="Four tones (Middle Chinese)">four tones</a>" may be assigned numbers, such as ① to ④ or – after the historical tone split that affected all Chinese languages to at least some extent – ① to ⑧ (with odd numbers for the <i>yin</i> tones and even numbers for the <i>yang</i>). In traditional Chinese notation, the equivalent diacritics <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜀◌<span class="wrap"> </span>꜂◌<span class="wrap"> </span>◌꜄<span class="wrap"> </span>◌꜆</span>⟩</span> are attached to the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese character</a>, marking the same distinctions, plus underlined <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜁◌<span class="wrap"> </span>꜃◌<span class="wrap"> </span>◌꜅<span class="wrap"> </span>◌꜇</span>⟩</span> for the <i>yang</i> tones where a split has occurred. If further splits occurred in some language or dialect, the results may be numbered '4a' and '4b' or something similar. Among the <a href="/wiki/Kradai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kradai languages">Kradai languages</a>, tones are typically assigned the letters A through D or, after a historical tone split similar to what occurred in Chinese, A1 to D1 and A2 to D2. (See <a href="/wiki/Proto-Tai_language" title="Proto-Tai language">Proto-Tai language</a>.) With such a system, it can be seen which words in two languages have the same historical tone (say tone ③) even though they no longer sound anything alike. </p><p>Also phonemic are <a href="/wiki/Upstep" title="Upstep">upstep</a> and <a href="/wiki/Downstep" title="Downstep">downstep</a>, which are indicated by the IPA diacritics <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ꜛ</span>⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ꜜ</span>⟩</span>, respectively, or by the typographic substitutes <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ꜞ</span>⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ꜝ</span>⟩</span>, respectively. Upstep and downstep affect the tones within a language as it is being spoken, typically due to grammatical inflection or when certain tones are brought together. (For example, a high tone may be stepped down when it occurs after a low tone, compared to the pitch it would have after a mid tone or another high tone.) </p><p>Phonetic notation records the actual relative pitch of the tones. Since tones tend to vary over time periods as short as centuries, this means that the historical connections among the tones of two language varieties will generally be lost by such notation, even if they are dialects of the same language. </p> <ul><li>The easiest notation from a typographical perspective – but one that is internationally ambiguous – is a numbering system, with the pitch levels assigned digits and each tone transcribed as a digit (or as a sequence of digits if a contour tone). Such systems tend to be idiosyncratic (high tone may be assigned the digit 1, 3, or 5, for example) and have therefore not been adopted for the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a>. For instance, high tone is conventionally written with a 1 and low tone with a 4 or 5 when transcribing the <a href="/wiki/Kru_languages" title="Kru languages">Kru languages</a> of Liberia, but with 1 for low and 5 for high for the <a href="/wiki/Omotic_languages" title="Omotic languages">Omotic languages</a> of Ethiopia. The tone <span class="nowrap">⟨53⟩</span> in a Kru language is thus the same pitch contour as one written <span class="nowrap">⟨35⟩</span> in an Omotic language. Pitch value 1 may be distinguished from tone number 1 by doubling it or making it superscript or both.</li> <li>For simple tone systems, a series of diacritics such as <span class="nowrap">⟨ó⟩</span> for high tone and <span class="nowrap">⟨ò⟩</span> for low tone may be practical. This has been adopted by the IPA, but is not easy to adapt to complex contour tone systems (see under Chinese below for one workaround). The five IPA diacritics for level tones are ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ő ó ō ò ȍ</span>⟩, with doubled high and low diacritics for <i>extra high</i> and <i>extra low</i> (or 'top' and 'bottom'). The diacritics combine to form contour tones, of which ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ô ǒ o᷄ o᷅ o᷆ o᷇ o᷈ o᷉</span>⟩ have Unicode font support (support for additional combinations is sparse). Sometimes, a non-IPA vertical diacritic is seen for a second, higher mid tone, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">o̍</span>⟩, so a language with four or six level tones may be transcribed ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ó o̍ ō ò</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ő ó o̍ ō ò ȍ</span>⟩. For the <a href="/wiki/Chinantecan_languages" title="Chinantecan languages">Chinantecan languages</a> of Mexico, the diacritics <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌ꜗ<span class="wrap"> </span>◌ꜘ<span class="wrap"> </span>◌ꜙ<span class="wrap"> </span>◌ꜚ</span>⟩</span> have been used, but they are a local convention not accepted by the IPA.</li> <li>A retired IPA system, sometimes still encountered,<sup id="cite_ref-Heselwood_2013_p._1_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heselwood_2013_p._1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> traces the <i>shape</i> of the tone (the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pitch_trace&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pitch trace (page does not exist)">pitch trace</a>) before the syllable, where a stress mark would go. Thus level, rising, falling, peaking and dipping tones on [o] are ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˉo ˊo ˋo ˆo ˇo </span>⟩; these are read as high tones when contrasted with the low tones ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ˍo ˏo ˎo ꞈo ˬo</span>⟩ or with mid tones, which are poorly supported by Unicode (e.g. falling ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">˴o</span>⟩). For a concrete example, when the diacritics are applied to the <a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a> syllable [sa] used in <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a>, it becomes easier to identify more specific rising and falling tones: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˆsa]</span> (high peaking tone), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˍsa]</span> (low level tone), etc. This system was used in combination with stress marks to indicate intonation as well, as in English <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈgʊd<span class="wrap"> </span>ˌɑːftə`nuːn]</span> (now transcribed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈgʊd<span class="wrap"> </span>ˌɑːftə↘nuːn]</span>).</li> <li>The most flexible system, based on the previous spacing diacritics but with the addition of a stem (like the staff of musical notation), is that of the IPA-adopted <a href="/wiki/Chao_tone_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Chao tone letter">Chao tone letters</a>, which are iconic schematics of the pitch trace of the tone in question. Because musical staff notation is international, there is no international ambiguity with the Chao/IPA tone letters: a line at the top of the staff is high tone, a line at the bottom is low tone, and the shape of the line is a schematic of the contour of the tone (as visible in a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pitch_trace&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pitch trace (page does not exist)">pitch trace</a>). They are most commonly used for complex contour systems, such as those of the languages of Liberia and southern China.</li></ul> <dl><dd>The Chao tone letters have two variants. The left-stem letters, <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜒<span class="wrap"> </span>꜓<span class="wrap"> </span>꜔<span class="wrap"> </span>꜕<span class="wrap"> </span>꜖</span>⟩</span>, are used for <a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">tone sandhi</a>. These are especially important for the <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min Chinese</a> languages. For example, a word may be pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɕim˥˧/</span> in isolation, but in a compound the tone will shift to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɕim˦mĩʔ˧˨/</span>. This can be notated morphophonemically as <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">//ɕim˥˧꜓mĩʔ˧˨//</span>⟩</span>, where the back-to-front tone letters simultaneously show the underlying tone and the value in this word. Using the local (and internationally ambiguous) non-IPA numbering system, the compound may be written <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">//ɕim⁵³⁻⁴⁴<span class="wrap"> </span>mĩʔ³²//</span>⟩</span>. Left-stem letters may also be combined to form contour tones.</dd> <dd>The second Chao letter variant are the dotted tone letters <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜈<span class="wrap"> </span>꜉<span class="wrap"> </span>꜊<span class="wrap"> </span>꜋<span class="wrap"> </span>꜌</span>⟩</span>, which are used to indicate the pitch of <a href="/wiki/Neutral_tone" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutral tone">neutral tones</a>. These are phonemically null, and may be indicated with the digit '0' in a numbering system, but take specific pitches depending on the preceding phonemic tone. When combined with tone sandhi, the left-stem dotted tone letters <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜍<span class="wrap"> </span>꜎<span class="wrap"> </span>꜏<span class="wrap"> </span>꜐<span class="wrap"> </span>꜑</span>⟩</span> are seen.</dd></dl> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Conventions for five-pitch transcription<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association198976_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association198976-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"> <th>Name </th> <td style="width: 6em;">Top tone (extra-high) </td> <td style="width: 6em;">High tone </td> <td>High-mid tone </td> <td style="width: 6em;">Mid tone </td> <td>Low-mid tone </td> <td style="width: 6em;">Low tone </td> <td style="width: 6em;">Bottom tone (extra-low) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>IPA tone diacritic </th> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̋</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌́</span></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̄</span></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̀</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̏</span></span> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>IPA tone letter </th> <td> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌˥</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌˦</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌˧</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌˨</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌˩</span></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Neutral tone letter<sup id="cite_ref-extIPA_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-extIPA-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜈</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜉</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜊</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜋</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜌</span></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Sandhi tone letter<sup id="cite_ref-extIPA_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-extIPA-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜒</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜓</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜔</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜕</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜖</span></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Sandhi neutral tone letter<sup id="cite_ref-extIPA_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-extIPA-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜍</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜎</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜏</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜐</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌꜑</span></span> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"> <th>Name </th> <td style="width: 6em;">Falling tone </td> <td style="width: 6em;">High falling tone </td> <td style="width: 6em;">Low falling tone </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>IPA tone diacritic </th> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̂</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌᷇</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌᷆</span></span> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th> <br /> <br />IPA tone letters </th> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><span class="nowrap">˥˩,<span class="wrap"> </span>˥˨,<span class="wrap"> </span>˥˧,<span class="wrap"> </span>˥˦,<br /><span class="wrap"> </span>˦˩,<span class="wrap"> </span>˦˨,<span class="wrap"> </span>˦˧,<br /><span class="wrap"> </span>˧˩,<span class="wrap"> </span>˧˨,<span class="wrap"> </span>˨˩</span></span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><span class="nowrap">◌˥˧,<span class="wrap"> </span>◌˥˦,</span><span class="wrap"> </span>◌˦˧,</span></span> &c. </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><span class="nowrap">◌˧˩,<span class="wrap"> </span>◌˧˨,</span><span class="wrap"> </span>◌˨˩,</span></span> &c. </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"> <th>Name </th> <td style="width: 6em;">Rising tone </td> <td style="width: 6em;">High rising tone </td> <td style="width: 6em;">Low rising tone </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>IPA tone diacritic </th> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̌</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌᷄</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌᷅</span></span> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th> <br /> <br />IPA tone letters </th> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><span class="nowrap">˩˥,<span class="wrap"> </span>˩˦,<span class="wrap"> </span>˩˧,<span class="wrap"> </span>˩˨,<br />˨˥,<span class="wrap"> </span>˨˦,<span class="wrap"> </span>˨˧,<br />˧˥,<span class="wrap"> </span>˧˦,<span class="wrap"> </span>˦˥</span></span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><span class="nowrap">◌˧˥,<span class="wrap"> </span>◌˦˥,</span><span class="wrap"> </span>◌˧˦,</span></span> &c. </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><span class="nowrap">◌˩˧,<span class="wrap"> </span>◌˨˧,</span><span class="wrap"> </span>◌˩˨,</span></span> &c. </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"> <th>Name </th> <td style="width: 6em;">Dipping tone <br /><small>(falling–rising)</small> </td> <td style="width: 6em;">Peaking tone <br /><small>(rising–falling)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <th>IPA tone diacritic </th> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌᷉</span></span> </td> <td><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌᷈</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>IPA tone letters </th> <td><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>(various)</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><span class="nowrap">˨˩˨,˨˩˧,˨˩˦,˨˩˥,<br />˧˩˨,˧˩˧,˧˩˦,˧˩˥,<br />˧˨˧,˧˨˦,˧˨˥,<br />˦˩˨,˦˩˧,˦˩˦,˦˩˥,<br />˦˨˧,˦˨˦,˦˨˥,<br />˦˧˦,˦˧˥,<br />˥˩˨,˥˩˧,˥˩˦,˥˩˥,<br />˥˨˧,˥˨˦,˥˨˥,<br />˥˧˦,˥˧˥,<br />˥˦˥</span></span></span> </li></ul> </div> </td> <td><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>(various)</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span style="font-size: 2em; line-height: 1.2em; vertical-align: super; font-weight: normal;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><span class="nowrap">˦˥˦,˦˥˧,˦˥˨,˦˥˩,<br />˧˥˦,˧˥˧,˧˥˨,˧˥˩,<br />˧˦˧,˧˦˨,˧˦˩,<br />˨˥˦,˨˥˧,˨˥˨,˨˥˩,<br />˨˦˧,˨˦˨,˨˦˩,<br />˨˧˨,˨˧˩,<br />˩˥˦,˩˥˧,˩˥˨,˩˥˩,<br />˩˦˧,˩˦˨,˩˦˩,<br />˩˧˨,˩˧˩,<br />˩˨˩</span></span></span> </li></ul> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An IPA/Chao tone letter will rarely be composed of more than three