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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Techniques and applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Techniques_and_applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Techniques and applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Techniques_and_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-At_the_DNA_level" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#At_the_DNA_level"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>At the DNA level</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-At_the_DNA_level-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetic_interaction_mapping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_interaction_mapping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Genetic interaction mapping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_interaction_mapping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DNA/Protein_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA/Protein_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>DNA/Protein interactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA/Protein_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DNA_accessibility_assays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_accessibility_assays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>DNA accessibility assays</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_accessibility_assays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-At_the_RNA_level" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#At_the_RNA_level"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>At the RNA level</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-At_the_RNA_level-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Microarrays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microarrays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Microarrays</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microarrays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-SAGE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#SAGE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>SAGE</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-SAGE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-RNA_sequencing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#RNA_sequencing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>RNA sequencing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-RNA_sequencing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Massively_Parallel_Reporter_Assays_(MPRAs)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Massively_Parallel_Reporter_Assays_(MPRAs)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Massively Parallel Reporter Assays (MPRAs)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Massively_Parallel_Reporter_Assays_(MPRAs)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-STARR-seq" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#STARR-seq"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.5</span> <span>STARR-seq</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-STARR-seq-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perturb-seq" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perturb-seq"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.6</span> <span>Perturb-seq</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perturb-seq-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-At_the_protein_level" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#At_the_protein_level"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>At the protein level</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-At_the_protein_level-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Yeast_two-hybrid_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yeast_two-hybrid_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Yeast two-hybrid system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yeast_two-hybrid_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-MS_and_AP/MS" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#MS_and_AP/MS"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>MS and AP/MS</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-MS_and_AP/MS-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deep_mutational_scanning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deep_mutational_scanning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Deep mutational scanning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deep_mutational_scanning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mutagenesis_and_phenotyping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutagenesis_and_phenotyping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Mutagenesis and phenotyping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutagenesis_and_phenotyping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Knock-outs_(gene_deletions)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Knock-outs_(gene_deletions)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Knock-outs (gene deletions)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Knock-outs_(gene_deletions)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Site-directed_mutagenesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Site-directed_mutagenesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Site-directed mutagenesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Site-directed_mutagenesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-RNAi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#RNAi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>RNAi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-RNAi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-CRISPR_screens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CRISPR_screens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.4</span> <span>CRISPR screens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CRISPR_screens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functional_annotations_for_genes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional_annotations_for_genes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Functional annotations for genes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functional_annotations_for_genes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genome_annotation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genome_annotation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Genome