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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alphabetic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Alphabetic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alphabetic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aspects_of_alphabetic_transcription" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aspects_of_alphabetic_transcription"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Aspects of alphabetic transcription</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aspects_of_alphabetic_transcription-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iconic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iconic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Iconic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iconic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analphabetic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analphabetic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Analphabetic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analphabetic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notational_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notational_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Notational systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notational_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Phonetic transcription</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AE_%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="نسخ صوتي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نسخ صوتي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trescripci%C3%B3n_fon%C3%A9tica" title="Trescripción fonética – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Trescripción fonética" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%AD-im_cho%C3%A1n-si%C3%A1" title="Gí-im choán-siá – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Gí-im choán-siá" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BF%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Фанетычная транскрыпцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фанетычная транскрыпцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BF%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Фанэтычная транскрыпцыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Фанэтычная транскрыпцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcripci%C3%B3_fon%C3%A8tica" title="Transcripció fonètica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Transcripció fonètica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydskrift" title="Lydskrift – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Lydskrift" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foneetiline_transkriptsioon" title="Foneetiline transkriptsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Foneetiline transkriptsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AE" title="Φωνητική καταγραφή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φωνητική καταγραφή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcripci%C3%B3n_fon%C3%A9tica" title="Transcripción fonética – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Transcripción fonética" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika_transskribo" title="Fonetika transskribo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fonetika transskribo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="آوانگاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آوانگاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_phon%C3%A9tique" title="Transcription phonétique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Transcription phonétique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="ध्वन्यात्मक लिप्यन्तरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ध्वन्यात्मक लिप्यन्तरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transkripsi_fonetik" title="Transkripsi fonetik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Transkripsi fonetik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trascrizione_fonetica" title="Trascrizione fonetica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Trascrizione fonetica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Транскрипция – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Транскрипция" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcriptio_phonetica" title="Transcriptio phonetica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Transcriptio phonetica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transkripsi_fonetik" title="Transkripsi fonetik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Transkripsi fonetik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="ध्वन्यात्मक लिप्यन्तरण – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="ध्वन्यात्मक लिप्यन्तरण" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydskrift" title="Lydskrift – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Lydskrift" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transkrypcja_fonetyczna" title="Transkrypcja fonetyczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Transkrypcja fonetyczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcri%C3%A7%C3%A3o_fon%C3%A9tica" title="Transcrição fonética – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Transcrição fonética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фонетическая транскрипция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фонетическая транскрипция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Phonetic transcription" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A_%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA" title="آوازي لکت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="آوازي لکت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Гласовна транскрипција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Гласовна транскрипција" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarkekirjoitus" title="Tarkekirjoitus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tarkekirjoitus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetisk_transkription" title="Fonetisk transkription – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fonetisk