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[o]" accesskey="o"> Ingia</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Tovuti"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Yaliyomo" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Yaliyomo</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">hamishia kwenye mwambaa upande</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">ficha</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Mwanzo</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Muundo_Hadubini" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muundo_Hadubini"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Muundo Hadubini </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Muundo_Hadubini-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Muundo Hadubini subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Muundo_Hadubini-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wenzipacha" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wenzipacha"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Wenzipacha </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wenzipacha-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-wasouti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#wasouti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 wasouti </div> </a> <ul id="toc-wasouti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-wauti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#wauti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 wauti </div> </a> <ul id="toc-wauti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sehemu_za_ubongo_wa_wauti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sehemu_za_ubongo_wa_wauti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.1 Sehemu za ubongo wa wauti </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sehemu_za_ubongo_wa_wauti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mamalia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mamalia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Mamalia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mamalia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jamaa_ya_nyani" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jamaa_ya_nyani"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Jamaa ya nyani </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jamaa_ya_nyani-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muundo_hadubini_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muundo_hadubini_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Muundo hadubini </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muundo_hadubini_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ukuaji" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ukuaji"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Ukuaji </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ukuaji-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Majukumu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Majukumu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Majukumu </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Majukumu-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Majukumu subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Majukumu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mifumo_tendakazi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mifumo_tendakazi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Mifumo tendakazi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mifumo_tendakazi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mifumo_ya_nyurotramsita" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mifumo_ya_nyurotramsita"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Mifumo ya nyurotramsita </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mifumo_ya_nyurotramsita-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mifumo_ya_hisi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mifumo_ya_hisi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Mifumo ya hisi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mifumo_ya_hisi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mifumo_ya_mwendo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mifumo_ya_mwendo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3 Mifumo ya mwendo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mifumo_ya_mwendo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mifumo_ya_kusisimua" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mifumo_ya_kusisimua"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.4 Mifumo ya kusisimua </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mifumo_ya_kusisimua-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Utumiaji_nishati_kwa_ubongo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Utumiaji_nishati_kwa_ubongo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Utumiaji nishati kwa ubongo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Utumiaji_nishati_kwa_ubongo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ubongo_na_akili" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ubongo_na_akili"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Ubongo na akili </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ubongo_na_akili-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Utafiti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Utafiti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Utafiti </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Utafiti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Historia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maelezo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maelezo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Maelezo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maelezo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marejeo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marejeo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Marejeo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marejeo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marejeo_zaidi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marejeo_zaidi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Marejeo zaidi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marejeo_zaidi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viungo_vya_nje" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viungo_vya_nje"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Viungo vya nje </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viungo_vya_nje-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Yaliyomo" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Geuza uonekanaji wa yaliyomo" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Geuza uonekanaji wa yaliyomo </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ubongo</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Nenda kwenye makala kwa lugha nyingine. Lugha 184 zinapatikana" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-184" aria-hidden="true" > Lugha 184 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brein" title="Brein – Kiafrikana" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Brein" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Kiafrikana" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gehirn" title="Gehirn – Kijerumani cha Uswisi" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Gehirn" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Kijerumani cha Uswisi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8E%E1%88%8D" title="አንጎል – Kiamhari" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አንጎል" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Kiamhari" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro" title="Cerebro – Kiaragoni" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Cerebro" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Kiaragoni" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%A6gen" title="Brægen – Kiingereza cha Kale" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Brægen" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Kiingereza cha Kale" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nden%CC%84" title="Nden̄ – Kiobolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Nden̄" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Kiobolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Obolo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%BA" title="دماغ – Kiarabu" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دماغ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Kiarabu" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A1%DC%98%DC%9A%DC%90" title="ܡܘܚܐ – Kiaramu" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܡܘܚܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Kiaramu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AE_(%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7)" title="مخ (بيولوجيا) – Kiarabu cha Misri" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مخ (بيولوجيا)" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Kiarabu cha Misri" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95" title="মস্তিষ্ক – Kiassam" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মস্তিষ্ক" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Kiassam" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebru" title="Cerebru – Kiasturia" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cerebru" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Kiasturia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-atj mw-list-item"><a href="https://atj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirtip" title="Wirtip – Kiatikamekw" lang="atj" hreflang="atj" data-title="Wirtip" data-language-autonym="Atikamekw" data-language-local-name="Kiatikamekw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Atikamekw</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%85" title="ГӀадалнах – Kiavari" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="ГӀадалнах" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Kiavari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lixwi" title="Lixwi – Kiaymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Lixwi" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Kiaymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyin" title="Beyin – Kiazerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Beyin" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Kiazerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A6%DB%8C%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بئیین – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بئیین" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B5%D2%BB%D0%B5" title="Баш мейеһе – Kibashkiri" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Баш мейеһе" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Kibashkiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smag%C4%97nis" title="Smagėnis – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Smagėnis" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutok" title="Hutok – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Hutok" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B3" title="Галаўны мозг – Kibelarusi" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Галаўны мозг" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Kibelarusi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Галаўны мозаг – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Галаўны мозаг" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otak" title="Otak – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Otak" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BA" title="Главен мозък – Kibulgaria" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Главен мозък" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Kibulgaria" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE" title="माथा – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="माथा" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunkolos%C9%9Bm%C9%9B" title="Kunkolosɛmɛ – Kibambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Kunkolosɛmɛ" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Kibambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95" title="মস্তিষ্ক – Kibengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মস্তিষ্ক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Kibengali" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%80%E0%BE%B3%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8B" title="ཀླད་པ་ – Kitibeti" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཀླད་པ་" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Kitibeti" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empenn" title="Empenn – Kibretoni" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Empenn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Kibretoni" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozak" title="Mozak – Kibosnia" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mozak" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Kibosnia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utok-utok" title="Utok-utok – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Utok-utok" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8" title="Тархи – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Тархи" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervell" title="Cervell – Kikatalani" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cervell" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Kikatalani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%8C%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%8C%D0%B5" title="Коьртан хье – Kichechenia" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Коьртан хье" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Kichechenia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%D8%B4%DA%A9" title="مێشک – Kikurdi cha Sorani" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێشک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Kikurdi cha Sorani" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozek" title="Mozek – Kicheki" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mozek" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Kicheki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymennydd" title="Ymennydd – Kiwelisi" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ymennydd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Kiwelisi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hjerne" title="Hjerne – Kidenmaki" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hjerne" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Kidenmaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gehirn" title="Gehirn – Kijerumani" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gehirn" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="Kijerumani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezg" title="Mezg – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Mezg" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B3rzgi" title="Mórzgi – Kisobia cha Chini" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Mórzgi" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Kisobia cha Chini" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%90%DE%A8%DE%86%DE%AA%DE%82%DE%91%DE%A8" title="ސިކުނޑި – Kidivehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ސިކުނޑި" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Kidivehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Εγκέφαλος – Kigiriki" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εγκέφαλος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Kigiriki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarv%C3%A8l" title="Zarvèl – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Zarvèl" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain" title="Brain – Kiingereza" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Brain" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="Kiingereza" class="interlanguage-link-target">English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerbo" title="Cerbo – Kiesperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Cerbo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Kiesperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro" title="Cerebro – Kihispania" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cerebro" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Kihispania" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaaju" title="Peaaju – Kiestonia" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Peaaju" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Kiestonia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmuin" title="Burmuin – Kibaski" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Burmuin" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Kibaski" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B2" title="مغز – Kiajemi" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مغز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Kiajemi" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aivot" title="Aivot – Kifini" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Aivot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Kifini" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ai" title="Ai – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Ai" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mona" title="Mona – Kifiji" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Mona" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Kifiji" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerveau" title="Cerveau – Kifaransa" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cerveau" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="Kifaransa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsens" title="Harsens – Kifrisia cha Magharibi" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Harsens" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Kifrisia cha Magharibi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchinn" title="Inchinn – Kiayalandi" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Inchinn" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Kiayalandi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8rvo" title="Sèrvo – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Sèrvo" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eanchainn" title="Eanchainn – Kigaeli cha Uskoti" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Eanchainn" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Kigaeli cha Uskoti" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro" title="Cerebro – Kigalisi" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cerebro" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Kigalisi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apytu%27%C5%A9" title="Apytu'ũ – Kiguarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Apytu'ũ" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Kiguarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%97%E0%AA%9C" title="મગજ – Kigujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="મગજ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Kigujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwakwalwa" title="Kwakwalwa – Kihausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kwakwalwa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Kihausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A8u-n%C3%B3" title="Thèu-nó – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Thèu-nó" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%97" title="מוח – Kiebrania" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מוח" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Kiebrania" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="मस्तिष्क – Kihindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मस्तिष्क" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Kihindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimaag" title="Dimaag – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Dimaag" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozak" title="Mozak – Kikorasia" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mozak" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Kikorasia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozy" title="Mozy – Kisobia cha Ukanda wa Juu" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Mozy" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Kisobia cha Ukanda wa Juu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8vo" title="Sèvo – Kihaiti" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Sèvo" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Kihaiti" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agy" title="Agy – Kihungaria" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Agy" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Kihungaria" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AC%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B2%D5%A5%D5%B2" title="Գլխուղեղ – Kiarmenia" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գլխուղեղ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Kiarmenia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro" title="Cerebro – Kiintalingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Cerebro" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Kiintalingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untak" title="Untak – Kiiban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Untak" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Kiiban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otak" title="Otak – Kiindonesia" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Otak" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Kiindonesia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qaqisaq" title="Qaqisaq – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Qaqisaq" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Iñupiatun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utek" title="Utek – Kiilocano" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Utek" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Kiilocano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B0" title="Хьоа – Kiingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Хьоа" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Kiingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro" title="Cerebro – Kiido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Cerebro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Kiido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heili" title="Heili – Kiisilandi" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Heili" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Kiisilandi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervello" title="Cervello – Kiitaliano" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cervello" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Kiitaliano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%96%83%E1%95%86%E1%91%95%E1%96%85" title="ᖃᕆᑕᖅ – Kiinuktituti" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᖃᕆᑕᖅ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Kiinuktituti" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%84%B3" title="脳 – Kijapani" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="脳" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Kijapani" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brien" title="Brien – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Brien" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/besna" title="besna – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="besna" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utek" title="Utek – Kijava" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Utek" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Kijava" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A2%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="თავის ტვინი – Kijojia" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="თავის ტვინი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Kijojia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%A9t%C9%A9y%C9%A9m" title="Fɩtɩyɩm – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Fɩtɩyɩm" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuu_(a%CC%B1pyia%CC%B1)" title="Fuu (a̱pyia̱) – Kityap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Fuu (a̱pyia̱)" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Kityap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utok" title="Utok – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Utok" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kumoring</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8" title="Ми – Kikazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ми" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kikazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಮೆದುಳು – Kikannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮೆದುಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kikannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%87%8C" title="뇌 – Kikorea" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="뇌" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Kikorea" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%DA%88" title="کوڈ – Kikashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="کوڈ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kikashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mej%C3%AE" title="Mejî – Kikurdi" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Mejî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kikurdi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ympynnyon" title="Ympynnyon – Kikorni" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Ympynnyon" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Kikorni" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D1%8D" title="Мээ – Kikyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Мээ" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kikyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum – Kilatini" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cerebrum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Kilatini" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gehier" title="Gehier – Kilasembagi" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Gehier" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Kilasembagi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8F" title="Ня – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Ня" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лакку</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8C%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%82%D3%80" title="Кьилин мефтӀ – Kilezighian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Кьилин мефтӀ" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Kilezighian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herre" title="Herre – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Herre" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervell" title="Cervell – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Cervell" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C9%94ng%C9%94%CC%81_(enama)" title="Bɔngɔ́ (enama) – Kilingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Bɔngɔ́ (enama)" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Kilingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BB%9D%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%87" title="ສະໝອງ – Kilaosi" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ສະໝອງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Kilaosi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvos_smegenys" title="Galvos smegenys – Kilithuania" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Galvos smegenys" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Kilithuania" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smadzenes" title="Smadzenes – Kilatvia" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Smadzenes" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Kilatvia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atidoha" title="Atidoha – Kimalagasi" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Atidoha" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Kimalagasi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Вуйдорык – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Вуйдорык" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utak" title="Utak – Kiminangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Utak" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Kiminangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Мозок – Kimacedonia" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Мозок" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Kimacedonia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82" title="മസ്തിഷ്കം – Kimalayalamu" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മസ്തിഷ്കം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Kimalayalamu" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8" title="Тархи – Kimongolia" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Тархи" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Kimongolia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82" title="मेंदू – Kimarathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मेंदू" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Kimarathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otak" title="Otak – Kimalei" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Otak" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Kimalei" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A6%E1%80%B8%E1%80%94%E1%80%BE%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA" title="ဦးနှောက် – Kiburma" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဦးနှောက်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Kiburma" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Удем – Kierzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Удем" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Kierzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuayolotl" title="Cuayolotl – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Cuayolotl" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bregen" title="Bregen – Kisaksoni" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Bregen" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Kisaksoni" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="मस्तिष्क – Kinepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मस्तिष्क" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Kinepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81" title="न्हेपु – Kinewari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="न्हेपु" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Kinewari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hersenen" title="Hersenen – Kiholanzi" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Hersenen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Kiholanzi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hjerne" title="Hjerne – Kinorwe cha Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Hjerne" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Kinorwe cha Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hjerne" title="Hjerne – Kinorwe cha Bokmal" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hjerne" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Kinorwe cha Bokmal" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A8rv%C3%A9" title="Chèrvé – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Chèrvé" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerv%C3%A8l" title="Cervèl – Kiokitani" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Cervèl" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Kiokitani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B7%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%95" title="ମସ୍ତିଷ୍କ – Kioriya" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ମସ୍ତିଷ୍କ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Kioriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BC" title="ਦਿਮਾਗ਼ – Kipunjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਦਿਮਾਗ਼" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Kipunjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utek" title="Utek – Kipangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="Utek" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="Kipangasinan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangasinan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utak" title="Utak – Kipampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Utak" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Kipampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebro" title="Celebro – Kipapiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Celebro" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Kipapiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B3zg" title="Mózg – Kipolandi" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mózg" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Kipolandi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%BA" title="دماغ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="دماغ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%BA%D8%B2%D9%87" title="ماغزه – Kipashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ماغزه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Kipashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9rebro" title="Cérebro – Kireno" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cérebro" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Kireno" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91utqu" title="Ñutqu – Kikechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ñutqu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Kikechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creier" title="Creier – Kiromania" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Creier" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Kiromania" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B3" title="Головной мозг – Kirusi" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Головной мозг" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Kirusi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D2%91" title="Мозоґ – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Мозоґ" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubwonko" title="Ubwonko – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Ubwonko" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="मस्तिष्कम् – Kisanskriti" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="मस्तिष्कम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Kisanskriti" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Мэйии – Kisakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Мэйии" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Kisakha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A6%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9D" title="ᱦᱟᱛᱟᱝ – Kisantali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱦᱟᱛᱟᱝ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Kisantali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherbeddu" title="Cherbeddu – Kisardinia" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Cherbeddu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Kisardinia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciriveddu" title="Ciriveddu – Kisicilia" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ciriveddu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Kisicilia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harn" title="Harn – Kiskoti" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Harn" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Kiskoti" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%BA" title="دماغ – Kisindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="دماغ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Kisindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuoig%C5%8Ba%C5%A1at" title="Vuoigŋašat – Kisami cha Kaskazini" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Vuoigŋašat" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Kisami cha Kaskazini" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozak" title="Mozak – Kiserbia-kroeshia" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mozak" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Kiserbia-kroeshia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%9C%E0%B7%85%E0%B6%BA" title="මොළය – Kisinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මොළය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Kisinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain" title="Brain – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Brain" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozog" title="Mozog – Kislovakia" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mozog" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Kislovakia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo%C5%BEgani" title="Možgani – Kislovenia" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Možgani" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Kislovenia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huropi" title="Huropi – Kishona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Huropi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Kishona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskax" title="Maskax – Kisomali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Maskax" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Kisomali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truri" title="Truri – Kialbania" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Truri" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Kialbania" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Мозак – Kiserbia" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мозак" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Kiserbia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainge" title="Brainge – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Brainge" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uteuk" title="Uteuk – Kisunda" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Uteuk" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Kisunda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hj%C3%A4rna" title="Hjärna – Kiswidi" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hjärna" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Kiswidi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%88" title="மனித மூளை – Kitamili" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மனித மூளை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Kitamili" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%81" title="మెదడు – Kitelugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మెదడు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Kitelugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D2%93%D0%B7%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мағзи сар – Kitajiki" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Мағзи сар" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Kitajiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87" title="สมอง – Kithai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สมอง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Kithai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelle_be%C3%BDnisi" title="Kelle beýnisi – Kiturukimeni" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Kelle beýnisi" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Kiturukimeni" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utak" title="Utak – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Utak" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyin" title="Beyin – Kituruki" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Beyin" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Kituruki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Баш мие – Kitatari" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Баш мие" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Kitatari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%90%DA%AD%DB%95" title="مېڭە – Kiuyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="مېڭە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Kiuyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Головний мозок – Kiukraini" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Головний мозок" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Kiukraini" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%BA" title="دماغ – Kiurdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="دماغ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Kiurdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosh_miya" title="Bosh miya – Kiuzbeki" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Bosh miya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Kiuzbeki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serve%C5%82o" title="Serveło – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Serveło" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A3o" title="Não – Kivietinamu" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Não" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Kivietinamu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brein" title="Brein – Kivolapuk" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Brein" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Kivolapuk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervea" title="Cervea – Kiwaloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Cervea" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Kiwaloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utok" title="Utok – Kiwaray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Utok" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Kiwaray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%84%91" title="脑 – Kichina cha Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="脑" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Kichina cha Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%A2%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="დუდიშ ტვინი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="დუდიშ ტვინი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%97" title="מוח – Kiyiddi" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מוח" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Kiyiddi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uk" title="Uk – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Uk" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%84%91" title="脑 – Kichina" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="脑" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Kichina" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%85%A6" title="腦 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="腦" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A1u" title="Náu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Náu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%85%A6" title="腦 – Kikantoni" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="腦" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Kikantoni" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuchopho" title="Ubuchopho – Kizulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ubuchopho" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Kizulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1073#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Hariri viungo vya lugha zingine" class="wbc-editpage">Hariri viungo</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Maeneo ya wiki"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Ubongo" title="Onyesha kurasa zilizopo [c]" accesskey="c">Makala</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="new vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Majadiliano:Ubongo&action=edit&redlink=1" rel="discussion" class="new" title="Mazungumzo kuhusu makala (bado haujaandikwa) [t]" accesskey="t">Majadiliano</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Badilisha lahaja ya lugha" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Kiswahili </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Mitazamo"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Ubongo">Soma</a></li><li id="ca-ve-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit" title="Hariri ukurasa huu na VisualEditor [v]" accesskey="v">Hariri</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="collapsible vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit" title="Hariri chanzo msimbo za ukurasa huu [e]" accesskey="e">Hariri chanzo</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=history" title="Mapitio ya awali ya ukurasa huu [h]" accesskey="h">Fungua historia</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Zana za ukurasa"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Zana" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Zana </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Zana</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">hamishia kwenye mwambaa upande</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">ficha</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Vitendo </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Ubongo">Soma</a></li><li id="ca-more-ve-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit" title="Hariri ukurasa huu na VisualEditor [v]" accesskey="v">Hariri</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="collapsible vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit" title="Hariri chanzo msimbo za ukurasa huu [e]" accesskey="e">Hariri chanzo</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=history">Fungua historia</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Kijumla </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Maalum:VingoViungavyoUkurasahuu/Ubongo" title="Orodha ya kurasa zote za Wiki zilizounganishwa na ukurasa huu [j]" accesskey="j">Viungo viungavyo ukurasa huu</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Maalum:RecentChangesLinked/Ubongo" rel="nofollow" title="Mabadiliko ya karibuni ya katika kurasa zilizounganishwa na ukurasa huu [k]" accesskey="k">Mabadiliko husika</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:UploadWizard?uselang=sw" title="Pakia picha, video, au sauti [u]" accesskey="u">Pakia faili</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Maalum:KurasaMaalum" title="Orodha ya kurasa zote maalumu [q]" accesskey="q">Kurasa maalumu</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&oldid=1351624" title="Kiungo cha daima cha kufikisha pitio hili la ukurasa">Kiungo cha daima</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=info" title="More information about this page">Maelezo ya ukurasa</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maalum:Taja&page=Ubongo&id=1351624&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Taarifa juu ya njia ya kutaja ukurasa huu">Taja ukurasa huu</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maalum:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FUbongo">Pata URL iliyofupishwa</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maalum:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FUbongo">Pakua msimbo wa QR</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Chapa/peleka nje </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-create_a_book" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maalum:Kusanya&bookcmd=book_creator&referer=Ubongo">Tunga kitabu</a></li><li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maalum:DownloadAsPdf&page=Ubongo&action=show-download-screen">Pakua kama PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&printable=yes" title="Toleo linalochapika la ukurasa huu [p]" accesskey="p">Ukurasa wa kuchapika</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Miradi mingine </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Brain" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1073" title="Link to connected data repository item [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata kifungu</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Zana za ukurasa"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Mandhari"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Mandhari</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">hamishia kwenye mwambaa upande</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">ficha</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">Kutoka Wikipedia, kamusi elezo huru</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="sw" dir="ltr"><div class="dablink">Makala hii inahusu bongo za kila aina ya wanyama, hata binadamu. Kwa maelezo kuhusu ubongo wa binadamu, tazama <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo_wa_binadamu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ubongo wa binadamu (bado haujaandikwa)">Ubongo wa binadamu</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Faili:Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A brain floating in a liquid-filled glass jar. Yellowing of the handwritten labels on the jar give the object an antique appearance." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg/250px-Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg/375px-Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg/500px-Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2540" data-file-height="3200" /></a><figcaption>Ubongo wa sokwe.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Faili:Brain_Anatomy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Brain_Anatomy.png/250px-Brain_Anatomy.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Brain_Anatomy.png/375px-Brain_Anatomy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Brain_Anatomy.png/500px-Brain_Anatomy.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Ubongo wa binadamu.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Faili:Brain-anatomy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Brain-anatomy.jpg/220px-Brain-anatomy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Brain-anatomy.jpg/330px-Brain-anatomy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Brain-anatomy.jpg/440px-Brain-anatomy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="513" data-file-height="303" /></a><figcaption>Mgawanyo wa ubongo.</figcaption></figure> Ubongo ndio kiini cha <a href="/wiki/Mfumo_wa_neva" title="Mfumo wa neva">mfumo wa neva</a> katika <a href="/wiki/Wanyama" class="mw-redirect" title="Wanyama">wanyama</a> wote wenye <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ugwemgongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ugwemgongo (bado haujaandikwa)">ugwemgongo</a>, na wengi wa wanyama wasio na ugwemgongo.<a href="#cite_note-Shepard-1">[1]</a> Baadhi ya wanyama wasiositawi, kama vile <a href="/wiki/Konyeza" title="Konyeza">konyeza</a> na kiti cha <a href="/wiki/Pweza" title="Pweza">pweza</a>, wana mfumo wa <a href="/wiki/Neva" title="Neva">neva</a> uliogatuliwa bila ubongo, huku <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tipwatipwa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tipwatipwa (bado haujaandikwa)">tipwatipwa</a> wa <a href="/wiki/Bahari" title="Bahari">bahari</a> wakikosa mfumo wa neva kabisa. Katika wanyama wenye ugwemgongo, ubongo umo katika <a href="/wiki/Kichwa" title="Kichwa">kichwa</a> ukilindwa na <a href="/wiki/Mifupa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mifupa">mifupa</a> ya <a href="/wiki/Fuvu" title="Fuvu">fuvu</a> na ukiwa karibu na viungo vya <a href="/wiki/Hisia" title="Hisia">hisia</a> za msingi yaani kuona, kusikia, kugusa, <a href="/wiki/Ladha" title="Ladha">ladha</a> na <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harufu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harufu (bado haujaandikwa)">harufu</a>. Ubongo unaweza kuwa changamani sana. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gamba_la_ubongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gamba la ubongo (bado haujaandikwa)">Gamba la ubongo</a> wa <a href="/wiki/Binadamu" title="Binadamu">binadamu</a> lina takribani <a href="/wiki/Neuroni" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroni">neuroni</a> <a href="/wiki/Bilioni" title="Bilioni">bilioni</a> 15-33, labda zaidi, kutegemea <a href="/wiki/Jinsia" title="Jinsia">jinsia</a> na <a href="/wiki/Umri" title="Umri">umri</a>,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> zilizounganishwa na takribani miunganiko ya <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinapsi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sinapsi (bado haujaandikwa)">sinapsi</a> 10,000 kila mmoja. Kila milimita ya kizio cha ukubwa wa gamba la ubongo lina takribani sinapsi bilioni moja.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Neuroni hizi huwasiliana na nyingine kwa njia ya fumwele ndefu za protoplazimu ziitwazo akzoni, ambazo hubeba mifuatano ya mipigo ya vichocheo vitwavyo matendo tarajiwa kuelekea sehemu mbali za ubongo au mwili na kulenga seli maalumu itakazovipokea. Ubongo hudhibiti mifumo mingine ya viungo vingine vya mwili, iwe kwa kusisimua <a href="/wiki/Misuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Misuli">misuli</a> au kwa kusababisha kutolewa kwa kemikali kama vile <a href="/wiki/Homoni" title="Homoni">homoni</a> ambayo ni homoni ya <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pituitari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pituitari (bado haujaandikwa)">pituitari</a>. Udhibiti huu kutoka mahali moja unaruhusu majibu ya haraka na yaliyoratibiwa kwa mabadiliko katika mazingira. Baadhi ya mwitikio wa kimsingi inawezekana bila ubongo: hata viumbe walio na chembe moja wanaweza kufasiri yaliyo katika mazingira na kutenda kulingana na mabadiliko hayo.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Tipwatipwa wa bahari, wasio na mfumo mkuu wa neva, wanaweza kujikunyata na hata kusonga kwa namana iliyotibiwa.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Katika wauti, uti wa mgongo wenyewe una viungo vya neva vinavyoweza kuanzisha tendohiaria pamoja na kuelekeza mifumo rahisi ya kusonga kama vile kuogelea au kutembea.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Hata hivyo, udhibiti changamani wa tabia kwa msingi ya mchango wa hisia tete unahitaji uwezo-unganishaji wa ubongo wa kati. Licha ya maendeleo ya kasi ya sayansi, mengi kuhusu jinsi ubongo unavyofanya kazi bado ni siri. Majukumu ya neva na sinapsi zikiwa pekee sasa inaeleweka kwa undani makubwa, lakini jinsi yanavyoshirikiana katika majumuia ya maelfu au mamilioni imekuwa vigumu sana fumbua. Mbinu za uchunguzi kama vile unakili wa EEG na upigaji picha ubongo unaofanya kazi umetuambia kwamba utendaji wa ubongo unatendeka kwa utaratibu sana, huku kunakili kitengo kimoja kukiweza kufichua shughuli za neva moja, jinsi chembe moja inavyo inavyochangia michakato changamani haijulikani.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Muundo_Hadubini">Muundo Hadubini</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Hariri sehemu: Muundo Hadubini" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Muundo Hadubini">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> Ubongo ndio umbile la kibayolojia changamani zaidi inayojulikana,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> na kulinganisha bongo za spishi mbalimbali kwa msingi wa jinsi zinavyoonekana aghalabu ni vigumu. Hata hivyo, kuna kanuni za kawaida ya muundo wa ubongo zinazotumika kote katika spishi mbalimbali. Hizi huwekwa wazi hasa kwa njia tatu. Mbinu ya mageuko inamaanisha kulinganisha miundo ua bongo za spishi mbalimbali, na kwa kutumia kanuni kwamba mionekano inayopatikana katika matawi yote ambayo alipokelewa kutoka kwa muundo fulani wa kale na kwamba pengine ilikuwa katika watangulizi. Mbinu ya ukuaji ina maananisha kuchunguza jinsi umbo la ubongo unavyobadiliko ya wakati wa ukuaji kutoka kipindi cha kiinitete hadi utu uzima. Mbinu ya kijenetiki ina maanisha kuchunguza jeni zinazopatikana katika maeneo mbalimbali ya ubongo miongoni mwa spishi anuwai. Kila mbinu hukamilisha nyingine na huchangia hayo mengine mawili. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wenzipacha">Wenzipacha</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Hariri sehemu: Wenzipacha" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Wenzipacha">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Faili:Bilaterian-plan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A rod-shaped body contains a digestive system running from the mouth at one end to the anus at the other. Alongside the digestive system is a nerve cord with a brain at the end, near to the mouth." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/220px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/330px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/440px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="218" /></a><figcaption>Mfumo wa neva wa mnyama mwenye uenzipacha, katika mfumo wa kamba ya neva na vivimbe vya vipingili, na "ubongo" ukiwa mbele</figcaption></figure> Isipokuwa aina chache za tipwatipwa na konyeza wasiostawi, wanyama wote wenye uhai wana wenzipacha, kumaanisha wanyama walio na maumbo ya miili iliyo linganifu (yaani, pande za kushoto na kulia ni karibu taswira akisi ya kila moja).<a href="#cite_note-Urbilateria-9">[9]</a> Wenzipacha wote wanadhaniwa kuwa walitokana na mhenga mmoja aliyeishi mapema katika kipindi cha Kambria, miaka milioni 550-600 iliyopita.<a href="#cite_note-Urbilateria-9">[9]</a> Mhenga huyo alikuwa na umbo neli la mnyoo sahili mwenye mwili uliokuwa na mikato, katika kiwango cha kidhahania, umbo hilo kama la mnyoo unaendelea kujitokeza katika mwili na mfumo wa neva wa wanyama wenzipacha wa kisasa, ikiwa ni pamoja na binadamu.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Umbo la kimsingi la mwili enzipacha ni neli iliyo na kijishimo wazi cha utumbu kinachotoka mdomoni hadi kwenye mkundu, na ukano wa neva ulio na uvimbe (ganglioni) kwa kila sehemu ya mwili, huku kukiwa na ganglioni mahsusi kubwa mbele, iitwayo ubongo. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="wasouti">wasouti</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Hariri sehemu: wasouti" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: wasouti">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Faili:Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_(aka).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A fly resting on a reflective surface. A large, red eye faces the camera. The body appears transparent, apart from black pigment at the end of its abdomen." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/330px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/440px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="546" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>Drosofila</figcaption></figure> Kwa wasouti (k.m, wadudu, konokono, minyoo, n.k) sehemu za ubongo hutofautiana sana na muundo wa wauti hivi kwamba ni vigumu kufanya ulinganishi wowote wa maana isipokuwa kwa misingi ya jenetiki. Makundi mawili ya wasouti hasa yana bongo changamani: <a href="/wiki/Arithropodi" title="Arithropodi">athropoda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wadudu" title="Wadudu">wadudu</a>, krasteshia, <a href="/wiki/Arakinida" title="Arakinida">araknida</a>, na wengine), na sefalopoda ( pweza, ngisi, na moluska )wengine kama hao.<a href="#cite_note-butler-11">[11]</a> Ubongo wa athropoda na sefalopoda huchimbuka kutoka katika kano mbili sambamba za neva zinazosambaa kote katika mwili wa mnyama. Athropoda wana ubongo mmoja kuu ulio na tabaka tatu na ndewe za macho kubwa nyuma ya kila <a href="/wiki/Jicho" title="Jicho">jicho</a> kwa uchakataji maono.<a href="#cite_note-butler-11">[11]</a> Sefalopoda wana bongo kubwa zaidi kati ya wasouti wote. Ubongo wa pweza hasa umesitawi sana, unalinganika kwa uchangamano na ubongo wa baadhi ya wauti. Kuna wasouti wachache sana ambao bongo zao zimetafitiwa kwa makini. Babaje mkubwa wa bahari wa Aplisia alichaguliwa na mshinda wa Tuzo Nobel mwanafiziolojia Eric Kandel, kwa sababu ya usahili na upatikanaji wa mfumo wake wa neva, kama mfano wa kutafiti chembe kama msingi wa kujifunza na kumbukumbu, na ukafanyiwa mamia ya majaribio.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Bongo za wasouti zilizotafitiwa kwa undani zaidi, hata hivyo, ni za nzi-tunda Drosofila na minyoo wadogo sana Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). Kwa sababu ya aina nyingi ya mbinu za kutafiti jenetiki zao, nzi-tunda wamekuwa watafitiwa asili katika majukumu ya kutafiti jeni na ukuaji wa ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Inashangaza kuwa, vipengele vingi vya nyurojenetiki ya Drosofila yametambuliwa kuwa muhimu kwa binadamu. Jeni za kwanza za majira ya kibayolojoa, kwa mfano, yalitambuliwa kwa kuchunguza Drosofila zilizobadilika zilioonyesha kuvurugwa kwa mpangilio wa shughuli za kila siku.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Uchunguzi katika jinomu za wauti uligundua jozi linganifu za jeni, zilizopatikana kutekeleza majukumu sawa katika majira ya kibayolojia ya panya-na hiyo kwa uhakika wa kiwango kikubwa katika majira ya kibayolojia ya binadamu pia.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Sawa na Drosofila, mnyoo nematoda C. elegans umechunguzwa kwa kiasi kikubwa kwa sababu ya umuhimu wake katika jenetiki.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Mapema miaka ya 1970, Sydney Brenner aliuchagua kama mfano elekezi kwa kuchunguzia jinsi jeni hudhibiti ukuaji. Moja ya faida za kufanya kazi na mnyoo huu ni kwamba mpangilio wa mwili wake ni wa kawaida: mfumo wa neva wenye umbo huntha una neuroni 302 kamili, neuroni kila mara huwa katika sehemu sawa, na hufanya miungano yakufanana ya sinapsi katika kila mnyoo.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Katika mradi wa kishujaa, kikosi cha Brenner kilimpasua mnyoo kuwa maelfu ya sehemu nyembamba zaidi na kupiga picha kila sehemu ya chini ya hadubini meme, kisha kwa kutazama akalinganisha fumwele kutoka sehemu moja na sehemu nyingi, ili kuonyesha kila neuroni na sinapsi katika mwili mzima.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Hakuna kinachokaribia ngazi hii ya utondoti kuhusu viumbe wengine wowote, na ujumbe huo umetumika kuwezesha tafiti kadhaa ambayo haingewezekana bila utafiti huo. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="wauti">wauti</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Hariri sehemu: wauti" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: wauti">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Faili:Shark_brain.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A T-shaped object is made up of the cord at the bottom which feeds into a lower central mass. This is topped by a larger central mass with an arm extending from either side." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shark_brain.png/220px-Shark_brain.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shark_brain.png/330px-Shark_brain.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Shark_brain.png 2x" data-file-width="348" data-file-height="362" /></a><figcaption>Ubongo wa papa</figcaption></figure> Bongo za wauti zimeundwa kwa tishu laini sana, ikiwa na na texture ambao imelinganishwa na Jell-O.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Tishu ya ubongo hai ni ya rangi waridi kwa nje na nyeupe kwa wingi ndani, huku kukia na mabadiliko utofauti mdogo wa rangi. Bongo za wauti zimezungukwa kwa mfumo wa tandu za tishu unganishi ziitwazo meninji zinazo tofautisha fuvu na ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-CarpenterCh1-20">[20]</a> Kifuniko hiki chenye safu tatu kinajumuisha (kutoka nje) dura mama ("mama mgumu"), mama araknoida ("mama mwembamba"), na mama pia ("mama laini "). Araknoida na pia zimeshikana kimaumbo na hivyo huchukuliwa kuwa safu moja, ya pia-araknoida. Chini ya araknoida kuna nafasi ya araknoida ndogo ambayo ina ugiligili wa ubongo na uti wa mgongo (CSF), ambayo huzunguka katika nafasi nyembamba kati ya chembechembe na penyu ziitwazo ventrikali, jukumu lake ni kurutubisha, kukimu, na kulinda tishu za ubongo. Mishipa ya damu huingia mfumo mkuu wa neva kupitia nafasi isiyo na mishipa juu ya mama pia. Chembe katika kuta za mishipa ya damu zimeshikana kwa nguvu sana, na hivyo kuunda mpaka wa damu na ubongo ambayo huilinda ubongo dhidi ya sumu inayoweza kuingia kupitia damu. wauti wa kwanza walionekana zaidi ya miaka milioni 500 iliyopita (mmi ), katika kipindi cha Kambri, na huenda walifanana kwa kiasi fulani na umbo la kisasa la samaki balika (hagfish).<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Papa walionekana takribani miaka milioni 450 iliyopita, amfibia yapata miaka milioni 400 iliyopita, reptilia yapata miaka milioni 350 iliyopita, na mamalia yapata miaka milioni 200 iliyopita. Hakuna spishi ya kisasa inayoweza kuelezewa kuwa "isiyositawi" zaidi ikilinganishwa na nyingine, kwa kuwa zote zina historia ndefu ya mageuko, lakini bongo za samaki balika wa kisasa, mikunga, papa, amfibia, reptilia na mamalia huonyesha tofauti katika ukubwa na uchangamani ambayo kwa kiasi fulani hufuata utaratibu wa mageuko.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Bongo hizo zote zina mkusanyiko sawa wa vipengele muhimu vya kianatomia, lakini nyingi hazijakamilika katika balika, ambapo katika mamalia sehemu za kwanza kabisa zimesitawika na kupanuka sana. Bongo zote za wauti huwa na umbo moja la kimsingi, ambayo inaweza kuelewekwa kwa urahisi zaidi kwa kuchunguza jinsi zilivyokua.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Dalili ya kwanza ya mfumo wa neva hujitokeza kama utepe mwembamba wa tishu unaoonekana katika mgongo wa kiinitete. Utepe huo hunenepa na kisha kujikunja kuunda neli tupu. Upande wa mbele wa neli hiyo hukua kuwa ubongo. Katika muumdo wake wa kwanza, ubongo huonekana kama vivimbe vitatu, ambayo hatimaye huwa ubongombele, ubongokati, na ubongonyuma. Katika aina nyingi za wauti sehemu hizi tatu hubakia sawa kwa ukubwa katika mnyama mzima, lakini katika mamalia ubongombele hukua kubwa zaidi kuliko sehemu nyingine, na ubongokati mdogo kabisa. Uhusiano kati ya ukubwa wa ubongo, ukubwa wa mwili na vipengee vingine vya kubadilika vimetafitiwa miongoni mwa aina mbalimbali za wauti. Ukubwa wa ubongo huongezeka na ongezeko la ukubwa wa mwili lakini si kwa uwiano. Ikifanyiwa wastani katika aina zote za mamalia, inafuata sheria ya kipeo, ikiwa na kipeo cha takribani 0.75.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Fomyula hii inatumika katika bongo wastani ya mamalia lakini kila jamii hujitofautisha kutokana nayo, kuonyesha tabia zao changamno.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Kwa mfano, jamii ya nyani ina bongo zilizo mara 5-10 kubwa zaidi ya jinsi fomyula inavyotabiri. Wanyama wa kuwinda aghalabu huwa na bongo kubwa. Wakati ubongo wa mamalia unapoongezeka kwa ukubwa, si sehemu zote zinazoongezeka kwa kiwango sawa. Kadri ubongo wa spishi unavyokuwa mkubwa, ndivyo gamba la ubongo linavyokuwa na jukumu kubwa.<a href="#cite_note-Finlay-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sehemu_za_ubongo_wa_wauti">Sehemu za ubongo wa wauti</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Hariri sehemu: Sehemu za ubongo wa wauti" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Sehemu za ubongo wa wauti">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> Wana-anatomia wa neva kawaida huchukulia ubongo kuwa na sehemu sita kuu: gamba-nje la ubongo (vizio vya ubongo), gamba-ndani la ubongo (thelamasi na haipothelamasi), gamba-kati la ubongo (ubongokati), ubongonyuma, ponsi, na medula oblongata.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Kila moja ya sehemu hizi vilevile zina muundo changamani ndani. Baadhi ya sehemu, kama vile gamba na ubongonyuma, huwa na safu, zilizokunjwa au zilizoviringishwa kutoshea katika nafasi iliyopo. Sehemu zingine huwa na mikusanyiko ya viini vingi vidogo. Ikiwa utofautishaji wa kina ungefanywa kwa msingi wa muundo wa neva, kemia, na miunganiko, maelfu ya maeneo tofauti yanaweza kutambuliwa ndani ya ubongo wa wauti. Baadhi ya matawi ya mageuzi ya wauti yameleta mabadiliko makubwa katika sura za ubongo, hasa katika ubongombele. Ubongo wa papa unaonyesha sehemu za kimsingi katika njia ya moja kwa moja, lakini katika samaki wenye mifupa (wengi wa kisana ni wa aina hii), ubongombele "umepiduliwa", kama soksi imepinduliwa ndani nje. Katika ndege, pia kuna mabadiliko makubwa katika umbo.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Moja ya miundo mikuu katika ubongombele wa nedege, kigongo cha ventrikali ya nyuma, kwa muda mrefu kilidhaniwa kulingana na ganglia ya msingi kwa wanyama, lakini sasa inadhaniwa kulingana na zaidi na gamba la nje.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Faili:Vertebrate-brain-regions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Corresponding regions of human and shark brain are shown. The shark brain is splayed out, while the human brain is more compact. The shark brain starts with the medulla, which is surrounded by various structures, and ends with the telencephalon. The cross-section of the human brain shows the medulla at the bottom surrounded by the same structures, with the telencephalon thickly coating the top of the brain." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Vertebrate-brain-regions.png/220px-Vertebrate-brain-regions.