elements (which are sufficient for peaking and dipping tones). Occasionally, however, peaking–dipping and dipping–peaking tones, which require four elements – or even double-peaking and double-dipping tones, which require five – are encountered. This is usually only the case when <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosody</a> is superposed on lexical or grammatical tone, but a good computer font will allow an indefinite number of tone letters to be concatenated. The IPA diacritics placed over vowels and other letters have not been extended to this level of complexity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In African linguistics (as well as in many African orthographies), a set of diacritics is usual to mark tone. The most common are a subset of the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a>: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>High tone </td> <td>acute </td> <td>á </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mid tone </td> <td>macron </td> <td>ā </td></tr> <tr> <td>Low tone </td> <td>grave </td> <td>à </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Minor variations are common. In many three-tone languages, it is usual to mark high and low tone as indicated above but to omit marking of the mid tone: <i>má</i> (high), <i>ma</i> (mid), <i>mà</i> (low). Similarly, in two-tone languages, only one tone may be marked explicitly, usually the less common or more 'marked' tone (see <a href="/wiki/Markedness" title="Markedness">markedness</a>). </p><p>When digits are used, typically 1 is high and 5 is low, except in <a href="/wiki/Omotic_languages" title="Omotic languages">Omotic languages</a>, where 1 is low and 5 or 6 is high. In languages with just two tones, 1 may be high and 2 low, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Chinese tradition, digits are assigned to various tones (see <a href="/wiki/Tone_number" title="Tone number">tone number</a>). For instance, <a href="/wiki/Standard_Mandarin_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Mandarin Chinese">Standard Mandarin Chinese</a>, the official language of China, has four lexically contrastive tones, and the digits 1, 2, 3, and 4 are assigned to four tones. Syllables can sometimes be toneless and are described as having a neutral tone, typically indicated by omitting tone markings. Chinese varieties are traditionally described in terms of four tonal categories <i>ping</i> ('level'), <i>shang</i> ('rising'), <i>qu</i> ('exiting'), <i>ru</i> ('entering'), based on the traditional analysis of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Four_tones" class="mw-redirect" title="Four tones">Four tones</a>); note that these are not at all the same as the four tones of modern standard Mandarin Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the dialect, each of these categories may then be divided into two tones, typically called <i>yin</i> and <i>yang.</i> Typically, syllables carrying the <i>ru</i> tones are closed by voiceless stops in Chinese varieties that have such coda(s) so in such dialects, <i>ru</i> is not a tonal category in the sense used by Western linguistics but rather a category of syllable structures. Chinese phonologists perceived these <a href="/wiki/Checked_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Checked syllable">checked syllables</a> as having concomitant short tones, justifying them as a tonal category. In <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>, when the tonal categories were established, the <i>shang</i> and <i>qu</i> tones also had characteristic final obstruents with concomitant tonic differences whereas syllables bearing the <i>ping</i> tone ended in a simple sonorant. An alternative to using the Chinese category names is assigning to each category a digit ranging from 1 to 8, sometimes higher for some Southern Chinese dialects with additional tone splits. Syllables belonging to the same tone category differ drastically in actual phonetic tone across the <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a> even among dialects of the same group. For example, the <i>yin ping</i> tone is a high level tone in Beijing Mandarin Chinese but a low level tone in Tianjin Mandarin Chinese. </p><p>More iconic systems use tone numbers or an equivalent set of graphic pictograms known as "<a href="/wiki/Y._R._Chao" class="mw-redirect" title="Y. R. Chao">Chao</a> <a href="/wiki/Tone_letter" title="Tone letter">tone letters</a>". These divide the pitch into five levels, with the lowest being assigned the value 1 and the highest the value 5. (This is the opposite of equivalent systems in Africa and the Americas.) The variation in pitch of a <a href="/wiki/Tone_contour" title="Tone contour">tone contour</a> is notated as a string of two or three numbers. For instance, the four Mandarin Chinese tones are transcribed as follows (the tone letters will not display properly without a <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Typefaces" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">compatible font</a> installed): </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>Tones of Standard Chinese (Mandarin) </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>High tone </td> <td>55 </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˥</span> </td> <td>(Tone 1) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mid rising tone </td> <td>35 </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˥</span> </td> <td>(Tone 2) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Low dipping tone </td> <td>21(4) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩˦</span> </td> <td>(Tone 3) </td></tr> <tr> <td>High falling tone </td> <td>51 </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˥˩</span> </td> <td>(Tone 4) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A mid-level tone would be indicated by /33/, a low level tone /11/, etc. The doubling of the number is commonly used with level tones to distinguish them from tone numbers; tone 3 in Mandarin Chinese, for example, is not mid /3/. However, it is not necessary with tone letters, so /33/ = <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˧/</span> or simply <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧/</span>. If a distinction is made, it may be that <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧/</span> is mid tone in a register system and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˧/</span> is mid level tone in a contour system, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧/</span> may be mid tone on a short syllable or a mid <a href="/wiki/Checked_tone" title="Checked tone">checked tone</a>, while <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˧/</span> is mid tone on a long syllable or a mid unchecked tone. </p><p>IPA diacritic notation is also sometimes seen for Chinese. One reason it is not more widespread is that only two contour tones, rising <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔ̌/</span> and falling <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔ̂/</span>, are widely supported by IPA fonts while several Chinese varieties have more than one rising or falling tone. One common workaround is to retain standard IPA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔ̌/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔ̂/</span> for high-rising (e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˥/</span>) and high-falling (e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥˧/</span>) tones and to use the subscript diacritics <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔ̗/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔ̖/</span> for low-rising (e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˩˧/</span>) and low-falling (e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˩/</span>) tones. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several North American languages have tone, one of which is <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Iroquoian language">Iroquoian language</a>. Oklahoma Cherokee has six tones (1 low, 2 medium, 3 high, 4 very high, 5 rising and 6 falling).<sup id="cite_ref-Cherokee_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cherokee-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tanoan_languages" title="Tanoan languages">Tanoan languages</a> have tone as well. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Kiowa_language" title="Kiowa language">Kiowa</a> has three tones (high, low, falling), while <a href="/wiki/Jemez_language" title="Jemez language">Jemez</a> has four (high, mid, low, and falling). </p><p>In Mesoamericanist linguistics, /1/ stands for high tone and /5/ stands for low tone, except in <a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean" class="mw-redirect" title="Oto-Manguean">Oto-Manguean</a> languages for which /1/ may be low tone and /3/ high tone. It is also common to see acute accents for high tone and grave accents for low tone and combinations of these for contour tones. Several popular orthographies use <span class="nowrap">⟨j⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨h⟩</span> after a vowel to indicate low tone. The <a href="/wiki/Southern_Athabascan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Athabascan languages">Southern Athabascan languages</a> that include the <a href="/wiki/Navajo_language" title="Navajo language">Navajo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apache_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Apache languages">Apache languages</a> are tonal, and are analyzed as having two tones: high and low. One variety of <a href="/wiki/Hopi_language" title="Hopi language">Hopi</a> has developed tone, as has the <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_language" title="Cheyenne language">Cheyenne language</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tone_orthographies">Tone orthographies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Tone orthographies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Roman script orthographies, a number of approaches are used. Diacritics are common, as in <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>, but they tend to be omitted.<sup id="cite_ref-Dungan_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dungan-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thai_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Thai alphabet">Thai</a> uses a combination of redundant consonants and diacritics. Tone letters may also be used, for example in <a href="/wiki/Hmong_RPA" class="mw-redirect" title="Hmong RPA">Hmong RPA</a> and several minority languages in China. Tone may simply be ignored, as is possible even for highly tonal languages: for example, the Chinese navy has successfully used toneless pinyin in government telegraph communications for decades. Likewise, Chinese reporters abroad may file their stories in toneless pinyin. <a href="/wiki/Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan</a>, a variety of Mandarin Chinese spoken in Central Asia, has, since 1927, been written in orthographies that do not indicate tone.<sup id="cite_ref-Dungan_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dungan-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ndyuka_language" title="Ndyuka language">Ndjuka</a>, in which tone is less important, ignores tone except for a negative marker. However, the reverse is also true: in the Congo, there have been complaints from readers that newspapers written in orthographies without tone marking are insufficiently legible. </p><p>Standard Central <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a> has five tones–mid, low, falling, high and rising–often indicated respectively by the numbers zero, one, two, three and four. The <a href="/wiki/Thai_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Thai alphabet">Thai alphabet</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">alphasyllabary</a>, which specifies the tone unambiguously. Tone is indicated by an interaction of the initial consonant of a syllable, the vowel length, the final consonant (if present), and sometimes a tone mark. A particular tone mark may denote different tones depending on the initial consonant. The <a href="/wiki/Shan_alphabet" title="Shan alphabet">Shan alphabet</a>, derived from the <a href="/wiki/Burmese_alphabet" title="Burmese alphabet">Burmese script</a>, has five tone letters: <span style="font-family:'Pyidaungsu', 'Myanmar Text', 'Noto Sans Myanmar', TharLon, Padauk, Myanmar3, Parabaik, Myanmar2, Myanmar1, MyMyanmar;">ႇ</span>, <span style="font-family:'Pyidaungsu', 'Myanmar Text', 'Noto Sans Myanmar', TharLon, Padauk, Myanmar3, Parabaik, Myanmar2, Myanmar1, MyMyanmar;">ႈ</span>, <span style="font-family:'Pyidaungsu', 'Myanmar Text', 'Noto Sans Myanmar', TharLon, Padauk, Myanmar3, Parabaik, Myanmar2, Myanmar1, MyMyanmar;">း</span>, <span style="font-family:'Pyidaungsu', 'Myanmar Text', 'Noto Sans Myanmar', TharLon, Padauk, Myanmar3, Parabaik, Myanmar2, Myanmar1, MyMyanmar;">ႉ</span>, <span style="font-family:'Pyidaungsu', 'Myanmar Text', 'Noto Sans Myanmar', TharLon, Padauk, Myanmar3, Parabaik, Myanmar2, Myanmar1, MyMyanmar;">ႊ</span>; a sixth tone is unmarked. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> uses the Latin alphabet and its six tones are marked by letters with <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a> above or below a certain vowel. Basic notation for Vietnamese tones are as follows: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>Tones of Vietnamese </caption> <tbody><tr> <th align="center"><i>Name</i> </th> <th align="center"><i>Contour</i> </th> <th align="center"><i>Diacritic</i> </th> <th align="center"><i>Example</i> </th></tr> <tr> <td>ngang </td> <td>mid level, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧</span> </td> <td>not marked </td> <td>a </td></tr> <tr> <td>huyền </td> <td>low falling, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Grave_accent" title="Grave accent">grave accent</a> </td> <td>à </td></tr> <tr> <td>sắc </td> <td>high rising, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˥</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a> </td> <td>á </td></tr> <tr> <td>hỏi </td> <td>dipping, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˩˧</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hook_above" title="Hook above">hook above</a> </td> <td>ả </td></tr> <tr> <td>ngã </td> <td>creaky rising, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧ˀ˦˥</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tilde" title="Tilde">tilde</a> </td> <td>ã </td></tr> <tr> <td>nặng </td> <td>creaky falling, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩ˀ</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dot_(diacritic)" title="Dot (diacritic)">dot below</a> </td> <td>ạ </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Latin-based <a href="/wiki/Hmong_language" title="Hmong language">Hmong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iu_Mien_language" title="Iu Mien language">Iu Mien</a> alphabets use full letters for tones. In Hmong, one of the eight tones (the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧</span> tone) is left unwritten while the other seven are indicated by the letters <i>b, m, d, j, v, s, g</i> at the end of the syllable. Since Hmong has no phonemic syllable-final consonants, there is no ambiguity. That system enables Hmong speakers to type their language with an ordinary Latin-letter keyboard without having to resort to diacritics. In the <a href="/wiki/Iu_Mien_language" title="Iu Mien language">Iu Mien</a>, the letters <i>v, c, h, x, z</i> indicate tones but unlike Hmong, it also has final consonants written before the tone. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Standard_Zhuang" title="Standard Zhuang">Standard Zhuang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Zhuang languages</a> used to use a unique set of six "tone letters" based on the shapes of numbers, but slightly modified, to depict what tone a syllable was in. This was replaced in 1982 with the use of normal letters in the same manner, like Hmong. </p><p>The syllabary of the <a href="/wiki/Nuosu_language" title="Nuosu language">Nuosu language</a> depicts tone in a unique manner, having separate glyphs for each tone other than for the mid-rising tone, which is denoted by the addition of a diacritic. Take the difference between ꉬ nge [ŋɯ³³], and ꉫ ngex [ŋɯ³⁴]. In romanisation, the letters t, x, and p are used to demarcate tone. As codas are forbidden in Nuosu there is no ambiguity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_development"><span id="Origin"></span> Origin and development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Origin and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Special:EditPage/Tone (linguistics)">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile" style="width:15em;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;padding: 0.3em; font-size: 120%;"><a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">Sound change</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alternation_(linguistics)" title="Alternation (linguistics)">alternation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">Metathesis</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_metathesis" title="Quantitative metathesis">Quantitative metathesis</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">Lenition</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_gradation" title="Consonant gradation">Consonant gradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_voicing_and_devoicing" title="Consonant voicing and devoicing">Consonant voicing and devoicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assibilation" title="Assibilation">Assibilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirantization" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirantization">Spirantization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">L-vocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debuccalization" title="Debuccalization">Debuccalization</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <a href="/wiki/Fortition" title="Fortition">Fortition</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">Epenthesis</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prothesis_(linguistics)" title="Prothesis (linguistics)">Prothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paragoge" title="Paragoge">Paragoge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unpacking_(linguistics)" title="Unpacking (linguistics)">Unpacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_breaking" title="Vowel breaking">Vowel breaking</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">Elision</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apheresis_(linguistics)" title="Apheresis (linguistics)">Apheresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncope_(phonology)" title="Syncope (phonology)">Syncope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocope" title="Apocope">Apocope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplology" title="Haplology">Haplology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_reduction" title="Cluster reduction">Cluster reduction</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Transphonologization" title="Transphonologization">Transphonologization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">Compensatory lengthening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">Nasalization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Origin">Tonogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_tone" title="Floating tone">Floating tone</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(phonology)" title="Assimilation (phonology)">Assimilation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_(phonetics)" title="Fusion (phonetics)">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coarticulation" title="Coarticulation">Coarticulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">Palatalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">Velarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">Labialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final-obstruent_devoicing" title="Final-obstruent devoicing">Final devoicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphony" title="Metaphony">Metaphony</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">vowel harmony</a>, <a href="/wiki/I-mutation" title="I-mutation">umlaut</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_harmony" title="Consonant harmony">Consonant harmony</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dissimilation" title="Dissimilation">Dissimilation</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">Sandhi</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liaison_(French)" title="Liaison (French)">Liaison</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linking_and_intrusive_R" title="Linking and intrusive R">linking R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_mutation" title="Consonant mutation">Consonant mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">Tone sandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_hiatus" title="Vowel hiatus">Vowel hiatus</a></li></ul> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center; padding-right: 1em;"><a href="/wiki/Synalepha" title="Synalepha">Synalepha</a></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">Elision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crasis" title="Crasis">Crasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synaeresis" title="Synaeresis">Synaeresis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diaeresis_(prosody)" title="Diaeresis (prosody)">diaeresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synizesis" title="Synizesis">Synizesis</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Other types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">Apophony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affrication" class="mw-redirect" title="Affrication">Affrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">Gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clipping_(phonetics)" title="Clipping (phonetics)">Clipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fronting_(sound_change)" title="Fronting (sound change)">Fronting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raising_(sound_change)" title="Raising (sound change)">Raising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betacism" title="Betacism">Betacism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iotacism" title="Iotacism">Iotacism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_(phonetics)" title="Fusion (phonetics)">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_change#Merger" title="Phonological change">Merger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">Compensatory lengthening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophthongization" title="Monophthongization">Monophthongization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhotacism" title="Rhotacism">Rhotacism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhinoglottophilia" title="Rhinoglottophilia">Rhinoglottophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulcalization" title="Sulcalization">Sulcalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shm-reduplication" title="Shm-reduplication">Shm-reduplication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_mutation" title="Consonant mutation">Consonant mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_shift" title="Vowel shift">Vowel shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_shift" title="Chain shift">Chain shift</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; padding-top: 1px;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sound_change" title="Template:Sound change"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sound_change" title="Template talk:Sound change"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sound_change" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sound change"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Georges_Haudricourt" title="André-Georges Haudricourt">André-Georges Haudricourt</a> established that Vietnamese tone originated in earlier consonantal contrasts and suggested similar mechanisms for Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is now widely held that Old Chinese did not have phonemically contrastive tone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaudricourt2017_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaudricourt2017-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historical origin of tone is called <b>tonogenesis</b>, a term coined by <a href="/wiki/James_Matisoff" title="James Matisoff">James Matisoff</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tone_as_an_areal_feature">Tone as an areal feature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Tone as an areal feature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tone is sometimes an <a href="/wiki/Areal_feature" title="Areal feature">areal</a> rather than a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_relationship_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic relationship (linguistics)">phylogenetic</a> feature. That is to say, a language may acquire tones through bilingualism if influential neighbouring languages are tonal or if speakers of a tonal language <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">shift</a> to the language in question and bring their tones with them. The process is referred to as <b>contact-induced tonogenesis</b> by linguists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirbyBrunelle2017_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirbyBrunelle2017-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other cases, tone may arise spontaneously and surprisingly fast: the dialect of <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a> in Oklahoma has tone, but the dialect in North Carolina does not, even though they were only <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">separated</a> in 1838. <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_English" title="Hong Kong English">Hong Kong English</a> is tonal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples">Examples</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tone arose in the <a href="/wiki/Athabascan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Athabascan languages">Athabascan languages</a> at least twice, in a patchwork of two systems. In some languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Navajo_language" title="Navajo language">Navajo</a>, syllables with glottalized consonants (including glottal stops) in the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable coda">syllable coda</a> developed low tones, whereas in others, such as <a href="/wiki/Slavey_language" title="Slavey language">Slavey</a>, they developed high tones, so that the two tonal systems are almost mirror images of each other. Syllables without glottalized codas developed the opposite tone. For example, high tone in Navajo and low tone in Slavey are due to contrast with the tone triggered by the glottalization. </p><p>Other Athabascan languages, namely those in western Alaska (such as <a href="/wiki/Koyukon_language" title="Koyukon language">Koyukon</a>) and the Pacific coast (such as <a href="/wiki/Hupa_language" title="Hupa language">Hupa</a>), did not develop tone. Thus, the Proto-Athabascan word <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*tuː</span></i> ('water') is toneless <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">toː</span></i> in Hupa, high-tone <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tó</span></i> in Navajo, and low-tone <i>tù</i> in Slavey; while Proto-Athabascan <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-ɢʊtʼ</span></i> ('knee') is toneless <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-ɢotʼ</span></i> in Hupa, low-tone <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-ɡòd</span></i> in Navajo, and high-tone <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-ɡóʔ</span></i> in Slavey. <a href="#CITEREFKingston2005">Kingston (2005)</a> provides a phonetic explanation for the opposite development of tone based on the two different ways of producing glottalized consonants with either <a href="/wiki/Tense_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Tense voice">tense voice</a> on the preceding vowel, which tends to produce a high <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_frequency" title="Fundamental frequency">fundamental frequency</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky voice</a>, which tends to produce a low fundamental frequency. Languages with "stiff" glottalized consonants and tense voice developed high tone on the preceding vowel and those with "slack" glottalized consonants with creaky voice developed low tone. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> also have "mirror" tone systems in which the languages in the northwest corner of the Bantu area have the opposite tones of other Bantu languages. </p><p>Three <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian languages</a> developed tone independently of one another and of neighboring languages: <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_language" title="Cheyenne language">Cheyenne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arapaho_language" title="Arapaho language">Arapaho</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kickapoo_language" title="Kickapoo language">Kickapoo</a>. In Cheyenne, tone arose via vowel contraction; the long vowels of Proto-Algonquian contracted into high-pitched vowels in Cheyenne while the short vowels became low-pitched. In Kickapoo, a vowel with a following [h] acquired a low tone, and this tone later extended to all vowels followed by a fricative. In <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> the glottal fricative also lowers the tone of surrounding vowels. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Mohawk_language" title="Mohawk language">Mohawk</a>, a glottal stop can disappear in a combination of <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a>, leaving behind a long falling tone. Note that it has the reverse effect of the postulated rising tone in <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> or <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>, derived from a lost final glottal stop. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, a 2013 study which compared voice recordings of Seoul speech from 1935 and 2005 found that in recent years, <a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">lenis consonants</a> (ㅂㅈㄷㄱ), <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated consonants</a> (ㅍㅊㅌㅋ) and fortis consonants (ㅃㅉㄸㄲ) were shifting from a distinction via <a href="/wiki/Voice_onset_time" title="Voice onset time">voice onset time</a> to that of pitch change, and suggests that the modern <a href="/wiki/Seoul_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Seoul dialect">Seoul dialect</a> is currently undergoing tonogenesis.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These sound shifts still show variations among different speakers, suggesting that the transition is still ongoing.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among 141 examined Seoul speakers, these pitch changes were originally initiated by females born in the 1950s, and have almost reached completion in the speech of those born in the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tonogenesis">Tonogenesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Tonogenesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Triggers_of_tonogenesis">Triggers of tonogenesis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Triggers of tonogenesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Special:EditPage/Tone (linguistics)">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>"There is tonogenetic potential in various series of phonemes: glottalized vs. plain consonants, unvoiced vs. voiced, aspirated vs. unaspirated, geminates vs. simple (...), and even among vowels".