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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Automatic_process_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Automatic_process_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Automatic process control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Automatic_process_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Large_integrated_computer-based_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Large_integrated_computer-based_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Large integrated computer-based systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Large_integrated_computer-based_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Application" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Application"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Application</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Application-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Application subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Application-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Household" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Household"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Household</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Household-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Automotive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Automotive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Automotive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Automotive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aircraft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aircraft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Aircraft</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aircraft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laboratory_instrumentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laboratory_instrumentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Laboratory instrumentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laboratory_instrumentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instrumentation_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instrumentation_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Instrumentation engineering</span> </div> </a> <button 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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Impact of modern development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_of_modern_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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Available in 20 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-20" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">20 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%B2%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%85_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7" title="أجهزة القياس والتحكم واستخدامها – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أجهزة القياس والتحكم واستخدامها" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="ইন্সট্রুমেন্টেশন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইন্সট্রুমেন্টেশন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentaci%C3%B3_(enginyeria)" title="Instrumentació (enginyeria) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Instrumentació (enginyeria)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%AF%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%82" title="ابزار دقیق – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ابزار دقیق" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation_(science)" title="Instrumentation (science) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Instrumentation (science)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A1%D6%80%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Սարքաշինություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սարքաշինություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="मापयंत्रण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मापयंत्रण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentasi" title="Instrumentasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Instrumentasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strumentazione_di_controllo" title="Strumentazione di controllo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Strumentazione di controllo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഉപകരണശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഉപകരണശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="उपकरणीकरण अभियांत्रिकी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="उपकरणीकरण अभियांत्रिकी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%88%E8%A3%85" title="計装 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="計装" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentering" title="Instrumentering – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Instrumentering" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumenta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_industrial" title="Instrumentação industrial – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Instrumentação industrial" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Instrumentation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittaustekniikka" title="Mittaustekniikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mittaustekniikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="கருவியியல் பொறியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கருவியியல் பொறியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A1" title="วิศวกรรมการวัดคุม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิศวกรรมการวัดคุม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enstr%C3%BCmantasyon" title="Enstrümantasyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Enstrümantasyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Вимірювальна техніка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вимірювальна техніка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1770203#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> 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searchaux" style="display:none">Measuring instruments which monitor and control a process</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Instrumentation (disambiguation)">Instrumentation (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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.mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Instrumentation%22">"Instrumentation"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Instrumentation%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Instrumentation%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Instrumentation%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Instrumentation%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Instrumentation%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Instrumentation</b> is a collective term for <b>measuring instruments</b>, used for indicating, measuring, and recording <a href="/wiki/Physical_quantities" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical quantities">physical quantities</a>. It is also a field of study about the art and science about making <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measurement</a> instruments, involving the related areas of <a href="/wiki/Metrology" title="Metrology">metrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">control theory</a>. The term has its origins in the art and science of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_instrument" title="Scientific instrument">scientific instrument-making</a>. </p><p>Instrumentation can refer to devices as simple as direct-reading <a href="/wiki/Thermometer" title="Thermometer">thermometers</a>, or as complex as multi-<a href="/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor">sensor</a> components of <a href="/wiki/Industrial_control_system" title="Industrial control system">industrial control systems</a>. Instruments can be found in <a href="/wiki/Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratories">laboratories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Refineries" class="mw-redirect" title="Refineries">refineries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Factories" class="mw-redirect" title="Factories">factories</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vehicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Vehicles">vehicles</a>, as well as in everyday household use (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Smoke_detector" title="Smoke detector">smoke detectors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermostat" title="Thermostat">thermostats</a>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement_parameters">Measurement parameters</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Measurement parameters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments" title="List of measuring instruments">List of measuring instruments</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pl_control_valve.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Pl_control_valve.jpg/220px-Pl_control_valve.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Pl_control_valve.jpg/330px-Pl_control_valve.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Pl_control_valve.jpg/440px-Pl_control_valve.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Control valve</figcaption></figure> <p>Instrumentation is used to measure many parameters (physical values), including: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">Pressure</a>, either <a href="/wiki/Differential_pressure_transducer" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential pressure transducer">differential</a> or <a href="/wiki/Static_pressure" title="Static pressure">static</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rate_of_fluid_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Rate of fluid flow">Flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature_measurement" title="Temperature measurement">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_Measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="Level Measurement">Levels</a> of liquids, etc.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moisture" title="Moisture">Moisture</a> or <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">Density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">Viscosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">ionising radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">Frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Current (electricity)">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">Voltage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductance" title="Inductance">Inductance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacitance" title="Capacitance">Capacitance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistivity">Resistivity</a></li> <li>Chemical composition</li> <li>Chemical properties <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic gas">Toxic gases</a></li></ul></li> <li>Position</li> <li>Vibration</li> <li>Weight</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Steuerstand01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Steuerstand01.jpg/220px-Steuerstand01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Steuerstand01.jpg/330px-Steuerstand01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Steuerstand01.jpg/440px-Steuerstand01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A local instrumentation panel on a steam turbine</figcaption></figure> <p>The history of instrumentation can be divided into several phases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-industrial">Pre-industrial</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pre-industrial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Elements of industrial instrumentation have long histories. Scales for comparing weights and simple pointers to indicate position are ancient technologies. Some of the earliest measurements were of time. One of the oldest <a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">water clocks</a> was found in the tomb of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a> pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_I" title="Amenhotep I">Amenhotep I</a>, buried around 1500 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Improvements were incorporated in the clocks. By 270 BCE they had the rudiments of an automatic control system device.