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Vertebrate-brain-regions.png/330px-Vertebrate-brain-regions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Vertebrate-brain-regions.png/440px-Vertebrate-brain-regions.png 2x" data-file-width="471" data-file-height="678" /></a><figcaption>Sehemu kuu kianatomia za ubongo wa wauti</figcaption></figure> Sehemu kadhaa za ubongo zimehifadhiwa maumbo zao katika aina zote za wauti, kutoka kwa balika hadi kwa binadamu.<a href="#cite_note-Shepard-1">[1]</a> Hii ni orodha ya baadhi ya sehemu muhimu, pamoja na maelezo mafupi sana ya kazi zao jinsi inavyoeleweka sasa (lakini kumbuka kuwa kazi za nyingi yazo bado zina utata kwa kiasi fulani): <ul><li>Medula, pamoja na uti wa mgongo, ina viini vingi vodogo vinavyohusika katika aina nyingi za hisia na usogevu wa misuli.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></li> <li>Haipothelamasi ni eneo dogo katika shina la ubongombele, ambao uchangamani na umuhimu wake haulingani na ukubwa wake. Inajumuisha viini vingi vidogo, kila mmoja ikiwa na viunganisha tofauti na nyurokemia tofauti. Haipothelamasi ndio kituo kuu cha kudhibiti mzunguko wa usingizi/kuamka, udhibiti wa kula na kunywa, udhibiti wa kutolewa kwa homoni, na majukumu mengine mengi muhimu ya kibayolojia.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></li> <li>Sawa na haipothelamasi, thelamasi ni mkusanyiko wa viini vilivyo na kazi mbalimbali. Baadhi yavyo vinahusika katika kupitisha habari kutoka na kuelekea vizio vya ubongo. Vingine vinashiriki katika kutia motisha. Eneo lilo chini ya thelamasi (zona insarta) inaonekana kuwa na mifumo ya kuzalisha utendaji wa aina mbalimbali za tabia "kamilishi", ikiwa ni pamoja na kula, kunywa, kunya, na kujamiiana.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></li> <li>Ubongonyuma unadhibiti utendaji wa mifumo mingine ya ubongo ili kuzifanya sahihi zaidi. Kuondolewa kwa ubongonyuma hakumzuii mnyama kufanya kitu chochote hasa, lakini hufanya matendo kuchelewa na isiyo elekevu. Usahihi huu si wa kuzaliwa, bali ni wa kujifunza kwa majaribio na makosa. Kujifunza jinsi ya kuendesha baiskeli ni mfano wa aina ya unyumbufu wa neva unaoweza kufanyika kwa kiasi kikubwa ndani ya ubongonyuma.<a href="#cite_note-refprinciples-33">[33]</a></li> <li>Tektama, mara nyingi huitwa "ganda la uonaji", unaruhusu vitendo kuelekezwa katika meneo hewani. Katika mamalia inaitwa "kolikyulasi kuu", na kazi yake iliyotafitiwa sana ni kuelekeza mielekeo ya macho. Pia anaongoza mielekeo ya kufikia vitu pia. Hupoke vichangamshi vikuu vya kuonekana, pia hupokea vichangamshi kutoka katika hisi nyigine ambayo ni muhimu katika kuongoza vitendo, kama vile vichangamshi vya kusikia katika bundi, vichangamshi kutoka katika viungo vya kutambua joto katika nyoka, n.k katika baadhi ya samaki, kama vile mkunga, ndio sehemu kubwa ya ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></li> <li>Paliamu ni safu ya dutu kijivu unao kaa juu ya ubongombele. Katika reptilia na mamalia inaitwa gamba. Paliamu hushiriki katika kazi mbalimbali, ikiwa ni pamoja na unusaji na kumbukumbu ya anga. Katika mamalia, inapo anza kutawala ubongo, hujumuisha majukumu kutoka katika maeneo yaliyo chini ya gamba la ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></li> <li>Hipokampasi, kwa hakika, inapatikana kwa mamalia tu. Hata hivyo, sehemu ambapo inatoka, paliamu ya kati, ipo katika wauti wote. Kuna ushahidi kwamba sehemu hii ya ubongo hushiriki katika kumbukumbu za masuala yasiyoshikika na uongozaji katika samaki, ndege, reptilia, na mamalia.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></li> <li>Ganglia ya chini ni kundi la viungo vinayoshikana katika ubongombele, ambavyo uelewa wetu kuvihusu umeongezeka pakubwa sana zaidi katika miaka michache iliyopita. Jukumu la msingi ganglia ya chini inaonekana kuwa uteuzi wa vitendo. Ganglia ya chini hutuma onyo zuizi kwa sehemu zote za ubongo zinazoweza kuanzisha utendaji, na katika hali ya nzuri inaweza kuzuia tendo lenyewe, hivyi kwamba mifumo ya kuanzisha utendaji viweze kushughulikia majukumu mengine. Utuzaji na adhabu hutekeleza zaidi athari zao muhimu katika neva ndani ganglia ya chini.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></li> <li>Kivimbe cha unusaji ni kiungo maalum kinachochakata hisia kutoka katika hisi za unusaji, na kuelekeza matokeo yake katka sehemu ya paliamu inayohusika na hisi harufu. Ni sehemu kubwa ya ubongo katika wauti wengi, lakini imepunguzwa sana katika jamii ya nyani.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mamalia">Mamalia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Hariri sehemu: Mamalia" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Mamalia">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> Gamba la ubongondio ni sehemu ya ubongo inayotofautisha tofauti kati ya mamalia na wauti wengine, jamii ya nyani kutoka kwa wanyama wengine, na binadamu na wanyama wengine wa jamii ya nyani. Ubongonyuma na ubongokati wa mamalia kijumla huwa sawa na yale ya wauti wengine, lakini tofauti kubwa hutokea katika ubongombele, ambao haujakuwa kwa ukubwa tu, bali pia umebadilika katika umbo.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Miongoni mwa wauti wasio mamalia , sehemu ya juu ya ubongonyuma imefunikwa kwa safu zisizo tete kwa ulinganisho ziitwazo paliamu.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Katika mamalia, paliamu hugeuka na kuwa katika muundo moja changamani wa safu 6 iitwaye gamba-jipya au gamba-sawa. Katika jamii ya nyani, gamba-jipya imekuwa kubwa sana, hasa sehemu iitwayo ndewe ya mbele. Kwa binadamu, upanukaji huu wa ndewe ya mbele hukithiri, na sehemu nyingine za gamba pia huwa kubwa kabisa na changamani. Haipokampasi ya mamalia pia ina muundo tofauti. Kwa bahati mbaya, historia ya mabadiliko ya sehemu hizi katika mamalia, hasa gamba lenye safu sita, ni vigumu kufuatilia.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Hii kwa kiasi kikubwa ni kutokana na tatizo la kukosa kiungo. Wahenga wa mamalia, waitwao sinapsidi, waligawanyika kutoka kwa wahenga wa wanyama watambaao na ndege wa kisasa yapata miaka milioni 350 iliyopita. Hata hivyo, mgawanyiko wa hivi karibuni ulio na mabadiliko dhahiri miongoni mwa mamalia ulikuwa mgawanyiko kati ya monotrimata (kinyamadege na ekidna), wambeleko (panya opusu, kangaruu, n.k) na wanyamakondo (wengi mamalia wanaoishi), ambayo ilifanyika takribani miaka milioni 120 iliyopita. Bongo za monotrimata na wambeleko ni tofauti na zile za wanyamakondo kwa namna fulani, lakini zina gamba na haipokampasi zenye umbo la kimamali. Kwa hivyo, maumbo haya lazima yaligeuka kati ya miaka milioni 350 na 120 iliyopita, kipindi ambacho hakijaacha ushahidi wowote ila visukuku ambavyo havihifadi tishu laini kama ubongo. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jamaa_ya_nyani">Jamaa ya nyani</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Hariri sehemu: Jamaa ya nyani" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Jamaa ya nyani">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> Bongo za binadamu na jamaa wengine wa nyani huwa na miundo sawa na bongo za mamalia wengine, lakini ni kubwa ikilinganishwa na ukubwa wa mwili.<a href="#cite_note-Finlay-26">[26]</a> Wingi wa ukubwa huu hutokana na upaukaji mkubwa wa gamba, ukilenga hasa katika maeneo yanayohudumia kuona na mawazo ya awali.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Mtandao wa mchakato wa kuona katika jamaa ya nyani ni chanagamano sana, ikijumuisha angalau maeneo 30 yanayoweza kutofautika, ikiwa na miunganiko ya mitandao ya kuajabia. Haya yote yakichukuliwa pamoja, uchakataji wa hisi za kuona hutumia zaidi ya nusu ya gamba-jipya ya wanyama jamaa ya nyani.<a href="#cite_note-Sereno1995-43">[43]</a> Sehemu nyingine ya ubongo ambayo imekuwa kubwa zaidi ni gamba-mbele ya ubongombele, ambayo kazi ni vigumu kueleza kwa maneno machache, lakini inayohusika na upangaji, kumbukumbu inayotumika, motisha, tahadhari, na udhibiti utendaji. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Muundo_hadubini_2">Muundo hadubini</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Hariri sehemu: Muundo hadubini" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Muundo hadubini">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Faili:Neuron_with_oligodendrocyte_and_myelin_sheath.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="At the top, an irregular roundish blue object is labeled "Oligodendrocyte", with a darker blue center labeled "Nucleus". Below it is a long red tubular object terminating at the right in a group of branches. From the oligodendrocyte extend a series of blue wrappings around the red tube; these wrappings are labeled "Myelin Sheath" while the red spaces between each of them are labeled "Node of Ranvier". At the bottom, an insert shows one myelin sheath enlarged and partly cut open to show how the blue sheath consists of concentric layers. In the insert, the red tubular object is labeled "Axon", with thin yellow stripes running lengthwise inside the axon labeled "Microfilament" and a slightly thicker orange stripe labeled "Microtubule"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Neuron_with_oligodendrocyte_and_myelin_sheath.svg/250px-Neuron_with_oligodendrocyte_and_myelin_sheath.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Neuron_with_oligodendrocyte_and_myelin_sheath.svg/375px-Neuron_with_oligodendrocyte_and_myelin_sheath.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Neuron_with_oligodendrocyte_and_myelin_sheath.svg/500px-Neuron_with_oligodendrocyte_and_myelin_sheath.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="485" /></a><figcaption>Olijodendrosaiti ni daraja la chembe za glia zinazounda miyelini inayozunguka akzoni ya neuroni.</figcaption></figure> Ubongo unajumuisha aina mbili kuu za chembechembe: neuroni na glia.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Aina hizi mbili kijumla ni nyingi katika ubongo, ingawa chembe glia zinazidi neuroni kwa uwiano wa 4 kwa 1 katika gamba la ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Glia huwa katika aina mbalimbali, ambazo hufanya kazi kadhaa muhimu, ikiwa ni pamoja na kuhimili mwili, kudhibiti metaboli kudhibiti halijoto, na uongozaji wa kukua. Kipengee kinachofanya neuroni kuwa muhimu sana ni kwamba, tofauti na glia, zina uwezo wa kutuma vichocheo kwa nyingine zilizo hatua ya mbali.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Glia hutuma vichocheo hizi kwa njia ya akzoni, fumwele nyembamba ya protoplazimu inayotoka katika mwili wa chembe na kuelekea, kwa kawaida ikiwa na matawi kadhaa, maeneo mengine, wakati mwingine ya karibu na wakati mwingine katika sehemu mbali ya ubongo au mwili. Umbali ambao akzoni inaweza kwenda ni ya kustaajabisha: kwa mfano, ikiwa chembechembe yenye umbo haram za gamba-jipya zikikuzwa ili mwili wa chembe hiyo iwe sawa kwa ukubwa na binadamu, akzoni yake, ikikuzwa kwa kiwango sawa, inaweza kuwa kebo yenye sentimita kadhaa katika kipenyo wenye urefu wa zaidi ya kilomita. Akzoni hizi husambaza vichacheo katika umbo la mipigo ya kemikali-meme aitwaye vtendo tarajiwa, vinayodumu muda usiozidi kipande kimoja cha mmoja juu ya sehemu moja ya sekunde na kusafiri katika akzon katika kasi ya kati ya mita 1-100 kwa sekunde. Baadhi neuroni huzua vitendo tarajiwa kila wakati, katika viwango vya 10-100 kwa kiala sekunde, kwa kawaida katika mifumo isiyotabirika na isiyo ya kudumu; neuroni nyingine huwa tulivu wakati mwingi, lakini mara chache kwa ghafla huzua vitendo tarajiwa ya uwezo. <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Faili:Pyramidal_hippocampal_neuron_40x.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A triangular black cell is seen against a gray background, with long, highly branched, black processes extending out from it in multiple directions." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Pyramidal_hippocampal_neuron_40x.jpg/250px-Pyramidal_hippocampal_neuron_40x.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Pyramidal_hippocampal_neuron_40x.jpg/375px-Pyramidal_hippocampal_neuron_40x.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Pyramidal_hippocampal_neuron_40x.jpg/500px-Pyramidal_hippocampal_neuron_40x.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1344" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Aghalabu neuroni huwa na mitandao ya dendraiti, ambayo hupokea miunganiko ya sinapsi. Inavyoonekana hapa ni pichahadubini ya neuroni ya lenye umbo haram kutoka haipokampasi ya binadamu, iliyopakwa rangi kwa mtindo wa Golgi.</figcaption></figure> Akzoni huelekeza vichocheo kwa neuroni nyingine, au kwa chembe nyingine zisizo za neuroni, kwa njia ya makutano maalumu yaitwayo sinapsi.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Akzoni moja inaweza kuwa na mikutano ya sinapsi elfu kadhaa. Wakati kitendo tarajiwa, kinachosafiri kupitia akzoni, kinapofika katika sinapsi, kinasababisha kutolewa kwa kemikali itwayo niurotransmita. Niurotransmita hujifungamanisha katika molekyuli pokezi iliyo katika utando wa chembe inayolengwa. Baadhi ya neuroni pokeza ni sisimuzi, kumaanisha kwamba zinaongeza kiwango cha vitendo tarajiwa katika chembe inayolengwa; vipokezi vingine ni zuizi, kumaanisha kwamba vinapunguza viwango vya vitendo tarajiwa, vingine vina athari changamano ya udhibiti. Kwa kweli akzoni huchukua nafasi kubwa katika ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Mara nyingi makundi makubwa hukusanyika pamoja katika kile ni kinachoitwaye viungo fumwele vya neva. Akzoni nyingi zimefunikwa katika vifuniko vyenye maki nene ya mafuta iitwayo miyelini, ambazo huchangia kuongeza kasi ya msukumo kwa vitendo tarajiwa. Miyelin ni nyeupe, hivyo sehemu za ubongo zilizojazwa kwa fumwele za neva huonekana kama dutu nyeupe, tofauti na dutu ya kijivu vinazoonyesha maeneo yaliyo na idadi kubwa ya miili ya chembe za neuroni. Urefu wa jumla wa akzoni iliyo na miyelini katika ubongo wa mwanadamu mzima wastani ni zaidi ya kilometre 100 000 (mi 62 000).<a href="#cite_note-Marner-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ukuaji">Ukuaji</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Hariri sehemu: Ukuaji" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Ukuaji">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Faili:EmbryonicBrain.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The nervous system is shown as a rod with protrusions along its length. The spinal cord at the bottom connects to the hindbrain which widens out before narrowing again. This is connected to the midbrain, which again bulges, and which finally connects to the forebrain which has two large protrusions." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/EmbryonicBrain.svg/220px-EmbryonicBrain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/EmbryonicBrain.svg/330px-EmbryonicBrain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/EmbryonicBrain.svg/440px-EmbryonicBrain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Mchoro huu inaonyesha vijisehemu vikuu vya ubongo kiinitete cha mwauti. Sehemu hizi baadaye zinatajitofauti kuwa ubongombele, ubongokati na ubongonyuma.</figcaption></figure> ubongo haukui tu, bali hustawi kwa njia changamani inayofuata mipangilio ya hatua.<a href="#cite_note-PurvesLichtmanCh1-50">[50]</a> Neuroni nyingi hutengenezwa katika kanda maalum zilizo na chembe tete, na kisha kuhamia kupitia tishu ili kufikia yanapohitajika.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Katika gamba, kwa mfano, hatua ya kwanza ya ustawi ni kuundwa kwa "dungu" na kundi maalum la chembe za glia, ziitwazo glia ya miali, ambazo huelekeza fumwele kiwima katika gamba. Neuroni mpya za gamba hutengenezwa chini ya gamba, na kisha "hupanda" kupitia fumwele-miali mpaka zifike katika safu ambamo zinafaa kukaa katika utu uzima. Katika wauti, hatua za kwanza za ustawi wa neuroni ni sawa kwa spishi zote.<a href="#cite_note-PurvesLichtmanCh1-50">[50]</a> Kadri kiini tete kinavyobadilika kutoka kibonge mviringo cha chembechembe na kuwa na umbo kama la mnyoo, utepe mwembamba wa ngozi ya nje unaoenea katikati ya mgongo inasababishwa kuwa bamba la neuroni, mtangulizi wa mfumo wa neva. Bamba la neuroni hujikunja na kuunda mfuo wa neuroni, na kisha mikunjo inayofunika mfuo huungana na kufunika neli ya neuroni, mkanda wazi wa chembe ulio na ventrikali uliojaa umajimaji katikakati. Katika ncha ya mbele, ventrikali na mkanda hufura kuunda vilengelenge vitatu ambavyo ndivyo mwanzo wa ubongombele, ubongokati, na ubongonyuma.<a href="#cite_note-PurvesLichtmanCh1-50">[50]</a> Katika hatua nyingine, ubongombele hugawanyika katika vilengelenge viwili viitwavyo ubongomwisho (ambayo ina gamba la ubongo, ganglia ya msingi, na viungo vinavyohusiana navyo) na diencephalon (ambayo ina thalamasi na haipothalamasi). Karibu wakati huo huo, ubongokando hugawanyika kuwa ubongometeni (ambayo ina ubongonyuma na ponsi) na ubongomyeleni (ambayo ina medula oblongata). Kila moja ya maeneo haya yana sehemu za usambaaji ambapo chembe za neuroni na glia huzalishwa; chembechembe zinazopatikana kisha huhama, wakati mwingine kuelekea mbali sana, kufikia sehemu zao ya mwisho. Mara tu neuroni inapofika mahali pake, inaanza kueneza dendraiti na akzoni kuelekea eneo linaloizingira.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Kwa sababu kawaida akzoni huenea mbali sana kutoka katika mwili wa chembe na huhitaji kuungana na viungo maalum, hua zinakua kwa njia changamani. Ncha ya akzoni inayokua huwa na kibonge cha protoplazimu iitwayo "sonobari ya ukuaji", iliyofungwa kwa vipokezi vya kemikali. Vipokezi hivi huhisi mazingira ya karibu, na kusababisha sonobari ya ukuaji kuvutiwa au kukataliwa na viungo mbalimbali vya chembe, na hivyo kuvutwa kuelekea upande mmoja maalum katika kila njia yake. Matokeo ya makakati huu wa utafutaji njia ni kwamba sonobari ya ukuaji hujipenyeza kupitia ubongo mpaka ifikie mahali pake pa mwisho, ambapo viashiria vingine vya kikemikali huifanya kuanza kukuza sinapsi. Kwa kuzingatia ubongo mzima, maelfu kadhaa ya jeni huzalisha protini zinazoathiri utafutaji wa njia kwa akzoni. Mtandao wa sinapsi ambayo hatimaye hujitokeza huathiriwa kwa kiwango tu na jeni. Katika maeneo mengi ya ubongo, akzoni huanza kwa "kukua kupita kiasi", na kisha "kupunguzwa" kwa utaratibu unaotegemea shughuli za kiniuro.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Kwa mfano, katika kuelekeza kutoka machoni hadi ubongokati, , mfumo ulio miongoni mwa watu wazima una ramani sahihi sana, unaounganisha kila sehemu katika uso wa retina na sehemu husika katika safu ya ubongokati. Katika hatua za kwanza za ukuaji, kila akzoni kutoka retina huelekezwa katika eneo jirani la kijumla katika ubongokati na viashiria kemikali, lakini hupinduka sana na kugusana kwa awali na rundo pana la neuroni za ubongokati. Kabla ya kuzaliwa, retina huwa na taratibu maalum zinazoifanya kuzalisha mawimbi ya shughuli zinazotokea kwa wakati moja na kisha kujiendeleza polepole kote katika safu ya retina.<a href="#cite_note-Wong-54">[54]</a> Mawimbi haya ni muhimu kwa sababu husababisha neuroni jirani kufanya kazi kwa wakati mmoja: yaani, zinazalisha mifumo ya shughuli za niuro zilizo na taarifa kuhusu mpangilio wa kieneo wa niuro. Taarifa hii hutumika katika ubongo kati kwa utaratibu ambao husababisha sinapsi kulegea, na hatimaye kutoweka, ikiwa shughuli katika akzoni haifuatiwa na shughuli katika chembe iliyo lengwa. Matokeo ya utaratibu huu changamani ni uonishaji kitaratibu na imarishaji wa ramani, ili hatimaye kuiacha katika hali yake halisi ya utu uzima. Vitu sawa na hivyo hufanyika katika maeneo mengine ya ubongo: matriki awali ya sinapsi huzalishwa kutokana na mwongozo wa kikemikali unaoamuliwa kijenetiki, lakini baadaye hatua kwa hatua huboreshwa kwa utaratibu unaotegemea utendaji, kwa kiwango inayotegemea mabadiliko ya kindani, kwa kiwango fulani michango ya nje ya kihisia. Katika hali zingine, kwa mfumo katika mifumo ya retina-ubongokati, mipangilio ya matukio hutegemea taratibu zinazotokea tu katika bongo zinazostawi, na yamkini huwepo kwa madhumuni ya kuongoza ustawi pekee.<a href="#cite_note-Wong-54">[54]</a> Katika binadamu na mamali wengine wengi, neuroni mpya hutengenezwa mara nyingi kabla ya kuzaliwa, na ubongo wa mtoto mchanga kwa hakika huwa na neuroni zaidi kuliko ya ubongo wa watu wazima.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Hata hivyo, kuna maeneo machache ambapo neuroni mpya huendelea mwezi kuzalishwa katika maisha yote. Maeneo mawili ambapo hili limejidhihirisha kikamilifu ni katika ya kilenge cha kunusa, ambacho kinahusika katika hisia za harufu, na jairasi yenye menomeno ya hipokampasi, ambapo kuna ushahidi kwamba neuroni mpya hutekeleza jukumu katika kuhifadhi kumbukumbu mpya zinazopatika. Kando na hali hizi tofauti, hata hivyo, idadi ya neuroni iliyopo mapema utotoni, ndio hiyo hiyo inayopatikana katika maisha yote. Chembe za glia ni tofauti, kama na aina nyingi za chembe mwilini, hizi huzalishwa katika kipindi chote cha maisha. Ingawa mkusanyiko wa neuroni huwa kwa kiwango kikubwa zipo za ktosha kufikia wakati wa kuzaliwa, miunganiko ya akzoni huendelea kukua kwa muda mrefu baadaye. Katika binadamu, ukuaji kamili wa neva hukamiliki wakati wa kubaleghe.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Kumekuwa na majadala wa muda mrefu kuhusu ikiwa ubora wa akili, hulka na uwerevu kwa kiwango kikubwa huhusishwa na urathi au malezi; mjadala wa maumbile dhidi ya malezi.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Huu si suala falsafa tu: una umuhimu mkubwa wa kuvitendo kwa wazazi na waalimu. Ingawa maelezo mengi hayajakamilishwa, wanaelimu neva wanaonyesha waziwazi kwamba sababu zote mbili ni muhimu. Jeni huamua hali ya kijumla ya ubongo, na jeni huamua jinsi ubongo unavyoitikia uzoefu. Uzoefu, hata hivyo, unahitajika kuboresha matriksi ya miunganiko ya sinapsi. Wakati mwingine huwa kwa suala la kuwepo au kutokuwepo kwa uzoefu katika vipindi muhimu vya ukuaji.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Wakati mwingine, wingi na ubora wa uzoefu unaweza kuwa muhimu zaidi; kwa mfano, kuna ushahidi mkubwa kuwa wanyama waliokua katika mazingira mazuri huwa na magamba manene, kuonyesha idadi kubwa ya miungano ya sinapsi, kuliko wanyama ambao viwango vyao vya kusisimka ni mdogo.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Majukumu">Majukumu</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Hariri sehemu: Majukumu" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Majukumu">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> Kwa mtazamo wa kiviumbe, kazi ya msingi ya ubongo ni kudhibiti utendaji wa mnyama.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Ili kufanya hivyo, huwa inachuja taarifa muhimu za kutosha kutoka katika viungo vya hisi ili kuboresha vitendo. Vichocheo vya hisia vinaweza kuamsha majibu ya papo kwa papo kwa mfano wakati mfumo wa kunusa wa kulungu unaponusa harufu ya mbwa mwitu; pia zinaweza kudhibiti tendo linaloendelea kwa mfano katika athari ya mzunguko wa mwanga-giza kwa tabia ya kulala na kuamka kwa viumbe, au taarifa zao zinaweza kuhifadhiwa kwa madhumuni ya umuhimu baadaye. Ubongo husimamia kazi zake changamani kwa kuanzisha mifumo ya utendaji, ambazo zinaweza kuanishwa katika njia nne: kimaubile, kikemikali, na kiutendakazi. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mifumo_tendakazi">Mifumo tendakazi</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Hariri sehemu: Mifumo tendakazi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Mifumo tendakazi">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> Njia rahisi zaidi ya kuainisha sehemu za ubongo ni kuzingatia maumbile, lakini pia kuna njia kadhaa kuianisha zaidi kutegemea utendakazi. Moja wa njia muhimu zaidi kati ya hizo ni kutegemea kemikali za nyurotransmita zinazotumiwa na neuroni kuwasiliana na kila moja. Nyingine ni katika namna eneo ubongo huchangia uchakataji ujume: maeneo ya hisia huleta taarifa ubongoni na kurekebisha umumbo lake; vichochezi vya matendo ya mwili hutuma ujumbe nje ya ubongo ili kudhibiti misuli na tezi, mifumo sisimuzi hudhibiti utendaji wa ubongo kulingana na muda wa siku na mambo mengine. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mifumo_ya_nyurotramsita">Mifumo ya nyurotramsita</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Hariri sehemu: Mifumo ya nyurotramsita" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: Mifumo ya nyurotramsita">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> Isipokuwa katika hali chache, kila neuroni katika ubongo huendelea kutoa kemikali za niurohamishi, isiyobadilika au mchanganyiko wa niurohamishi, katika miunganiko yoyote ya sinapsi inayofanya na neuroni nyingine, kanuni hii inajulikana kama kanuni ya Dale.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Kwa hivyo, niuron anaweza kuainishwa kutegemea niurohamisho iinayotoa. Niurohamishi mbili zinazoomekana mara nyingi zaidi ni glutamati, ambayo aghalabu huwa sisimuzi, na sidi ya gama-aminobutri (GABA), ambayo aghalabu huwa pingamizi. Neuroni zinazotumia transmita hizi zinaweza kupatikana katika karibu kila sehemu ya ubongo, zikibuni asilimia kubwa ya mkusanyiko wa sinapsi za ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Hata hivyo, idadi kubwa ya madawa yanayoathiri ubongo huelekeza athari zao kwa kubadili mfumo wa niurohamishi zisizohusiana moja kwa moja na glutamati au uhamishaji wa GABA.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Madawa kama vile kafeini, nikotini, heroini, kokeini, Prozac, Thorazine, n.k, huathiri neiurohamishi nyingine. Nyingi ya transmita hizi hutoka katika neuroni ambazo zinakaa katika sehemu fulani ya ubongo. Serotonini, kwa mfano- lengo la msingi la madawa ya kulevya ya kinza huzuni na viamsha hamu-huja kimahsusi kutoka eneo dogo la shina la ubongo iitwayo kiini Rafe. Norepainifrini, ambayo hushiriki katika usisimuzi, hutoka kimahsusi kutoka eneo dogo karibu liitwalo lokasi serulesi. Histamini, kama niurohamishi, hutoka katika sehemu ndogo ya hypothelamasi iitwayo kiini tubaromamilari (histamini pia ina kazi zisizo za mfumo kuu wa neva, lakini kjukumu la niurohamishi ndio sababu kwa kinzahisatami kuwa na athari za kutuliza). Niurohamishi nyingine kama vile asetilkolini na dopamini huwa na vyanzo mbalimbali katika ubongo, lakini hazijasambazwa kwa wingi kama glutamati na GABA. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mifumo_ya_hisi">Mifumo ya hisi</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Hariri sehemu: Mifumo ya hisi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: Mifumo ya hisi">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> Moja ya majukumu ya kimsingi ya ubongo ni kudondoa ujumbe muhimu kutoka katika viungo vya hisia.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Hata katika ubongo wa binadamu, mifumo ya hisi huwa nyingi zaidi ya hisi tano za kawaida zinazojulikana za maono, sauti, ladha, mguso, na harufu: bongo zetu hupokea taarifa kuhusu joto, usawa, mkao wa miguu na mikono, na vijenzi kemikali vya mfumo wa damu, kati ya mambo mengine. Hali hizi zote hutambuliwa na viungo maalum vya hisi vinavyoelekeza vichoche ndani ya ubongo. Katika wanyama wengine, milango zaidi ya hisi vinaweza kuwepo, kama vile hisi ya miale ya joto isiyoonekana miongoni mwa wanyama wanaoishi shimoni kama nyoka, au "hisi za kawaida" zinaweza kutumika katika njia isiyo ya kawaida, kama jinsi usikiaji unavyotumiwa na katika popo sona. Haya hapa kanuni chache zinazotumika katika mifumo nyingi ya hisi, ikitumia mfumo sikizi katika mifano maalum. Kila mfumo wa hisi huanza kwa chembechembe mahsusi za "vipokea hisia". Hizi ni neuroni, lakini tofauti na neuroni nyingi, hazijadhibitiwa na mchango wa sinapsi kutoka katika neuroni nyingine: badala yake zinaamilishwa na vipokezi vilivyofungamana na zinazohisi baadhi ya hisi za mguso, kama vile mwanga, joto, au mikazo ya kimwili. Akzoni za chembe pokezi-hisia husafiri katika utiwa mgomgo au ubongo. Kwa hisia ya kusikia, vipokezi viko katika sikio la ndani, katika konokono la sikio, na huamilishwa na mtikiso.<a href="#cite_note-hearing-65">[65]</a> Kwa hisi nyingi, kuna " kiini cha msingi" au seti ya viini, vilivyo katika shina la ubongo, zinazokusanya vichocheo kutoka katika chembe pokezi. Katika hisia sikizi, hizi ni viini vya konokono la sikio.<a href="#cite_note-hearing-65">[65]</a> Mara nyingi, kuna maeneo ya mengine yaliyo chini ya ubongo ambayo hudondoa habari maalum ya aina fulani. Kwa hisi ya kusikia, eneo bora la unusaji na eneo hafifu ya kalikulusi hushiriki katika kulinganisha vichocheo kutoka katika masikio mawili kudondoa kuhusu ujumbe kuhusu mwelekeo wa chanzo cha sauti, miongoni mwa kazi nyingine.<a href="#cite_note-hearing-65">[65]</a> Kila mfumo wa hisi pia ina sehemu maalum ya thelamasi iliyotengwa kwayo, ambayo huhudumu kama kiunganishi na gamba la ubongo. Katika hisi ya kusikiliza, hii ni kiini kati chenye umbo la goti.<a href="#cite_note-hearing-65">[65]</a> Kwa kila mfumo wa hisi, kuna eneo "msingi" la gamba la ubongo linalopokea ujumbe moja kwa moja kutoka eneo la thelamasi linalopokea na kutuma ujumbe. Katika mfumo wa kusikia, huu ni gamba msingi la usikizi, ulio katika sehemu ya juu ya ndewe la ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-hearing-65">[65]</a> Kawaida pia huwa kuna seti ya maeneo ya gemba yenye hisi za "ngazi ya juu", zinazochanganua ujumbe wa hisi zinazoingai kwa njia maalum. Kwa mfumo wa usikiaji, kuna maeneo ambayo huchambua ubora wa sauti, mahadhi, na mielekeo ya mabadiliko kwa muda, miongoni mwa sifa nyingine.<a href="#cite_note-hearing-65">[65]</a> Mwisho, kuna maeneo ya hali nyingi yanayochanganya jumbe kutoka hisi mbalimbali, kwa mfano kusikia na kuona. Katika hatua hii, vichocheo huwa vimefikia sehemu za ubongo zinazoweza kuelezeka vizuri kuwa jumuishi wala si hisishi hasa.<a href="#cite_note-hearing-65">[65]</a> Kanuni hizi zote zina ukiushi. Kwa mfano, hisi ya mguso (ambayo kwa kweli ni mkusanyiko wa angalau nusu dazeni ya hisi tendi mbalimbali), kichocheo cha hisi kinachoingia humalizika hasa katika uti wa mgongo, katika neuroni ambazo kisha huzielekeza katika shina la ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Kwa hisi ya harufu, hakuna mawasiliano katika thelamasi; badala yake kichocheo huenda moja kwa moja kutoka eneo msingi la ubongo-kibonge cha kunusa-hadi kwenye gamba.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mifumo_ya_mwendo">Mifumo ya mwendo</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Hariri sehemu: Mifumo ya mwendo" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: Mifumo ya mwendo">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> Mifumo ya mwendo ni maeneo ya ubongo ambayo kwa njia moja au nyingine yanahusika moja kwa moja katika kuanzisha mienendo ya mwili, yaani, katika amilisha misuli. Isipokuwa misuli inayodhibiti macho, misuli yote inayofanya kihiari<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a>katika mwili imeunganishwa moja kwa moja na neva za mwendo katika uti wa mgongo, ambayo ndiyo njia ya mwisho ya pamoja kwa mfumo wa kuzalisha uendaji.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Neva za uti wa mgongo zinadhibitiwa na saketi za neva asili za uti wa mgongo, na kwa michango inayoteremka kutoka ubongoni. Sakati asili za uti wa mgongo hutekeleza majukumu mengi ya tendohiari na pia huwa na mifumo ya kuanzisha miendo kama vile kutembea au kuogelea.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Miunganiko inayoshuka kutokana ubongoni hufanikisha udhibiti changamano zaidi . Ubongo una baadhi ya maeneo ambayo huwasiliana moja kwa moja na uti wamgongo.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Katika ngazi ya chini kabisa ni maeneo ya mienendo katika medula na ponsi. Katika ngazi za juu ni maeneo ya ubongokati, kama vile viini vyekundu, ambayo inawajibikia kuratibu usogezaji mikono na miguu. Katika ngazi ya juu zaidi ambayo ni gamba msingi la mwendo, utepe wa tishu ulioupande wa nyuma wa ndewe la mbele ya ubongo. Gamba msingi la mwendo hituma ujumbe katika ameneo chini ya gamba yanayohusika na mwendo, lakini pia hutuma jumbe kubwa moja kwa moja katika uti wa mgongo, kupitia kinachojulikana kama njia piramidi. Uelekezaji huu wa moja kwa moja kati ya gamba na uti wa mgongo huruhusu udhibiti sahihi wa hiari wa miendo. Maeneo mengine ya "upili" ya ubongo yanayohusiana na mwendo hayawasiliani moja kwa moja na uti wa mgongo, na badala yake hugusa maeneo ya mwendo katika gamba au maeneo ya msingi chini ya gamba. Miongoni mwa maeneo muhimu ya upili ni gamba linaloshughulikia mwendo, ganglia ya msingi, na ubongonyuma: <ul><li>Gamba-awali ya mwendo (ambayo kwa kweli ni maeneo kubwa changamani) inakaribiana na gamba msingi la mwendo, na kuielekeza. Huku vitengo vya gamba msingi ya mwendo hulingana na sehemu maalum ya mwili, vitengo vya gamba-awali ya mwendo mara nyingi hushirikishwa katika usogezwaji wa sehemu nyingi za mwili kwa wakati moja.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></li> <li>Ganglia ya msingi ni mkusanyiko wa viungo vya chini ya ubongembele zinazoelekeza katika maeneo mengine yanayohusiana na mwendo.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Kazi zao imekuwa vigumu kuelewa, lakini mmoja ya nadharia maarufu ya sasa ni kuwa yanatekeleza jukumu muhimu uteuzi wa utendaji.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Mara nyingi, huwa zinazuia vitendo kwa kutumamara k wa mara vichochezi vizuizi kwa mifumo ya kuzalisha mwendo, lakini katika hali nzuri, huwa zinatoa vizuizi hivyo na kuruhusu maeneo yaliyolengwa kudhibiti tabia.</li> <li>Ubongonyuma una muundo tofauti sana na upo katika sehemu ya nyuma ya ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-refprinciples-33">[33]</a> Haidhibiti au kuanzisha tabia, bali huzalisha vichocheo rekebishi kufanya miendo iwe sahihi zaidi. Watu walio na bongonyuma zilizo haribika hawapoozi kwa njia yoyote, bali miili yao huwa na miendo isiyokuwa na uhakika na isiyo ratibika.</li></ul> Pamoja na hayo yote hapo juu, ubongo na uti wa mgongo zina mitandao pana ya kudhibiti mfumo wa neva wa kujiendesha, ambayo hufanya kazi kwa kunyunyiza homoni na kwa kurekebisha " misuli laini" ya tumbo.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Mfumo wa neva wa kujiendesha huathiri mipigo ya moyo, mmeng'enyo;, kiwango cha kupumua, kutoa mate, jasho; kukojoa, na hisia za ngono japo majukumu yake mengi hayako chini ya udhibiti wa hiari moja kwa moja. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mifumo_ya_kusisimua">Mifumo ya kusisimua</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=15" title="Hariri sehemu: Mifumo ya kusisimua" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section's source code: Mifumo ya kusisimua">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> Labda kipengele cha wazi zaidi cha tabia ya mnyama yoyote yule ni mzunguko wa kila siku kati ya kulala na kuamka. Usisimuaji na utahadhari pia huongozwa kwa kiwango sahishi zaidi cha muda, ingawa, kwa mtandao mkubwa wa maeneo ya ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-Principles45-76">[76]</a> Sehemu muhimu ya mifumo ya kusisimua ni kiini suprakiasmatiki (SCN), sehemu ndogo ya haipothelamasi iliyo juu ya sehemu ambapo neva ya kuona kutoka macho mawili inapopitia.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> SCN ina majira kuu ya kibayolojia ya mwili. Neuroni hapa huonyesha kupanda na kushuka kwa viwango vya shughuli katika kipindi cha saa 24, mipigo ya moyo: mabadiliko katika shughuli hizi yanaendeshwa na mabadiliko ya kiurari katika maelezo kwa mkusanyiko wa jeni za saa". SCN huendelea kupima saa hata ikikatwa kutoka ubongoni na kuwekwa katika bakuli lililo na myeyusho wa madini fuvutende, hata hivyo kwa kawaida huwa inapokea ujumbe kutoka katika neva ya kuona, kupitia njia ya retinohaipothelamiki (RHT), ambayo huruhusu mzunguko wa kila siku wa mwanga-giza kunakiliwa katika saa hiyo. SCN huwasiliana na seti ya maeneo katika haipothelamasi, na shina la ubongo, na ubongokati zinazohusika katika utekelezaji wa mzunguko usingizi- na kuamka. Kiungo muhimu katika mfumo huo ni kile kinachoitwa muundo menomeno, kundi la neva zilizosambazwa kwa usawa kote katika shina la ubongochini.<a href="#cite_note-Principles45-76">[76]</a> Neva menomeno hutuma vichocheo kwa thelamasi, ambayo kwa upande wake hutuma vichocheo vya ngazi ya kudhibiti kwa kila sehemu ya gamba la ubongo. Kuharibika kwa muundo menomeno kunaweza kusababisha hali ya kudumu ya kukosa fahamu. Usingizi huhusisha mabadiliko makubwa katika utendakazi wa ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Hadi miaka 1950 iliaminika kijumla kwamba ubongo kimsingi huacha kufanya kazi wakati wa kulala<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a>, lakini hii sasa inajulikana kuwa si kweli: shughuli huendelea lakini mwelekeo huwa tofauti sana. Kwa hakika, kuna aina mbili ya usingizi, usingizi REM (ulio na ndoto) na usingizi NREM (usio-REM, kwa kawaida bila ndoto), ambao hujirudia katika mifumo tofauti kidogo katika kipindi chote cha kulala. Aina tatu tofauti za mwelekeo mpana wa shughuli za ubongo zinaweza kupimika: REM, NREM nyepesi na NREM nzito. Wakati wa usingizi mzito wa NREM, ambao pia hujulikana kama usingizi wenye wimbi pole, shughuli katika gamba huchukua mfumo wa mawimbi makubwa yenye urari, ambapo katika hali ya kuamka huwa na kelele na bila urari. Viwango vya niurohamishi norepainefrini na serotonini hupungua wakati wa usingizi wenye wimbi pole, hupungua hadi kukaribia sufuri wakati wa usingizi wa REM; viwango vya asetilikolini huonyesha mfumo ulio kinyume na huu. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Utumiaji_nishati_kwa_ubongo">Utumiaji nishati kwa ubongo</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=16" title="Hariri sehemu: Utumiaji nishati kwa ubongo" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section's source code: Utumiaji nishati kwa ubongo">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Faili:PET-image.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A flat oval object is surrounded by blue. The object is largely green-yellow, but contains a dark red patch at one end and a number of blue patches." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/PET-image.jpg/220px-PET-image.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/PET-image.jpg/330px-PET-image.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/PET-image.jpg/440px-PET-image.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1132" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Taswira ya PET ya ubongo wa binadamu ikionyesha matumizi ya nishati</figcaption></figure> Ingawa ubongo wa binadamu unawakilisha 2% tu ya uzito wa mwili, unapokea 15% cha kinachozalishwa na moyo, 20% ya jumla ya matumizi ya oksijeni mwilini, na 25% ya jumla ya matumizi ya glukosi mwilini.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Haja ya kupunguza uzito wa mwili ili, kwa mfano, kuweza kuruka, imesababisha uamuzi wa kupunguza ukubwa wa ubongo katika spishi fulani, kama vile popo.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Ubongo sanasana hutumia glukosi kupata nguvu, na kuinyima glukosi, kama inavyoweza kutokea katika haipoglukemia, unaweza kusababisha kupoteza fahamu. Matumizi ya nishati katika ubongo haubadiliki sana katika muda, lakini maeneo ya gamba yanayofanya kazi hutumia nishati zaidi kuliko maeneo yasiyoshughulika: ukweli huu ndio msingi wa mbinu za upigaji picha akisi wa ubongo kama vile PET na fMRI.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Hizi ni mbinu za matibabu nyuklia ya upigaji picha zinazotoa picha zenye pande olwa tatu kwa shughuli za kimetaboli. <div style="clear:both"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ubongo_na_akili">Ubongo na akili</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=17" title="Hariri sehemu: Ubongo na akili" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section's source code: Ubongo na akili">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> Kuelewa uhusiano kati ya ubongo na akili ni changamoto inayotatiza kifalsafa na kisayansi.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Ushahidi wa kisayansi wa moja kwa moja kwamba kuna uhusiano kati ya kiungo ubongo na akili ni kiwango cha athari kinachojidhihirisha baada ya ubongo kubadilishwa, kama vile maumivi ya ubongo yanayosababisha kiwewe na matumizi ya madawa yanayoathiri ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Tatizo la uhusiano wa akili-mwili ni moja kati masuala ya ndani ya historia ya <a href="/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa">falsafa</a>,<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> inayotuliza kufikiria ikiwa ubongo na akili ni kitu kimoja, kinachotofautiana kidogo, au kinachohusiana kwa njia fulani isiyojulikana. Kuna mitazamo mitatu mikubwa tatu kuhusu jibu hili: uwili, uyakinifu, na udhanifu. Uwili unashikilia kwamba akili inajisimami kivyake bila kutegemea ubongo,<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> uyakinifu unashikilia kwamba matukio ya akili yanafanana na matukio la neva<a href="#cite_note-DicPhil-87">[87]</a> na udhanifu unashikilia kwamba matukio ya akili tu ndio zipo.<a href="#cite_note-DicPhil-87">[87]</a> Pamoja na maswali ya kifalsafa, uhusiano kati ya akili na ubongo unahusisha idadi kubwa ya maswali ya kisayansi, ikiwa ni pamoja na uelewa wa uhusiano kati ya shughuli za kiakili na shughuli ubongo, taratibu kamili ambazo kwazo dawa huathiri ufahamu, na mahusiano ya neva kwa dhamira. Katika kipindi kingi cha historia wanafalsafa waliliona jambo la kutofikirika kwamba ufahamu unaweza kutekelezwa na kitu dutu ye umbile kama vile tishu ya ubongo (yaani neuroni na sinapsi).<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Wanafalsafa kama vile Patricia Churchland wanadai kuwa mwingiliano wa akili na dawa ni dalili ya uhusiano wa karibu sana kati ya ubongo na akili, si kwamba hivi viwili ni kitu kimoja.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Descartes, aliyewazia sana kuhusu uhusiano wa ubongo-akili, aliweza kuelezea matendohiari na tabia nyingine sahili katika mtazamo wa kimekaniki, ingawa hakuamini kuwa mawazo tata, na hasa lugha, inaweza kuelezwa kwa rejelea za umbo la ubongo pekee.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Utafiti">Utafiti</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=18" title="Hariri sehemu: Utafiti" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section's source code: Utafiti">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> Fani ya taaluma ya elimuneva inajumuisha mbinu zote zinazotafuta kuelewa ubongo na mifumo nyinginezo za neva. <a href="/wiki/Elimunafsia" title="Elimunafsia">Elimunafsia</a> hutaka kuelewa akili na tabia, na nyurorojia ni fani ya matibabu inayotibu magonjwa ya mfumo wa neva. Ubongo pia ni kiungo muhimu sana kinachotafitiwa na tiba-akili, tawi la matibabu inayofanya kazi ya kutafiti, kuzuia na kutibu magonjwa ya akili.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Sayansi ya ufahamu hutaka kuunganisha elimuneva na elimunafsia pamoja na fani nyingine zinazojuhusisha na ubongo, kama vile sayansi ya tarakilishi (akili ya kuundwa na mwanadamu na mashamba sawa) na <a href="/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa">falsafa</a>. Mbinu kongwe kabisa ya kuutafiti ubongo ni kianatomial, na hadi katikati ya karne ya 20, sehemu kubwa ya maendeleo katika elimuneva ilitokana na kutengenezwa kwa rangi bora na hadibuni bora -mwana elimuveva Floyd Bloomni maarufu kwa kutania kuwa "ufanisi katika utafiti wa ubongo unategemea zaidi rangi."<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Wana-anatomia wa elimuneva hutafiti muundo wa ubongo kwa kiwango pamoja na muundo wake wa kimaikroskopu wa neuroni na vijenzi vyao, hasa sinapsi. Pamoja na zana nyingine, wao hutumia rangi nyingi sana zinazodhihirisha muundo wa neva, kemia, na miunganisho. Katika miaka ya hivi karibuni, ukuaji katika mbinu za elimu kingamaradhi inayotumia rangi imeruhusiwa kutiwa rangi kwa neuroni zinazoonyesha aina fulani maalum ya jeni. Pia, uchunguzi amilifu wa neva unatumia mbinu za upigaji picha wa kimatibabu kuhusisha tofauti katika muundo wa ubongo wa binadamu na tofauti katika ufahamu au tabia. Wanafiziolojia hutafiti vipengee vya kemikali, famakolojia, na mienendo ya meme ya ubongo: zana zao za msingi ni dawa na vifaa vya kunakili. Maelfu nyingi ya dawa za zilizoundwa kimajaribio huathiri mfumo wa neva, baadhi ya njia ya juu mahsusi sana. Kurekodi shughuli za ubongo unaweza kufanywa kwa kutumia elektrodi, ikiwa imeshikiliwa kwenye fuvu kama katika uchunguzi wa EEG, au uliodungwa ndani ya bongo za wanyama kwa ajili ya kurekodi nje ya chembe, ambayo inaweza kuchunguza uwezekano wa utendaji unaotokana na kila niurni kibifansi.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Kwa sababu ubongo hauna vipokezi vya maumivu, inawezekana kutumia mbinu hizi kunakili kutoka katika wanyama walio macho huku wanaendelea na tabia zao kama kawaida bila kuwasababishia kuwasumbua. Mbinu sawa na hiyo zimetumika mara nyingine kuchunguza utendakazi wa ubongo katika wagonjwa binadamu wanaougua na kifafa isoyokamili, katika matukio ambapo kulikuwa na haja ya kimatibabu kuiweka elektrodi ili kubaini eneo la ubongo ulioathirika na kifafa s.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Pia inawezekana kuchunguza utendaji wa ubongo bila kutumia mbinu za kuingilia binadamu kwa mibu amilifu za kupiga picha kama vile MRI uwanda huu umepanuka sana katika kipindi cha miongo miwili iliyopita. Njia tofauti ya kubaini kazi ya ubongo ni kuchunguza madhara ya kuharibu maeneo maalum ya ubongo. Inagawa umelindwa kwa fuvu na utando ukizungukwa na ugiligili wa ubongo na uti wa mgongo, nakutengwa na mfumo wa damu kwa kizuizi cha kati ya ubongo na damu, ulaini wa ubongo unaufanya kuwa rahisi kuvamiwa na magonjwa mbalimbali na aina tofauti za maumivu. Kwa binadamu, athari za kupooza na aina nyingine ya uharibifu wa ubongo zimekuwa chanzo muhimu cha habari kuhusu majukumu ya ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Kwa sababu hakuna uwezo wa kudhibiti hali ya uharibifu kimajaribio, hata hivyo, habari hii aghalabu huwa vigumu kufafanua. Katika tafiti zinazowahusisha wanyama, kwa kawaida panya, inawezekana kutumia elektrodi au kudunga kemikali katika mahali maalum ili kuleta uharibifu kwa mfumo unaohitajika na kisha kuchunguza matokeo ya tabia. Nyurosayansi ya kitarakilishi inajumuisha njia mbili: kwanza, matumizi ya tarakilishi kuuchunguza ubongo, pili, utafiti wa jinsi ubongo hutarakilisha.<a href="#cite_note-Abbott-96">[96]</a> Kwa upande mmoja, inawezekana kuandika programu ya tarakilishi kuigiza kazi ya kundi la neva kwa kutumia mifumo ya milinganyo yanayoeleza shunguli zao kielektrokemikali; miigizo kama hiyo hujulikana kama mitandao ya neuroni amilifu kibayalojia. Kwa upande mwingine, inawezekana kuchunguza algorithimi ili kukokotoa neva kwa uigizaji, au kuchanganua kihesisabati, utendakazi wa vitengo vilivyosahilishwa vilivyo na baadhi ya sifa za neuroni lakini vimetoa nyingi ya uchangamani wao wa kibayolojia. Majukumu ya ukokotooaji wa ubongo huchunguzwa na wanaelimuneva na wanasayansi wa tarakilishi. Miaka ya hivi karibuni imeshuhudia utumizi wa kwanza wa mbinu za uhandisi wa kijenetiki kutafitia ubongo.