CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Trench warfare - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"ef9c1378-c08a-4f45-aa51-6fcdeadef52a","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Trench_warfare","wgTitle":"Trench warfare","wgCurRevisionId":1259408438,"wgRevisionId":1259408438,"wgArticleId":182259,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from January 2018","Articles with permanently dead external links","CS1 errors: missing periodical","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Articles needing additional references from December 2022","All articles needing additional references", "Use British English from July 2020","Use dmy dates from May 2022","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2023","Articles needing additional references from November 2024","Articles with unsourced statements from March 2007","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018","CS1 maint: postscript","Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference","Commons category link from Wikidata","Trench warfare","Military doctrines","Military strategy","Subterranea (geography)","Warfare by type"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Trench_warfare","wgRelevantArticleId":182259,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}}, "wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q241059","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready", "user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming", "ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Aerial_Photography_on_the_Western_Front%2C_1916._HU100394.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="929"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Aerial_Photography_on_the_Western_Front%2C_1916._HU100394.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="619"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Aerial_Photography_on_the_Western_Front%2C_1916._HU100394.jpg/640px-Aerial_Photography_on_the_Western_Front%2C_1916._HU100394.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="495"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Trench warfare - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trench_warfare"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trench_warfare"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Trench_warfare rootpage-Trench_warfare skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Trench+warfare" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Trench+warfare" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Trench+warfare" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Trench+warfare" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Precursors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precursors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Precursors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precursors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adoption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adoption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Adoption</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adoption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Construction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Construction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Construction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Components</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Layout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Layout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Layout</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Layout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Wire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Geography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Observation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Observation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Observation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Observation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-No_man's_land" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#No_man's_land"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>No man's land</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-No_man's_land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weaponry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weaponry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Weaponry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Weaponry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Weaponry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Weaponry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Infantry_weapons_and_machine_guns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infantry_weapons_and_machine_guns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Infantry weapons and machine guns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infantry_weapons_and_machine_guns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artillery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artillery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Artillery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artillery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategy_and_tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategy_and_tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Strategy and tactics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategy_and_tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_in_the_trenches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_in_the_trenches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Life in the trenches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_in_the_trenches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dangers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dangers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Dangers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dangers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dangers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dangers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Injuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Injuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Injuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Injuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trench_rats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trench_rats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Trench rats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trench_rats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychological_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychological_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Psychological impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychological_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Circumvention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Circumvention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Circumvention</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Circumvention-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Circumvention subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Circumvention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Infiltration_tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infiltration_tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Infiltration tactics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infiltration_tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Mining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Gas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tanks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tanks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Tanks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tanks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Later use</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Later_use-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Later use subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Later_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spanish_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Spanish Civil War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-1945_to_modern_day" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-1945_to_modern_day"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Post-1945 to modern day</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-1945_to_modern_day-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Russo-Ukrainian_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russo-Ukrainian_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3.1</span> <span>Russo-Ukrainian War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russo-Ukrainian_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Cultural impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Trench warfare</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 55 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-55" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">55 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loopgraaf" title="Loopgraaf – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Loopgraaf" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%82" title="حرب الخنادق – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حرب الخنادق" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_trincheres" title="Guerra de trincheres – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerra de trincheres" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Пазіцыйная вайна – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пазіцыйная вайна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Пазыцыйная вайна – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Пазыцыйная вайна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Окопна война – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Окопна война" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_trinxeres" title="Guerra de trinxeres – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra de trinxeres" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1kopov%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" title="Zákopová válka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zákopová válka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyfela_mewn_ffosydd" title="Rhyfela