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaudSands2020_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaudSands2020-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Very often, tone arises as an effect of the <a href="/wiki/Phonological_change#Loss" title="Phonological change">loss</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phonological_change#Merger" title="Phonological change">merger</a> of consonants. In a nontonal language, <a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced consonants</a> commonly cause following vowels to be pronounced at a lower pitch than other consonants. That is usually a minor phonetic detail of voicing. However, if consonant voicing is subsequently lost, that incidental pitch difference may be left over to carry the distinction that the voicing previously carried (a process called <a href="/wiki/Transphonologization" title="Transphonologization">transphonologization</a>) and thus becomes meaningful (<a href="/wiki/Phonemic_contrast" title="Phonemic contrast">phonemic</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKingston20112304–2310_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKingston20112304–2310-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This process happened in the <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi language</a>: the Punjabi <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">murmured</a> (voiced aspirate) consonants have disappeared and left tone in their wake. If the murmured consonant was at the beginning of a word, it left behind a low tone; at the end, it left behind a high tone. If there was no such consonant, the pitch was unaffected; however, the unaffected words are limited in pitch and did not interfere with the low and high tones. That produced a tone of its own, mid tone. The historical connection is so regular that Punjabi is still written as if it had murmured consonants, and tone is not marked. The written consonants tell the reader which tone to use.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhatia1975_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhatia1975-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, final <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricatives</a> or other consonants may phonetically affect the pitch of preceding vowels, and if they then <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">weaken</a> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span> and finally disappear completely, the difference in pitch, now a true difference in tone, carries on in their stead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKingston20112310–2314_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKingston20112310–2314-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the case with Chinese. Two of the three tones of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>, the "rising" and the "departing" tones, arose as the <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> final consonants <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/<span class="wrap"> </span>→<span class="wrap"> </span>/h/</span> disappeared, while syllables that ended with neither of these consonants were interpreted as carrying the third tone, "even". Most varieties descending from Middle Chinese were further affected by a <a href="/wiki/Tone_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Tone split">tone split</a> in which each tone divided in two depending on whether the initial consonant was voiced. Vowels following a voiced consonant (<a href="/wiki/Depressor_consonant" title="Depressor consonant">depressor consonant</a>) acquired a lower tone as the voicing lost its distinctiveness.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKingston20112311_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKingston20112311-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The same changes affected many other languages in the same area, and at around the same time (AD 1000–1500). The tone split, for example, also occurred in <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>. </p><p>In general, voiced initial consonants lead to low tones while vowels after aspirated consonants acquire a high tone. When final consonants are lost, a glottal stop tends to leave a preceding vowel with a high or rising tone (although glottalized vowels tend to be low tone so if the glottal stop causes vowel glottalization, that will tend to leave behind a low vowel). A final fricative tends to leave a preceding vowel with a low or falling tone. Vowel phonation also frequently develops into tone, as can be seen in the case of Burmese. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stages_of_tonogenesis">Stages of tonogenesis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Stages of tonogenesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>1. The table below is the process of tonogenesis in <a href="/wiki/Hmong_language" title="Hmong language">White Hmong</a>, described by <a href="/wiki/Martha_Ratliff" title="Martha Ratliff">Martha Ratliff</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ratliff_2015_p._59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ratliff_2015_p.-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tone values described in the table are from Christina Esposito.<sup id="cite_ref-Esposito_2012_pp._466–476_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Esposito_2012_pp._466–476-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Garellek_Keating_Esposito_Kreiman_2013_pp._1078–1089_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garellek_Keating_Esposito_Kreiman_2013_pp._1078–1089-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Tonogenesis in White Hmong </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>Atonal stage </td> <td colspan="2">CV </td> <td colspan="2">CVʔ </td> <td colspan="2">CVh </td> <td colspan="2">CVC<sub>vl</sub> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tonogenesis </td> <td colspan="2">CV <sup>level</sup> </td> <td colspan="2">CV <sup>rising</sup> </td> <td colspan="2">CV <sup>falling</sup> </td> <td colspan="2">CVC<sub>vl</sub> <sup>atonal</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tone split</td> <td>A1 <sup>upper</sup></td> <td>A2 <sup>lower</sup></td> <td>B1 <sup>upper</sup></td> <td>B2 <sup>lower</sup></td> <td>C1 <sup>upper</sup></td> <td>C2 <sup>lower</sup></td> <td>D1 <sup>upper</sup></td> <td>D2 <sup>lower</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Current</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɔ˦˥]</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɔ˥˨]</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɔ˨˦]</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɔ˨]</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɔ˧]</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɔ̤˦˨]</span></td> <td>--</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɔ̰˨˩]</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>2. The table below shows the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> tonogenesis.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaudricourt2018_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaudricourt2018-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tone values are taken from James Kirby.<sup id="cite_ref-Kirby_2010_pp._3749–3757_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirby_2010_pp._3749–3757-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vũ_1982_pp._55-75_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vũ_1982_pp._55-75-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Tonogenesis in Vietnamese </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>Atonal stage </td> <td colspan="2">CV </td> <td colspan="2">CVx > CVʔ </td> <td colspan="2">CVs > CVh </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tonogenesis </td> <td colspan="2">CV <sup>mid</sup> </td> <td colspan="2">CV <sup>rising</sup> </td> <td colspan="2">CV <sup>falling</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tone split</td> <td>A1 <sup>higher</sup></td> <td>A2 <sup>lower</sup></td> <td>B1 <sup>higher</sup></td> <td>B2 <sup>lower</sup></td> <td>C1 <sup>higher</sup></td> <td>C2 <sup>lower</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Current</td> <td>ngang <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˦/</span></td> <td>huyền <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨˩/</span></td> <td>sắc <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨˦/</span></td> <td>nặng <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨/</span></td> <td>hỏi <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˨/</span></td> <td>ngã <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˥/</span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>3. The table below is the tonogenesis of <a href="/wiki/Tai_Dam_language" title="Tai Dam language">Tai Dam</a> (Black Tai). Displayed in the first row is the Proto-Southern Kra-Dai, as reconstructed by Norquest.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Tonogenesis in Tai Dam </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>Proto-SKD </td> <td colspan="2">*∅ </td> <td colspan="2">*-h </td> <td colspan="2">*-ʔ </td> <td colspan="2">*-ʔ͡C </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tonogenesis </td> <td colspan="2">level </td> <td colspan="2">rising </td> <td colspan="2">falling </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tone split</td> <td>A1</td> <td>A2</td> <td>B1</td> <td>B2</td> <td>C1</td> <td>C2</td> <td>D1</td> <td>D2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Current</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˦˥/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˦/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨˩ʔ/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˩ʔ/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˦˥/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˦/</span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>4. The table below shows the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> tonogenesis.<sup id="cite_ref-Ratliff_2002_p._29_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ratliff_2002_p._29-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dai_1991_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dai_1991-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Tonogenesis in Chinese </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>Atonal stage </td> <td colspan="2">-∅, -N </td> <td colspan="2">-ʔ </td> <td colspan="2">-s </td> <td colspan="2">-p, -t, -k </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tonogenesis </td> <td colspan="2">平 píng (level) </td> <td colspan="2">上 shǎng (rising) </td> <td colspan="2">去 qù (departing) </td> <td colspan="2">入 rù (entering) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tone split</td> <td>A1</td> <td>A2</td> <td>B1</td> <td>B2</td> <td>C1</td> <td>C2</td> <td>D1</td> <td>D2 </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>The tone values are listed below: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Tone Value of Modern Varieties of Chinese </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Class</th> <th>SC<sup id="cite_ref-Huang_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huang-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>TSH<sup id="cite_ref-Hakka_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hakka-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>THH<sup id="cite_ref-Hakka_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hakka-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>XMM<sup id="cite_ref-Cihui_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cihui-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>FZM<sup id="cite_ref-Cihui_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cihui-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>SZW<sup id="cite_ref-Huang_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huang-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>SXW<sup id="cite_ref-Huang_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huang-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td>A1</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨˦/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥˧/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˦/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˦/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˦˩/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>A2</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˥/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˩/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨˦/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥˨/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˩˧/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˩˥/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>B1</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨˩˦/</span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˩/</span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨˦/</span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥˩/</span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˩/</span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥˨/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>B2</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>C1</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥˩/</span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥˥/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˩/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˩/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨˩˧/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˦˩˨/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˦/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>C2</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨˦˨/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˩/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˩/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>D1</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥,<span class="wrap"> </span>˧˥<br />˨˩˦,<span class="wrap"> </span>˥˩/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˨/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨˧/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>D2</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˥/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˦/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˨/</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/˧˨/</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li>SC= <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> (Putonghua)</li> <li>TSH= <a href="/wiki/Sixian_dialect" title="Sixian dialect">Taiwanese Sixian Hakka</a></li> <li>THH= <a href="/wiki/Hailu_dialect" title="Hailu dialect">Taiwanese Hailu Hakka</a></li> <li>XMM= <a href="/wiki/Amoy_dialect" title="Amoy dialect">Xiamen Min</a> (Amoy)</li> <li>FZM= <a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou Min</a></li> <li>SZW= <a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou Wu</a></li> <li>SXW= <a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_dialect" title="Shaoxing dialect">Shaoxing Wu</a></li></ol> <p>The tones across all <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a>) of Chinese correspond to each other, although they may not correspond to each other perfectly. Moreover, listed above are citation tones, but in actual conversations, obligatory <a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">sandhi</a> rules will reshape them. The Sixian and Hailu Hakka in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> are famous for their near-regular and opposite pattern (of pitch height). Both will be compared with <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> below. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Word</th> <th>Hailu Hakka</th> <th>Standard Chinese</th> <th>Sixian Hakka </th></tr> <tr> <td>老人家 'elder people'</td> <td>lo<sup>LR</sup> ngin<sup>HL</sup> ga<sup>HF</sup></td> <td>lao<sup>LF</sup> ren<sup>MR</sup> jia<sup>HL</sup><br />(→ lao<sup>LF</sup>renjia)</td> <td>lo<sup>MF</sup> ngin<sup>LL</sup> ga<sup>LR</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>碗公 'bowl'</td> <td>von<sup>LR</sup> gung<sup>HF</sup></td> <td>wan<sup>LF</sup> gong<sup>HL</sup></td> <td>von<sup>MF</sup> gung<sup>LR</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>車站 'bus stop'</td> <td>cha<sup>HF</sup> zham<sup>LL</sup></td> <td>che<sup>HL</sup> zhan<sup>HF</sup></td> <td>ca<sup>LR</sup> zam<sup>HL</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>自行車 'bicycle'</td> <td>cii<sup>ML</sup> hang<sup>HL</sup> cha<sup>HF</sup></td> <td>zi<sup>HF</sup> xing<sup>MR</sup> che<sup>HL</sup></td> <td>cii<sup>HL</sup> hang<sup>LL</sup> ca<sup>LR</sup> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <ol><li>H: high; M: mid; L: low;</li> <li>L: level; R: rising; F: falling</li></ol> <p>5. The table below shows Punjabi tonogenesis in bisyllabic words. Unlike the above four examples, Punjab was not under the east Asian tone <a href="/wiki/Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">sprachbund</a>, instead belonging to a separate one in its own area of Punjab. As well, unlike the above languages, which developed tone from syllable endings, Punjab developed tone from its voiced aspirated stops losing their aspiration.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tone does occur in monosyllabic words as well, but are not discussed in the chart below. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Tonogenesis in Punjabi<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable plainlinks">This table is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Incomplete_lists" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Lists">incomplete</a>; you can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit">expanding it</a>.</div> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>Atonal stage </td> <td>C(V)VC̬ʰ(V)V </td> <td colspan="4">C̬ʰ(V)VC(V)V </td> <td>C(V)VC(V)V </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Tonogenesis </td> <td rowspan="2">C̬ʰ → V́C̬V̀ <p>/ V_V </p> </td> <td colspan="2">C̬ʰVC(V)V </td> <td colspan="2">C̬ʰVVC(V)V </td> <td rowspan="2">- </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">C̬ʰ → T̥V, R̬V / #_V </td> <td colspan="2">C̬ʰVV → T̥VV̀, R̬VV̀ / #_VV </td></tr> <tr> <td>Result </td> <td>C(V)V́C̬(V)V̀ </td> <td>T̥VC(V)V </td> <td>R̬VC(V)V </td> <td>T̥VV̀C(V)V </td> <td>R̬VV̀C(V)V </td> <td>C(V)VC(V)V </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>(C = any consonant, T = non-retroflex stop, R = retroflex stop; C̬ = voiced, C̥ = unvoiced; Cʰ = aspirated; V = Neutral tone, V́ = Rising tone, V̀ = Falling tone) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_tonal_languages">List of tonal languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: List of tonal languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa_2">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most languages of <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a> are members of the <a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger-Congo family</a>, which is predominantly tonal; notable exceptions are <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a> (in the southeast), most languages spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Senegambia" title="Senegambia">Senegambia</a> (among them <a href="/wiki/Wolof_language" title="Wolof language">Wolof</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serer_language" title="Serer language">Serer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cangin_languages" title="Cangin languages">Cangin languages</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Fula_language" title="Fula language">Fulani</a>. The Afroasiatic languages include both tonal (<a href="/wiki/Chadic_languages" title="Chadic languages">Chadic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omotic_languages" title="Omotic languages">Omotic</a>) and nontonal (<a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a>, and most <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>) branches.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYip2002131_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYip2002131-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All three <a href="/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages">Khoisan</a> language families—<a href="/wiki/Khoe_languages" title="Khoe languages">Khoe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kx%27a_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kx'a languages">Kx'a</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu</a>—are tonal. Most languages of the <a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan family</a> are tonal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia_2">Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia_linguistic_area" title="Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area">Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area</a></div> <p>Numerous tonal languages are widely spoken in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">Mainland Southeast Asia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan languages</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei-Lon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mog_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mog language">Mog</a> and most <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a>; though some, such as <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>, are only marginally tonal<sup id="cite_ref-Chen_2003_p._74_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen_2003_p._74-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and <a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai languages</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lao_language" title="Lao language">Lao</a>) are mostly tonal. The <a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien languages</a> are some of the most tonal languages in the world, with as many as twelve phonemically distinct tones. <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Austroasiatic">Austroasiatic</a> languages are mostly non-tonal, with a number of exceptions, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> (Austroasiatic), <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A8muh%C3%AE_language" title="Cèmuhî language">Cèmuhî</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yabem_language" title="Yabem language">Yabem</a> (Austronesian).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYip2002172–73_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYip2002172–73-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tones in <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Tsat_language" title="Tsat language">Tsat</a> may result from <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> influence on both languages. There were tones in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Korean" title="Middle Korean">Middle Korean</a><sup id="cite_ref-Sohn2001_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sohn2001-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LeeRamsey2000_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeeRamsey2000-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LeeRamsey2011_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeeRamsey2011-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a few tones in Japanese.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other languages represented in the region, such as <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a> belong to language families that do not contain any tonality as defined here. In South Asia tonal languages are rare, but some <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan languages</a> have tonality, including <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haryanvi_language" title="Haryanvi language">Haryanvi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kauravi_dialect" title="Kauravi dialect">Khariboli</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dogri_language" title="Dogri language">Dogri</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bengali" title="Eastern Bengali">Eastern Bengali</a> dialects.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="America">America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A large number of North, South and Central American languages are tonal, including many of the <a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan languages</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">American Southwest</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Navajo_language" title="Navajo language">Navajo</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKingston2005_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKingston2005-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean_languages" title="Oto-Manguean languages">Oto-Manguean languages</a> of Mexico. Among the <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan languages</a>, which are mostly non-tonal, <a href="/wiki/Yucatec_Maya_language" title="Yucatec Maya language">Yucatec</a> (with the largest number of speakers), <a href="/wiki/Uspantek_language" title="Uspantek language">Uspantek</a>, and one dialect of <a href="/wiki/Tzotzil_language" title="Tzotzil language">Tzotzil</a> have developed tone systems. The <a href="/wiki/Ticuna_language" title="Ticuna language">Ticuna language</a> of the western Amazon is perhaps the most tonal language of the Americas. Other languages of the western Amazon have fairly simple tone systems as well. However, although tone systems have been recorded for many American languages, little theoretical work has been completed for the characterization of their tone systems. In different cases, Oto-Manguean tone languages in Mexico have been found to possess tone systems similar to both Asian and African tone languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYip2002212–14_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYip2002212–14-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Norwegian<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Swedish share tonal language features via the 'Single' and 'Double' tones, which can be marked in phonetic descriptions by either a preceding ' (single tone) or ៴ (double tone). The single tone starts low and rises to a high note (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˩˦</span>). The double tone starts higher than the single tone, falls, and then rises again to a higher pitch than the start (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩˦</span>), similar to the Mandarin third tone (as in the word <i>nǐ</i>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ni˨˩˦/</span>). </p><p>Examples in Norwegian: 'bønder (farmers) and ៴bønner (beans) are, apart from the intonation, phonetically identical (despite the spelling difference). Similarly, and with in this case identical spelling, 'tømmer (timber) and ៴tømmer (present tense of verb tømme – to empty) are distinguished only through intonation. Entire phrases can also change meaning depending on intonation, like the phrase "Hagen gror igjen" which can mean either "The garden is growing again" or "The garden is getting overgrown". </p><p>According to Watson, <a href="/wiki/Scouse" title="Scouse">Scouse</a> contrasts certain tones.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Summary">Summary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Summary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Languages that are tonal include: </p> <ul><li>Over 50% of the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan languages</a>. All <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a> (most prominently, the <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Chinese languages</a>), some <a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic languages</a>, including the standard languages of <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a>.</li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a> family, <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> and other members of the <a href="/wiki/Vietic_languages" title="Vietic languages">Vietic languages</a> family are tonal. Other branches of this family, such as <a href="/wiki/Mon_language" title="Mon language">Mon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Munda_languages" title="Munda languages">Munda languages</a>, are entirely non-tonal.</li> <li>Some of the <a href="/wiki/Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Malayo-Polynesian languages">Malayo-Polynesian</a> branch of <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Paic%C3%AE_language" title="Paicî language">Paicî</a> and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A8muh%C3%AE_language" title="Cèmuhî language">Cèmuhî</a>) and <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Mor_language_(Austronesian)" title="Mor language (Austronesian)">Mor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ma%27ya_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'ya language">Ma'ya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matbat_language" title="Matbat language">Matbat</a>) plus some of the <a href="/wiki/Chamic_languages" title="Chamic languages">Chamic languages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Tsat_language" title="Tsat language">Tsat</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hainan" title="Hainan">Hainan</a> are tonal.</li> <li>The entire <a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a> family, spoken mainly in China, Vietnam, Thailand, and Laos, and including <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lao_language" title="Lao language">Lao</a>, is tonal.</li> <li>The entire <a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a> family is highly tonal.</li> <li>Many <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic languages</a> in the Chadic and Omotic branches have tone systems, including <a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa</a>.</li> <li>The vast majority of <a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo languages</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ewe_language" title="Ewe language">Ewe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Igbo_language" title="Igbo language">Igbo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lingala_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingala language">Lingala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maninka_language" title="Maninka language">Maninka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_language" title="Yoruba language">Yoruba</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a>, have tone systems. The <a href="/wiki/Kru_languages" title="Kru languages">Kru languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Mande_languages" title="Southern Mande languages">Southern Mande languages</a> have the most complex. Notable non-tonal Niger–Congo languages are <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fula_language" title="Fula language">Fula</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wolof_language" title="Wolof language">Wolof</a>.</li> <li>All <a href="/wiki/Nilotic_languages" title="Nilotic languages">Nilotic languages</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Dinka_language" title="Dinka language">Dinka language</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Maa_languages" title="Maa languages">Maa languages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Luo_languages" title="Luo languages">Luo languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalenjin_languages" title="Kalenjin languages">Kalenjin languages</a> have tone systems.</li> <li>All <a href="/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages">Khoisan languages</a> in southern Africa have tone systems; some languages like <a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</a> have tone systems like that of Cantonese.</li> <li>Slightly more than half of the <a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan languages</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Navajo_language" title="Navajo language">Navajo</a>, have tone systems (languages in California and Oregon, and a few in Alaska, excluded). The Athabaskan tone languages fall into two "mirror image" groups. That is, a word which has a high tone in one language will have a cognate with a low tone in another, and vice versa.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian languages</a> like <a href="/wiki/Mohawk_language" title="Mohawk language">Mohawk</a> commonly have tone; the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee language</a> has the most extensive tonal inventory, with six tones, of which four are contours.