annotation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genome_annotation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rosetta_stone_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rosetta_stone_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>Rosetta stone approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rosetta_stone_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioinformatics_methods_for_Functional_genomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioinformatics_methods_for_Functional_genomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Bioinformatics methods for Functional genomics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioinformatics_methods_for_Functional_genomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consortium_projects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consortium_projects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Consortium projects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Consortium_projects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Consortium projects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Consortium_projects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_ENCODE_project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_ENCODE_project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>The ENCODE project</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_ENCODE_project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Genotype-Tissue_Expression_(GTEx)_project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Genotype-Tissue_Expression_(GTEx)_project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>The Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Genotype-Tissue_Expression_(GTEx)_project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Atlas_of_Variant_Effects_Alliance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Atlas_of_Variant_Effects_Alliance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>The Atlas of Variant Effects Alliance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Atlas_of_Variant_Effects_Alliance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%B3mica_funcional" title="Genómica funcional – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Genómica funcional" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="ژنومیک عملکردی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژنومیک عملکردی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EB%8A%A5%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%84%EC%B2%B4%ED%95%99" title="기능유전체학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기능유전체학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starfr%C3%A6n_erf%C3%B0amengjafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Starfræn erfðamengjafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Starfræn erfðamengjafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Функционална геномика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Функционална геномика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li 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class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Deep_Mutational_Scan.png/330px-Deep_Mutational_Scan.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Deep_Mutational_Scan.png/495px-Deep_Mutational_Scan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Deep_Mutational_Scan.png/660px-Deep_Mutational_Scan.png 2x" data-file-width="1930" data-file-height="921" /></a><figcaption>Deep mutational scan of the RNA recognition motif (RRM2) of a yeast PolyA binding protein (Pab1)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Functional genomics</b> is a field of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> that attempts to describe <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>) functions and interactions. Functional genomics make use of the vast data generated by <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transcriptomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcriptomics">transcriptomic</a> projects (such as <a href="/wiki/Genome_project" title="Genome project">genome sequencing projects</a> and <a href="/wiki/RNA-Seq" title="RNA-Seq">RNA sequencing</a>). Functional genomics focuses on the dynamic aspects such as gene <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a>, <a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">translation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">regulation of gene expression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93protein_interaction" title="Protein–protein interaction">protein–protein interactions</a>, as opposed to the static aspects of the genomic information such as <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequence">DNA sequence</a> or structures. A key characteristic of functional genomics studies is their genome-wide approach to these questions, generally involving high-throughput methods rather than a more traditional "candidate-gene" approach. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_and_goals">Definition and goals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition and goals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order to understand functional genomics it is important to first define function. In their paper<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Graur et al. define function in two possible ways. These are "selected effect" and "causal role". The "selected effect" function refers to the function for which a trait (DNA, RNA, protein etc.) is selected for. The "causal role" function refers to the function that a trait is sufficient and necessary for. Functional genomics usually tests the "causal role" definition of function. </p><p>The goal of functional genomics is to understand the function of genes or proteins, eventually all components of a genome. The term functional genomics is often used to refer to the many technical approaches to study an organism's genes and proteins, including the "biochemical, cellular, and/or physiological properties of each and every gene product"<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_and_Muse_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_and_Muse-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while some authors include the study of nongenic elements in their definition.<sup id="cite_ref-Pevsner_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pevsner-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Functional genomics may also include studies of natural genetic variation over time (such as an organism's development) or space (such as its body regions), as well as functional disruptions such as mutations. </p><p>The promise of functional genomics is to generate and synthesize genomic and proteomic knowledge into an understanding of the dynamic properties of an organism. This could potentially provide a more complete picture of how the genome specifies function compared to studies of single genes. Integration of functional genomics data is often a part of <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">systems biology</a> approaches. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques_and_applications">Techniques and applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Techniques and applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Functional genomics includes function-related aspects of the genome itself such as <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">polymorphism</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Single_nucleotide_polymorphism" class="mw-redirect" title="Single nucleotide polymorphism">single nucleotide polymorphism</a> (SNP) analysis), as well as the measurement of molecular activities. The latter comprise a number of "-<a href="/wiki/Omics" title="Omics">omics</a>" such as <a href="/wiki/Transcriptomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcriptomics">transcriptomics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a>), <a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">proteomics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Protein_production" title="Protein production">protein production</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Metabolomics" title="Metabolomics">metabolomics</a>. Functional genomics uses mostly <a href="/wiki/Multiplex_(assay)" title="Multiplex (assay)">multiplex</a> techniques to measure the abundance of many or all gene products such as <a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">mRNAs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> within a <a href="/wiki/Biological_specimen" title="Biological specimen">biological sample</a>. A more focused functional genomics approach might test the function of all variants of one gene and quantify the effects of mutants by using sequencing as a readout of activity. Together these measurement modalities endeavor to quantitate the various biological processes and improve our understanding of gene and protein functions and interactions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="At_the_DNA_level">At the DNA level</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: At the DNA level"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genetic_interaction_mapping">Genetic interaction mapping</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Genetic interaction mapping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epistasis" title="Epistasis">Epistasis</a></div> <p>Systematic pairwise deletion of genes or inhibition of gene expression can be used to identify genes with related function, even if they do not interact physically. <a href="/wiki/Epistasis" title="Epistasis">Epistasis</a> refers to the fact that effects for two different gene knockouts may not be additive; that is, the phenotype that results when two genes are inhibited may be different from the sum of the effects of single knockouts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="DNA/Protein_interactions"><span id="DNA.2FProtein_interactions"></span>DNA/Protein interactions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: DNA/Protein interactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/ChIP_sequencing" title="ChIP sequencing">ChIP sequencing</a></div> <p>Proteins formed by the translation of the mRNA (messenger RNA, a coded information from DNA for protein synthesis) play a major role in regulating gene expression. To understand how they regulate gene expression it is necessary to identify DNA sequences that they interact with. Techniques have been developed to identify sites of DNA-protein interactions. These include <a href="/wiki/ChIP-sequencing" class="mw-redirect" title="ChIP-sequencing">ChIP-sequencing</a>, <a href="/wiki/CUT%26RUN_sequencing" title="CUT&RUN sequencing">CUT&RUN sequencing</a> and Calling Cards.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="DNA_accessibility_assays">DNA accessibility assays</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: DNA accessibility assays"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Assays have been developed to identify regions of the genome that are accessible. These regions of accessible chromatin are candidate regulatory regions. These assays include <a href="/wiki/ATAC-seq" title="ATAC-seq">ATAC-seq</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNase-Seq" title="DNase-Seq">DNase-Seq</a> and <a href="/wiki/FAIRE-Seq" title="FAIRE-Seq">FAIRE-Seq</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="At_the_RNA_level">At the RNA level</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: At the RNA level"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Microarrays">Microarrays</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Microarrays"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_microarray.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/DNA_microarray.svg/220px-DNA_microarray.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/DNA_microarray.svg/330px-DNA_microarray.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/DNA_microarray.svg/440px-DNA_microarray.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="820" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Microarrays measure the amount of mRNA in a sample that corresponds to a given gene or probe DNA sequence. Probe sequences are immobilized on a solid surface and allowed to <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_hybridization" title="Nucleic acid hybridization">hybridize</a> with fluorescently labeled "target" mRNA. The intensity of fluorescence of a spot is proportional to the amount of target sequence that has hybridized to that spot and therefore to the abundance of that mRNA sequence in the sample. Microarrays allow for the identification of candidate genes involved in a given process based on variation between transcript levels for different conditions and shared expression patterns with genes of known function. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="SAGE">SAGE</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: SAGE"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Serial_analysis_of_gene_expression" title="Serial analysis of gene expression">Serial analysis of gene expression</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Serial_analysis_of_gene_expression" title="Serial analysis of gene expression">Serial analysis of gene expression</a> (SAGE) is an alternate method of analysis based on RNA sequencing rather than hybridization. SAGE relies on the sequencing of 10–17 base pair tags which are unique to each gene. These tags are produced from <a href="/wiki/Polyadenylation" title="Polyadenylation">poly-A mRNA</a> and ligated end-to-end before sequencing. SAGE gives an unbiased measurement of the number of transcripts per cell, since it does not depend on prior knowledge of what transcripts to study (as microarrays do). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="RNA_sequencing">RNA sequencing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: RNA sequencing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/RNA-Seq" title="RNA-Seq">RNA-Seq</a> and <a href="/wiki/MicroRNA_sequencing" title="MicroRNA sequencing">MicroRNA sequencing</a></div> <p>RNA sequencing has taken over microarray and SAGE technology in recent years, as noted in 2016, and has become the most efficient way to study transcription and gene expression. This is typically done by <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">next-generation sequencing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A subset of sequenced RNAs are small RNAs, a class of non-coding RNA molecules that are key regulators of transcriptional and post-transcriptional gene silencing, or <a href="/wiki/RNA_silencing" title="RNA silencing">RNA silencing</a>. Next-generation sequencing is the gold standard tool for <a href="/wiki/Non-coding_RNA" title="Non-coding RNA">non-coding RNA</a> discovery, profiling and expression analysis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Massively_Parallel_Reporter_Assays_(MPRAs)"><span id="Massively_Parallel_Reporter_Assays_.28MPRAs.29"></span>Massively Parallel Reporter Assays (MPRAs)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Massively Parallel Reporter Assays (MPRAs)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Massively parallel reporter assays is a technology to test the cis-regulatory activity of DNA sequences.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MPRAs use a <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmid</a> with a synthetic cis-regulatory element upstream of a promoter driving a synthetic gene such as Green Fluorescent Protein. A library of cis-regulatory elements is usually tested using MPRAs, a library can contain from hundreds to thousands of cis-regulatory elements. The cis-regulatory activity of the elements is assayed by using the downstream reporter activity. The activity of all the library members is assayed in parallel using barcodes for each cis-regulatory element. One limitation of MPRAs is that the activity is assayed on a plasmid and may not capture all aspects of gene regulation observed in the genome. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="STARR-seq">STARR-seq</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: STARR-seq"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/STARR-seq" title="STARR-seq">STARR-seq</a></div> <p>STARR-seq is a technique similar to MPRAs to assay enhancer activity of randomly sheared genomic fragments. In the original publication,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> randomly sheared fragments of the <i>Drosophila</i> genome were placed downstream of a minimal promoter. Candidate enhancers amongst the randomly sheared fragments will transcribe themselves using the minimal promoter. By using sequencing as a readout and controlling for input amounts of each sequence the strength of putative enhancers are assayed by this method. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perturb-seq">Perturb-seq</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Perturb-seq"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Perturb-seq" title="Perturb-seq">Perturb-seq</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Overview_of_Perturb-seq_workflow.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Overview_of_Perturb-seq_workflow.jpeg/517px-Overview_of_Perturb-seq_workflow.jpeg" decoding="async" width="517" height="388" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Overview_of_Perturb-seq_workflow.jpeg/776px-Overview_of_Perturb-seq_workflow.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Overview_of_Perturb-seq_workflow.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Overview of Perturb-seq workflow</figcaption></figure> <p>Perturb-seq couples CRISPR mediated gene knockdowns with single-cell gene expression. Linear models are used to calculate the effect of the knockdown of a single gene on the expression of multiple genes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="At_the_protein_level">At the protein level</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: At the protein level"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Yeast_two-hybrid_system">Yeast two-hybrid system</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Yeast two-hybrid system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">Two-hybrid screening</a></div> <p>A yeast <a href="/wiki/Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">two-hybrid screening</a> (Y2H) tests a "bait" protein against many potential interacting proteins ("prey") to identify physical protein–protein interactions. This system is based on a transcription factor, originally GAL4,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid2547163_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid2547163-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose separate DNA-binding and transcription activation domains are both required in order for the protein to cause transcription of a reporter gene. In a Y2H screen, the "bait" protein is fused to the binding domain of GAL4, and a library of potential "prey" (interacting) proteins is recombinantly expressed in a vector with the activation domain. In vivo interaction of bait and prey proteins in a yeast cell brings the activation and binding domains of GAL4 close enough together to result in expression of a <a href="/wiki/Reporter_gene" title="Reporter gene">reporter gene</a>. It is also possible to systematically test a library of bait proteins against a library of prey proteins to identify all possible interactions in a cell. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="MS_and_AP/MS"><span id="MS_and_AP.2FMS"></span>MS and AP/MS</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: MS and AP/MS"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Protein_mass_spectrometry" title="Protein mass spectrometry">Protein mass spectrometry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affinity_purification" class="mw-redirect" title="Affinity purification">Affinity purification</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a> (MS) can identify proteins and their relative levels, hence it can be used to study protein expression. When used in combination with <a href="/wiki/Affinity_purification" class="mw-redirect" title="Affinity purification">affinity purification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">mass spectrometry</a> (AP/MS) can be used to study protein complexes, that is, which proteins interact with one another in complexes and in which ratios. In order to purify protein complexes, usually a "bait" protein is tagged with a specific protein or peptide that can be used to pull out the complex from a complex mix. The purification is usually done using an antibody or a compound that binds to the fusion part. The proteins are then digested into short <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptide</a> fragments and mass spectrometry is used to identify the proteins based on the mass-to-charge ratios of those fragments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deep_mutational_scanning">Deep mutational scanning</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Deep mutational scanning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In deep mutational scanning, every possible amino acid change in a given protein is first synthesized.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The activity of each of these protein variants is assayed in parallel using barcodes for each variant.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By comparing the activity to the wild-type protein, the effect of each mutation is identified. While it is possible to assay every possible single amino-acid change due to combinatorics two or more concurrent mutations are hard to test. Deep mutational scanning experiments have also been used to infer protein structure and protein-protein interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deep Mutational Scanning is an example of a multiplexed assays of variant effect (MAVEs), a family of methods that involve mutagenesis of a DNA-encoded protein or regulatory element followed by a multiplexed assay for some aspect of function. MAVEs enable the generation of ‘variant effect maps’ characterizing aspects of the function of every possible single nucleotide change in a gene or functional element of interest. <sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mutagenesis_and_phenotyping">Mutagenesis and phenotyping</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mutagenesis and phenotyping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An important functional feature of genes is the phenotype caused by mutations. Mutants can be produced by random mutations or by directed mutagenesis, including site-directed mutagenesis, deleting complete genes, or other techniques. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Knock-outs_(gene_deletions)"><span id="Knock-outs_.28gene_deletions.29"></span>Knock-outs (gene deletions)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Knock-outs (gene deletions)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gene function can be investigated by systematically "knocking out" genes one by one. This is done by either <a href="/wiki/Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">deletion</a> or disruption of function (such as by <a href="/wiki/Insertional_mutagenesis" title="Insertional mutagenesis">insertional mutagenesis</a>) and the resulting organisms are screened for phenotypes that provide clues to the function of the disrupted gene. Knock-outs have been produced for whole genomes, i.e. by deleting all genes in a genome. For <a href="/wiki/Essential_gene" title="Essential gene">essential genes</a>, this is not possible, so other techniques are used, e.g. deleting a gene while expressing the gene from a <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmid</a>, using an inducible promoter, so that the level of gene product can be changed at will (and thus a "functional" deletion achieved). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Site-directed_mutagenesis">Site-directed mutagenesis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Site-directed mutagenesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Site-directed_mutagenesis" title="Site-directed mutagenesis">Site-directed mutagenesis</a> is used to mutate specific bases (and thus <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>). This is critical to investigate the function of specific amino acids in a protein, e.g. in the active site of an <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="RNAi">RNAi</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: RNAi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/RNAi" class="mw-redirect" title="RNAi">RNAi</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/RNA_interference" title="RNA interference">RNA interference</a> (RNAi) methods can be used to transiently silence or knockdown gene expression using ~20 base-pair double-stranded RNA typically delivered by transfection of synthetic ~20-mer short-interfering RNA molecules (siRNAs) or by virally encoded short-hairpin RNAs (shRNAs). RNAi screens, typically performed in cell culture-based assays or experimental organisms (such as <i>C. elegans</i>) can be used to systematically disrupt nearly every gene in a genome or subsets of genes (sub-genomes); possible functions of disrupted genes can be assigned based on observed <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="CRISPR_screens">CRISPR screens</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: CRISPR screens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Journal.pbio.2006951.g001-B.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Journal.pbio.2006951.g001-B.png/330px-Journal.pbio.2006951.g001-B.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Journal.pbio.2006951.g001-B.png/495px-Journal.pbio.2006951.g001-B.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Journal.pbio.2006951.g001-B.png/660px-Journal.pbio.2006951.g001-B.png 2x" data-file-width="1447" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption>An example of a CRISPR loss-of-function screen<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>CRISPR-Cas9 has been used to delete genes in a multiplexed manner in cell-lines. Quantifying the amount of guide-RNAs for each gene before and after the experiment can point towards essential genes. If a guide-RNA disrupts an essential gene it will lead to the loss of that cell and hence there will be a depletion of that particular guide-RNA after the screen. In a recent CRISPR-cas9 experiment in mammalian cell-lines, around 2000 genes were found to be essential in multiple cell-lines.