transkription" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D3%A3" title="Овонигорӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Овонигорӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetik_transkripsiyon" title="Fonetik transkripsiyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fonetik transkripsiyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фонетична транскрипція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фонетична транскрипція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A8%99%E9%9F%B3" title="標音 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="標音" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E9%9F%B3%E8%BD%89%E9%8C%84" title="語音轉錄 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="語音轉錄" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <p><b>Phonetic transcription</b> (also known as <b>phonetic script</b> or <b>phonetic notation</b>) is the visual representation of speech sounds (or <i><a href="/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">phones</a></i>) by means of <a href="/wiki/Symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbols">symbols</a>. The most common type of phonetic transcription uses a phonetic alphabet, such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Versus_orthography">Versus orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetic_transcription&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Versus orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation" title="Pronunciation">pronunciation</a> of words in all languages changes over time.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, their written forms (<a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a>) are often not modified to take account of such changes, and do not accurately represent the pronunciation. Words borrowed from other languages may retain the spelling from the original language, which may have a different system of correspondences between written symbols and speech sounds. Pronunciation can also vary greatly among dialects of a language. Standard orthography in some languages, such as <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Tibetan" title="Classical Tibetan">Tibetan</a>, is often irregular and makes it difficult to predict pronunciation from spelling. For example, the words <i>bough</i>, <i>tough</i>, <i>cough</i>, <i>though</i> and <i>through</i> do not rhyme in English even though their spellings might suggest otherwise. Other languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> have a more consistent (but still imperfect) <a href="/wiki/Orthographic_depth" title="Orthographic depth">relationship</a> between orthography and pronunciation, while a few languages may claim to have a fully phonemic spelling system (a <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_orthography" title="Phonemic orthography">phonemic orthography</a>). </p><p>For most languages, phonetic transcription makes it possible to show pronunciation with something much nearer to a one-to-one relationship between sound and symbol than is possible with the language's orthography. Phonetic transcription allows one to step outside orthography, examine differences in pronunciation between dialects within a given language and identify changes in pronunciation that may take place over time. </p><p>A basic principle of phonetic transcription is that it should be applicable to all languages, and its symbols should denote the same phonetic properties whatever the language being transcribed.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It follows that a transcription devised for one individual language or group of languages is not a phonetic transcription but an orthography. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Narrow_versus_broad;_phonemic_versus_phonetic"><span id="Narrow_versus_broad.3B_phonemic_versus_phonetic"></span>Narrow versus broad; phonemic versus phonetic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetic_transcription&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Narrow versus broad; phonemic versus phonetic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Phonetic transcription may be used to transcribe the phones of a language. In all systems of transcription there is a distinction between <b>broad transcription</b> and <b>narrow transcription</b>. Broad transcription indicates only the most noticeable phonetic features of an utterance, whereas narrow transcription encodes more information about the phonetic details of the <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> in the utterance. The difference between broad and narrow is a continuum, but the difference between phonemic and phonetic transcription is usually treated as a binary distinction.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>Phonemic transcription</b> is a particularly broad transcription that disregards all allophonic differences (for example the differences between individual speakers or even whole dialects of the same language). Phonemic transcription provides a representation only of a language's abstract word-distinguishing units of sound (<a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>), and thus is not really a phonetic transcription at all (though at times it may coincide with one). Instead, a <b>phonetic transcription</b> focuses on more exact articulatory or acoustic details, whether in a broader or narrower way. A transcription which includes some allophonic detail but is still closely linked to the phonemic structure of an utterance is called an <b>allophonic transcription</b>. </p><p>The advantage of narrower transcription is that it can help learners to produce exactly the right sound and allows linguists to make detailed analyses of language variation.