mewn ffosydd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhyfela mewn ffosydd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grabenkrieg" title="Grabenkrieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Grabenkrieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaevikus%C3%B5da" title="Kaevikusõda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kaevikusõda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_trincheras" title="Guerra de trincheras – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra de trincheras" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tran%C4%89ea_milito" title="Tranĉea milito – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tranĉea milito" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubaki-gerra" title="Lubaki-gerra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lubaki-gerra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1" title="سنگر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سنگر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_de_tranch%C3%A9es" title="Guerre de tranchées – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre de tranchées" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coga%C3%ADocht_trins%C3%AD" title="Cogaíocht trinsí – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cogaíocht trinsí" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_trincheiras" title="Guerra de trincheiras – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerra de trincheiras" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B0%B8%ED%98%B8%EC%A0%84" title="참호전 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="참호전" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="खाई युद्ध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="खाई युद्ध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rovovsko_ratovanje" title="Rovovsko ratovanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rovovsko ratovanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trancheo-milito" title="Trancheo-milito – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Trancheo-milito" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_parit" title="Perang parit – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang parit" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skotgrafaherna%C3%B0ur" title="Skotgrafahernaður – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Skotgrafahernaður" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_di_trincea" title="Guerra di trincea – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra di trincea" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%97%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מלחמת חפירות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמת חפירות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A7" title="ಕಂದಕ ಯುದ್ಧ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕಂದಕ ಯುದ್ಧ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="სანგარი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სანგარი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellum_stativum" title="Bellum stativum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bellum stativum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poz%C4%ABciju_kar%C5%A1" title="Pozīciju karš – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pozīciju karš" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozicinis_karas" title="Pozicinis karas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pozicinis karas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6v%C3%A9sz%C3%A1rok-hadvisel%C3%A9s" title="Lövészárok-hadviselés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Lövészárok-hadviselés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peperangan_kubu_parit" title="Peperangan kubu parit – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Peperangan kubu parit" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loopgravenoorlog" title="Loopgravenoorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Loopgravenoorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A1%B9%E5%A3%95" title="塹壕 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="塹壕" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyttergravskrig" title="Skyttergravskrig – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Skyttergravskrig" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rra_de_trencadas" title="Guèrra de trencadas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Guèrra de trencadas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojna_pozycyjna" title="Wojna pozycyjna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wojna pozycyjna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_trincheiras" title="Guerra de trincheiras – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra de trincheiras" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboi_de_tran%C8%99ee" title="Război de tranșee – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Război de tranșee" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Позиционная война – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Позиционная война" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufta_n%C3%AB_llogore" title="Lufta në llogore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lufta në llogore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Trench warfare" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1kopov%C3%A1_vojna" title="Zákopová vojna – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Zákopová vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozicijska_vojna" title="Pozicijska vojna – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pozicijska vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%95%D8%B1" title="سەنگەر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سەنگەر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rovovsko_ratovanje" title="Rovovsko ratovanje – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Rovovsko ratovanje" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asemasota" title="Asemasota – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Asemasota" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyttegravskrig" title="Skyttegravskrig – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Skyttegravskrig" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siper_sava%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Siper savaşı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Siper savaşı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Позиційна війна – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Позиційна війна" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%86%DB%81_%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF" title="مورچہ بند جنگ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مورچہ بند جنگ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%E1%BA%BFn_tranh_chi%E1%BA%BFn_h%C3%A0o" title="Chiến tranh chiến hào – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chiến tranh chiến hào" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A1%B9%E5%A3%95%E6%88%B0" title="塹壕戰 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="塹壕戰" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A0%91%E5%A3%95%E6%88%98" title="堑壕战 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="堑壕战" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q241059#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Trench_warfare" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Trench_warfare" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Trench_warfare" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&oldid=1259408438" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Trench_warfare&id=1259408438&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FTrench_warfare"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FTrench_warfare"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Trench_warfare&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Trench_warfare" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q241059" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Land warfare involving static fortification of lines</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Trench_warfare" title="Special:EditPage/Trench warfare">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Trench+warfare%22">"Trench warfare"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Trench+warfare%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Trench+warfare%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Trench+warfare%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Trench+warfare%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Trench+warfare%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_Photography_on_the_Western_Front,_1916._HU100394.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Aerial_Photography_on_the_Western_Front%2C_1916._HU100394.jpg/300px-Aerial_Photography_on_the_Western_Front%2C_1916._HU100394.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Aerial_Photography_on_the_Western_Front%2C_1916._HU100394.jpg/450px-Aerial_Photography_on_the_Western_Front%2C_1916._HU100394.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Aerial_Photography_on_the_Western_Front%2C_1916._HU100394.jpg/600px-Aerial_Photography_on_the_Western_Front%2C_1916._HU100394.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="619" /></a><figcaption>British (upper) and German (lower) frontline trenches, 1916</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_136-B0560,_Frankreich,_Kavalleristen_im_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_136-B0560%2C_Frankreich%2C_Kavalleristen_im_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_136-B0560%2C_Frankreich%2C_Kavalleristen_im_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_136-B0560%2C_Frankreich%2C_Kavalleristen_im_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_136-B0560%2C_Frankreich%2C_Kavalleristen_im_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_136-B0560%2C_Frankreich%2C_Kavalleristen_im_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_136-B0560%2C_Frankreich%2C_Kavalleristen_im_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="796" /></a><figcaption>German soldiers of the 11th Reserve Hussar Regiment fighting from a trench, on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a>, 1916</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_of_ruapekapeka_pa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Plan_of_ruapekapeka_pa.jpg/220px-Plan_of_ruapekapeka_pa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Plan_of_ruapekapeka_pa.jpg/330px-Plan_of_ruapekapeka_pa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Plan_of_ruapekapeka_pa.jpg/440px-Plan_of_ruapekapeka_pa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="682" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption>Plan of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ruapekapeka" title="Battle of Ruapekapeka">Ruapekapeka Pā 1846</a>, an elaborate and heavily fortified <a href="/wiki/Ng%C4%81puhi" title="Ngāpuhi">Ngāpuhi</a> innovation, which <a href="/wiki/James_Belich_(historian)" title="James Belich (historian)">James Belich</a> has argued laid the groundwork for or essentially invented modern trench warfare.