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1663 <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wren" title="Christopher Wren">Christopher Wren</a> presented the Royal Society with a design for a "weather clock". A drawing shows meteorological sensors moving pens over paper driven by clockwork. Such devices did not become standard in meteorology for two centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept has remained virtually unchanged as evidenced by pneumatic chart recorders, where a pressurized bellows displaces a pen. Integrating sensors, displays, recorders, and controls was uncommon until the industrial revolution, limited by both need and practicality. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_industrial">Early industrial</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early industrial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Analogue_control_loop_evolution.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Analogue_control_loop_evolution.png/220px-Analogue_control_loop_evolution.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Analogue_control_loop_evolution.png/330px-Analogue_control_loop_evolution.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Analogue_control_loop_evolution.png/440px-Analogue_control_loop_evolution.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>The evolution of analogue control loop signalling from the pneumatic era to the electronic era</figcaption></figure> <p>Early systems used direct process connections to local control panels for control and indication, which from the early 1930s saw the introduction of pneumatic <a href="/wiki/Transmitters" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmitters">transmitters</a> and automatic <a href="/wiki/Proportional%E2%80%93integral%E2%80%93derivative_controller" title="Proportional–integral–derivative controller">3-term (PID) controllers</a>. </p><p>The ranges of pneumatic transmitters were defined by the need to control valves and actuators in the field. Typically, a signal ranged from 3 to 15 psi (20 to 100kPa or 0.2 to 1.0 kg/cm2) as a standard, was standardized with 6 to 30 psi occasionally being used for larger valves. Transistor electronics enabled wiring to replace pipes, initially with a range of 20 to 100mA at up to 90V for loop powered devices, reducing to 4 to 20mA at 12 to 24V in more modern systems. A <a href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitter</a> is a device that produces an output signal, often in the form of a 4–20 <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">mA</a> electrical <a href="/wiki/Current_(electrical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Current (electrical)">current</a> signal, although many other options using <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">ethernet</a> are possible. The <a href="/wiki/Transistor#History" title="Transistor">transistor</a> was commercialized by the mid-1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Instruments attached to a control system provided signals used to operate <a href="/wiki/Solenoid" title="Solenoid">solenoids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valve" title="Valve">valves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regulator_(automatic_control)" title="Regulator (automatic control)">regulators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circuit_breaker" title="Circuit breaker">circuit breakers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">relays</a> and other devices. Such devices could control a desired output variable, and provide either remote monitoring or automated control capabilities. </p><p>Each instrument company introduced their own standard instrumentation signal, causing confusion until the 4–20 mA range was used as the standard electronic instrument signal for transmitters and valves. This signal was eventually standardized as ANSI/ISA S50, "Compatibility of Analog Signals for Electronic Industrial Process Instruments", in the 1970s. The transformation of instrumentation from mechanical pneumatic transmitters, controllers, and valves to electronic instruments reduced maintenance costs as electronic instruments were more dependable than mechanical instruments. This also increased efficiency and production due to their increase in accuracy. Pneumatics enjoyed some advantages, being favored in corrosive and explosive atmospheres.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Automatic_process_control">Automatic process control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Automatic process control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Industrial_control_loop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Industrial_control_loop.jpg/220px-Industrial_control_loop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Industrial_control_loop.jpg/330px-Industrial_control_loop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Industrial_control_loop.jpg/440px-Industrial_control_loop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>Example of a single industrial control loop, showing continuously modulated control of process flow</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early years of <a href="/wiki/Process_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control">process control</a>, process indicators and control elements such as valves were monitored by an operator, that walked around the unit adjusting the valves to obtain the desired temperatures, pressures, and flows. As technology evolved pneumatic controllers were invented and mounted in the field that monitored the process and controlled the valves. This reduced the amount of time process operators needed to monitor the process. Latter years, the actual controllers were moved to a central room and signals were sent into the control room to monitor the process and outputs signals were sent to the final control element such as a valve to adjust the process as needed. These controllers and indicators were mounted on a wall called a control board. The operators stood in front of this board walking back and forth monitoring the process indicators. This again reduced the number and amount of time process operators were needed to walk around the units. The most standard pneumatic signal level used during these years was 3–15 psig.