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disorder</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Obsessive_compulsive_disorder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Addiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Addiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Addiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Addiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Behavioral_disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Behavioral_disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Behavioral disorders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Behavioral_disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affective_disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affective_disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Affective disorders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affective_disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Imaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Imaging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rodents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rodents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Rodents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rodents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Clinical significance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Clinical significance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Damage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Damage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Damage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Damage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disruption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disruption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Disruption</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disruption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orbitofrontal_epilepsy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orbitofrontal_epilepsy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Orbitofrontal epilepsy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orbitofrontal_epilepsy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Assessment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Visual_discrimination_test" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_discrimination_test"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.1</span> <span>Visual discrimination test</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_discrimination_test-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iowa_gambling_task" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iowa_gambling_task"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.2</span> <span>Iowa gambling task</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iowa_gambling_task-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Additional images</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Orbitofrontal cortex</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%AC%D8%A8%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="قشرة جبهية حجاجية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قشرة جبهية حجاجية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corteza_orbitofrontal" title="Corteza orbitofrontal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Corteza orbitofrontal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B4%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84" title="قشر اوربیتوفرونتال – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قشر اوربیتوفرونتال" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortex_orbitofrontal" title="Cortex orbitofrontal – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cortex orbitofrontal" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%88%EC%99%80%EC%A0%84%EB%91%90%ED%94%BC%EC%A7%88" title="안와전두피질 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="안와전두피질" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korteks_orbitofrontal" title="Korteks orbitofrontal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Korteks orbitofrontal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corteccia_orbitofrontale" title="Corteccia orbitofrontale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Corteccia orbitofrontale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%97_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%91%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA-%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%97%D7%99%D7%AA" title="קליפת המוח הארובתית-מצחית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קליפת המוח הארובתית-מצחית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitofrontale_cortex" title="Orbitofrontale cortex – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Orbitofrontale cortex" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%BC%E7%AA%A9%E5%89%8D%E9%A0%AD%E7%9A%AE%E8%B3%AA" title="眼窩前頭皮質 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="眼窩前頭皮質" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rtex_orbitofrontal" title="Córtex orbitofrontal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Córtex orbitofrontal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Орбитофронтальная кора – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Орбитофронтальная кора" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Орбитофронтални кортекс – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Орбитофронтални кортекс" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitala_cortex" title="Orbitala cortex – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Orbitala cortex" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%B6%E9%A1%8D%E7%9A%AE%E8%B3%AA" title="眶額皮質 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="眶額皮質" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%B6%E9%A2%9D%E7%9A%AE%E8%B4%A8" title="眶额皮质 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="眶额皮质" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q18717#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> 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searchaux" style="display:none">Region of the prefrontal cortex of the brain</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:lemonchiffon">Orbitofrontal cortex</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:MRI_of_orbitofrontal_cortex.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/MRI_of_orbitofrontal_cortex.jpg/250px-MRI_of_orbitofrontal_cortex.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/MRI_of_orbitofrontal_cortex.jpg/375px-MRI_of_orbitofrontal_cortex.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/MRI_of_orbitofrontal_cortex.jpg/500px-MRI_of_orbitofrontal_cortex.jpg 2x" data-file-width="705" data-file-height="672" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Approximate location of the OFC shown on a sagittal MRI</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray729_orbital_gyrus.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Gray729_orbital_gyrus.png/250px-Gray729_orbital_gyrus.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Gray729_orbital_gyrus.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="366" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Orbital surface of left frontal lobe (from below)</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em">Part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">Frontal lobe</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>cortex orbitofrontalis</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NeuroNames" title="NeuroNames">NeuroNames</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu/centraldirectory.aspx?ID=91">91</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NeuroLex" title="NeuroLex">NeuroLex</a> ID</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uri.neuinfo.org/nif/nifstd/birnlex_1049">birnlex_1049</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma242003">242003</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy" title="Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy">Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18717" class="extiw" title="d:Q18717">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>orbitofrontal cortex</b> (<b>OFC</b>) is a <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a> region in the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">frontal lobes</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> which is involved in the <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive process</a> of <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a>. In non-human primates it consists of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex#Association_areas" title="Cerebral cortex">association cortex areas</a> <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">Brodmann area 11</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_12" title="Brodmann area 12">12</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_13" title="Brodmann area 13">13</a>; in humans it consists of <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">Brodmann area 10</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">11</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_47" title="Brodmann area 47">47</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kringelbach_2005_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kringelbach_2005-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The OFC is functionally related to the <a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex" title="Ventromedial prefrontal cortex">ventromedial prefrontal cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillips2002_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillips2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the region is distinguished due to the distinct neural connections and the distinct functions it performs.<sup id="cite_ref-Barbas2002_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barbas2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is defined as the part of the prefrontal cortex that receives projections from the <a href="/wiki/Medial_dorsal_nucleus" title="Medial dorsal nucleus">medial dorsal nucleus</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a>, and is thought to represent <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotion</a>, taste, smell and <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">reward</a> in decision making.