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disadvantage is that a narrow transcription is rarely representative of all dialects or speakers of a language. Most American, Canadian, and Australian speakers of English would pronounce the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> in the word <i>little</i> as a <a href="/wiki/Flap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Flap consonant">tap</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>]</span> and the initial <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> as a <a href="/wiki/Dark_L" class="mw-redirect" title="Dark L">dark L</a> (often represented as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɫ]</span>), but speakers in southern England pronounce the /t/ as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span> (a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>; see <a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization">t-glottalization</a>) and the second <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> as a vowel resembling <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>]</span> (<a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">L-vocalization</a>). Thus, on the one hand, phonetically, <i>little</i> can be represented as something like <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɫɪɾɫ̩]</span> in many American, Canadian, and Australian accents but <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈlɪʔo]</span> in a southern England accent. Furthermore, in Australian accents especially, the first-syllable vowel of <i>little</i> tends to be <a href="/wiki/High_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="High vowel">higher</a> than in North America, leading to the possibility of employing an even narrower phonetic transcription to indicate this, such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɫɪ̝ɾɫ̩]</span>. On the other hand, a broad phonemic transcription of <i>little</i> is also possible that ignores all the above specifics of these aforementioned dialects; this can be useful in situations where minor details are not important to distinguish or where the emphasis is on overarching patterns. For example, one typical phonemic transcription for the word <i>little</i> is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈlɪtᵊl/</span>, as is common in both British and American English dictionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Slashes, rather than square brackets, are used to indicate phonemic rather than phonetic representations.) </p><p>A further disadvantage of narrow transcription is that it involves a large number of symbols and <a href="/wiki/Diacritics" class="mw-redirect" title="Diacritics">diacritics</a> that may be unfamiliar to nonspecialists. Broad transcription usually allows statements to be made which apply across accents and dialects, and is thus more appropriate for the pronunciation data in ordinary dictionaries, which may discuss phonetic details in the preface but rarely give them for each entry. Most linguists use a narrow transcription only when necessary, and at all other times use a broad transcription. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_notational_systems">Types of notational systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetic_transcription&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Types of notational systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most phonetic transcription is based on the assumption that linguistic sounds are segmentable into discrete units that can be represented by symbols. Many different types of transcription, or "notation", have been tried out: these may be divided into <i>Alphabetic</i> (which are based on the same principle as that which governs ordinary alphabetic writing, namely that of using one single simple symbol to represent each sound) and <i>Analphabetic</i> (notations which are <i>not</i> alphabetic) which represent each sound by a composite symbol made up of a number of signs put together.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbercrombie1967111–112_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbercrombie1967111–112-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alphabetic">Alphabetic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetic_transcription&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Alphabetic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IPA_chart_2020.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/IPA_chart_2020.svg/220px-IPA_chart_2020.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/IPA_chart_2020.svg/330px-IPA_chart_2020.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/IPA_chart_2020.svg/440px-IPA_chart_2020.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="663" /></a><figcaption>IPA</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA) is the most widely used and well-known of present-day phonetic alphabets and has a long <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="History of the International Phonetic Alphabet">history</a>. It was created in the nineteenth century by European language teachers and linguists. It soon developed beyond its original purpose as a tool of foreign language pedagogy and is now also used extensively as a practical alphabet of phoneticians and linguists. It is found in many dictionaries, where it is used to indicate the pronunciation of words, but most American dictionaries for native English-speakers, e.g., <i><a href="/wiki/American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Random_House_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Random House Dictionary of the English Language">Random House Dictionary of the English Language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Webster%27s_Third_New_International_Dictionary" title="Webster's Third New International Dictionary">Webster's Third New International Dictionary</a></i>, avoid phonetic transcription and instead employ <i><a href="/wiki/Respelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Respelling">respelling</a></i> systems based on the English alphabet, with diacritical marks over the vowels and stress marks.