<sup id="cite_ref-Cherokee_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cherokee-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here the correlation between contour tone and simple syllable structures is clearly shown; Cherokee phonotactics permit only syllables of the structure (s)(C)V.</li> <li>All <a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean_languages" title="Oto-Manguean languages">Oto-Manguean languages</a> are tonal. In some cases, as with <a href="/wiki/Mixtec_languages" title="Mixtec languages">Mixtec</a>, tone system variations between dialects are sufficiently great to cause mutual unintelligibility.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ticuna_language" title="Ticuna language">Ticuna language</a> of the western Amazon is strongly tonal. Various <a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan languages</a> have relatively basic tone systems.</li> <li>Many languages of <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> like <a href="/wiki/Siane_language" title="Siane language">Siane</a> possess register tone systems.</li> <li>Some Indo-European languages (notably <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvian_language" title="Latvian language">Latvian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian" title="Serbo-Croatian">Serbo-Croatian</a>) as well as others possess what is termed <a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">pitch accent</a>, where only the stressed syllable of a word can have different contour tones; these are not always considered to be cases of tone language. However some languages, belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European family, are tonal such as <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dogri_language" title="Dogri language">Dogri</a>. <ul><li>Some English dialects, such as <a href="/wiki/Scouse" title="Scouse">Liverpool</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulster_English#Belfast_and_surroundings" title="Ulster English">Belfast English</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Some European-based <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole languages</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Krio_language" title="Krio language">Krio</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Finney_2004_pp._221–236_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finney_2004_pp._221–236-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Saramaccan_language" title="Saramaccan language">Saramaccan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Papiamento" title="Papiamento">Papiamento</a>, have tone from their African <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)#Substratum" title="Stratum (linguistics)">substratum</a> languages.</li></ul> <p>In some cases, it is difficult to determine whether a language is tonal. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Ket_language" title="Ket language">Ket language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> has been described as having up to eight tones by some investigators, as having four tones by others, but by some as having no tone at all. In cases such as these, the classification of a language as tonal may depend on the researcher's interpretation of what tone is. For instance, the Burmese language has phonetic tone, but each of its three tones is accompanied by a distinctive <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a> (creaky, murmured or plain vowels). It could be argued either that the tone is incidental to the phonation, in which case Burmese would not be <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemically</a> tonal, or that the phonation is incidental to the tone, in which case it would be considered tonal. Something similar appears to be the case with Ket. </p><p>The 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">constructed language</a> <a href="/wiki/Solresol" title="Solresol">Solresol</a> can consist of only tone, but unlike all natural tonal languages, Solresol's tone is absolute, rather than relative, and no tone sandhi occurs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meeussen%27s_rule" title="Meeussen's rule">Meeussen's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musical_language" title="Musical language">Musical language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion-Eating_Poet_in_the_Stone_Den" title="Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den">Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tones change over time, but may retain their original spelling. The Thai spelling of the final word in the tongue-twister, <span class="nowrap">⟨<span title="Thai-language text"><span lang="th">ไหม</span></span>⟩</span>, indicates a rising tone, but the word is now commonly pronounced with a high tone. Therefore a new spelling, <span title="Thai-language text"><span lang="th">มั้ย</span></span>, is occasionally seen in informal writing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-extIPA-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-extIPA_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-extIPA_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-extIPA_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">These extended Chao tone letters have not been accepted by the IPA, but are often used in conjunction with the official letters.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Specifically, words that had the Middle Chinese <i>ping</i> (level) tone are now distributed over tones 1 and 2 in Mandarin Chinese, while the Middle Chinese <i>shang</i> (rising) and <i>qu</i> (exiting) tones have become Mandarin Chinese tones 3 and 4, respectively. Words with the former <i>ru</i> (entering) tone, meanwhile, have been distributed over all four tones.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYip20021–3,_17–18-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYip20021–3,_17–18_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYip20021–3,_17–18_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYip2002">Yip (2002)</a>, pp. 1–3, 17–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trask_2004-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Trask_2004_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTrask2004" class="citation book cs1">Trask, R.L. 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Language 26. 86–125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin, Samuel E. 1952. Morphophonemics of Standard Colloquial Japanese. (Language Dissertation, 47.) Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jorden, Eleanor Harz. 1963. Beginning Japanese, Part 1. (Yale Linguistic Series, 5.) New Haven: Yale University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLustWaliGairSubbarao1999" class="citation book cs1">Lust, Barbara; Wali, Kashi; Gair, James; et al., eds. (1999). <i>Lexical Anaphors and Pronouns in Selected South Asian Languages</i>. Walter de Gruyter. p. 637. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-014388-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-014388-1"><bdi>978-3-11-014388-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lexical+Anaphors+and+Pronouns+in+Selected+South+Asian+Languages&rft.pages=637&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-3-11-014388-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAger" class="citation web cs1">Ager, Simon (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omniglot.com/writing/gurmuki.htm">"Punjabi (ਪੰਜਾਬੀ/پنجابی)"</a>. <i>Omniglot</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110429180826/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/gurmuki.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-04-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-01-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Omniglot&rft.atitle=Punjabi+%28%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%80%2F%D9%BE%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.omniglot.com%2Fwriting%2Fgurmuki.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaramat" class="citation web cs1">Karamat, Nayyara. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923204619/http://www.cle.org.pk/Publication/Crulp_report/CR02_21E.pdf">"Phonemic Inventory of Punjabi"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Center for Research in Urdu Language Processing. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cle.org.pk/Publication/Crulp_report/CR02_21E.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2015-09-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-01-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Phonemic+Inventory+of+Punjabi&rft.pub=Center+for+Research+in+Urdu+Language+Processing&rft.aulast=Karamat&rft.aufirst=Nayyara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cle.org.pk%2FPublication%2FCrulp_report%2FCR02_21E.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSen1997" class="citation book cs1">Sen, Geeti (1997). <i>Crossing Boundaries</i>. Orient Blackswan. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-250-1341-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-250-1341-9"><bdi>978-81-250-1341-9</bdi></a>. <q>Possibly, Punjabi is the only major South Asian language that has this kind of tonal character. There does seem to have been some speculation among scholars about the possible origin of Punjabi's tone-language character but without any final and convincing answer.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crossing+Boundaries&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=Orient+Blackswan&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-81-250-1341-9&rft.aulast=Sen&rft.aufirst=Geeti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPal1965" class="citation journal cs1">Pal, Animesh K. (1965). "Phonemes of a Dacca Dialect of Eastern Bengali and the Importance of Tone". <i>Journal of the Asiatic Society</i>. <b>VII</b>: 44–45. <q>The tonal element in Panjabi as well as in Eastern Bengali has been noticed in respect of various new ways of treating the voiced aspirates and 'h'.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Asiatic+Society&rft.atitle=Phonemes+of+a+Dacca+Dialect+of+Eastern+Bengali+and+the+Importance+of+Tone&rft.volume=VII&rft.pages=44-45&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Pal&rft.aufirst=Animesh+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasica1991" class="citation cs2">Masica, Colin P. (1991), <i>The Indo-Aryan Languages</i>, Cambridge University Press, p. 102, <q>Glottalization is often connected with tone and in the East Bengali cases seem to be related to the evolution of tone from the voiced aspirates.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indo-Aryan+Languages&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Masica&rft.aufirst=Colin+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYip2002212–14-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYip2002212–14_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYip2002">Yip (2002)</a>, pp. 212–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarm1967" class="citation book cs1">Marm, Ingvald (1967). <i>Teach Yourself Norwegian</i> (2nd ed.). Aylesbury, England: The English Universities Press Ltd. pp. 13–14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-82888376-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-82888376-4"><bdi>978-0-82888376-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teach+Yourself+Norwegian&rft.place=Aylesbury%2C+England&rft.pages=13-14&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=The+English+Universities+Press+Ltd&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-82888376-4&rft.aulast=Marm&rft.aufirst=Ingvald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2007" class="citation book cs1">Watson, Kevin (2007). <i>Illustrations of the IPA: Liverpool English</i> (Cambridge University Press ed.). Journal of the International Phonetic Association 37. pp. 351–360.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Illustrations+of+the+IPA%3A+Liverpool+English&rft.pages=351-360&rft.edition=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.pub=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association+37&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phon.ox.ac.uk/files/apps/old_IViE/">"English intonation in the British Isles"</a>. <i>www.phon.ox.ac.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.phon.ox.ac.uk&rft.atitle=English+intonation+in+the+British+Isles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phon.ox.ac.uk%2Ffiles%2Fapps%2Fold_IViE%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Finney_2004_pp._221–236-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Finney_2004_pp._221–236_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinney2004" class="citation book cs1">Finney, Malcolm Awadajin (2004). "10. Tone assignment on lexical items of English and African origin in Krio". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075/cll.27.11fin"><i>Creoles, Contact, and Language Change</i></a>. Creole Language Library. Vol. 27. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 221–236. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fcll.27.11fin">10.1075/cll.27.11fin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-5249-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-5249-4"><bdi>978-90-272-5249-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0920-9026">0920-9026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=10.+Tone+assignment+on+lexical+items+of+English+and+African+origin+in+Krio&rft.btitle=Creoles%2C+Contact%2C+and+Language+Change&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.series=Creole+Language+Library&rft.pages=221-236&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=0920-9026&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fcll.27.11fin&rft.isbn=978-90-272-5249-4&rft.aulast=Finney&rft.aufirst=Malcolm+Awadajin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1075%2Fcll.27.11fin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhatia1975" class="citation journal cs1">Bhatia, T.K. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/reader/4834376">"The evolution of tones in Punjabi"</a>. <i>Studies in Linguistic Sciences</i>. <b>5</b> (2): 12–24. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220209040453/https://core.ac.uk/reader/4834376">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Linguistic+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+tones+in+Punjabi&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=12-24&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Bhatia&rft.aufirst=T.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Freader%2F4834376&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBao1999" class="citation book cs1">Bao, Zhiming (1999). <i>The Structure of Tone</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511880-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511880-3"><bdi>978-0-19-511880-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structure+of+Tone&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511880-3&rft.aulast=Bao&rft.aufirst=Zhiming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2000" class="citation book cs1">Chen, Matthew Y. (2000). <i>Tone sandhi: Patterns across Chinese dialects</i>. Cambridge, England: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65272-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65272-8"><bdi>978-0-521-65272-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tone+sandhi%3A+Patterns+across+Chinese+dialects&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65272-8&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Matthew+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClementsGoldsmith1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nick_Clements" title="Nick Clements">Clements, George N.</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Goldsmith_(linguist)" title="John Goldsmith (linguist)">Goldsmith, John</a>, eds. (1984). <i>Autosegmental Studies in Bantu Tone</i>. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Autosegmental+Studies+in+Bantu+Tone&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyer&rft.date=1984&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFromkin1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Fromkin" title="Victoria Fromkin">Fromkin, Victoria A.</a>, ed. (1978). <i>Tone: A Linguistic Survey</i>. New York: Academic Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tone%3A+A+Linguistic+Survey&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1978&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalleStevens1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Morris_Halle" title="Morris Halle">Halle, Morris</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_N._Stevens" title="Kenneth N. Stevens">Stevens, Kenneth</a> (1971). "A note on laryngeal features". <i>Quarterly Progress Report 101</i>. MIT.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+note+on+laryngeal+features&rft.btitle=Quarterly+Progress+Report+101&rft.pub=MIT&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Halle&rft.aufirst=Morris&rft.au=Stevens%2C+Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaudricourt2018" class="citation journal cs1">Haudricourt, André-Georges (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01678018/document">"The origin of tones in Vietnamese (translation of: De l'origine des tons en vietnamien)"</a>. <i>Problèmes de phonologie diachronique</i>. Translated by Marc Brunelle: 146–160. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220209040455/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01678018/document">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-01-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Probl%C3%A8mes+de+phonologie+diachronique&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+tones+in+Vietnamese+%28translation+of%3A+De+l%27origine+des+tons+en+vietnamien%29&rft.pages=146-160&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Haudricourt&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9-Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhalshs.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhalshs-01678018%2Fdocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span> HAL 01678018. <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaudricourt1954" class="citation journal cs1">Haudricourt, André-Georges (1954). "De l'origine des tons en vietnamien". <i>Journal Asiatique</i>. <b>242</b>: 69–82.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+Asiatique&rft.atitle=De+l%27origine+des+tons+en+vietnamien&rft.volume=242&rft.pages=69-82&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Haudricourt&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9-Georges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaudricourt2017" class="citation journal cs1">Haudricourt, André-Georges (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01631479/document">"How to reconstruct Old Chinese (translation of: Comment reconstruire le chinois archaïque)"</a>. <i>Problèmes de phonologie diachronique</i>. Translated by Guillaume Jacques: 161–182. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220209040455/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01631479/document">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-02-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Probl%C3%A8mes+de+phonologie+diachronique&rft.atitle=How+to+reconstruct+Old+Chinese+%28translation+of%3A+Comment+reconstruire+le+chinois+archa%C3%AFque%29&rft.pages=161-182&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Haudricourt&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9-Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhalshs.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhalshs-01631479%2Fdocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span> Reprinted (with additions). <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Haudricourt, André-Georges (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00437956.1954.11659532">"Comment reconstruire le chinois archaïque"</a>. <i>Word</i>. <b>10</b> (2/3): 351–364. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00437956.1954.11659532">10.1080/00437956.1954.11659532</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Word&rft.atitle=Comment+reconstruire+le+chinois+archa%C3%AFque&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2%2F3&rft.pages=351-364&rft.date=1954&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00437956.1954.11659532&rft.aulast=Haudricourt&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9-Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00437956.1954.11659532&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaudricourt1961" class="citation journal cs1">Haudricourt, André-Georges (1961). 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In Marc van Oostendorp; Colin J Ewen; Elizabeth Hume; Keren Rice (eds.). <i>The Blackwell companion to phonology, Volume 4: Phonological interfaces</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 2304–2333. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211210101322/https://blogs.umass.edu/jkingstn/files/2019/04/kingstonTonogenesis2011BlackwellCompanionPhonology.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2021-12-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Universals of tone". In Greenberg, J. H. (ed.). <i>Universals of human language: Phonology</i>. Vol. 2. Stanford: Stanford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Universals+of+tone&rft.btitle=Universals+of+human+language%3A+Phonology&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Maddieson&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichaudVaissière2015" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Michaud" title="Alexis Michaud">Michaud, Alexis</a>; Vaissière, Jacqueline (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01091477v3/document">"Tone and intonation: introductory notes and practical recommendations"</a>. <i>KALIPHO - Kieler Arbeiten zur Linguistik und Phonetik</i>. <b>3</b>: 43–80. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201109070902/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01091477v3/document">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-11-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-01-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=KALIPHO+-+Kieler+Arbeiten+zur+Linguistik+und+Phonetik&rft.atitle=Tone+and+intonation%3A+introductory+notes+and+practical+recommendations&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=43-80&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Michaud&rft.aufirst=Alexis&rft.au=Vaissi%C3%A8re%2C+Jacqueline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhalshs.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhalshs-01091477v3%2Fdocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichaudSands2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Michaud" title="Alexis Michaud">Michaud, Alexis</a>; Sands, Bonny (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02519305/document">"Tonogenesis"</a>. In Aronoff, Mark (ed.). <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.013.748">10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.748</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199384655" title="Special:BookSources/9780199384655"><bdi>9780199384655</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220209040452/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02519305/document">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tonogenesis&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Linguistics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.013.748&rft.isbn=9780199384655&rft.aulast=Michaud&rft.aufirst=Alexis&rft.au=Sands%2C+Bonny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhalshs.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhalshs-02519305%2Fdocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOdden1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Odden" title="David Odden">Odden, David</a> (1995). "Tone: African languages". In Goldsmith, J. (ed.). <i>Handbook of Phonological Theory</i>. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tone%3A+African+languages&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Phonological+Theory&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Basil+Blackwell&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Odden&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOdden2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Odden" title="David Odden">Odden, David</a> (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wcjXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30">"Tone"</a>. In Rainer Vossen; Gerrit J. Dimmendaal (eds.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of African Languages</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 30–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199609895" title="Special:BookSources/9780199609895"><bdi>9780199609895</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tone&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+African+Languages&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=30-47&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780199609895&rft.aulast=Odden&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwcjXDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPike1948" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Lee_Pike" title="Kenneth Lee Pike">Pike, Kenneth L.</a> (1948). <i>Tone Languages: A Technique for Determining the Number and Type of Pitch Contrasts In a Language, with Studies in Tonemic Substitution and Fusion</i>. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tone+Languages%3A+A+Technique+for+Determining+the+Number+and+Type+of+Pitch+Contrasts+In+a+Language%2C+with+Studies+in+Tonemic+Substitution+and+Fusion&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=The+University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Pike&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span> (Reprinted 1972, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-08734-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-08734-7">0-472-08734-7</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWee2008" class="citation journal cs1">Wee, Lian-Hee (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.hkbu.edu.hk/eng_ja/1">"Phonological Patterns in the Englishes of Singapore and Hong Kong"</a>. <i>World Englishes</i>. <b>27</b> (3/4): 480–501. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-971X.2008.00580.x">10.1111/j.1467-971X.2008.00580.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Englishes&rft.atitle=Phonological+Patterns+in+the+Englishes+of+Singapore+and+Hong+Kong&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=480-501&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-971X.2008.00580.x&rft.aulast=Wee&rft.aufirst=Lian-Hee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.hkbu.edu.hk%2Feng_ja%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged October 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYip2002" class="citation book cs1">Yip, Moira (2002). <i>Tone</i>. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77314-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77314-0"><bdi>978-0-521-77314-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tone&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Cambridge+Textbooks+in+Linguistics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77314-0&rft.aulast=Yip&rft.aufirst=Moira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATone+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-77445-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-77445-4">0-521-77445-4</a> (pbk).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tone_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tones_(linguistics)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tones (linguistics)">Tones (linguistics)</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wals.info/feature/13?tg_format=map">World map of tone languages</a> The World Atlas of Language Structures Online</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thot.huma-num.fr/">Theory of Tone project</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thot.huma-num.fr/db/">ThoT Database</a> of tonal languages developed as part of the project</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Suprasegmentals" style="text-align:left;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Suprasegmentals" title="Template:Suprasegmentals"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Suprasegmentals" title="Template talk:Suprasegmentals"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Suprasegmentals" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Suprasegmentals"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Suprasegmentals" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Suprasegmentals</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Isochrony" title="Isochrony">Timing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">Syllable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)" title="Mora (linguistics)">Mora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_foot" title="Metrical foot">Metrical foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">Vowel reduction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tone</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tone_contour" title="Tone contour">Tone contour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">Pitch accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register_(phonology)" title="Register (phonology)">Register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downstep" title="Downstep">Downstep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upstep" title="Upstep">Upstep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downdrift" title="Downdrift">Downdrift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_terracing" title="Tone terracing">Tone terracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_tone" title="Floating tone">Floating tone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">Tone sandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_letter" title="Tone letter">Tone letter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">Stress</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_stress" title="Secondary stress">Secondary stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">Vowel reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accent_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accent (phonetics)">Accent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">Length</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chroneme" title="Chroneme">Chroneme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">Gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">Vowel length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extra-shortness" title="Extra-shortness">Extra-shortness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">Prosody</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">Intonation</a> (pitch)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitch_contour" title="Pitch contour">Pitch contour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitch_reset" title="Pitch reset">Pitch reset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">Stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhythm#Rhythm_in_linguistics" title="Rhythm">Rhythm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loudness" title="Loudness">Loudness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosodic_unit" title="Prosodic unit">Prosodic unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausa" title="Pausa">Pausa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nonverbal_communication" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nonverbal_communication" title="Template:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nonverbal_communication" title="Template talk:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nonverbal_communication" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nonverbal_communication" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">Nonverbal communication</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Modalities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Modality_(semiotics)" title="Modality (semiotics)">Modalities</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blushing" title="Blushing">Blushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_language" title="Body language">Body language</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kinesics" title="Kinesics">Kinesics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body-to-body_communication" title="Body-to-body communication">Body-to-body communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Facial_Action_Coding_System" title="Facial Action Coding System">Facial Action Coding System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microexpression" title="Microexpression">Microexpression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtle_expression" title="Subtle expression">Subtle expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gesture" title="Gesture">Gesture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gestures" title="List of gestures">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech-independent_gestures" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech-independent gestures">Speech-independent gestures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_communication" title="Haptic communication">Haptic communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imitation" title="Imitation">Imitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronization#Human_movement" title="Synchronization">Interpersonal synchrony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laughter" title="Laughter">Laughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oculesics" title="Oculesics">Oculesics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_contact" title="Eye contact">Eye contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pupillary_response" title="Pupillary response">Pupil dilation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactic_communication" title="Olfactic communication">Olfaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posture_(psychology)" title="Posture (psychology)">Posture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxemics" title="Proxemics">Proxemics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(linguistics)" title="Affect (linguistics)">Affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_prosody" title="Emotional prosody">Emotional prosody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralanguage" title="Paralanguage">Paralanguage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">Intonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loudness" title="Loudness">Loudness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">Prosody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhythm" title="Rhythm">Rhythm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">Stress</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">Voice quality</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social context</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronemics" title="Chronemics">Chronemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitus_(sociology)" title="Habitus (sociology)">Habitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-context_and_low-context_cultures" title="High-context and low-context cultures">High-context and low-context cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">Interpersonal relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emoticon" title="Emoticon">Emoticon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Smiley" title="Smiley">Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-bit_message" title="One-bit message">One-bit message</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missed_call" title="Missed call">Missed call</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_service_code" title="Silent service code">Silent service code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Unconscious_communication" title="Unconscious communication">Unconscious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microexpression" title="Microexpression">Microexpression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-verbal_leakage" title="Non-verbal leakage">Non-verbal leakage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multi-faceted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Affect display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_recognition" title="Emotion recognition">Emotion recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_impression_(psychology)" title="First impression (psychology)">First impression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimate_relationship" title="Intimate relationship">Intimacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Broader_concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Broader concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_interpersonal_communicative_skills" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic interpersonal communicative skills">Basic interpersonal communicative skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunchi" title="Nunchi">Nunchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_skills" title="People skills">People skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">Social behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cue" title="Social cue">Social cue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_competence" title="Social competence">Social competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_skills" title="Social skills">Social skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsaid" title="Unsaid">Unsaid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Further_information" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Further information</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aprosodia" title="Aprosodia">Aprosodia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asperger_syndrome" title="Asperger syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">Fragile X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified">Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_disintegrative_disorder" title="Childhood disintegrative disorder">Childhood disintegrative disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rett_syndrome" title="Rett syndrome">Rett syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyssemia" title="Dyssemia">Dyssemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_learning_disorder" title="Nonverbal learning disorder">Nonverbal learning disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_(pragmatic)_communication_disorder" title="Social (pragmatic) communication disorder">Social (pragmatic) communication disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">Limbic system</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limbic_lobe" title="Limbic lobe">Limbic lobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_neuron" title="Mirror neuron">Mirror neuron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">Cold reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_detection" title="Lie detection">Lie detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freudian_slip" title="Freudian slip">Freudian slip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(poker)" title="Tell (poker)">Poker tell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_(advertising)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attention (advertising)">Targeted advertising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_processing_of_body_language" title="Computer processing of body language">Computer processing of body language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_recognition_in_conversation" title="Emotion recognition in conversation">Emotion recognition in conversation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gesture_recognition" title="Gesture recognition">Gesture recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_facial_expression_databases" title="List of facial expression databases">List of facial expression databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentiment_analysis" title="Sentiment analysis">Sentiment analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Birdwhistell" title="Ray Birdwhistell">Ray Birdwhistell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_communication" title="Behavioral communication">Behavioral communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assertiveness" title="Assertiveness">Assertive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deference" title="Deference">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior" title="Passive-aggressive behavior">Passive-aggressive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impression_management" title="Impression management">Impression management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastic_sign_languages" title="Monastic sign languages">Monastic sign lexicons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Verbal communication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-verbal language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_signing" title="Tactile signing">Tactile signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadoma" title="Tadoma">Tadoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Art and literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mime_artist" title="Mime artist">Mime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimoplastic_art" title="Mimoplastic art">Mimoplastic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtext" title="Subtext">Subtext</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div 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Template:Sfnp"," 6.97% 136.970 1 Template:Chinese_tones"," 6.79% 133.403 1 Template:Multiple_image"," 5.63% 110.542 1 Template:Transl"," 5.61% 110.152 1 Template:Sound_change"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.273","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":27097911,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdekanmbi1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAger\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlves1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBao1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBateman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBhatia1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowden2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurusphat2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCho2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChrabaszczWinnLinIdsardi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClementsGoldsmith1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDai1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEverettBlasiRoberts2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerlus2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinney2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoley2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFromkin1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarellekKeatingEspositoKreiman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordonLadefoged2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGussenhoven2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalleStevens1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaudricourt1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaudricourt1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaudricourt2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaudricourt2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeselwood2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHombertOhalaEwan1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHyman2007a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHyman2007b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHyman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHyman2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKangHan2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaramat\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKingston2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKingston2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirby2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirbyBrunelle2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLadd2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLai,_W.-Y.2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaverJohn1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeRamsey2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeRamsey2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewin2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiTangLuWu2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLien1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLustWaliGairSubbarao1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddieson1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddieson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarm1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMasica1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatisoff1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichaudSands2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichaudVaissière2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontgomery-Anderson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorquest2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOdden1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOdden2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPal1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalancar,_E._L.Léonard,_J.-L.2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPike1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPittayaporn\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRatliff2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRatliff2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRose2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSohn2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSun,_H.-K.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTian2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrask2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVũ1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWedeking1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWee2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXuLiuTaoChe2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYip2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuLam2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhang2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF吳2005\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Angbr\"] = 19,\n [\"Angbr IPA\"] = 8,\n [\"Angle bracket\"] = 4,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Chinese tones\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 35,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 37,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 6,\n [\"Collapsible list\"] = 2,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Tone (Linguistics)\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 2,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 5,\n [\"Harvcoltxt\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 3,\n [\"IPA\"] = 179,\n [\"IPA notice\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA symbol2\"] = 41,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"Incomplete table\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 17,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"More citations needed\"] = 1,\n [\"More citations needed section\"] = 2,\n [\"Multiple issues\"] = 1,\n [\"Nonverbal communication\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 8,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 21,\n [\"Shn\"] = 5,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sound change\"] = 1,\n [\"Spaced ndash\"] = 1,\n [\"Suprasegmentals\"] = 1,\n [\"Tone\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n [\"Wikt-lang\"] = 10,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","280","19.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","17.8"],["?","240","16.4"],["recursiveClone 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