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It gets its name from its position immediately above the <a href="/wiki/Orbit_(anatomy)" title="Orbit (anatomy)">orbits</a> in which the <a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">eyes</a> are located. Considerable individual variability has been found in the OFC of humans.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A related area is found in <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The OFC is divided into multiple broad regions distinguished by cytoarchitecture, including <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_47" title="Brodmann area 47">brodmann area 47/12</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">brodmann area 11</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_14" title="Brodmann area 14">brodmann area 14</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_13" title="Brodmann area 13">brodmann area 13</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">brodmann area 10</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pg34_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pg34-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Four gyri are split by a complex of sulci that most frequently resembles a "H" or a "K" pattern. Extending along the rostro-caudal axis, two sulci, the lateral and orbital sulci, are usually connected by the transverse orbital sulcus, which extends along a medial-lateral axis. Most medially, the medial orbital gyrus is separated from the <a href="/wiki/Gyrus_rectus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyrus rectus">gyrus rectus</a> by the olfactory sulcus.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anteriorly, both the gyrus rectus and the medial part of the medial orbital gyrus consist of area 11(m), and posteriorly, area 14. The posterior orbital gyrus consists mostly of area 13, and is bordered medially and laterally by the anterior limbs of the medial and lateral orbital sulci. Area 11 makes up a large part of the OFC involving both the lateral parts of the medial orbital gyrus as well as the anterior orbital gyrus. The lateral orbital gyrus consists mostly of area 47/12.<sup id="cite_ref-pg34_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pg34-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the OFC is <a href="/wiki/Internal_granular_layer_(cerebral_cortex)" title="Internal granular layer (cerebral cortex)">granular</a>, although the caudal parts of area 13 and area 14 are agranular.<sup id="cite_ref-Passingham_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Passingham-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These caudal regions, which sometimes include parts of the <a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">insular cortex</a>, respond primarily to unprocessed sensory cues.<sup id="cite_ref-Haber_2014_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haber_2014-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Connections">Connections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Connections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The connectivity of the OFC varies somewhat along a rostral-caudal axis. The caudal OFC is more heavily interconnected with sensory regions, notably receiving direct input from the <a href="/wiki/Pyriform_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyriform cortex">pyriform cortex</a>. The caudal OFC is also the most heavily interconnected with the <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Barbas_2006_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barbas_2006-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rostrally, the OFC receives fewer direct sensory projections, and is less connected with the amygdala, but it is interconnected with the lateral prefrontal cortex and <a href="/wiki/Parahippocampus" class="mw-redirect" title="Parahippocampus">parahippocampus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Haber_2014_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haber_2014-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The connectivity of the OFC has also been conceptualized as being composed of two networks; an orbital network composed of most of the central parts of the OFC, including most of areas 47/12, 13, and 11; a medial network composed of the medial most and caudolateral regions of the OFC, as well as areas <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_24" title="Brodmann area 24">24</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_25" title="Brodmann area 25">25</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_32" title="Brodmann area 32">32</a> of the medial prefrontal cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-Price_2006_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Price_2006-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The medial and orbital networks are sometimes referred to as the "visceromotor network" and the "sensory network", respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Afferents">Afferents</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Afferents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The OFC receives projections from multiple sensory modalities. The <a href="/wiki/Pyriform_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyriform cortex">primary olfactory cortex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gustatory_cortex" title="Gustatory cortex">gustatory cortex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secondary_somatosensory_cortex" title="Secondary somatosensory cortex">secondary somatosensory cortex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superior_temporal_gyrus" title="Superior temporal gyrus">superior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inferior_temporal_gyrus" title="Inferior temporal gyrus">inferior temporal gyrus</a> (conveying visual information) all project to the OFC.<sup id="cite_ref-Passingham_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Passingham-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rolls_2000_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rolls_2000-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rolls_2004_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rolls_2004-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence for auditory inputs is weak, although some neurons respond to auditory stimuli, indicating an indirect projection may exist.<sup id="cite_ref-Price_2006_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Price_2006-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The OFC also receives input from the <a href="/wiki/Medial_dorsal_nucleus" title="Medial dorsal nucleus">medial dorsal nucleus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">insular cortex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Entorhinal_cortex" title="Entorhinal cortex">entorhinal cortex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perirhinal_cortex" title="Perirhinal cortex">perirhinal cortex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rolls_2000_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rolls_2000-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rempel-Clower_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rempel-Clower-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Efferents">Efferents</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Efferents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The orbitofrontal cortex is reciprocally connected with the perirhinal and entorhinal cortices,<sup id="cite_ref-Rempel-Clower_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rempel-Clower-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the amygdala, the hypothalamus, and parts of the medial temporal lobe. In addition to these outputs, the OFC also projects to the <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caudate_nucleus" title="Caudate nucleus">caudate nucleus</a>, and ventral <a href="/wiki/Putamen" title="Putamen">putamen</a>, as well as regions of the midbrain including the <a href="/wiki/Periaqueductal_grey" class="mw-redirect" title="Periaqueductal grey">periaqueductal grey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area" title="Ventral tegmental area">ventral tegmental area</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rolls_2000_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rolls_2000-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> OFC inputs to the amygdala synapse on multiple targets, including two robust pathways to the <a href="/wiki/Basolateral_amygdala" title="Basolateral amygdala">basolateral amygdala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intercalated_cells_of_the_amygdala" title="Intercalated cells of the amygdala">intercalated cells of the amygdala</a>, as well as a weaker direct projection to the <a href="/wiki/Central_nucleus_of_the_amygdala" title="Central nucleus of the amygdala">central nucleus of the amygdala</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Barbas_2006_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barbas_2006-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Multiple functions have been ascribed to the OFC including mediating context specific responding,<sup id="cite_ref-Wikenheiser2016_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wikenheiser2016-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> encoding contingencies in a flexible manner, encoding value, encoding inferred value, <a href="/wiki/Response_inhibition" class="mw-redirect" title="Response inhibition">inhibiting responses</a>, learning changes in contingency, emotional appraisal,<sup id="cite_ref-Fettes2017_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fettes2017-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> altering behavior through somatic markers, driving social behavior, and representing state spaces.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sadacca2017_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sadacca2017-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While most of these theories explain certain aspects of electrophysiological observations and lesion related changes in behavior, they often fail to explain, or are contradicted by other findings. </p><p>One proposal that explains the variety of OFC functions is that the OFC encodes state spaces, or the discrete configuration of internal and external characteristics associated with a situation and its contingencies.