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Utafiti mwingi kwa kawaida hufanywa kwa panya, kwa sababu zana za kiufundi zimeimarika zaidi kwa spishi hawa zaidi ya wengine wowote. Sasa inawezekana kwa urahisi wa kiwango cha haja "kuchambua" au kugeuza aina mbalimbali za jeni, na kisha kuchunguza athari katika utendakazi wa ubongo. Mbinu changamani zaidi pia zina anza kutumika: kwa mfano, kutumia mbinu ya uchanganyishaji upya wa Cre-Lox inawezekana kusisimua au kituliza jeni katika sehemu maalumu ya ubongo, kwa wakati maalumu. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historia">Historia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=19" title="Hariri sehemu: Historia" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section's source code: Historia">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> Maoni ya awali yaligawanyika ikiwa makao makuu ya nafsi yako katika ubongo au moyo. Kwa upande mmoja, ilikuwa vigumu kutoona ukweli kwamba ufahamu unahisiwa kuwa katika kichwa, na kwamba kupigwa kwa kishindo kikubwa katika kichwa kunaweza kusababisha kupoteza fahamu kwa urahisi zaidi kuliko kupigwa kifuani, na kwamba kichwa kutikisa kichwa husababisha kizunguzungu. Kwa upande mwingine, uchunguzi wa juujuu wa ubongo unadhihirisha kiungo ajizi, ukilinganishwa na moyo ambao hupigapiga kila wakati. Kukoma kwa mpigo wa moyo unamaanisha kifo; hisia kali huleta mabadiliko katika mpigo wa moyo, na mara nyingi hisia za huzuni husababisha hisia ya maumivu katika sehemu za moyo ("maumivu ya moyo"). Aristotle alipendelea moyo, na kudhania kwamba kazi ya ubongo ilikuwa tu kupoesha damu. Democritus, mvumbuzi wa nadharia ya atomiki ya dutu, alipendelea nafsi yenye sehemu tatu, akili ikiwa katika kichwa, hisia katika moyo, na tamaa katika sehemu karibu na ini.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Haipokrates, "baba wa matibabu" , alikuwa aliupendelea ubongo kabisa. Katika On the Sacred Disease, maelezo yake kuhusu kifafa, aliandika: <blockquote> Wanadamu wanapaswa kujua kwamba furaha, nderemo, kicheko na michezo, masikitiko, utegemezi, na maombolezo hayatoki kwingine ila tu katika ubongo. ... Na kwa kiungo hicho hicho tunakuwa wendawazimu na kupagawa, na woga na hofu kubwa hutuandama, wakati mwingine mchana na wakati mwingine usiku, na ndoto na wasiwasi isiyotarajiwa, na majukumu yasiyo mazuri, na kutojua hali za kisasa, kutoaminika, na kutokuwa na ujuzi. Mambo haya yote tunayavumilia kutoka kwenye ubongo, wakati hauna afya ...</blockquote> - <a href="/wiki/Hippokrates" title="Hippokrates">Hippocrates</a>, On the Sacred Disease <a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Daktari maarufu wa Roma Galen pia alitetea umuhimu wa ubongo, na akatunga dhahania kwa kina kuhusu jinsi inavyo weza kufanya kazi. Hata baada ya madaktari na wanafalsafa kukubaliwa kuhusu ukuu wa ubongo, haidhuru, dhana ya moyo kuwa makao makuu ya ufahamu uliendelea kudumu katika nahau maarufu, kama vile "kujitolea kwa moyo".<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Galen alifanya kazi kubwa ya kueleza uhusiano wa kianotomi baina ya ubongo, neva na misuli, na kuonyesha kwamba misuli yote katika mwili imeshikana na ubongo kwa njia ya mtandao wa matawi ya neva. Alidai kwamba neva huamsha misuli moja kwa moja, kwa kubeba dutu ya ajabu aliyoita pneumata psychikon, ambayo kwa kawaida hutafsiriwa kuwa "mazimwi ya wanyama". Mawazo yake yalijulikana pakubwa wakati wa Zama ya Kati, lakini mafanikio mengi zaidi hayakuja hadi katika kipindi cha Mvuvumko, wakati utafiti wa kina wa kianatomia uliporejea, pamoja na makadirio ya kinadharia ya Descartes na wafuasi wake. Descartes, kama Galen, aliwazia mfumo wa neva katika msingi wa kihadroliki. Aliamini kwamba kazi kubwa za kiutambuzi- hasa lugha- hufanywa na viungo visiyoonekana res cogitans lakini kwamba nyingi ya tabia za binadamu na wanyama zinaweza kuelezeka kwa mambo yanayoshikika. Hatua ya kwanza kuelekea uelewa wa kisasawa kazi wa neva, hata hivyo, ulitokana na uchunguzi wa Luigi Galvani, aliyegundua kwamba wimbi la umeme tuli ukielekezwa katika neva iliyo wazi ya chura aliyekufa inaweza kusababisha mguu wake kujikunja. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Faili:PurkinjeCell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A drawing on yellowing paper with an archiving stamp in the corner. A spidery tree branch structure connects to the top of a mass. A few narrow processes follow away from the bottom of the mass." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg/200px-PurkinjeCell.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg/300px-PurkinjeCell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg/400px-PurkinjeCell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption>Mchora wa Santiago Ramon y Cajal wa aina mbili za neuroni kutoka katika ubongonyuma wa njiwa zilizopakwa kwa Golgi</figcaption></figure> Kila uelewa mpana umefuatia moja kwa moja au kidogo kutoka kwa uundwaji wa mbinu mpya ya uchunguzi. Hadi miaka ya mapema ya karne ya 20, maendeleo muhimu zaidi yalitokana na rangi mipya.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Muhimu hasa ulikuwa uvumbuzi wa rangi Golgi, ambayo (ikitumika kiusahihi) hupaka sehemu ndogo tu, na kwa usahihi bila kubagua, baadhi ya neuroni, huzipaka kikamilifu, ikiwa ni pamoja na mwili wa chembe, dendraiti, na akzoni. Bila rangi kama hiyo, tishu ya ubongo chini ya hadubini huonekana kama mshikamano wa fumwele ya protoplazimu isiyopenyeka, ambayo ni vigumu kubaini muundo wowote. Katika mikono ya <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a>, na hasa kwa mwana-antomia wa neva wa Kihispania Santiago Ramon y Cajal, rangi hiyo mpya ilifichua mamia ya aina tofauti za neuroni, kila mmoja ikiwa na muundo wa kipekee wa dendriti na mtindo wa mwunganisho. Katika karne ya 20, maendeleo katika uwanda wa elektroniki yaliwezesha uchunguzi wa sifa za kielektroniki za chembe za neva, kilele kilikuwa kazi za Alan Hodgkin, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a>, na wengi kuhusu bayofizikia ya tendo tarajiwa, na kazi ya <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> na wengine kuhusu uelektrokemia wa sinapsi.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Chunguzi za awali zilitumia maandalizi maalum, kama vile mfumo wa "mwitikio wa kutorika haraka" wa ngisi, ambayo inahusisha akzoni kubwa wewe unene kama kaa la penseli, na sinapsi kubwa inayoungana na akzoni hii. Maboresho thabiti katika elekrodi na vifaameme viliwezesha umadhubuti wa hali ya juu. Chunguzi hizi zilichangia picha ya kianatomia wa ubongo kukiwa na mtazamo kuwa ubongo ni kiungo kinachobadilika. Akiangazia uelewa mpya, mnamo 1942 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrington" title="Charles Sherrington">Charles Sherrington</a> alielezea kufanya kazi kwa ubongo katika hatua kwa maelezo ya kushangaza: <blockquote> Sehemu kuu ya juu ya umbo, kwamba sehemu ambapo ni nadra mwanga imewahi kumulika au kugusa, sasa inakuwa sasa kitengo cha uangavu unaorindima kwa urari kukiwa idadi kubwa ya vimulimuli vinavyosafiri hapa na huko. ... Ni kana kwamba Kilimia ilianza kwa namna fulani ya kucheza kwanulimwengu. Kwa haraka kichwa kizima kinakuwa na maliwazo ambapo mamilioni ya vipisha uzi vinashona mtindo usioonekana, kila mara mtindo wenye maana ingawa si wa kudumu; na mwingiliano mtulivu wa vijimiundo. -Sherrington, 1942, Man on his Nature <a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> </blockquote> Miaka ya 1990 ilijulikana katika Marekani kuwa "Muongo wa Ubongo" ili kuadhimisha maendeleo yaliyopigwa katika utafiti wa ubongo, na ili kuendeleza ufadhili kwa ajili ya tafiti kama hizo.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Maelezo">Maelezo</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=20" title="Hariri sehemu: Maelezo" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section's source code: Maelezo">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> <div class="reflist references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Shepard-1">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Shepard_1-0">1.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shepard_1-1">1.1</a> Shepherd, Neurobiology </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a> Pelvig et al., 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a> AlonsoNanclares et al., 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a> Gehring, 2005 </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a> Nickel, 2002 </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a> Grillner & Wallén, 2002 </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a> Sejnowski, 23 Problems in Systems Neuroscience </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a> Shepherd, Neurobiology, uk. 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-Urbilateria-9">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Urbilateria_9-0">9.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Urbilateria_9-1">9.1</a> Balavoine & Adoutte, 2003 </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a> Schmidt-Rhaesa, Evolution of Organ 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Angalau zaidi ya maeneo 25 ya kuona zaidi ya gamba la msingi la kuona (V1) zimetambuliwa kwa mchanganyiko wa uchoraji ramani kwa vijielekrodi, vitafutio sindano, rangi za kihistolojia, na utafiti akisi (1). "tazama: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1346650">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSerenoDaleReppasKwong1995" class="citation journal cs1">Sereno, MI; Dale, AM; Reppas, AM; Kwong, KK; Belliveau, JW; Brady, TJ; Rosen, BR; Tootell, RBH (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~sereno/papers/HumanRetin95.pdf">"Borders of multiple visual areas in human revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging"</a> (PDF). Science. 268 (5212). AAAS: 889–893. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.7754376">10.1126/science.7754376</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7754376">7754376</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Borders+of+multiple+visual+areas+in+human+revealed+by+functional+magnetic+resonance+imaging&rft.volume=268&rft.issue=5212&rft.pages=889-893&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.7754376&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7754376&rft.aulast=Sereno&rft.aufirst=MI&rft.au=Dale%2C+AM&rft.au=Reppas%2C+AM&rft.au=Kwong%2C+KK&rft.au=Belliveau%2C+JW&rft.au=Brady%2C+TJ&rft.au=Rosen%2C+BR&rft.au=Tootell%2C+RBH&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cogsci.ucsd.edu%2F~sereno%2Fpapers%2FHumanRetin95.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> na marejeo yaliyomo humo </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">↑</a> Principles of Neural Science uk. 20 </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">↑</a> Azevedo et al., 2009 </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">↑</a> Principles of Neural Science, uk. 21 </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a 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Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780781760034" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780781760034"><bdi>9780781760034</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroscience%3A+Exploring+the+Brain&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780781760034&rft.aulast=Bear&rft.aufirst=MF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refBloom"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFBloom1975" class="citation book cs1">Bloom, FE (1975). The Neurosciences, Paths of Discovery. MIT Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780262230728" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780262230728"><bdi>9780262230728</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Neurosciences%2C+Paths+of+Discovery&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=9780262230728&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=FE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|editors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|editor=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refBoake"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFBoakeDiller2005" class="citation book cs1">Boake, C; Diller, L (2005). "History of rehabilitation for traumatic brain injury". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rehabilitationfo0000unse_l3d4">Rehabilitation for Traumatic Brain Injury</a>. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/0-19-517355-4" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/0-19-517355-4"><bdi>0-19-517355-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=History+of+rehabilitation+for+traumatic+brain+injury&rft.btitle=Rehabilitation+for+Traumatic+Brain+Injury&rft.place=Oxford+%5BOxfordshire%5D&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-19-517355-4&rft.aulast=Boake&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Diller%2C+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frehabilitationfo0000unse_l3d4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|editors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|editor=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refCarew"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFCarew2000" class="citation book cs1">Carew, TJ (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=wEMTGwAACAAJ">Behavioral Neurobiology: the Cellular Organization of Natural Behavior</a>. Sinauer Associates. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780878930920" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780878930920"><bdi>9780878930920</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Behavioral+Neurobiology%3A+the+Cellular+Organization+of+Natural+Behavior&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780878930920&rft.aulast=Carew&rft.aufirst=TJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DwEMTGwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refChurchland"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFChurchland1989" class="citation book cs1">Churchland, PS (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=hAeFMFW3rDUC">Neurophilosophy</a>. MIT Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780262530859" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780262530859"><bdi>9780262530859</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neurophilosophy&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780262530859&rft.aulast=Churchland&rft.aufirst=PS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DhAeFMFW3rDUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refClark"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFClark1999" class="citation book cs1">Clark, DD (1999). Siegel GJ, Agranoff BW, Albers RW, Fisher SK, Uhler MD (mhr.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/basicneurochemis0000unse_e2f6">Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects</a>. Philadelphia: Lippincott. ku. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/basicneurochemis0000unse_e2f6/page/637">637</a>–70. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780397518203" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780397518203"><bdi>9780397518203</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Basic+Neurochemistry%3A+Molecular%2C+Cellular+and+Medical+Aspects&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=637-70&rft.pub=Lippincott&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780397518203&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=DD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbasicneurochemis0000unse_e2f6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jamii:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_editors_list&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jamii:CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (bado haujaandikwa)">link</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refCooper"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFCooper2003" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, JR (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=e5I5gOwxVMkC">The Biochemical Basis of Neuropharmacology</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxford_University_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oxford University Press (bado haujaandikwa)">Oxford University Press</a> US. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780195140088" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780195140088"><bdi>9780195140088</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Biochemical+Basis+of+Neuropharmacology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780195140088&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=JR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3De5I5gOwxVMkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refDescartes"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFDescartes1991" class="citation book cs1">Descartes, R (1991). "The description of the human body". The Philosophical Writings Of Descartes. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780521423502" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780521423502"><bdi>9780521423502</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+description+of+the+human+body&rft.btitle=The+Philosophical+Writings+Of+Descartes&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780521423502&rft.aulast=Descartes&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|editors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|editor=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refDowling"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFDowling2001" class="citation book cs1">Dowling, JE (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=adeUwgfwdKwC">Neurons and Networks</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780674004627" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780674004627"><bdi>9780674004627</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neurons+and+Networks&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780674004627&rft.aulast=Dowling&rft.aufirst=JE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DadeUwgfwdKwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refFinger"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFFinger2001" class="citation book cs1">Finger, S (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=_GMeW9E1IB4C">Origins of Neuroscience</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780195146943" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780195146943"><bdi>9780195146943</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+Neuroscience&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780195146943&rft.aulast=Finger&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D_GMeW9E1IB4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refFinlay"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFFinlayDarlingtonNicastro2001" class="citation journal cs1">Finlay, BL; Darlington, RB; Nicastro, N (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_behavioral-and-brain-sciences_2001-04_24_2/page/263">"Developmental structure in brain evolution"</a> (PDF). Behav Brain Sci. 20 (2): 263–308. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11530543">11530543</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behav+Brain+Sci&rft.atitle=Developmental+structure+in+brain+evolution.&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=263-308&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11530543&rft.aulast=Finlay&rft.aufirst=BL&rft.au=Darlington%2C+RB&rft.au=Nicastro%2C+N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_behavioral-and-brain-sciences_2001-04_24_2%2Fpage%2F263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refGehring"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFGehring2005" class="citation journal cs1">Gehring, WJ (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/96/3/171">"New Perspectives on Eye Development and the Evolution of Eyes and Photoreceptors: The Evolution of Eyes and Brain"</a> (Full text). J Heredity. 96 (3): 171–184. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjhered%2Fesi027">10.1093/jhered/esi027</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15653558">15653558</a>. Iliwekwa mnamo 2008-04-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Heredity&rft.atitle=New+Perspectives+on+Eye+Development+and+the+Evolution+of+Eyes+and+Photoreceptors%3A+The+Evolution+of+Eyes+and+Brain.&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=171-184&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjhered%2Fesi027&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15653558&rft.aulast=Gehring&rft.aufirst=WJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjhered.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F96%2F3%2F171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refGrillner2005"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFGrillnerHellgrenMénardSaitoh2005" class="citation journal cs1">Grillner, S; Hellgren, J; Ménard, A; Saitoh, K; Wikström, MA (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-neurosciences_2005-07_28_7/page/364">"Mechanisms for selection of basic motor programs—roles for the striatum and pallidum"</a>. Trends Neurosci. 28 (7): 364–70. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tins.2005.05.004">10.1016/j.tins.2005.05.004</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15935487">15935487</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+Neurosci&rft.atitle=Mechanisms+for+selection+of+basic+motor+programs%E2%80%94roles+for+the+striatum+and+pallidum.&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=364-70&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tins.2005.05.004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15935487&rft.aulast=Grillner&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Hellgren%2C+J&rft.au=M%C3%A9nard%2C+A&rft.au=Saitoh%2C+K&rft.au=Wikstr%C3%B6m%2C+MA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_trends-in-neurosciences_2005-07_28_7%2Fpage%2F364&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refGrillnerWallen"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFGrillnerWallén2002" class="citation journal cs1">Grillner, S; Wallén, P (2002). "Cellular bases of a vertebrate locomotor system-steering, intersegmental and segmental co-ordination and sensory control". 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Trends Neurosci. 27 (8): 453–9. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tins.2004.06.003">10.1016/j.tins.2004.06.003</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15271492">15271492</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+Neurosci&rft.atitle=Computational+models+of+the+basal+ganglia%3A+from+robots+to+membranes.