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these genes were essential in only one cell-line. Most of genes are part of multi-protein complexes. This approach can be used to identify synthetic lethality by using the appropriate genetic background. CRISPRi and CRISPRa enable loss-of-function and gain-of-function screens in a similar manner. CRISPRi identified ~2100 essential genes in the K562 cell-line.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CRISPR deletion screens have also been used to identify potential regulatory elements of a gene. For example, a technique called ScanDel was published which attempted this approach. The authors deleted regions outside a gene of interest(HPRT1 involved in a Mendelian disorder) in an attempt to identify regulatory elements of this gene.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gassperini et al. did not identify any distal regulatory elements for HPRT1 using this approach, however such approaches can be extended to other genes of interest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functional_annotations_for_genes">Functional annotations for genes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Functional annotations for genes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genome_annotation">Genome annotation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Genome annotation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genome_project#Genome_annotation" title="Genome project">Genome project § Genome annotation</a></div> <p>Putative genes can be identified by scanning a genome for regions likely to encode proteins, based on characteristics such as long <a href="/wiki/Open_reading_frames" class="mw-redirect" title="Open reading frames">open reading frames</a>, transcriptional initiation sequences, and <a href="/wiki/Polyadenylation" title="Polyadenylation">polyadenylation</a> sites. A sequence identified as a putative gene must be confirmed by further evidence, such as similarity to cDNA or EST sequences from the same organism, similarity of the predicted protein sequence to known proteins, association with promoter sequences, or evidence that mutating the sequence produces an observable phenotype. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rosetta_stone_approach">Rosetta stone approach</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Rosetta stone approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Rosetta stone approach is a computational method for de-novo protein function prediction. It is based on the hypothesis that some proteins involved in a given physiological process may exist as two separate genes in one organism and as a single gene in another. Genomes are scanned for sequences that are independent in one organism and in a single open reading frame in another. If two genes have fused, it is predicted that they have similar biological functions that make such co-regulation advantageous. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bioinformatics_methods_for_Functional_genomics">Bioinformatics methods for Functional genomics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Bioinformatics methods for Functional genomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because of the large quantity of data produced by these techniques and the desire to find biologically meaningful patterns, <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a> is crucial to analysis of functional genomics data. Examples of techniques in this class are <a href="/wiki/Data_clustering" class="mw-redirect" title="Data clustering">data clustering</a> or <a href="/wiki/Principal_component_analysis" title="Principal component analysis">principal component analysis</a> for unsupervised <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> (class detection) as well as <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">artificial neural networks</a> or <a href="/wiki/Support_vector_machine" title="Support vector machine">support vector machines</a> for supervised machine learning (class prediction, <a href="/wiki/Statistical_classification" title="Statistical classification">classification</a>). Functional enrichment analysis is used to determine the extent of over- or under-expression (positive- or negative- regulators in case of RNAi screens) of functional categories relative to a background sets. <a href="/wiki/Gene_ontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene ontology">Gene ontology</a> based enrichment analysis are provided by <a href="/wiki/Gene_set_enrichment_analysis#DAVID" title="Gene set enrichment analysis">DAVID</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gene_set_enrichment_analysis" title="Gene set enrichment analysis">gene set enrichment analysis</a> (GSEA),<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pathway based analysis by Ingenuity<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Pathway studio<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and protein complex based analysis by COMPLEAT.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phydms.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Phydms.jpg/220px-Phydms.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Phydms.jpg/330px-Phydms.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Phydms.jpg/440px-Phydms.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1042" /></a><figcaption>An overview of a phydms workflow</figcaption></figure> <p>New computational methods have been developed for understanding the results of a deep mutational scanning experiment. 'phydms' compares the result of a deep mutational scanning experiment to a phylogenetic tree.<sup id="cite_ref-Hilton_2017_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilton_2017-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allows the user to infer if the selection process in nature applies similar constraints on a protein as the results of the deep mutational scan indicate. This may allow an experimenter to choose between different experimental conditions based on how well they reflect nature. Deep mutational scanning has also been used to infer protein-protein interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors used a thermodynamic model to predict the effects of mutations in different parts of a dimer. Deep mutational structure can also be used to infer protein structure. Strong positive epistasis between two mutations in a deep mutational scan can be indicative of two parts of the protein that are close to each other in 3-D space. This information can then be used to infer protein structure. A proof of principle of this approach was shown by two groups using the protein GB1.