<sup id="cite_ref-Stalnaker2015_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stalnaker2015-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the proposal that the OFC encodes economic value may be a reflection of the OFC encoding task state value.<sup id="cite_ref-Wikenheiser2016_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wikenheiser2016-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The representation of task states could also explain the proposal that the OFC acts as a flexible map of contingencies, as a switch in task state would enable the encoding of new contingencies in one state, with the preservation of old contingencies in a separate state, enabling switching contingencies when the old task state becomes relevant again.<sup id="cite_ref-Sadacca2017_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sadacca2017-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The representation of task states is supported by electrophysiological evidence demonstrating that the OFC responds to a diverse array of task features, and is capable of rapidly remapping during contingency shifts.<sup id="cite_ref-Sadacca2017_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sadacca2017-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The representation of task states may influence behavior through multiple potential mechanisms. For example, the OFC is necessary for <a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area" title="Ventral tegmental area">ventral tegmental area</a> (VTA) neurons to produce a dopaminergic reward prediction error, and the OFC may encode expectations for computation of RPEs in the VTA.<sup id="cite_ref-Wikenheiser2016_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wikenheiser2016-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Specific functions have been ascribed to subregions of the OFC. The lateral OFC has been proposed to reflect potential choice value, enabling fictive(counterfactual) prediction errors to potentially mediate switching choices during reversal, extinction and devaluation.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Optogenetic activation of the lOFC enhances goal directed over habitual behavior, possibly reflecting increased sensitivity to potential choices and therefore increased switching. The mOFC, on the other hand, has been proposed to reflect relative subjective value.<sup id="cite_ref-Fettes2017_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fettes2017-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In rodents, a similar function has been ascribed to the mOFC, encoding action value in a graded fashion, while the lOFC has been proposed to encode specific sensory features of outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lOFC has also been proposed to encode stimulus outcome associations, which are then compared by value in the mOFC.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meta analysis of neuroimaging studies in humans reveals that a medial-lateral valence gradient exists, with the medial OFC responding most often to reward, and the lateral OFC responding most often to punishment. A posterior-anterior abstractness gradient was also found, with the posterior OFC responding to more simple reward, and the anterior OFC responding more to abstract rewards.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar results were reported in a meta analysis of studies on primary versus secondary rewards.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The OFC and <a href="/wiki/Basolateral_amygdala" title="Basolateral amygdala">basolateral amygdala</a> (BLA) are highly interconnected, and their connectivity is necessary for devaluation tasks. Damage to either the BLA or the OFC before, but only the OFC after devaluation, impairs performance.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the BLA only responds to cues predicting salient outcomes in a graded fashion in accordance with value, the OFC responds to both value and the specific sensory attributes of cue-outcome associations. While OFC neurons that, early in learning, respond to outcome receipt normally transfer their response to the onset of cues that predict the outcome, damage to the BLA impairs this form of learning.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The posterior orbitofrontal cortex (pOFC) is connected to the amygdala via multiple paths, that are capable of both upregulating and downregulating autonomic nervous system activity.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tentative evidence suggests that the neuromodulator <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> plays a role in mediating the balance between the inhibitory and excitatory pathways, with a high dopamine state driving <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic</a> activity.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been suggested that the medial OFC is involved in making stimulus-reward associations and with the reinforcement of behavior, while the lateral OFC is involved in stimulus-outcome associations and the evaluation and possibly reversal of behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-Walton,_Mark_E.,_et_al.,_2010._39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walton,_Mark_E.,_et_al.,_2010.-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Activity in the lateral OFC is found, for example, when subjects encode new expectations about punishment and social reprisal.<sup id="cite_ref-KCampbell-Meiklejohn,_Daniel_K.,_et_al_2012_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KCampbell-Meiklejohn,_Daniel_K.,_et_al_2012-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tanferna,_Alessandro,_et_al.,_2012_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tanferna,_Alessandro,_et_al.,_2012-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mid-anterior OFC has been found to consistently track subjective <a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasure</a> in neuroimaging studies. A <a href="/wiki/Reward_system#Pleasure_centers" title="Reward system">hedonic hotspot</a> has been discovered in the anterior OFC, which is capable of enhancing liking response to sucrose. The OFC is also capable of biasing the affective responses induced by <a href="/wiki/AMPA" title="AMPA">α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)</a> antagonism in the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a> towards appetitive responses.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The OFC is capable of modulating aggressive behavior via projections to interneurons in the amygdala that inhibit glutaminergic projections to the ventromedial <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrophysiology">Electrophysiology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Electrophysiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neurons in the OFC respond both to primary reinforcers, as well as cues that predict rewards across multiple sensory domains. The evidence for responses to visual, gustatory, somatosensory, and olfactory stimuli is robust, but evidence for auditory responses are weaker. In a subset of OFC neurons, neural responses to rewards or reward cues are modulated by individual preference and by internal motivational states such as hunger. A fraction of neurons that respond to sensory cues predicting a reward are selective for reward, and exhibit reversal behavior when cue outcome relationships are swapped. Neurons in the OFC also exhibit responses to the absence of an expected reward, and punishment. Another population of neurons exhibits responses to novel stimuli and can "remember" familiar stimuli for up to a day.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During cued reward or cued instrumental reward tasks, neurons in the OFC exhibit three general patterns of firing; firing in response to cues; firing before reward receipt; firing in response to reward receipt. In contrast to the medial prefrontal cortex and <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a>, OFC neurons do not exhibit firing mediating by movement. Their reward-predictive responses are, however, shaped by attention: when shifting attention between two alternatives, the same OFC population will represent positively the value of a currently attended item, but negatively the value of the unattended item.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The encoding of reward magnitude is also flexible, and takes into account the relative values of present rewards.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Humans">Humans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The human OFC is among the least-understood regions of the human brain. It has been proposed that the OFC is involved in sensory integration, in representing the affective value of reinforcers, and in <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> and expectation.<sup id="cite_ref-Kringelbach_2005_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kringelbach_2005-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, the OFC seems to be important in signaling the expected rewards/punishments of an action given the particular details of a situation.