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_respelling_for_English" title="Pronunciation respelling for English">Pronunciation respelling for English</a> for a generic version.) </p><p>Another commonly encountered alphabetic tradition was originally created by American linguists for the transcription of <a href="/wiki/Native_American_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American languages">Native American</a> and European languages and is still commonly used <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> by linguists of <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Indic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a> (here known as the <a href="/wiki/Uralic_Phonetic_Alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Uralic Phonetic Alphabet">Uralic Phonetic Alphabet</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasian languages">Caucasian languages</a>. This is often labeled the <a href="/wiki/Americanist_phonetic_notation" title="Americanist phonetic notation">Americanist</a> phonetic alphabet despite having been widely used for languages outside the Americas. The principal difference between these alphabets and the IPA is that the specially created characters of the IPA are abandoned in favour of already existing typewriter characters with diacritics (e.g. many characters are borrowed from Eastern European orthographies) or <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a>. Examples of this transcription may be seen in Pike's <i>Phonemics</i><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in many of the papers reprinted in Joos's <i>Readings in Linguistics 1</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the days before it was possible to create phonetic fonts for computer printers and computerized typesetting, this system allowed material to be typed on existing typewriters to create printable material. </p><p>There are also extended versions of the IPA, for example: <a href="/wiki/Ext-IPA" class="mw-redirect" title="Ext-IPA">Ext-IPA</a>, <a href="/wiki/VoQS" class="mw-redirect" title="VoQS">VoQS</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Luciano_Canepari" title="Luciano Canepari">Luciano Canepari</a>'s <i><sup>can</sup>IPA</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aspects_of_alphabetic_transcription">Aspects of alphabetic transcription</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetic_transcription&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Aspects of alphabetic transcription"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Association" title="International Phonetic Association">International Phonetic Association</a> recommends that a <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetic</a> transcription should be enclosed in <a href="/wiki/Bracket" title="Bracket">square brackets</a> "[ ]". A transcription that specifically denotes only <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a> contrasts may be enclosed in <a href="/wiki/Slash_(punctuation)" title="Slash (punctuation)">slashes</a> "/ /" instead. If one is unsure, it is best to use brackets since by setting off a transcription with slashes, one makes a theoretical claim that every symbol phonemically contrasts for the language being transcribed. </p><p>For phonetic transcriptions, there is flexibility in how closely sounds may be transcribed. A transcription that gives only a basic idea of the sounds of a language in the broadest terms is called a <i>broad transcription</i>; in some cases, it may be equivalent to a phonemic transcription (only without any theoretical claims). A close transcription, indicating precise details of the sounds, is called a <i>narrow transcription</i>. They are not binary choices but the ends of a continuum, with many possibilities in between. All are enclosed in brackets. </p><p>For example, in some dialects the English word <i>pretzel</i> in a narrow transcription would be <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈpɹ̥ʷɛʔts.ɫ̩]</span>, which notes several phonetic features that may not be evident even to a native speaker. An example of a broad transcription is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈpɹ̥ɛts.ɫ̩]</span>, which indicates only some of the features that are easier to hear. A yet broader transcription would be <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈpɹɛts.l]</span> in which every symbol represents an unambiguous speech sound but without going into any unnecessary detail. None of those transcriptions makes any claims about the phonemic status of the sounds. Instead, they represent certain ways in which it is possible to produce the sounds that make up the word.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also several possibilities in how to transcribe the word phonemically, but here, the differences are generally of not precision but analysis. For example, <i>pretzel</i> could be <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈprɛts.l̩/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈprɛts.əl/</span>. The latter transcription suggests that there are two vowels in the word even if they cannot both be heard, but the former suggests that there is only one.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strictly speaking, it is not possible to have a distinction between "broad" and "narrow" within phonemic transcription, since the symbols chosen represent only sounds that have been shown to be distinctive. However, the symbols themselves may be more or less explicit about their phonetic realization.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A frequently cited example is the symbol chosen for the English consonant at the beginning of the words 'rue', 'rye', 'red': this is frequently transcribed as /r/, despite the symbol suggesting an association with the IPA symbol <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r]</span> which is used for a tongue-tip <a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">trill</a>. It is equally possible within a phonemic transcription to use the symbol <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɹ/</span>, which in IPA usage refers to an <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar approximant">alveolar approximant</a>; this is the more common realization for English pronunciation in America and England. Phonemic symbols will frequently be chosen to avoid diacritics as much as possible, under a 'one sound one symbol' policy, or may even be restricted to the <a href="/wiki/ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a> symbols of a typical keyboard, as in the <a href="/wiki/SAMPA" title="SAMPA">SAMPA</a> alphabet. For