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Large_integrated_computer-based_systems">Large integrated computer-based systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Large integrated computer-based systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pneumatische_regelaar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Pneumatische_regelaar.jpg/220px-Pneumatische_regelaar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Pneumatische_regelaar.jpg/330px-Pneumatische_regelaar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Pneumatische_regelaar.jpg/440px-Pneumatische_regelaar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1624" data-file-height="1676" /></a><figcaption>Pneumatic "three term" pneumatic <a href="/wiki/PID_controller" class="mw-redirect" title="PID controller">PID controller</a>, widely used before electronics became reliable and cheaper and safe to use in hazardous areas (Siemens Telepneu Example)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kontrollrom_Tyssedal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Kontrollrom_Tyssedal.jpg/220px-Kontrollrom_Tyssedal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Kontrollrom_Tyssedal.jpg/330px-Kontrollrom_Tyssedal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Kontrollrom_Tyssedal.jpg/440px-Kontrollrom_Tyssedal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>A pre-DCS/SCADA era central control room. Whilst the controls are centralised in one place, they are still discrete and not integrated into one system.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leitstand_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Leitstand_2.jpg/220px-Leitstand_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Leitstand_2.jpg/330px-Leitstand_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Leitstand_2.jpg/440px-Leitstand_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2515" data-file-height="1387" /></a><figcaption>A DCS control room where plant information and controls are displayed on computer graphics screens. The operators are seated and can view and control any part of the process from their screens, whilst retaining a plant overview.</figcaption></figure> <p>Process control of large industrial plants has evolved through many stages. Initially, control would be from panels local to the process plant. However, this required a large manpower resource to attend to these dispersed panels, and there was no overall view of the process. The next logical development was the transmission of all plant measurements to a permanently staffed central control room. Effectively this was the centralization of all the localized panels, with the advantages of lower manning levels and easy overview of the process. Often the controllers were behind the control room panels, and all automatic and manual control outputs were transmitted back to plant. </p><p>However, whilst providing a central control focus, this arrangement was inflexible as each control loop had its own controller hardware, and continual operator movement within the control room was required to view different parts of the process. With coming of electronic processors and graphic displays it became possible to replace these discrete controllers with computer-based algorithms, hosted on a network of input/output racks with their own control processors. These could be distributed around plant, and communicate with the graphic display in the control room or rooms. The distributed control concept was born. </p><p>The introduction of DCSs and <a href="/wiki/SCADA" title="SCADA">SCADA</a> allowed easy interconnection and re-configuration of plant controls such as cascaded loops and interlocks, and easy interfacing with other production computer systems. It enabled sophisticated alarm handling, introduced automatic event logging, removed the need for physical records such as chart recorders, allowed the control racks to be networked and thereby located locally to plant to reduce cabling runs, and provided high level overviews of plant status and production levels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Application">Application</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Application"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some cases, the sensor is a very minor element of the mechanism. Digital cameras and wristwatches might technically meet the loose definition of instrumentation because they record and/or display sensed information. Under most circumstances neither would be called instrumentation, but when used to measure the elapsed time of a race and to document the winner at the finish line, both would be called instrumentation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Household">Household</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Household"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A very simple example of an instrumentation system is a mechanical <a href="/wiki/Thermostat" title="Thermostat">thermostat</a>, used to control a household furnace and thus to control room temperature. A typical unit senses temperature with a <a href="/wiki/Bi-metallic_strip" class="mw-redirect" title="Bi-metallic strip">bi-metallic strip</a>. It displays temperature by a needle on the free end of the strip. It activates the furnace by a <a href="/wiki/Mercury_switch" title="Mercury switch">mercury switch</a>. As the switch is rotated by the strip, the mercury makes physical (and thus electrical) contact between electrodes. </p><p>Another example of an instrumentation system is a <a href="/wiki/Burglar_alarm" class="mw-redirect" title="Burglar alarm">home security system</a>. Such a system consists of sensors (motion detection, switches to detect door openings), simple algorithms to detect intrusion, local control (arm/disarm) and remote monitoring of the system so that the police can be summoned. Communication is an inherent part of the design. </p><p>Kitchen appliances use sensors for control. </p> <ul><li>A refrigerator maintains a constant temperature by actuating the cooling system when the temperature becomes too high.</li> <li>An automatic ice machine makes ice until a <a href="/wiki/Miniature_snap-action_switch" title="Miniature snap-action switch">limit switch</a> is thrown.</li> <li>Pop-up bread <a href="/wiki/Toaster" title="Toaster">toasters</a> allow the time to be set.</li> <li>Non-electronic gas ovens will regulate the temperature with a <a href="/wiki/Thermostat" title="Thermostat">thermostat</a> controlling the flow of gas to the <a href="/wiki/Gas_burner" title="Gas burner">gas burner</a>. These may feature a sensor bulb sited within the main chamber of the oven. In addition, there may be a safety cut-off <a href="/wiki/Flame_supervision_device" title="Flame supervision device">flame supervision device</a>: after ignition, the burner's control knob must be held for a short time in order for a sensor to become hot, and permit the flow of gas to the burner. If the safety sensor becomes cold, this may indicate the flame on the burner has become extinguished, and to prevent a continuous leak of gas the flow is stopped.