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In doing this, the brain is capable of comparing the expected reward/punishment with the actual delivery of reward/punishment, thus, making the OFC critical for adaptive learning. This is supported by research in humans, non-human primates, and rodents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychiatric_disorders">Psychiatric disorders</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Psychiatric disorders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The orbitofrontal cortex has been implicated in <a href="/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder" title="Borderline personality disorder">borderline personality disorder</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">major depressive disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obsessive-compulsive_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Obsessive-compulsive disorder">obsessive-compulsive disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Addiction" title="Addiction">addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">post-traumatic stress disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Panic_disorder" title="Panic disorder">panic disorder</a>. Although neuroimaging studies have provided evidence for dysfunction in a wide variety of psychiatric disorders, the enigmatic nature of the OFCs role in behavior complicates the understanding of its role in the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The function of the OFC is not known, but its anatomical connections with the ventral striatum, amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and periaqueductal grey support a role in mediating reward and fear related behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Obsessive_compulsive_disorder">Obsessive compulsive disorder</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Obsessive compulsive disorder"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meta analyses of neuroimaging studies in OCD report hyperactivity in areas generally considered to be part of the orbitofrontal segment of the <a href="/wiki/Cortico-basal_ganglia-thalamo-cortical_loop" title="Cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop">cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Caudate_nucleus" title="Caudate nucleus">caudate nucleus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a> and orbitofrontal cortex. OCD has been proposed to reflect a positive feedback loop due to mutual excitation of the OFC and subcortical structures.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the OFC is usually overactive during symptom provocation tasks, cognitive tasks usually elicit hypoactivity of the OFC;<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this may reflect a distinction between emotional and non emotional tasks, lateral and medial OFC,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or simply just inconsistent methodologies.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Addiction">Addiction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Addiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Animal models and cell-specific manipulations in relation to drug-seeking behavior implicate dysfunction of the OFC in addiction.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">Substance use disorders</a> are associated with a variety of deficits related to flexible goal directed behavior and decision making. These deficits overlap with symptoms related to OFC lesions, and are also associated with reduced orbitofrontal <a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">grey matter</a>, resting state hypometabolism, and blunted OFC activity during tasks involving decision making or goal directed behavior. In contrast to resting state and decision related activity, cues associated with drugs evoke robust OFC activity that correlates with craving.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_on_rodents" title="Animal testing on rodents">Rodent studies</a> also demonstrate that lOFC to BLA projections are necessary for cue induced reinstatement of self administration. These findings are all congruent with the role that the OFC plays in encoding the outcomes associated with certain stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The progression towards compulsive substance abuse may reflect a shift between model based decision making, where an internal model of future outcomes guides decisions, to model free learning, where decisions are based on reinforcement history. Model based learning involves the OFC and is flexible and goal directed, while model free learning is more rigid; as shift to more model free behavior due to dysfunction in the OFC, like that produced by drugs of misuse, could underlie drug seeking habits.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Behavioral_disorders">Behavioral disorders</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Behavioral disorders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Conduct disorder is associated with both structural abnormalities, and functional abnormalities during affective tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abnormalities in OFC structure, activity, and functional connectivity have all been observed in association with aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Affective_disorders">Affective disorders</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Affective disorders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neuroimaging studies have found abnormalities in the OFC in MDD and bipolar disorder. Consistent with the medial/reward and lateral/punishment gradient found in neuroimaging studies, some neuroimaging studies have observed elevated lateral OFC activity in depression, as well as reduced interconnectivity of the medial OFC, and enhanced interconnectivity in the lateral OFC.<sup id="cite_ref-Rolls_2016_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rolls_2016-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hypoactivity of the lateral OFC has been frequently observed in bipolar disorder, in particular during manic episodes.<sup id="cite_ref-Rolls_2016_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rolls_2016-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imaging">Imaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Imaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Using <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI) to image the human OFC is a challenge, because this brain region is in proximity to the <a href="/wiki/Paranasal_sinuses" title="Paranasal sinuses">air-filled sinuses</a>. This means that <a href="/wiki/Artifact_(error)" title="Artifact (error)">artifact errors</a> can occur in the <a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">signal processing</a>, causing for example geometric distortions that are common when using <a href="/wiki/Physics_of_magnetic_resonance_imaging#Echo-planar_imaging" title="Physics of magnetic resonance imaging">echo-planar imaging</a> (EPI) at higher magnetic field strengths. Extra care is therefore recommended for obtaining a good signal from the orbitofrontal cortex, and a number of strategies have been devised, such as automatic <a href="/wiki/Shim_(magnetism)" title="Shim (magnetism)">shimming</a> at high static magnetic field strengths.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rodents">Rodents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Rodents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a>, the OFC is entirely agranular or dysgranular.<sup id="cite_ref-Passingham_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Passingham-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The OFC is divided into ventrolateral (VLO), lateral (LO), medial (MO) and dorsolateral (DLO) regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Price_2006_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Price_2006-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using highly specific techniques to manipulate circuitry, such as <a href="/wiki/Optogenetics" title="Optogenetics">optogenetics</a>, the OFC has been implicated in OCD like behaviors,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the ability to use <a href="/wiki/Latent_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Latent variable">latent variables</a> in decision making task.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Clinical significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Damage">Damage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Damage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Destruction of the OFC through <a href="/wiki/Acquired_brain_injury" title="Acquired brain injury">acquired brain injury</a> typically leads to a pattern of <a href="/wiki/Disinhibition" title="Disinhibition">disinhibited</a> behaviour. Examples include swearing excessively, hypersexuality, poor social interaction, compulsive gambling, drug use (including alcohol and tobacco), and poor empathising ability. Disinhibited behaviour by patients with some forms of <a href="/wiki/Frontotemporal_dementia" title="Frontotemporal dementia">frontotemporal dementia</a> is thought to be caused by degeneration of the OFC.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disruption">Disruption</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Disruption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When OFC connections are disrupted, a number of cognitive, behavioral, and emotional consequences may arise. Research supports that the main disorders associated with dysregulated OFC connectivity/circuitry center around decision-making, emotion regulation, impulsive control, and reward expectation.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-paulus_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-paulus-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-toplak_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-toplak-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-verdejo_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-verdejo-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A recent multi-modal human neuroimaging study shows disrupted structural and functional connectivity of the OFC with the subcortical limbic structures (e.g., amygdala or hippocampus) and other frontal regions (e.g., dorsal prefrontal cortex or anterior cingulate cortex) correlates with abnormal OFC affect (e.g., fear) processing in clinically anxious adults.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One clear extension of problems with decision-making is drug addiction/<a href="/wiki/Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">substance dependence</a>, which can result from disruption of the striato-thalamo-orbitofrontal circuit.<sup id="cite_ref-verdejo_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-verdejo-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-paulus_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-paulus-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a> (ADHD) has also been implicated in dysfunction of neural reward circuitry controlling motivation, reward, and impulsivity, including OFC systems.