example, the English word <i>church</i> may be transcribed as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃɝːtʃ/</span>, a close approximation of its actual pronunciation, or more abstractly as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/crc/</span>, which is easier to type. Phonemic symbols should always be backed up by an explanation of their use and meaning, especially when they are as divergent from actual pronunciation as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/crc/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Occasionally a transcription will be enclosed in <a href="/wiki/Vertical_bar" title="Vertical bar">pipes</a> ("| |"). This goes beyond phonology into <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> analysis. For example, the words <i>pets</i> and <i>beds</i> could be transcribed phonetically as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʰɛʔts]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b̥ɛd̥z̥]</span> (in a fairly narrow transcription), and phonemically as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pɛts/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bɛdz/</span>. Because <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span> are separate <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> in English, they receive separate symbols in the phonemic analysis. However, a native English speaker would recognize that underneath this, they represent the same plural ending. This can be indicated with the pipe notation. If the plural ending is thought to be essentially an <i>s</i>, as English spelling would suggest, the words can be transcribed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">|pɛts|</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">|bɛds|</span>. If it is essentially a <i>z</i>, these would be <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">|pɛtz|</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">|bɛdz|</span>. </p><p>A double slash ("<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⫽<span class="wrap"> </span>⫽</span>") is sometimes used to mark a <a href="/wiki/Diaphoneme" title="Diaphoneme">diaphonemic</a> transcription. Diaphonemic transcriptions accommodate for the variation between the phonemic systems of different varieties or <a href="/wiki/Diasystem" title="Diasystem">diasystems</a> of a language. For example, if a speaker of variety A pronounces the <a href="/wiki/Lexical_set" title="Lexical set">lexical set</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">BATH</span> with an <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɑː]</span> as in the lexical set <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">PALM</span>, whereas a speaker of variety B pronounces the lexical set <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">BATH</span> with an <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[æ]</span> as in the lexical set <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">TRAP</span>, then a diaphonemic transcription that accommodates for variety A and variety B at the same time would transcribe the three lexical sets in three different ways, for instance <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">PALM</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⫽pɑːm⫽</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">TRAP</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⫽træp⫽</span>, and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">BATH</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⫽baθ⫽</span>, where the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">⫽a⫽</span> would mean ‘pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɑː]</span> in variety A and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[æ]</span> in variety B.’ Other ways to mark diaphonemic transcriptions include <a href="/wiki/Exclamation_mark" title="Exclamation mark">exclamation marks</a> ("! !") or pipes ("| |"). </p><p>To avoid confusion with IPA symbols, it may be desirable to specify when native orthography is being used, so that, for example, the English word <i>jet</i> is not read as "yet". This is done with <a href="/wiki/Bracket" title="Bracket">angle brackets</a> or <i>chevrons</i>: <span class="nowrap">⟨jet⟩</span>. It is also common to italicize such words, but the chevrons indicate specifically that they are in the original language's orthography, and not in English <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliteration</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iconic">Iconic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetic_transcription&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Iconic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VisibleSpeech-illustrations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/VisibleSpeech-illustrations.jpg/220px-VisibleSpeech-illustrations.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/VisibleSpeech-illustrations.jpg/330px-VisibleSpeech-illustrations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/VisibleSpeech-illustrations.jpg/440px-VisibleSpeech-illustrations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1522" data-file-height="2425" /></a><figcaption>Visible Speech</figcaption></figure> <p>In <i>iconic</i> phonetic notation, the shapes of the phonetic characters are designed so that they visually represent the position of articulators in the vocal tract. This is unlike alphabetic notation, where the correspondence between character shape and articulator position is arbitrary. This notation is potentially more flexible than alphabetic notation in showing more shades of pronunciation (MacMahon 1996:838–841). An example of iconic phonetic notation is the <a href="/wiki/Visible_Speech" title="Visible Speech">Visible Speech</a> system, created by Scottish phonetician <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Melville_Bell" title="Alexander Melville Bell">Alexander Melville Bell</a> (Ellis 1869:15). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analphabetic">Analphabetic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetic_transcription&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Analphabetic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another type of phonetic notation that is more precise than alphabetic notation is <i>analphabetic</i> phonetic notation. Instead of both the alphabetic and iconic notational types' general principle of using one symbol per sound, analphabetic notation uses long sequences of symbols to precisely describe the component features of an articulatory gesture (MacMahon 1996:842–844). This type of notation is reminiscent of the notation used in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">chemical formulas</a> to denote the composition of chemical compounds. Although more descriptive than alphabetic notation, analphabetic notation is less practical for many purposes (e.g. for descriptive linguists doing fieldwork or for speech pathologists transcribing their impressions of speech disorders). As a result, this type of notation is uncommon. </p><p>Two examples of this type were developed by the Danish <a href="/wiki/Otto_Jespersen" title="Otto Jespersen">Otto Jespersen</a> (1889) and American <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Pike" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth Pike">Kenneth Pike</a> (1943). Pike's system, which is part of a larger goal of scientific description of phonetics, is particularly interesting in its challenge against the descriptive method of the phoneticians who created alphabetic systems like the IPA. An example of Pike's system can be demonstrated by the following. A <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllabic</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a> <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar nasal">alveolar nasal</a> consonant (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n̩]</span> in IPA) is notated as </p> <dl><dd><i>M</i>aIlDe<i>C</i>VoeIpvnnAP<i>p</i>a<i>a</i>t<i>d</i>tl<i>t</i>n<i>r</i>ansnsfS<i>p</i>v<i>a</i>v<i>d</i>tlv<i>t</i>n<i>r</i>anss<i>s</i>fT<i>p</i>g<i>a</i>g<i>d</i>tlwv<i>t</i>itv<i>r</i>ansn<i>s</i>f<i>S</i>rp<i>F</i>Ss</dd></dl> <p>In Pike's notation there are 5 main components (which are indicated using the example above): </p> <ol><li><i>M</i> – manner of production (i.e., <i>M</i>aIlDe)</li> <li><i>C</i> – manner of controlling (i.e., <i>C</i>VoeIpvnn)</li> <li>description of stricture (i.e., AP<i>p</i>a<i>a</i>t<i>d</i>tl<i>t</i>n<i>r</i>ansnsfS<i>p</i>v<i>a</i>v<i>d</i>tlv<i>t</i>n<i>r</i>anss<i>s</i>fT<i>p</i>g<i>a</i>g<i>d</i>tlwv<i>t</i>itv<i>r</i>ansn<i>s</i>f)</li> <li><i>S</i> – segment type (i.e., <i>S</i>rp)</li> <li><i>F</i> – phonetic function (i.e., <i>F</i>Ss)</li></ol> <p>The components of the notational hierarchy of this consonant are explained below: </p> <table cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="font-size: 86%"> <tbody><tr> <td valign="top"> <dl><dd><i>M</i> = productive mechanism <dl><dd>a = air-stream mechanism <dl><dd>I = initiator <dl><dd>l = for lung air</dd></dl></dd> <dd>D = direction of the air stream <dl><dd>e = egressive</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd> <dd><i>C</i> = controlling mechanism <dl><dd>V = valvate stricture <dl><dd>o = oral stricture</dd> <dd>e = subvalvate esophageal stricture</dd></dl></dd> <dd>I = degree of air-stream interruption <dl><dd>p = partial (continuants) <dl><dd>v = nonfrictional</dd> <dd>n = nasal <dl><dd>n = resonant nasal</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </td> <td valign="top"> <dl><dd><u>(Rank of stricture)</u></dd> <dd>A = acme</dd> <dd>P = primary <dl><dd><u>(Features of stricture)</u></dd> <dd><i>p</i> = point of articulation <dl><dd>a = alveolar</dd></dl></dd> <dd><i>a</i> = articulator <dl><dd>t = tongue tip</dd></dl></dd> <dd><i>d</i> = degree of articulation <dl><dd>t = in time <dl><dd>l = long</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd> <dd><i>t</i> = type of articulation <dl><dd>n = normal</dd></dl></dd> <dd><i>r</i> = relative strength <dl><dd>a = of articulating movement <dl><dd>n = normal</dd></dl></dd> <dd>s = of acoustic impression <dl><dd>n = normal</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd> <dd><i>s</i> = shape of articulator <dl><dd>f = flat</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd> <dd><u>(Rank of stricture)</u></dd> <dd>S = secondary <dl><dd><u>(Features of stricture)</u></dd> <dd><i>p</i> = point of articulation <dl><dd>v = velic</dd></dl></dd> <dd><i>a</i> = articulator <dl><dd>v = velic</dd></dl></dd> <dd></dd> <dd><u>(Features of stricture)</u></dd> <dd><i>p</i> = point of articulation <dl><dd>g = glottal</dd></dl></dd> <dd><i>a</i> = articulator <dl><dd>g = vocal folds</dd></dl></dd> <dd><i>d</i> = degree of articulation <dl><dd>t = in time <dl><dd>l = long</dd></dl></dd> <dd>w = wide</dd> <dd>v = with cavity friction</dd></dl></dd> <dd><i>t</i> = type of articulation <dl><dd>i = iterative <dl><dd>t = trill</dd> <dd>v = vibratory trill</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd> <dd><i>r</i> = relative strength <dl><dd>a = of articulating movement <dl><dd>n = normal</dd></dl></dd> <dd>s = of acoustic impression <dl><dd>n = normal</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd> <dd><i>s</i> = shape of articulator <dl><dd>f = flat</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </td> <td valign="top"> <dl><dd><i>S</i> = segmental type <dl><dd>r = real</dd> <dd>p = perceptual</dd></dl></dd> <dd><i>F</i> = function phonetically <dl><dd>S = of the segment in the syllable <dl><dd>s = syllabic contoid</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetic_transcription&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_phonetic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="English phonetic alphabet">English Phonetic Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_dialect" title="Eye dialect">Eye dialect</a>, deliberately nonstandard spelling to demonstrate pronunciation in literature</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthographic_transcription" title="Orthographic transcription">Orthographic transcription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_spelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonetic spelling">Phonetic spelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_respelling_for_English" title="Pronunciation