</li> <li>Electric ovens use a temperature sensor and will turn on heating elements when the temperature is too low. More advanced ovens will actuate fans in response to temperature sensors, to distribute heat or to cool.</li> <li>A common <a href="/wiki/Toilet" title="Toilet">toilet</a> refills the water tank until a float closes the valve. The float is acting as a water level sensor.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Automotive">Automotive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Automotive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern automobiles have complex instrumentation. In addition to displays of engine rotational speed and vehicle linear speed, there are also displays of battery voltage and current, fluid levels, fluid temperatures, distance traveled, and feedback of various controls (turn signals, parking brake, headlights, transmission position). Cautions may be displayed for special problems (fuel low, check engine, tire pressure low, door ajar, seat belt unfastened). Problems are recorded so they can be reported to <a href="/wiki/Vehicle_bus" title="Vehicle bus">diagnostic equipment</a>. Navigation systems can provide voice commands to reach a destination. Automotive instrumentation must be cheap and reliable over long periods in harsh environments. There may be independent <a href="/wiki/Airbag" title="Airbag">airbag</a> systems that contain sensors, logic and actuators. <a href="/wiki/Anti-lock_braking_system" title="Anti-lock braking system">Anti-skid</a> braking systems use sensors to control the brakes, while <a href="/wiki/Cruise_control" title="Cruise control">cruise control</a> affects throttle position. A wide variety of services can be provided via communication links on the <a href="/wiki/OnStar" title="OnStar">OnStar</a> system. <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous car">Autonomous cars</a> (with exotic instrumentation) have been shown. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aircraft">Aircraft</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Aircraft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early aircraft had a few sensors.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Steam gauges" converted air pressures into needle deflections that could be interpreted as altitude and airspeed. A magnetic compass provided a sense of direction. The displays to the pilot were as critical as the measurements. </p><p>A modern aircraft has a far more sophisticated suite of sensors and displays, which are embedded into <a href="/wiki/Avionics" title="Avionics">avionics</a> systems. The aircraft may contain <a href="/wiki/Inertial_navigation_system" title="Inertial navigation system">inertial navigation systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Global_positioning_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Global positioning system">global positioning systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">weather radar</a>, autopilots, and aircraft stabilization systems. Redundant sensors are used for reliability. A subset of the information may be transferred to a <a href="/wiki/Event_data_recorder" title="Event data recorder">crash recorder</a> to aid mishap investigations. Modern pilot displays now include computer displays including <a href="/wiki/Head-up_display" title="Head-up display">head-up displays</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control_radar_beacon_system" title="Air traffic control radar beacon system">Air traffic control radar</a> is a distributed instrumentation system. The ground part sends an electromagnetic pulse and receives an echo (at least). Aircraft carry transponders that transmit codes on reception of the pulse. The system displays an aircraft map location, an identifier and optionally altitude. The map location is based on sensed antenna direction and sensed time delay. The other information is embedded in the transponder transmission. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laboratory_instrumentation">Laboratory instrumentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Laboratory instrumentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among the possible uses of the term is a collection of laboratory test equipment controlled by a computer through an IEEE-488 bus (also known as GPIB for General Purpose Instrument Bus or HPIB for Hewlitt Packard Instrument Bus). Laboratory equipment is available to measure many electrical and chemical quantities. Such a collection of equipment might be used to automate the testing of drinking water for pollutants. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Instrumentation_engineering">Instrumentation engineering <span class="anchor" id="Engineering"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Instrumentation engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pump_with_tank_pid_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Pump_with_tank_pid_en.svg/220px-Pump_with_tank_pid_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Pump_with_tank_pid_en.svg/330px-Pump_with_tank_pid_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Pump_with_tank_pid_en.svg/440px-Pump_with_tank_pid_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption>The instrumentation part of a <a href="/wiki/Piping_and_instrumentation_diagram" title="Piping and instrumentation diagram">piping and instrumentation diagram</a> will be developed by an instrumentation engineer.