<sup id="cite_ref-toplak_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-toplak-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other disorders of executive functioning and <a href="/wiki/Impulse_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Impulse control">impulse control</a> may be affected by OFC circuitry dysregulation, such as <a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">obsessive–compulsive disorder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trichotillomania" title="Trichotillomania">trichotillomania</a><sup id="cite_ref-chamberlain_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chamberlain-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-menzies_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-menzies-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tekin_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tekin-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some dementias are also associated with OFC connectivity disruptions. The behavioral variant of <a href="/wiki/Frontotemporal_dementia" title="Frontotemporal dementia">frontotemporal dementia</a><sup id="cite_ref-rahman_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rahman-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is associated with neural atrophy patterns of white and gray matter projection fibers involved with OFC connectivity.<sup id="cite_ref-seeley_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seeley-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, some research suggests that later stages of <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a> can be impacted by altered connectivity of OFC systems.<sup id="cite_ref-tekin_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tekin-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orbitofrontal_epilepsy">Orbitofrontal epilepsy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Orbitofrontal epilepsy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Orbitofrontal epilepsy is rare, but does occur. The presentation of OFC epilepsy is fairly diverse, although common characteristics include sleep related symptoms, automatisms, and hypermotor symptoms. One review reported that auras were generally not common or nonspecific, while another reported that OFC epilepsy was associated auras involving somatosensory phenomenon and fear.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assessment">Assessment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Assessment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Visual_discrimination_test">Visual discrimination test</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Visual discrimination test"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The visual discrimination test has two components. In the first component, "reversal learning", participants are presented with one of two pictures, A and B. They learn that they will be rewarded if they press a button when picture A is displayed, but punished if they press the button when picture B is displayed. Once this rule has been established, the rule swaps. In other words, now it is correct to press the button for picture B, not picture A. Most healthy participants pick up on this rule reversal almost immediately, but patients with OFC damage continue to respond to the original pattern of reinforcement, although they are now being punished for persevering with it. Rolls et al.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> noted that this pattern of behaviour is particularly unusual given that the patients reported that they understood the rule. </p><p>The second component of the test is "extinction". Again, participants learn to press the button for picture A but not picture B. However this time, instead of the rules reversing, the rule changes altogether. Now the participant will be punished for pressing the button in response to <i>either</i> picture. The correct response is not to press the button at all, but people with OFC dysfunction find it difficult to resist the temptation to press the button despite being punished for it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iowa_gambling_task">Iowa gambling task</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Iowa gambling task"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A simulation of real life <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Iowa_gambling_task" title="Iowa gambling task">Iowa gambling task</a> is widely used in cognition and emotion research.<sup id="cite_ref-Bechara_1994_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bechara_1994-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Participants are presented with four virtual decks of cards on a computer screen. They are told that each time they choose a card they stand to win some game money. They are told that the aim of the game is to win as much money as possible. Every so often, however, when they choose a card they will lose some money. The task is meant to be opaque, that is, participants are not meant to consciously work out the rule, and they are supposed to choose cards based on their "<a href="/wiki/Gut_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Gut reaction">gut reaction</a>." Two of the decks are "bad decks", which means that, over a long enough time, they will make a net loss; the other two decks are "good decks" and will make a net gain over time. </p><p>Most healthy participants sample cards from each deck, and after about 40 or 50 selections are fairly good at sticking to the good decks. Patients with OFC dysfunction, however, continue to <a href="/wiki/Perseveration" title="Perseveration">perseverate</a> with the bad decks, sometimes even though they know that they are losing money overall. Concurrent measurement of <a href="/wiki/Galvanic_skin_response" class="mw-redirect" title="Galvanic skin response">galvanic skin response</a> shows that healthy participants show a "stress" reaction to hovering over the bad decks after only 10 trials, long before conscious sensation that the decks are bad. By contrast, patients with OFC dysfunction never develop this physiological reaction to impending punishment. Bechara and his colleagues explain this in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Somatic_marker_hypothesis" title="Somatic marker hypothesis">somatic marker hypothesis</a>. The Iowa gambling task is currently being used by a number of research groups using <a href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</a> to investigate which brain regions are activated by the task in healthy volunteers as well as clinical groups with conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Obsessive_compulsive_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Obsessive compulsive disorder">obsessive compulsive disorder</a>. </p><p>The faux pas test is a series of vignettes recounting a social occasion during which someone said something that should not have been said, or an awkward occurrence. The participant's task is to identify what was said that was awkward, why it was awkward, how people would have felt in reaction to the faux pas and to a factual control question. Although first designed for use in people on the <a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum">autism spectrum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the test is also sensitive to patients with OFC dysfunction, who cannot judge when something socially awkward has happened despite appearing to understand the story perfectly well. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_images">Additional images</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Additional images"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Orbital_gyrus_animation_small2.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Orbital gyrus shown in red"><img alt="Orbital gyrus shown in red" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Orbital_gyrus_animation_small2.gif/120px-Orbital_gyrus_animation_small2.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Orbital_gyrus_animation_small2.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="150" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Orbital gyrus shown in red</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Medial_surface_of_cerebral_cortex_-_gyri.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Medial surface of cerebral cortex - gyri"><img alt="Medial surface of cerebral cortex - gyri" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Medial_surface_of_cerebral_cortex_-_gyri.png/120px-Medial_surface_of_cerebral_cortex_-_gyri.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Medial_surface_of_cerebral_cortex_-_gyri.png/180px-Medial_surface_of_cerebral_cortex_-_gyri.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Medial_surface_of_cerebral_cortex_-_gyri.png/240px-Medial_surface_of_cerebral_cortex_-_gyri.png 2x" data-file-width="1179" data-file-height="747" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Medial surface of cerebral cortex - gyri</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Orbital_gyrus_viewed_from_bottom.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Basal surface of cerebrum. Orbital gyrus shown in red."><img alt="Basal surface of cerebrum. Orbital gyrus shown in red." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Orbital_gyrus_viewed_from_bottom.png/95px-Orbital_gyrus_viewed_from_bottom.png" decoding="async" width="95" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Orbital_gyrus_viewed_from_bottom.png/142px-Orbital_gyrus_viewed_from_bottom.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Orbital_gyrus_viewed_from_bottom.png/190px-Orbital_gyrus_viewed_from_bottom.png 2x" data-file-width="504" data-file-height="637" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Basal surface of cerebrum. Orbital gyrus shown in red.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lateral_Orbitofrontal_-_DK_ATLAS.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Lateral orbitofrontal cortex"><img alt="Lateral orbitofrontal cortex" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Lateral_Orbitofrontal_-_DK_ATLAS.png/120px-Lateral_Orbitofrontal_-_DK_ATLAS.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Lateral_Orbitofrontal_-_DK_ATLAS.png/180px-Lateral_Orbitofrontal_-_DK_ATLAS.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Lateral_Orbitofrontal_-_DK_ATLAS.png/240px-Lateral_Orbitofrontal_-_DK_ATLAS.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Lateral orbitofrontal cortex</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Medial_Orbitofrontal_-_DK_ATLAS.