&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=453-9&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tins.2004.06.003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15271492&rft.aulast=Gurney&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Prescott%2C+TJ&rft.au=Wickens%2C+JR&rft.au=Redgrave%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_trends-in-neurosciences_2004-08_27_8%2Fpage%2F453&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refHart"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFHart1996" class="citation book cs1">Hart, WD (1996). Guttenplan S (mhr.). A Companion to the Philosophy of Mind. Blackwell. ku. 265–7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Philosophy+of+Mind&rft.pages=265-7&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=WD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refHendrickson"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFHendrickson2000" class="citation book cs1">Hendrickson, R (2000). The Facts on File Encyclopedia of Word and Phrase Origins. New York: Facts on File. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/978-0816040889" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/978-0816040889"><bdi>978-0816040889</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Facts+on+File+Encyclopedia+of+Word+and+Phrase+Origins&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0816040889&rft.aulast=Hendrickson&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refHippocrates"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFHippocrates" class="citation book cs1">Hippocrates (400 B.C.E.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110524210044/http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/sacred.html">On the Sacred Disease</a>. Francis Adams. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/sacred.html">chanzo</a> mnamo 2011-05-24. Iliwekwa mnamo 2010-11-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Sacred+Disease&rft.au=Hippocrates&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FHippocrates%2Fsacred.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|year=</code> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>); Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|dead-url=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|url-status=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refHobert"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFHobert2005" class="citation journal cs1">Hobert, O (2005). The C. elegans Research Community (mhr.). "Wormbook". WormBook: 1–19. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1895%2Fwormbook.1.12.1">10.1895/wormbook.1.12.1</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18050401">18050401</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WormBook&rft.atitle=Wormbook&rft.pages=1-19&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1895%2Fwormbook.1.12.1&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18050401&rft.aulast=Hobert&rft.aufirst=O&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wormbook.org%2Fchapters%2Fwww_specnervsys%2Fspecnervsys.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_journal" title="Kigezo:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|contribution=</code> ignored (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refJerison"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFJerison1973" class="citation book cs1">Jerison, HJ (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionofbrain0000jeri">Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence</a>. Academic Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780123852502" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780123852502"><bdi>9780123852502</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution+of+the+Brain+and+Intelligence&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=9780123852502&rft.aulast=Jerison&rft.aufirst=HJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionofbrain0000jeri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refThalamus"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFJones1985" class="citation book cs1">Jones, EG (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=WMxqAAAAMAAJ">The Thalamus</a>. Plenum Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780306418563" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780306418563"><bdi>9780306418563</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thalamus&rft.pub=Plenum+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780306418563&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=EG&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DWMxqAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refPrinciples"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFKandel2000" class="citation book cs1">Kandel, ER (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780838577011">Principles of Neural Science</a>. McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780838577011" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780838577011"><bdi>9780838577011</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780838577011&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=ER&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780838577011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refKandel"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFKandel2007" class="citation book cs1">Kandel, ER (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=LURy5gojaDoC">In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Science of Mind</a>. WW Norton. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780393329377" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780393329377"><bdi>9780393329377</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+Memory%3A+The+Emergence+of+a+New+Science+of+Mind&rft.pub=WW+Norton&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780393329377&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=ER&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DLURy5gojaDoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refKleitman"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFKleitman" class="citation book cs1">Kleitman, N (1938, revised 1963, reprinted 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sleepwakefulness0000klei">Sleep and Wakefulness</a>. The University of Chicago Press, Midway Reprints series. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/0-226-44073-7" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/0-226-44073-7"><bdi>0-226-44073-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sleep+and+Wakefulness&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press%2C+Midway+Reprints+series&rft.isbn=0-226-44073-7&rft.aulast=Kleitman&rft.aufirst=N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsleepwakefulness0000klei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|year=</code> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refKolbWhishaw"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFKolb2008" class="citation book cs1">Kolb, B (2008). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology. Macmillan. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780716795865" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780716795865"><bdi>9780716795865</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Human+Neuropsychology&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780716795865&rft.aulast=Kolb&rft.aufirst=B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refKonopka"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFKonopkaBenzer1971" class="citation journal cs1">Konopka, RJ; Benzer, S (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389363">"Clock mutants of Drosophila melanogaster"</a>. 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Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Lacey&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdictionaryofphil00alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refMarner"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFMarnerNyengaardTangPakkenberg2003" class="citation journal cs1">Marner, L; Nyengaard, JR; Tang, Y; Pakkenberg, B (2003). "Marked loss of myelinated nerve fibers in the human brain with age". 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"Chapter 15, Amino acid neurotransmitters". Katika G. Siegel; na wenz. (whr.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/basicneurochemis0000unse">Basic Neurochemistry</a>. New York: Raven Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780881673432" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780881673432"><bdi>9780881673432</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+15%2C+Amino+acid+neurotransmitters&rft.btitle=Basic+Neurochemistry&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Raven+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780881673432&rft.aulast=McGeer&rft.aufirst=PL&rft.au=McGeer%2C+EG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbasicneurochemis0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Explicit use of et al. in: <code class="cs1-code">|editor=</code> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refNickel"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFNickel2002" class="citation journal cs1">Nickel, M (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_integrative-and-comparative-biology_2002-12_42_6/page/1285">"Dynamics and cellular movements in the locomotion of the sponge Tethya wilhelma"</a>. Integr Comp Biol. 42: 1285.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Integr+Comp+Biol&rft.atitle=Dynamics+and+cellular+movements+in+the+locomotion+of+the+sponge+Tethya+wilhelma.&rft.volume=42&rft.pages=1285&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Nickel&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_integrative-and-comparative-biology_2002-12_42_6%2Fpage%2F1285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refNorthcutt2008"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFNorthcutt2008" class="citation journal cs1">Northcutt, RG (2008). "Forebrain evolution in bony fishes". Brain Res Bull. 75 (2–4): 191–205. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.brainresbull.2007.10.058">10.1016/j.brainresbull.2007.10.058</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18331871">18331871</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brain+Res+Bull&rft.atitle=Forebrain+evolution+in+bony+fishes.&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=2%E2%80%934&rft.pages=191-205&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.brainresbull.2007.10.058&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18331871&rft.aulast=Northcutt&rft.aufirst=RG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refCarpenter"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFParent1995" class="citation book cs1">Parent, A (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=IJ5pAAAAMAAJ">Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy</a>. Williams & Wilkins. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780683067521" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780683067521"><bdi>9780683067521</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carpenter%27s+Human+Neuroanatomy&rft.pub=Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780683067521&rft.aulast=Parent&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DIJ5pAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refPaus"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFPausCollinsEvansLeonard2001" class="citation journal cs1">Paus, T; Collins, DL; Evans, AC; Leonard, G; Pike, B; Zijdenbos, A (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_brain-research-bulletin_2001-02_54_3/page/255">"Maturation of white matter in the human brain: a review of magnetic resonance studies"</a>. Brain Res Bull. 54 (3): 255–66. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0361-9230%2800%2900434-2">10.1016/S0361-9230(00)00434-2</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11287130">11287130</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brain+Res+Bull&rft.atitle=Maturation+of+white+matter+in+the+human+brain%3A+a+review+of+magnetic+resonance+studies.&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=255-66&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0361-9230%2800%2900434-2&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11287130&rft.aulast=Paus&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Collins%2C+DL&rft.au=Evans%2C+AC&rft.au=Leonard%2C+G&rft.au=Pike%2C+B&rft.au=Zijdenbos%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_brain-research-bulletin_2001-02_54_3%2Fpage%2F255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refPelvig"><a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17544173?dopt=Abstract">PMID 17544173</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17544173">PubMed</a>) Citation will be completed automatically in a few minutes. </cite></li></ul> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Bot/DOI_bot/doibot.php?pmid=17544173">Jump the queue</a> or <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?preload=Template:Cite_pmid/preload&editintro=Template:Cite_pmid/editintro&action=edit&title=Template:cite_pmid/17544173">expand by hand</a> <ul><li><cite id="refPiccolino"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFPiccolino2002" class="citation journal cs1">Piccolino, M (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081031120053/http://biologie.kappa.ro/Literature/PDF_Archives/PDF_archive_2002/tins/25/552.pdf">"Fifty years of the Hodgkin-Huxley era"</a> (PDF). Trends Neurosci. 25 (11): 552–3. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0166-2236%2802%2902276-2">10.1016/S0166-2236(02)02276-2</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12392928">12392928</a>. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biologie.kappa.ro/Literature/PDF_Archives/PDF_archive_2002/tins/25/552.pdf">chanzo</a> (PDF) mnamo 2008-10-31. Iliwekwa mnamo 2008-10-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+Neurosci&rft.atitle=Fifty+years+of+the+Hodgkin-Huxley+era.&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=552-3&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0166-2236%2802%2902276-2&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12392928&rft.aulast=Piccolino&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiologie.kappa.ro%2FLiterature%2FPDF_Archives%2FPDF_archive_2002%2Ftins%2F25%2F552.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_journal" title="Kigezo:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|dead-url=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|url-status=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refPuelles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFPuelles2001" class="citation journal cs1">Puelles, L (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130718073524/http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1088538">"Thoughts on the development, structure and evolution of the mammalian and avian telencephalic pallium"</a>. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 356 (1414): 1583–98. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2001.0973">10.1098/rstb.2001.0973</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMC_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMC (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088538">1088538</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11604125">11604125</a>. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1088538">chanzo</a> mnamo 2013-07-18. Iliwekwa mnamo 2010-11-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philos+Trans+R+Soc+Lond+B+Biol+Sci&rft.atitle=Thoughts+on+the+development%2C+structure+and+evolution+of+the+mammalian+and+avian+telencephalic+pallium.&rft.volume=356&rft.issue=1414&rft.pages=1583-98&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1088538%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11604125&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2001.0973&rft.aulast=Puelles&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Fartid%3D1088538&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refPurvesLichtman"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFPurves1985" class="citation book cs1">Purves, D (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=t9JqAAAAMAAJ">Principles of Neural Development</a>. Sinauer Associates. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780878937448" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780878937448"><bdi>9780878937448</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Development&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780878937448&rft.aulast=Purves&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3Dt9JqAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refRaichle"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFRaichleGusnard2002" class="citation journal cs1">Raichle, M; Gusnard, DA (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC124895">"Appraising the brain's energy budget"</a>. Proc Nat Acad Sci U.S.A. 99 (16): 10237–9. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.172399499">10.1073/pnas.172399499</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMC_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMC (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC124895">124895</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12149485">12149485</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc+Nat+Acad+Sci+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Appraising+the+brain%27s+energy+budget&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=10237-9&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC124895%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12149485&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.172399499&rft.aulast=Raichle&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Gusnard%2C+DA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC124895&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refRidley"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFRidley2003" class="citation book cs1">Ridley, M (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=9TkUHQAACAAJ">Nature via Nurture: Genes, Experience, and What Makes Us Human</a>. Forth Estate. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780060006785" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780060006785"><bdi>9780060006785</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature+via+Nurture%3A+Genes%2C+Experience%2C+and+What+Makes+Us+Human&rft.pub=Forth+Estate&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780060006785&rft.aulast=Ridley&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D9TkUHQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refSafi"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFSafiSeidDechmann2005" class="citation journal cs1">Safi, K; Seid, MA; Dechmann, DK (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1617168">"Bigger is not always better: when brains get smaller"</a>. Biol Lett. 1 (3): 283–6. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2005.0333">10.1098/rsbl.2005.0333</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMC_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMC (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1617168">1617168</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17148188">17148188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biol+Lett&rft.atitle=Bigger+is+not+always+better%3A+when+brains+get+smaller&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=283-6&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1617168%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17148188&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbl.2005.0333&rft.aulast=Safi&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Seid%2C+MA&rft.au=Dechmann%2C+DK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1617168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refSaitoh"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFSaitohMénardGrillner2007" class="citation journal cs1">Saitoh, K; Ménard, A; Grillner, S (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100615082419/http://jn.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/97/4/3093">"Tectal control of locomotion, steering, and eye movements in lamprey"</a>. J Neurophysiol. 97 (4): 3093–108. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fjn.00639.2006">10.1152/jn.00639.2006</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17303814">17303814</a>. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jn.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/97/4/3093">chanzo</a> mnamo 2010-06-15. Iliwekwa mnamo 2010-11-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Neurophysiol&rft.atitle=Tectal+control+of+locomotion%2C+steering%2C+and+eye+movements+in+lamprey.&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=3093-108&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fjn.00639.2006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17303814&rft.aulast=Saitoh&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=M%C3%A9nard%2C+A&rft.au=Grillner%2C+S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjn.physiology.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F97%2F4%2F3093&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_journal" title="Kigezo:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|dead-url=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|url-status=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refSalas"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFSalasBroglioRodríguez2003" class="citation journal cs1">Salas, C; Broglio, C; Rodríguez, F (2003). "Evolution of forebrain and spatial cognition in vertebrates: conservation across diversity". Brain Behav Evol. 62 (2): 72–82. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1159%2F000072438">10.1159/000072438</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12937346">12937346</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brain+Behav+Evol&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+forebrain+and+spatial+cognition+in+vertebrates%3A+conservation+across+diversity&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=72-82&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1159%2F000072438&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12937346&rft.aulast=Salas&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Broglio%2C+C&rft.au=Rodr%C3%ADguez%2C+F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refSavage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFSavageGilloolyWoodruffWest2004" class="citation journal cs1">Savage, MV; Gillooly, J. 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Functional Ecol. 18: 257–82. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0269-8463.2004.00856.x">10.1111/j.0269-8463.2004.00856.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Functional+Ecol&rft.atitle=The+predominance+of+quarter-power+scaling+in+biology&rft.volume=18&rft.pages=257-82&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0269-8463.2004.00856.x&rft.aulast=Savage&rft.aufirst=MV&rft.au=Gillooly%2C+J.+F.&rft.au=Woodruff%2C+W.+H.&rft.au=West%2C+G.+B.&rft.au=Allen%2C+A.+P.&rft.au=Enquist%2C+B.+J.&rft.au=Brown%2C+J.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refEvolutionOfOrganSystems"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt-Rhaesa2007" class="citation book cs1">Schmidt-Rhaesa, A (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=ZACR7ZO_65YC">The Evolution of Organ Systems</a>. 