</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Instrumentation" title="Special:EditPage/Instrumentation">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Instrumentation engineering</b> is the engineering specialization focused on the principle and operation of measuring instruments that are used in design and configuration of automated systems in areas such as electrical and pneumatic domains, and the control of quantities being measured. They typically work for industries with <a href="/wiki/Automated" class="mw-redirect" title="Automated">automated</a> processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Chemical_plant" title="Chemical plant">chemical</a> or <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a> plants, with the goal of improving system <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a>, reliability, safety, optimization and stability. To control the parameters in a process or in a particular system, devices such as microprocessors, microcontrollers or PLCs are used, but their ultimate aim is to control the parameters of a system. </p><p>Instrumentation engineering is loosely defined because the required tasks are very domain dependent. An expert in the biomedical instrumentation of laboratory rats has very different concerns than the expert in rocket instrumentation. Common concerns of both are the selection of appropriate sensors based on size, weight, cost, reliability, accuracy, longevity, environmental robustness, and frequency response. Some sensors are literally fired in artillery shells. Others sense thermonuclear explosions until destroyed. Invariably sensor data must be recorded, transmitted or displayed. Recording rates and capacities vary enormously. Transmission can be trivial or can be clandestine, encrypted and low power in the presence of jamming. Displays can be trivially simple or can require consultation with <a href="/wiki/Human_factors" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors">human factors</a> experts. Control system design varies from trivial to a separate specialty. </p><p>Instrumentation engineers are responsible for integrating the sensors with the recorders, transmitters, displays or control systems, and producing the <a href="/wiki/Piping_and_instrumentation_diagram" title="Piping and instrumentation diagram">Piping and instrumentation diagram</a> for the process. They may design or specify installation, wiring and signal conditioning. They may be responsible for commissioning, calibration, testing and maintenance of the system. </p><p>In a research environment it is common for subject matter experts to have substantial instrumentation system expertise. An astronomer knows the structure of the universe and a great deal about telescopes – optics, pointing and cameras (or other sensing elements). That often includes the hard-won knowledge of the operational procedures that provide the best results. For example, an astronomer is often knowledgeable of techniques to minimize temperature gradients that cause air turbulence within the telescope. </p><p>Instrumentation technologists, technicians and mechanics specialize in troubleshooting, repairing and maintaining instruments and instrumentation systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Typical_industrial_transmitter_signal_types">Typical industrial transmitter signal types</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Typical industrial transmitter signal types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pneumatic_loop&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pneumatic loop (page does not exist)">Pneumatic loop (20-100KPa/3-15PSI)</a> – Pneumatic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_loop" title="Current loop">Current loop (4-20mA)</a> – Electrical</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hart_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Hart Protocol">HART</a> – Data signalling, often overlaid on a current loop</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FOUNDATION_Fieldbus" class="mw-redirect" title="FOUNDATION Fieldbus">Foundation Fieldbus</a> – Data signalling</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profibus" title="Profibus">Profibus</a> – Data signalling</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_of_modern_development">Impact of modern development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Impact of modern development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ralph Müller (1940) stated, "That the history of physical science is largely the history of instruments and their intelligent use is well known. The broad generalizations and theories which have arisen from time to time have stood or fallen on the basis of accurate measurement, and in several instances new instruments have had to be devised for the purpose. There is little evidence to show that the mind of modern man is superior to that of the ancients. His tools are incomparably better."<sup id="cite_ref-Katz_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katz-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baird_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baird-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 290">: 290 </span></sup> </p><p>Davis Baird has argued that the major change associated with <a href="/wiki/Floris_Cohen" title="Floris Cohen">Floris Cohen</a><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s identification of a "fourth big scientific revolution" after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> is the development of scientific instrumentation, not only in <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> but across the sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-Baird_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baird-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Morris_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In chemistry, the introduction of new instrumentation in the 1940s was "nothing less than a scientific and technological revolution"<sup id="cite_ref-Reinhardt_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reinhardt-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 28–29">: 28–29 </span></sup> in which classical wet-and-dry methods of structural organic chemistry were discarded, and new areas of research opened up.<sup id="cite_ref-Reinhardt_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reinhardt-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 38">: 38 </span></sup> </p><p>As early as 1954, W. A. Wildhack discussed both the productive and destructive potential inherent in process control.<sup id="cite_ref-Wildhack_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wildhack-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ability to make precise, verifiable and reproducible measurements of the natural world, at levels that were not previously observable, using scientific instrumentation, has "provided a different texture of the world".