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Medial orbitofrontal cortex, inner slice view"><img alt="Medial orbitofrontal cortex, inner slice view" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Medial_Orbitofrontal_-_DK_ATLAS.png/120px-Medial_Orbitofrontal_-_DK_ATLAS.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Medial_Orbitofrontal_-_DK_ATLAS.png/180px-Medial_Orbitofrontal_-_DK_ATLAS.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Medial_Orbitofrontal_-_DK_ATLAS.png/240px-Medial_Orbitofrontal_-_DK_ATLAS.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Medial orbitofrontal cortex, inner slice view</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Orbitofrontal_cortex.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="3D visualization of the orbitofrontal cortex in an average human brain"><img alt="3D visualization of the orbitofrontal cortex in an average human brain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Orbitofrontal_cortex.gif/120px-Orbitofrontal_cortex.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Orbitofrontal_cortex.gif/180px-Orbitofrontal_cortex.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Orbitofrontal_cortex.gif/240px-Orbitofrontal_cortex.gif 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="249" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">3D visualization of the orbitofrontal cortex in an average human brain</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Orbitofrontal_cortex_coronal_sections.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Orbitofrontal cortex highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images"><img alt="Orbitofrontal cortex highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Orbitofrontal_cortex_coronal_sections.gif/112px-Orbitofrontal_cortex_coronal_sections.gif" decoding="async" width="112" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Orbitofrontal_cortex_coronal_sections.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="148" data-file-height="158" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Orbitofrontal cortex highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Orbitofrontal_cortex_sagittal_sections.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Orbitofrontal cortex highlighted in green on sagittal T1 MRI images"><img alt="Orbitofrontal cortex highlighted in green on sagittal T1 MRI images" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Orbitofrontal_cortex_sagittal_sections.gif/120px-Orbitofrontal_cortex_sagittal_sections.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Orbitofrontal_cortex_sagittal_sections.gif/180px-Orbitofrontal_cortex_sagittal_sections.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Orbitofrontal_cortex_sagittal_sections.gif 2x" data-file-width="185" data-file-height="158" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Orbitofrontal cortex highlighted in green on sagittal T1 MRI images</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Orbitofrontal_cortex_transversal_sections.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Orbitofrontal cortex highlighted in green on transversal T1 MRI images"><img alt="Orbitofrontal cortex highlighted in green on transversal T1 MRI images" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Orbitofrontal_cortex_transversal_sections.gif/96px-Orbitofrontal_cortex_transversal_sections.gif" decoding="async" width="96" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Orbitofrontal_cortex_transversal_sections.gif/144px-Orbitofrontal_cortex_transversal_sections.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Orbitofrontal_cortex_transversal_sections.gif 2x" data-file-width="148" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Orbitofrontal cortex highlighted in green on transversal T1 MRI images</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">Reward system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witzelsucht" title="Witzelsucht">Witzelsucht</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Kringelbach_2005-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kringelbach_2005_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kringelbach_2005_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style 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no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_of_the_cerebral_cortex_of_the_human_brain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cerebral_cortex" title="Template:Cerebral cortex"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cerebral_cortex" title="Template talk:Cerebral cortex"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cerebral_cortex" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cerebral cortex"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_cerebral_cortex_of_the_human_brain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">Frontal lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">Prefrontal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_frontal_gyrus" title="Superior frontal gyrus">Superior frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_8" title="Brodmann area 8">8</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_frontal_gyrus" title="Middle frontal gyrus">Middle frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_9" title="Brodmann area 9">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_46" title="Brodmann area 46">46</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_frontal_gyrus" title="Inferior frontal gyrus">Inferior frontal gyrus</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_47" title="Brodmann area 47">47</a>-<a href="/wiki/Orbital_part_of_inferior_frontal_gyrus" title="Orbital part of inferior frontal gyrus">Pars orbitalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_44" title="Brodmann area 44">44</a>-<a href="/wiki/Opercular_part_of_inferior_frontal_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Opercular part of inferior frontal gyrus">Pars opercularis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_45" title="Brodmann area 45">45</a>-<a href="/wiki/Triangular_part_of_inferior_frontal_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Triangular part of inferior frontal gyrus">Pars triangularis</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_frontal_sulcus" title="Superior frontal sulcus">Superior frontal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_frontal_sulcus" title="Inferior frontal sulcus">Inferior frontal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">Precentral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">Precentral gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precentral_sulcus" title="Precentral sulcus">Precentral sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">Prefrontal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_frontal_gyrus" title="Superior frontal gyrus">Superior frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_frontal_gyrus" title="Medial frontal gyrus">Medial frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_8" title="Brodmann area 8">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_9" title="Brodmann area 9">9</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paraterminal_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraterminal gyrus">Paraterminal gyrus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paraolfactory_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraolfactory area">Paraolfactory area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_12" title="Brodmann area 12">12</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_gyrus" title="Straight gyrus">Straight gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">11</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_gyri" title="Orbital gyri">Orbital gyri</a>/<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Orbitofrontal cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_12" title="Brodmann area 12">12</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex" title="Ventromedial prefrontal cortex">Ventromedial prefrontal cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">10</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcallosal_area" title="Subcallosal area">Subcallosal area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_25" title="Brodmann area 25">25</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_sulcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory sulcus">Olfactory sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_sulcus" title="Orbital sulcus">Orbital sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">Precentral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paracentral_lobule" title="Paracentral lobule">Paracentral lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracentral_sulcus" title="Paracentral sulcus">Paracentral sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Both</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_motor_cortex" title="Primary motor cortex">Primary motor cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premotor_cortex" title="Premotor cortex">Premotor cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_motor_area" title="Supplementary motor area">Supplementary motor area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_eye_field" title="Supplementary eye field">Supplementary eye field</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontal_eye_fields" title="Frontal eye fields">Frontal eye fields</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_8" title="Brodmann area 8">8</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">Parietal lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_parietal_lobule" title="Superior parietal lobule">Superior parietal lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_5" title="Brodmann area 5">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_7" title="Brodmann area 7">7</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_parietal_lobule" title="Inferior parietal lobule">Inferior parietal lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_40" title="Brodmann area 40">40</a>-<a href="/wiki/Supramarginal_gyrus" title="Supramarginal gyrus">Supramarginal gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_39" title="Brodmann area 39">39</a>-<a href="/wiki/Angular_gyrus" title="Angular gyrus">Angular gyrus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parietal_operculum" class="mw-redirect" title="Parietal