respelling for English">Pronunciation respelling for English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_spelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Pronunciation spelling">Pronunciation spelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">Transliteration</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notational_systems">Notational systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetic_transcription&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notational systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americanist_phonetic_notation" title="Americanist phonetic notation">Americanist phonetic notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARPABET" title="ARPABET">ARPABET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_phonetic_alphabets" title="Cyrillic phonetic alphabets">Cyrillic phonetic alphabets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_ASCII_encodings_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet">Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SAMPA" title="SAMPA">SAMPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-SAMPA" title="X-SAMPA">X-SAMPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPA_chart_for_English" class="mw-redirect" title="IPA chart for English">IPA chart for English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RFE_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="RFE Phonetic Alphabet">RFE Phonetic Alphabet</a>, (Revista de Filología Española)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokoe_notation" title="Stokoe notation">Stokoe notation</a> to represent sign languages</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_Phonetic_Alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Uralic Phonetic Alphabet">Uralic Phonetic Alphabet</a> (UPA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_Speech" title="Visible Speech">Visible Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teuthonista" title="Teuthonista">Teuthonista</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetic_transcription&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Albright, Robert W. (1958). <i>The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its Background and Development</i>. International Journal of American Linguistics (Vol. 24, No. 1, Part 3); Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics, publ. 7. Baltimore. (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1953).</li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCanepari2005" class="citation book cs1">Canepari, Luciano (2005). <i>A handbook of phonetics: "natural" phonetics: articulatory, auditory & functional</i>. LINCOM textbooks in linguistics. Munich: LINCOM Europa. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89586-480-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89586-480-3"><bdi>978-3-89586-480-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+handbook+of+phonetics%3A+%22natural%22+phonetics%3A+articulatory%2C+auditory+%26+functional&rft.place=Munich&rft.series=LINCOM+textbooks+in+linguistics&rft.pub=LINCOM+Europa&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-89586-480-3&rft.aulast=Canepari&rft.aufirst=Luciano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ellis, Alexander J. (1869–1889). <i>On Early English Pronunciation</i> (Parts 1 & 5). London: Philological Society by Asher & Co.; London: Trübner & Co.</li> <li>International Phonetic Association. (1949). <i>The Principles of the International Phonetic Association, Being a Description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the Manner of Using It, Illustrated by Texts in 51 Languages</i>. London: University College, Department of Phonetics.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: a guide to the use of the international phonetic alphabet</i>. Cambridge University Press. 2021. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65236-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65236-0"><bdi>978-0-521-65236-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association%3A+a+guide+to+the+use+of+the+international+phonetic+alphabet&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65236-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Jespersen, Otto. (1889). <i>The Articulations of Speech Sounds Represented by Means of Analphabetic Symbols</i>. Marburg: Elwert.</li> <li>Kelly, John. (1981). The 1847 Alphabet: An Episode of Phonotypy. In R. E. Asher & <a href="/wiki/E._J._A._Henderson" class="mw-redirect" title="E. J. A. Henderson">E. J. A. Henderson</a> (Eds.), <i>Towards a History of Phonetics</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.|</li> <li>Kemp, J. Alan. (1994). Phonetic Transcription: History. In R. E. Asher & J. M. Y. Simpson (Eds.), <i>The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics</i> (Vol. 6, pp. 3040–3051). Oxford: Pergamon.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacMahon1996" class="citation book cs1">MacMahon, Michael K. C. (1996). "Phonetic Notation". In Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (eds.). <i>The world's writing systems</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 821–846. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507993-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507993-7"><bdi>978-0-19-507993-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phonetic+Notation&rft.btitle=The+world%27s+writing+systems&rft.pages=821-846&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507993-7&rft.aulast=MacMahon&rft.aufirst=Michael+K.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Pike, Kenneth L. (1943). <i>Phonetics: A Critical Analysis of Phonetic Theory and a Technique for the Practical Description of Sounds</i>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPullumLadusaw1986" class="citation book cs1">Pullum, Geoffrey K.; Ladusaw, William A. (1986). <i>Phonetic symbol guide</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-68531-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-68531-1"><bdi>978-0-226-68531-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonetic+symbol+guide&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-226-68531-1&rft.aulast=Pullum&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+K.