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Results from MPRA experiments have required machine learning approaches to interpret the data. A gapped k-mer SVM model has been used to infer the kmers that are enriched within cis-regulatory sequences with high activity compared to sequences with lower activity.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These models provide high predictive power. Deep learning and random forest approaches have also been used to interpret the results of these high-dimensional experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These models are beginning to help develop a better understanding of <a href="/wiki/Non-coding_DNA" title="Non-coding DNA">non-coding DNA</a> function towards gene-regulation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consortium_projects">Consortium projects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Consortium projects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_ENCODE_project">The ENCODE project</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: The ENCODE project"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/ENCODE" title="ENCODE">ENCODE</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/ENCODE" title="ENCODE">ENCODE</a> (Encyclopedia of DNA elements) project is an in-depth analysis of the human genome whose goal is to identify all the functional elements of genomic DNA, in both coding and non-coding regions. Important results include evidence from genomic tiling arrays that most nucleotides are transcribed as coding transcripts, non-coding RNAs, or random transcripts, the discovery of additional transcriptional regulatory sites, further elucidation of chromatin-modifying mechanisms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Genotype-Tissue_Expression_(GTEx)_project"><span id="The_Genotype-Tissue_Expression_.28GTEx.29_project"></span>The Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: The Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nature24277-f1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Nature24277-f1.jpg/220px-Nature24277-f1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Nature24277-f1.jpg/330px-Nature24277-f1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Nature24277-f1.jpg/440px-Nature24277-f1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="926" data-file-height="654" /></a><figcaption>Samples used and eQTLs discovered in GTEx v6</figcaption></figure> <p>The GTEx project is a human genetics project aimed at understanding the role of genetic variation in shaping variation in the transcriptome across tissues. The project has collected a variety of tissue samples (> 50 different tissues) from more than 700 post-mortem donors. This has resulted in the collection of >11,000 samples. GTEx has helped understand the tissue-sharing and tissue-specificity of <a href="/wiki/EQTL" class="mw-redirect" title="EQTL">eQTLs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The genomic resource was developed to "enrich our understanding of how differences in our DNA sequence contribute to health and disease."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Atlas_of_Variant_Effects_Alliance">The Atlas of Variant Effects Alliance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: The Atlas of Variant Effects Alliance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.varianteffect.org/">The Atlas of Variant Effects Alliance</a> (AVE),<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> founded in 2020, is an international consortium aiming to catalog the impact of all possible genetic variants for disease-related functional genomics by creating variant effect maps that reveal the function of every possible single nucleotide change in a gene or regulatory element. AVE is funded in part through the Brotman Baty Institute at the University of Washington and the National Human Genome Research Institute, via funding from the Center of Excellence in Genome Science grant (NHGRI RM1HG010461).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_genomics" title="Structural genomics">Structural genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">Comparative genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MGED_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="MGED Society">MGED Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistasis_and_functional_genomics" title="Epistasis and functional genomics">Epistasis and functional genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_viability" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic viability">Synthetic viability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_function_prediction" title="Protein function prediction">Protein function prediction</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Functional_genomics&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output 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.id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite 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href="/wiki/2-D_electrophoresis" class="mw-redirect" title="2-D electrophoresis">2-D electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrometer">Mass spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrospray_ionization" title="Electrospray ionization">Electrospray ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption_ionization" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization">Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption_ionization-time_of_flight_mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometer">Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfluidic-based_tools" class="mw-redirect" title="Microfluidic-based tools">Microfluidic-based tools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_affinity_tags" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotope affinity tags">Isotope affinity tags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_conformation_capture" title="Chromosome conformation capture">Chromosome conformation capture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA_Data_Bank_of_Japan" title="DNA Data Bank of Japan">DNA Data Bank of Japan</a> (JP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Molecular_Biology_Laboratory" title="European Molecular Biology Laboratory">European Molecular Biology Laboratory</a> (EU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> (USA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Sanger_Institute" title="Wellcome Sanger Institute">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> (UK)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" 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