operculum">Parietal operculum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_43" title="Brodmann area 43">43</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intraparietal_sulcus" title="Intraparietal sulcus">Intraparietal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paracentral_lobule" title="Paracentral lobule">Paracentral lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_5" title="Brodmann area 5">5</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precuneus" title="Precuneus">Precuneus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_7" title="Brodmann area 7">7</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sulcus" title="Marginal sulcus">Marginal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Both</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postcentral_gyrus" title="Postcentral gyrus">Postcentral gyrus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex" title="Primary somatosensory cortex">Primary somatosensory cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_areas_3,_1_and_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann areas 3, 1 and 2">3, 1 and 2</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_somatosensory_cortex" title="Secondary somatosensory cortex">Secondary somatosensory cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_5" title="Brodmann area 5">5</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_parietal_cortex" title="Posterior parietal cortex">Posterior parietal cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_7" title="Brodmann area 7">7</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">Occipital lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_pole_of_cerebrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Occipital pole of cerebrum">Occipital pole of cerebrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_gyri" title="Occipital gyri">Occipital gyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_occipital_sulcus" title="Lateral occipital sulcus">Lateral occipital gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_18" title="Brodmann area 18">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_19" title="Brodmann area 19">19</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunate_sulcus" title="Lunate sulcus">Lunate sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_occipital_sulcus" title="Transverse occipital sulcus">Transverse occipital sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">Visual cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_17" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 17">17</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneus" title="Cuneus">Cuneus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingual_gyrus" title="Lingual gyrus">Lingual gyrus</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcarine_sulcus" title="Calcarine sulcus">Calcarine sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">Temporal lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_temporal_gyrus" title="Transverse temporal gyrus">Transverse temporal gyrus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Auditory_cortex" title="Auditory cortex">Auditory cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_areas_41_and_42" title="Brodmann areas 41 and 42">41 and 42</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_temporal_gyrus" title="Superior temporal gyrus">Superior temporal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_38" title="Brodmann area 38">38</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_22" title="Brodmann area 22">22</a>/<a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">Wernicke's area</a> (<a href="/wiki/Planum_temporale" title="Planum temporale">Planum temporale</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_temporal_sulcus" title="Superior temporal sulcus">Superior temporal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_temporal_gyrus" title="Middle temporal gyrus">Middle temporal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_21" title="Brodmann area 21">21</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occipitotemporal_sulcus" title="Occipitotemporal sulcus">Occipitotemporal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusiform_gyrus" title="Fusiform gyrus">Fusiform gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_37" title="Brodmann area 37">37</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_temporal_lobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial temporal lobe">Medial temporal lobe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_27" title="Brodmann area 27">27</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_28" title="Brodmann area 28">28</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_34" title="Brodmann area 34">34</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_35" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 35">35</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_36" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 36">36</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_temporal_sulcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior temporal sulcus">Inferior temporal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_temporal_gyrus" title="Inferior temporal gyrus">Inferior temporal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_20" title="Brodmann area 20">20</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Sulcus (neuroanatomy)">Interlobar<br />sulci/fissures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_sulcus" title="Central sulcus">Central (frontal+parietal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_sulcus" title="Lateral sulcus">Lateral (frontal+parietal+temporal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parieto-occipital_sulcus" title="Parieto-occipital sulcus">Parieto-occipital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preoccipital_notch" title="Preoccipital notch">Preoccipital notch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_fissure" title="Longitudinal fissure">Longitudinal fissure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cingulate_sulcus" title="Cingulate sulcus">Cingulate (frontal+cingulate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_fissure" title="Collateral fissure">Collateral (temporal+occipital)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callosal_sulcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Callosal sulcus">Callosal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Limbic_lobe" title="Limbic lobe">Limbic lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parahippocampal_gyrus" title="Parahippocampal gyrus">Parahippocampal gyrus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>anterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entorhinal_cortex" title="Entorhinal cortex">Entorhinal cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perirhinal_cortex" title="Perirhinal cortex">Perirhinal cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postrhinal_cortex" title="Postrhinal cortex">Postrhinal cortex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_parahippocampal_gyrus" title="Posterior parahippocampal gyrus">Posterior parahippocampal gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepyriform_area" title="Prepyriform area">Prepyriform area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cingulate_cortex" title="Cingulate cortex">Cingulate cortex</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cingulate_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cingulate gyrus">gyrus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subgenual_area_25" class="mw-redirect" title="Subgenual area 25">Subgenual area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_25" title="Brodmann area 25">25</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">Anterior cingulate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_24" title="Brodmann area 24">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_32" title="Brodmann area 32">32</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_33" title="Brodmann area 33">33</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_cingulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior cingulate">Posterior cingulate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_23" title="Brodmann area 23">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_31" title="Brodmann area 31">31</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_cingulate_gyrus" title="Isthmus of cingulate gyrus">Isthmus of cingulate gyrus</a>: <a href="/wiki/Retrosplenial_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Retrosplenial region">Retrosplenial cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_26" title="Brodmann area 26">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_29" title="Brodmann area 29">29</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_30" title="Brodmann area 30">30</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hippocampal_formation" title="Hippocampal formation">Hippocampal formation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampal_sulcus" title="Hippocampal sulcus">Hippocampal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbria_of_hippocampus" class="mw-redirect" title="Fimbria of hippocampus">Fimbria of hippocampus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dentate_gyrus" title="Dentate gyrus">Dentate gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhinal_sulcus" title="Rhinal sulcus">Rhinal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indusium_griseum" title="Indusium griseum">Indusium griseum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncus" title="Uncus">Uncus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">Amygdala</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">Insular cortex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">Insular cortex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operculum_(brain)" title="Operculum (brain)">Operculum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_of_cerebral_hemispheres" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles of cerebral hemispheres">Poles of cerebral hemispheres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div><i>Some categorizations are approximations, and some <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area" title="Brodmann area">Brodmann areas</a> span gyri.