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Nature. 421 (6922): 526–9. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01264">10.1038/nature01264</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12556891">12556891</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Head+and+backbone+of+the+Early+Cambrian+vertebrate+Haikouichthys&rft.volume=421&rft.issue=6922&rft.pages=526-9&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature01264&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12556891&rft.au=Shu+DG%2C+Morris+SC%2C+Han+J%2C+Zhang+Z-F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_journal" title="Kigezo:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jamii:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jamii:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (bado haujaandikwa)">link</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refStorrow"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFStorrow1969" class="citation book cs1">Storrow, HA (1969). Outline of Clinical Psychiatry. Appleton-Century-Crofts. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780390850751" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780390850751"><bdi>9780390850751</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outline+of+Clinical+Psychiatry&rft.pub=Appleton-Century-Crofts&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=9780390850751&rft.aulast=Storrow&rft.aufirst=HA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refStriedter"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFStriedter2005" class="citation book cs1">Striedter, GF (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/principlesofbrai0000stri">Principles of Brain Evolution</a>. Sinauer Associates. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780878938209" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780878938209"><bdi>9780878938209</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Brain+Evolution&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780878938209&rft.aulast=Striedter&rft.aufirst=GF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprinciplesofbrai0000stri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refTonegawa"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFTonegawaNakazawaWilson2003" class="citation journal cs1">Tonegawa, S; Nakazawa, K; Wilson, MA (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693163">"Genetic neuroscience of mammalian learning and memory"</a>. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 358 (1432): 787–95. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2002.1243">10.1098/rstb.2002.1243</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMC_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMC (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693163">1693163</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12740125">12740125</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philos+Trans+R+Soc+Lond+B+Biol+Sci&rft.atitle=Genetic+neuroscience+of+mammalian+learning+and+memory&rft.volume=358&rft.issue=1432&rft.pages=787-95&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1693163%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12740125&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2002.1243&rft.aulast=Tonegawa&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Nakazawa%2C+K&rft.au=Wilson%2C+MA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1693163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refSystems"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Hemmen2005" class="citation book cs1">van Hemmen, JL (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=WelZAAAACAAJ">23 Problems in Systems Neuroscience</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780195148220" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780195148220"><bdi>9780195148220</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=23+Problems+in+Systems+Neuroscience&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780195148220&rft.aulast=van+Hemmen&rft.aufirst=JL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DWelZAAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refvanPraag"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFvan_PraagKempermannGage2000" class="citation journal cs1">van Praag, H; Kempermann, G; Gage, FH (2000). "Neural consequences of environmental enrichment". Nat Rev Neurosci. 1 (3): 191–8. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35044558">10.1038/35044558</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11257907">11257907</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nat+Rev+Neurosci&rft.atitle=Neural+consequences+of+environmental+enrichment&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=191-8&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35044558&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11257907&rft.aulast=van+Praag&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Kempermann%2C+G&rft.au=Gage%2C+FH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refVonNeumann2000"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Neumann2000" class="citation book cs1">von Neumann, J (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/computerbrain0000vonn">The computer and the brain</a>. Yale Univ. Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/0-300-08473-0" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/0-300-08473-0"><bdi>0-300-08473-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+computer+and+the+brain&rft.pub=Yale+Univ.+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-300-08473-0&rft.aulast=von+Neumann&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomputerbrain0000vonn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refWhite"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFWhiteSouthgateThomsonBrenner1986" class="citation journal cs1">White, JG; Southgate, E.; Thomson, J. N.; Brenner, S. (1986). "The Structure of the Nervous System of the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans". Phil Trans Roy Soc London (Biol). 314: 1–340. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.1986.0056">10.1098/rstb.1986.0056</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phil+Trans+Roy+Soc+London+%28Biol%29&rft.atitle=The+Structure+of+the+Nervous+System+of+the+Nematode+Caenorhabditis+elegans&rft.volume=314&rft.pages=1-340&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.1986.0056&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=JG&rft.au=Southgate%2C+E.&rft.au=Thomson%2C+J.+N.&rft.au=Brenner%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refWong"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFWong1999" class="citation journal cs1">Wong, R (1999). "Retinal waves and visual system development". Ann Rev Neurosci. 22: 29–47. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doi_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.22.1.29">10.1146/annurev.neuro.22.1.29</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PMID_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PMID (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10202531">10202531</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ann+Rev+Neurosci&rft.atitle=Retinal+waves+and+visual+system+development.&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=29-47&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.22.1.29&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10202531&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refWyllie"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFWyllie2005" class="citation book cs1">Wyllie, E (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=ngmo0th_2X0C">The Treatment of Epilepsy: Principles and Practice</a>. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780781749954" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780781749954"><bdi>9780781749954</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Treatment+of+Epilepsy%3A+Principles+and+Practice&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780781749954&rft.aulast=Wyllie&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3Dngmo0th_2X0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</cite></li> <li><cite id="refFlybrain"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516123352/http://flybrain.neurobio.arizona.edu/">"Flybrain: An online atlas and database of the drosophila nervous system"</a>. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://flybrain.neurobio.arizona.edu/">chanzo</a> mnamo 2016-05-16. Iliwekwa mnamo 2010-11-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Flybrain%3A+An+online+atlas+and+database+of+the+drosophila+nervous+system&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fflybrain.neurobio.arizona.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li> <li><cite id="refWormbook"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wormbook.org/">"WormBook: The online review of c. elegans biology"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WormBook%3A+The+online+review+of+c.+elegans+biology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wormbook.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></cite></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marejeo_zaidi">Marejeo zaidi</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=22" title="Hariri sehemu: Marejeo zaidi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section's source code: Marejeo zaidi">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFBear2006" class="citation book cs1">Bear, Mark F. (2006). Neuroscience. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780781760034" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780781760034"><bdi>9780781760034</bdi></a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=OCLC_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="OCLC (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62509134">62509134</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroscience&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F62509134&rft.isbn=9780781760034&rft.aulast=Bear&rft.aufirst=Mark+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Kigezo:Cite_book" title="Kigezo:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Msaada:CS1_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msaada:CS1 errors (bado haujaandikwa)">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFBlackmore2006" class="citation book cs1">Blackmore, Susan M. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conversationsonc0000blac">Conversations on Consciousness</a>. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780195179583" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780195179583"><bdi>9780195179583</bdi></a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=OCLC_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="OCLC (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62555307">62555307</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conversations+on+Consciousness&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F62555307&rft.isbn=9780195179583&rft.aulast=Blackmore&rft.aufirst=Susan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconversationsonc0000blac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFBuzsaki2006" class="citation book cs1">Buzsaki, Gyorgy (2006). Rhythms of the Brain. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780195301069" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780195301069"><bdi>9780195301069</bdi></a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=OCLC_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="OCLC (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/63279497">63279497</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhythms+of+the+Brain&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F63279497&rft.isbn=9780195301069&rft.aulast=Buzsaki&rft.aufirst=Gyorgy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFCalvin2001" class="citation book cs1">Calvin, William H. (2001). The River That Flows Uphill: A Journey from the Big Bang to the Big Brain. Lincoln, Nebraska: Iuniverse.com. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780595167005" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780595167005"><bdi>9780595167005</bdi></a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=OCLC_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="OCLC (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48962546">48962546</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+River+That+Flows+Uphill%3A+A+Journey+from+the+Big+Bang+to+the+Big+Brain&rft.place=Lincoln%2C+Nebraska&rft.pub=Iuniverse.com&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48962546&rft.isbn=9780595167005&rft.aulast=Calvin&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFDella_Sala1999" class="citation book cs1">Della Sala, Sergio (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mindmythsexplori0000unse">Mind myths: Exploring popular assumptions about the mind and brain</a>. Chichester England; New York: J. Wiley & Sons. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/0471983039" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/0471983039"><bdi>0471983039</bdi></a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=OCLC_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="OCLC (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39700332">39700332</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mind+myths%3A+Exploring+popular+assumptions+about+the+mind+and+brain&rft.place=Chichester+England%3B+New+York&rft.pub=J.+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39700332&rft.isbn=0471983039&rft.aulast=Della+Sala&rft.aufirst=Sergio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmindmythsexplori0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFRestak2001" class="citation book cs1">Restak, Richard (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/secretlifeofbrai0000rest">The Secret Life of the Brain</a>. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780309074353" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780309074353"><bdi>9780309074353</bdi></a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=OCLC_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="OCLC (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47863192">47863192</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secret+Life+of+the+Brain&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Joseph+Henry+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47863192&rft.isbn=9780309074353&rft.aulast=Restak&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsecretlifeofbrai0000rest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFShepherd2004" class="citation book cs1">Shepherd, Gordon M. (2004). The Synaptic Organization of the Brain (tol. la Fifth). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780195159561" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780195159561"><bdi>9780195159561</bdi></a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=OCLC_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="OCLC (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51769076">51769076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Synaptic+Organization+of+the+Brain&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.edition=Fifth&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51769076&rft.isbn=9780195159561&rft.aulast=Shepherd&rft.aufirst=Gordon+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></li></ul> Yameandikwa kwa ajili ya watoto wa zaidi ya miaka 8: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1346650"><cite id="CITEREFSimon2000" class="citation book cs1">Simon, Seymour (2000). The Brain. New York: Morrow Junior. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISBN_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISBN (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780688170608" title="Maalum:ZuiaChanzo/9780688170608"><bdi>9780688170608</bdi></a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=OCLC_(identifier)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="OCLC (identifier) (bado haujaandikwa)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/35686089">35686089</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Brain&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Morrow+Junior&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35686089&rft.isbn=9780688170608&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Seymour&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsw.wikipedia.org%3AUbongo" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Viungo_vya_nje">Viungo vya nje</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&veaction=edit&section=23" title="Hariri sehemu: Viungo vya nje" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">hariri</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section's source code: Viungo vya nje">hariri chanzo</a>]</div> <div class="infobox sisterproject"><figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Faili:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/50px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/75px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/100px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <div style="margin-left: 60px;">Wikimedia Commons ina media kuhusu: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"> <a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Brain?uselang=sw">Ubongo</a></div> </div></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfn.org">The Society for Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibro.org">IBRO (Brain Research International Organization)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/ab0.html">The HOPES Brain Tutorial</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/20090325101705/http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/ab0.html">Archived</a> 25 Machi 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hopes.stanford.edu/">hopes.stanford.edu</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/20200827144014/http://hopes.stanford.edu/">Archived</a> 27 Agosti 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://brainmuseum.org/">Comparative Mammalian Brain Collection</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain/">Brain Research News from ScienceDaily</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu">BrainInfo for Neuroanatomy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html">Neuroscience for kids</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brainmaps.org/">BrainMaps.org</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/20200402002218/http://www.brainmaps.org/">Archived</a> 2 Aprili 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. , atlasi yenye mwingiliano na yenye umadhubuti wa juu wa kidititali wa ubongo ulioundwa kwa msururu wa picha zilochunguliwa za bongo za wanyama wa jamii ya nyani wa wasio wa jamii ya nyani</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thebrain.mcgill.ca">The Brain from Top to Bottom</a></li> <li><a href="https://sw.wikiversity.org/wiki/Topic:Neuroscience" class="extiw" title="v:Topic:Neuroscience">The Department of Neuroscience</a> at <a href="https://sw.wikiversity.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="v:">Wikiversity</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/history/index.html">The Secret Life of the Brain :</a> History of the Brain from PBS</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www9.biostr.washington.edu/cgi-bin/DA/PageMaster?atlas:Neuroanatomy+ffpathIndex:Splash%5EPage+2">University of Washington </a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/20180704152239/http://www9.biostr.washington.edu/cgi-bin/DA/PageMaster?atlas:Neuroanatomy+ffpathIndex:Splash%5EPage+2">Archived</a> 4 Julai 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 3D animations of brain regions - click through from "Click for copyright"</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yZZrhkGbhgw.com">7 circuits of the Brain</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stype=lite&keyword=brain&event=display&Submit=Go&start=1">Cell Centered Database</a></li></ul> <table style="font-size:90%; width: 65%; padding: 3px; margin: 0 auto;" class="toccolours"> <tbody><tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Faili:Gray188.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Gray188.png/30px-Gray188.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Gray188.png/45px-Gray188.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Gray188.png/60px-Gray188.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="463" /></a> </td> <td>Makala hii kuhusu mambo ya <a href="/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia">anatomia</a> bado ni mbegu. Je, unajua kitu kuhusu Ubongo kama matumizi yake au mahusiano yake na mada nyingine? Labda unaona habari katika Wikipedia ya Kiingereza au lugha nyingine zinazofaa kutafsiriwa? Basi unaweza kuisaidia Wikipedia kwa <a class="external text" href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?stub&title=Ubongo&action=edit">kuihariri na kuongeza habari</a>. </td></tr></tbody></table>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Rudishwa kutoka "<a dir="ltr" href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&oldid=1351624">https://sw.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ubongo&oldid=1351624</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Maalum:Jamii" title="Maalum:Jamii">Jamii</a>: <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jamii:Pages_using_the_JsonConfig_extension&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jamii:Pages using the JsonConfig extension (bado haujaandikwa)">Pages using the JsonConfig extension</a></li><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jamii:CS1_errors:_unsupported_parameter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jamii:CS1 errors: unsupported parameter (bado haujaandikwa)">CS1 errors: unsupported parameter</a></li><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jamii:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jamii:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (bado haujaandikwa)">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jamii:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_editors_list&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jamii:CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (bado haujaandikwa)">CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list</a></li><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jamii:CS1_errors:_dates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jamii:CS1 errors: dates (bado haujaandikwa)">CS1 errors: dates</a></li><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jamii:CS1_errors:_chapter_ignored&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jamii:CS1 errors: chapter ignored (bado haujaandikwa)">CS1 errors: chapter ignored</a></li><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jamii:CS1_errors:_explicit_use_of_et_al.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jamii:CS1 errors: explicit use of et al. 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