&rft.au=Ladusaw%2C+William+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Sweet, Henry. (1880–1881). Sound Notation. <i>Transactions of the Philological Society</i>, 177–235.</li> <li>Sweet, Henry. (1971). <i>The Indispensable Foundation: A Selection from the Writings of Henry Sweet</i>. Henderson, Eugénie J. A. (Ed.). Language and Language Learning 28. London: Oxford University Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetic_transcription&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShariatmadari2019" class="citation book cs1">Shariatmadari, David (2019). <i>Don't Believe a Word</i>. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 21–40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4746-0843-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4746-0843-5"><bdi>978-1-4746-0843-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Don%27t+Believe+a+Word&rft.pages=21-40&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-4746-0843-5&rft.aulast=Shariatmadari&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal1997" class="citation book cs1">Crystal, David (1997). <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55050-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55050-5"><bdi>978-0-521-55050-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+Language&rft.pages=160&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-55050-5&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaver1994" class="citation book cs1">Laver, John (1994). <i>Principles of Phonetics</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 550. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-45655-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-45655-X"><bdi>0-521-45655-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Phonetics&rft.pages=550&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-521-45655-X&rft.aulast=Laver&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBallRahilly1999" class="citation book cs1">Ball, Martin; Rahilly, Joan (1999). <i>Phonetics: the Science of Speech</i>. Arnold. pp. 142–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-70010-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-70010-6"><bdi>0-340-70010-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonetics%3A+the+Science+of+Speech&rft.pages=142-3&rft.pub=Arnold&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-340-70010-6&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Rahilly%2C+Joan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/little">"little"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a></i>. Merriam-Webster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=little&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Flittle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/little">Little</a>". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins Publishers, 2023.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbercrombie1967111–112-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbercrombie1967111–112_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbercrombie1967">Abercrombie 1967</a>, pp. 111–112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandau2001" class="citation book cs1">Landau, Sidney I. (2001). <i>Dictionaries: the art and craft of lexicography</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78512-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78512-9"><bdi>978-0-521-78512-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionaries%3A+the+art+and+craft+of+lexicography&rft.pages=118&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-78512-9&rft.aulast=Landau&rft.aufirst=Sidney+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPike1947" class="citation book cs1">Pike, Kenneth (1947). <i>Phonemics</i>. University of Michigan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonemics&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=1947&rft.aulast=Pike&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoos1957" class="citation book cs1">Joos, M., ed. (1957). <i>Readings in Linguistics 1</i>. University of Chicago.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readings+in+Linguistics+1&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=1957&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbercrombie1967" class="citation book cs1">Abercrombie, David (1967). <i>Elements of General Phonetics</i>. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 128–129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85224-028-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85224-028-1"><bdi>978-0-85224-028-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elements+of+General+Phonetics&rft.pages=128-129&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-85224-028-1&rft.aulast=Abercrombie&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoach2009" class="citation book cs1">Roach, Peter (2009). <i>English Phonetics and Phonology</i> (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 100–101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-71740-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-71740-3"><bdi>978-0-521-71740-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Phonetics+and+Phonology&rft.pages=100-101&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-71740-3&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1967" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Daniel (1967). <i>An Outline of English Phonetics</i> (9th ed.). Heffer. pp. 335–336.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Outline+of+English+Phonetics&rft.pages=335-336&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Heffer&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaver1994" class="citation book cs1">Laver, John (1994). <i>Principles of Phonetics</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 551.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Phonetics&rft.pages=551&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Laver&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetic+transcription" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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