</i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Obsessive–compulsive_disorder" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Template:Obsessive–compulsive disorder"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Template talk:Obsessive–compulsive disorder"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Obsessive–compulsive disorder"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Obsessive–compulsive_disorder" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">Obsessive–compulsive disorder</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dimensional_Obsessive-Compulsive_Scale" title="Dimensional Obsessive-Compulsive Scale">Dimensional Obsessive-Compulsive Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale%E2%80%93Brown_Obsessive_Compulsive_Scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale–Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale">Yale–Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OCD_Awareness_Week" title="OCD Awareness Week">OCD Awareness Week</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biology_of_obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Biology of obsessive–compulsive disorder">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Neuroanatomy" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Neuroanatomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">Basal ganglia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Orbitofrontal cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cingulate_cortex" title="Cingulate cortex">Cingulate cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor" title="Brain-derived neurotrophic factor">Brain-derived neurotrophic factor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Receptors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/5-HT1D_receptor" title="5-HT1D receptor">5-HT<sub>1D</sub>β</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-HT2A_receptor" title="5-HT2A receptor">5-HT<sub>2A</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-HT2C_receptor" title="5-HT2C receptor">5-HT<sub>2C</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9C-opioid_receptor" title="Μ-opioid receptor">μ Opioid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histamine_H2_receptor" title="Histamine H2 receptor">H<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachykinin_receptor_1" title="Tachykinin receptor 1">NK<sub>1</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor_M4" title="Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M4">M<sub>4</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symptoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrusive_thoughts" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrusive thoughts">Obsessions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking" title="Magical thinking">associative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypochondriasis" title="Hypochondriasis">diagnostic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-harm" title="Self-harm">injurious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysophobia" title="Mysophobia">pathogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_obsessions" title="Sexual obsessions">sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrupulosity" title="Scrupulosity">scrupulous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetry" title="Symmetry">symmetry</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsive_behavior" title="Compulsive behavior">Compulsions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Impulse_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Impulse (psychology)">impulses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">rituals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tic" title="Tic">tics</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought_suppression" title="Thought suppression">Thought suppression</a> (<a href="/wiki/Experiential_avoidance" title="Experiential avoidance">Experiential avoidance</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoarding" title="Hoarding">Hoarding</a> (<a href="/wiki/Animal_hoarding" title="Animal hoarding">animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliomania" title="Bibliomania">books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_hoarding" title="Digital hoarding">data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoarding_disorder" title="Hoarding disorder">possessions</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Serotonergics" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">Serotonergics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitor" title="Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor">Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Escitalopram" title="Escitalopram">Escitalopram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluoxetine" title="Fluoxetine">Fluoxetine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluvoxamine" title="Fluvoxamine">Fluvoxamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paroxetine" title="Paroxetine">Paroxetine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sertraline" title="Sertraline">Sertraline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citalopram" title="Citalopram">Citalopram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nefazodone" title="Nefazodone">Nefazodone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monoamine_oxidase_inhibitor" title="Monoamine oxidase inhibitor">Monoamine oxidase inhibitors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phenelzine" title="Phenelzine">Phenelzine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant" title="Tricyclic antidepressant">Tricyclic antidepressants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clomipramine" title="Clomipramine">Clomipramine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atypical_antipsychotic" title="Atypical antipsychotic">Atypical antipsychotics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aripiprazole" title="Aripiprazole">Aripiprazole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inositol" title="Inositol">Inositol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_brain_stimulation" title="Deep brain stimulation">Deep brain stimulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Behavioral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy" title="Acceptance and commitment therapy">Acceptance and commitment therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">Cognitive behavioral therapy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Exposure_and_response_prevention" class="mw-redirect" title="Exposure and response prevention">Exposure and response prevention</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inference-based_therapy" title="Inference-based therapy">Inference-based therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metacognitive_therapy" title="Metacognitive therapy">Metacognitive therapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fictional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Matchstick_Men" title="Matchstick Men">Matchstick Men</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plyushkin" title="Plyushkin">Plyushkin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xenocide" title="Xenocide">Xenocide</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nonfiction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Everything_in_Its_Place" class="mw-redirect" title="Everything in Its Place">Everything in Its Place</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Just_Checking:_Scenes_From_the_Life_of_an_Obsessive-Compulsive" title="Just Checking: Scenes From the Life of an Obsessive-Compulsive">Just Checking</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/As_Good_as_It_Gets" title="As Good as It Gets">As Good as It Gets</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Aviator_(2004_film)" title="The Aviator (2004 film)">The Aviator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Matchstick_Men" title="Matchstick Men">Matchstick Men</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Monk" title="Adrian Monk">Adrian Monk</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pure_(British_TV_series)" title="Pure (British TV series)">Pure</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/$pringfield_(or,_How_I_Learned_to_Stop_Worrying_and_Love_Legalized_Gambling)" title="$pringfield (or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love Legalized Gambling)">$pringfield</a>"</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Straight_Up_(2019_film)" title="Straight Up (2019 film)">Straight Up</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Category:Obsessive–compulsive disorder">Related</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">Guilt (emotion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion_of_control" title="Illusion of control">Illusion of control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_personality_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder">Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsessional_jealousy" title="Obsessional jealousy">Obsessional jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PANDAS" title="PANDAS">PANDAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primarily_Obsessional_OCD" class="mw-redirect" title="Primarily Obsessional OCD">Primarily Obsessional OCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Relationship obsessive–compulsive disorder">Relationship obsessive–compulsive disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anxiety_disorder" title="Social anxiety disorder">Social anxiety disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">Superstition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourette_syndrome" title="Tourette syndrome">Tourette syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Florida_Obsessive%E2%80%93Compulsive_Disorder_Program" title="University of Florida Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder Program">University of Florida Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&oldid=1258640225">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orbitofrontal_cortex&oldid=1258640225</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Category:Obsessive–compulsive disorder">Obsessive–compulsive disorder</a></li><li><a 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