<sup id="cite_ref-Hentschel_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hentschel-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This instrumentation revolution fundamentally changes human abilities to monitor and respond, as is illustrated in the examples of <a href="/wiki/DDT" title="DDT">DDT</a> monitoring and the use of <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy">UV spectrophotometry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">gas chromatography</a> to monitor <a href="/wiki/Water_pollutants" class="mw-redirect" title="Water pollutants">water pollutants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hentschel_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hentschel-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_control_system" title="Industrial control system">Industrial control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_and_control_engineering" title="Instrumentation and control engineering">Instrumentation and control engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_in_petrochemical_industries" title="Instrumentation in petrochemical industries">Instrumentation in petrochemical industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Measurement_and_Control" title="Institute of Measurement and Control">Institute of Measurement and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_of_Automation" title="International Society of Automation">International Society of Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sensors" title="List of sensors">List of sensors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">Measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_instrumentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical instrumentation">Medical instrumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrology" title="Metrology">Metrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piping_and_instrumentation_diagram" title="Piping and instrumentation diagram">Piping and instrumentation diagram</a> – a diagram in the process industry which shows the piping of the process flow together with the installed equipment and instrumentation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller" title="Programmable logic controller">Programmable logic controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology" title="Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology">Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/pml/general/time/early.cfm">"Early Clocks"</a>. <i>NIST</i>. 2009-08-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NIST&rft.atitle=Early+Clocks&rft.date=2009-08-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fpml%2Fgeneral%2Ftime%2Fearly.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInstrumentation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110708104028/http://www.building-automation-consultants.com/building-automation-history.html">"Building automation history page"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.building-automation-consultants.com/building-automation-history.html">the original</a> on 8 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Building+automation+history+page&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.building-automation-consultants.com%2Fbuilding-automation-history.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInstrumentation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulthauf1961" class="citation cs2">Multhauf, Robert P. (1961), <i>The Introduction of Self-Registering Meteorological Instruments</i>, Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pp. <span class="nowrap">95–</span>116</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Introduction+of+Self-Registering+Meteorological+Instruments&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E95-%3C%2Fspan%3E116&rft.pub=Smithsonian+Institution&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Multhauf&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInstrumentation" class="Z3988"></span> United States National Museum, Bulletin 228. Contributions from The Museum of History and Technology: Paper 23. Available from Project Gutenberg.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynn1998" class="citation journal cs1">Lynn, L.H. (1998). "The commercialization of the transistor radio in Japan: The functioning of an innovation community". <i>IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management</i>. <b>45</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">220–</span>229. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F17.704244">10.1109/17.704244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Engineering+Management&rft.atitle=The+commercialization+of+the+transistor+radio+in+Japan%3A+The+functioning+of+an+innovation+community&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E220-%3C%2Fspan%3E229&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F17.704244&rft.aulast=Lynn&rft.aufirst=L.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInstrumentation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anderson2-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Anderson2_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1998" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Norman A. (1998). <i>Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control</i> (3 ed.). CRC Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">254–</span>255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-9871-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-9871-1"><bdi>978-0-8493-9871-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Instrumentation+for+Process+Measurement+and+Control&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E254-%3C%2Fspan%3E255&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-9871-1&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Norman+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInstrumentation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anderson-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Anderson_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1998" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Norman A. (1998). <i>Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control</i> (3 ed.). CRC Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">8–</span>10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-9871-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-9871-1"><bdi>978-0-8493-9871-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Instrumentation+for+Process+Measurement+and+Control&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-9871-1&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Norman+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInstrumentation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cap-ny153.org/aircraftinstrumentation.htm">Aircraft Instrumentation – Leroy R. Grumman Cadet Squadron</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Katz-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Katz_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatzLightThompson2002" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Eric; Light, Andrew; Thompson, William (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nny8OoQCZCoC&pg=PA88"><i>Controlling technology : contemporary issues</i></a> (2nd ed.). Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1573929837" title="Special:BookSources/978-1573929837"><bdi>978-1573929837</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Controlling+technology+%3A+contemporary+issues&rft.place=Amherst%2C+NY&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1573929837&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft.au=Light%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Thompson%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnny8OoQCZCoC%26pg%3DPA88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInstrumentation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baird-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baird_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baird_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaird1993" class="citation journal cs1">Baird, D. (1993). "Analytical chemistry and the 'big' scientific instrumentation revolution". <i>Annals of Science</i>. <b>50</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">267–</span>290. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033799300200221">10.1080/00033799300200221</a>. <q>Download the pdf to read the full article.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=Analytical+chemistry+and+the+%27big%27+scientific+instrumentation+revolution&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E267-%3C%2Fspan%3E290&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033799300200221&rft.aulast=Baird&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInstrumentation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morris-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morris_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morris_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaird2002" class="citation book cs1">Baird, D. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AAf8sk_v2SEC&pg=PA52">"Analytical chemistry and the 'big' scientific instrumentation revolution"</a>. In Morris, Peter J. T. (ed.). <i>From classical to modern chemistry : the instrumental revolution; from a conference on the history of chemical instrumentation: "From the Test-tube to the Autoanalyzer: the Development of Chemical Instrumentation in the Twentieth Century", London, in August 2000</i>. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry in assoc. with the Science Museum. pp. <span class="nowrap">29–</span>56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780854044795" title="Special:BookSources/9780854044795"><bdi>9780854044795</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Analytical+chemistry+and+the+%27big%27+scientific+instrumentation+revolution&rft.btitle=From+classical+to+modern+chemistry+%3A+the+instrumental+revolution%3B+from+a+conference+on+the+history+of+chemical+instrumentation%3A+%22From+the+Test-tube+to+the+Autoanalyzer%3A+the+Development+of+Chemical+Instrumentation+in+the+Twentieth+Century%22%2C+London%2C+in+August+2000&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E29-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.pub=Royal+Society+of+Chemistry+in+assoc.+with+the+Science+Museum&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780854044795&rft.aulast=Baird&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAAf8sk_v2SEC%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInstrumentation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reinhardt-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reinhardt_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reinhardt_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReinhardt2001" class="citation book cs1">Reinhardt, Carsten, ed. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gIOK5EUm5ysC&pg=PA28"><i>Chemical sciences in twentieth century</i></a> (1st ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3527302710" title="Special:BookSources/978-3527302710"><bdi>978-3527302710</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemical+sciences+in+twentieth+century&rft.place=Weinheim&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-3527302710&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgIOK5EUm5ysC%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInstrumentation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wildhack-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wildhack_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWildhack1954" class="citation journal cs1">Wildhack, W. A. (22 October 1954). "Instrumentation—Revolution in Industry, Science, and Warfare". <i>Science</i>. <b>120</b> (3121): 15A. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1954Sci...120A..15W">1954Sci...120A..15W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.120.3121.15A">10.1126/science.120.3121.15A</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17816144">17816144</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Instrumentation%E2%80%94Revolution+in+Industry%2C+Science%2C+and+Warfare&rft.volume=120&rft.issue=3121&rft.pages=15A&rft.date=1954-10-22&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17816144&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.120.3121.15A&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1954Sci...120A..15W&rft.aulast=Wildhack&rft.aufirst=W.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInstrumentation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hentschel-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hentschel_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hentschel_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHentschel2003" class="citation journal cs1">Hentschel, Klaus (2003). "The Instrumental Revolution in Chemistry (Review Essay)". <i>Foundations of Chemistry</i>. <b>5</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">179–</span>183. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1023691917565">10.1023/A:1023691917565</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:102255170">102255170</a>.</cite><span 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