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:150%;"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></span><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war" title="Outline of war">outline</a>)</span></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:War,_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers,_artist._LCCN91480633_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3691" data-file-height="1076" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Post-classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">castles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Revolution" title="Military Revolution">military revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pike_and_shot" title="Pike and shot">pike and shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_weaponry_and_warfare" title="Napoleonic weaponry and warfare">napoleonic warfare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_warfare" title="Modern warfare">Late modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">industrial warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-generation_warfare" title="Fourth-generation warfare">fourth-gen warfare</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense ministry">Defense ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_force" title="Air force">Air force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marines" title="Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_guard" title="Coast guard">Coast guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_reserve_force" title="Military reserve force">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_army" title="Regular army">Regular</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irregular_military" title="Irregular military">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">Standing army</a> / <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">Militia</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Specialties:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifleman" title="Rifleman">Rifleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_engineer" title="Combat engineer">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">Recon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_corps" title="Medical corps">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_police" title="Military police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_diving" title="Military diving">Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">Comms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_pilot" title="Aircraft pilot">Pilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_commissar" title="Political commissar">Commissar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Land units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanized_infantry" title="Mechanized infantry">Mechanized</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Armor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">Special forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_corps" title="Signal corps">Signal corps</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Naval units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">Frogman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">Warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">Aircraft carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">Landing craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_ship" title="Auxiliary ship">Auxiliary ships</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Air units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">Bombers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_early_warning_and_control" title="Airborne early warning and control">Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_air_support" title="Close air support">Close air support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic-warfare_aircraft" title="Electronic-warfare aircraft">Electronic-warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_aircraft" title="Reconnaissance aircraft">Reconnaissance</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Combat systems:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_system" title="Fire-control system">Fire-control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_radar" title="Fire-control radar">Fire-control radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">Director (military)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_information_center" title="Combat information center">Combat information center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Historical:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_gun_fire-control_system" title="Ship gun fire-control system">Ship gun fire-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_data_computer" title="Gun data computer">Gun data computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_Data_Computer" title="Torpedo Data Computer">Torpedo data computer</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Development:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic training">Basic training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Military manoeuvrers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Combat training">Combat training</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Battlespace" title="Battlespace">Battlespace</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li>Aerospace <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">Airborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_warfare" title="Land warfare">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold-weather_warfare" title="Cold-weather warfare">Cold-region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_warfare" title="Desert warfare">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">Fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_warfare" title="Jungle warfare">Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_warfare" title="Mountain warfare">Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Sea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare" title="Amphibious warfare">Amphibious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_navy" title="Blue-water navy">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown-water_navy" title="Brown-water navy">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-water_navy" title="Green-water navy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_warfare" title="Surface warfare">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_warfare" title="Underwater warfare">Underwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_warfare" title="Seabed warfare">Seabed</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapons</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Air defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">Armor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrage_(artillery)" title="Barrage (artillery)">Barrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics#Cavalry_in_modern_warfare" title="Cavalry tactics">Air cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">Combined arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">Conventional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberweapon" title="Cyberweapon">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_robot" title="Military robot">Robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic warfare">Electromagnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loitering_munition" title="Loitering munition">Loitering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_defense" title="Missile defense">Missile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_music" title="Martial music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_warfare" title="Submarine warfare">Submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_warfare" title="Unconventional warfare">Unconventional</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">Tactics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_tactics" title="List of military tactics">List of military tactics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_combat_manoeuvring" title="Air combat manoeuvring">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift" title="Airlift">Airlift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_assault" title="Air assault">Air assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airbridge_(logistics)" title="Airbridge (logistics)">Airbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airdrop" title="Airdrop">Airdrop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Anti-aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare" title="Anti-submarine warfare">Anti-sub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare" title="Anti-tank warfare">Anti-tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">Battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics" title="Cavalry tactics">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_(warfare)" title="Charge (warfare)">Charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterattack" title="Counterattack">Counterattack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterinsurgency" title="Counterinsurgency">Counterinsurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">Convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeat_in_detail" title="Defeat in detail">Defeat in detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Foxhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envelopment" title="Envelopment">Envelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_formation" title="Tactical formation">Formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_tactics" title="Naval tactics">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_and_awe" title="Shock and awe">Rapid dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encirclement" title="Encirclement">Encirclement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">Investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Swarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screening_(tactical)" title="Screening (tactical)">Screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_objective" title="Tactical objective">Tactical objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_attack" title="Saturation attack">Target saturation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_(military)" title="Withdrawal (military)">Withdrawal</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Operational_level_of_war" title="Operational level of war">Operational</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">Military operation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_operations" title="Special operations">Special</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_warfare" title="Expeditionary warfare">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_operation" title="Deep operation">Deep operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">Maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_manoeuvre_group" title="Operational manoeuvre group">Operational manoeuvre group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_(military)" title="Raid (military)">Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_operation" title="Covert operation">Covert</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">Strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_strategies_and_concepts" title="List of military strategies and concepts">List of military strategies and concepts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">Military campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-access/area_denial" title="Anti-access/area denial">Anti-access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_raiding" title="Commerce raiding">Commerce raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-offensive">Counter-offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culminating_point" title="Culminating point">Culminating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_in_depth" title="Defence in depth">Defence in depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_strategy" title="Fabian strategy">Fabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empty_Fort_Strategy" title="Empty Fort Strategy">Empty fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Warfare">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_defence" title="Strategic defence">Defensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_depth" title="Strategic depth">Depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_goal_(military)" title="Strategic goal (military)">Goal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_strategy" title="Nuclear strategy">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_strategy" title="Naval strategy">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_(military)" title="Offensive (military)">Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Grand_strategy" title="Grand strategy">Grand strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_warfare" title="Asymmetric warfare">Asymmetric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken-backed_war_theory" title="Broken-backed war theory">Broken-backed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_war_(general_term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold war (general term)">Cold war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_war" title="Colonial war">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest" title="Conquest">Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divide_and_rule" title="Divide and rule">Divide and conquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_warfare" title="Economic warfare">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic warfare">Endemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_in_being" title="Fleet in being">Fleet in being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_warfare" title="Irregular warfare">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_national_liberation" title="Wars of national liberation">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_war" title="Limited war">Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network-centric_warfare" title="Network-centric warfare">Network-centric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_generation_warfare" title="New generation warfare">New generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_war" title="Perpetual war">Perpetual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_warfare" title="Political warfare">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_rebellion" title="Princely rebellion">Princely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_war" title="Resource war">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_studies" title="Strategic studies">Strategic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_succession" title="War of succession">Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_(warfare)" title="Theater (warfare)">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">World war</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_administration" title="Military administration">Administrative</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_branch" title="Military branch">Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_policy" title="Military policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_of_responsibility" title="Area of responsibility">Area of responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">Chain of command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_doctrine" title="Military doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_force" title="Economy of force">Economy of force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_medicine" title="Military medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology and equipment</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_personnel" title="Military personnel">Personnel</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_recruitment" title="Military recruitment">Recruitment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-recruitment" title="Counter-recruitment">counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">Mobilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruit_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Recruit training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_specialism" title="Military specialism">Specialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morale" title="Morale">Morale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_military" title="Women in the military">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_and_military_service" title="Transgender people and military service">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment_in_the_military" title="Sexual harassment in the military">Harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">foreign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">Soldier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">Logistics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_military_logistics" title="History of military logistics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_economy" title="War economy">War economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">Military–industrial complex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">Arms industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materiel" title="Materiel">Materiel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_supply-chain_management" title="Military supply-chain management">Supply-chain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Base</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Main_operating_base" title="Main operating base">MOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">FOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">Outpost</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Science</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_projection" title="Power projection">Power projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss-of-strength_gradient" title="Loss-of-strength gradient">Loss-of-strength gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanchester%27s_laws" title="Lanchester's laws">Lanchester's laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Force_multiplication" title="Force multiplication">Force multiplication</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">Occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice" title="Armistice">Armistice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceasefire" title="Ceasefire">Ceasefire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">Desertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Islamic rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combatant" title="Combatant">Lawful</a> / <a href="/wiki/Unlawful_combatant" title="Unlawful combatant">Unlawful combatant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_marque" title="Letter of marque">Letter of marque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfidy" title="Perfidy">Perfidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_military_company" title="Private military company">Private military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">Foreign expatriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">Privateer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_laws_on_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish laws on war">Jewish laws on war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Right of conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rules_of_engagement" title="Rules of engagement">Rules of engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_military_unit" title="Penal military unit">Penal military unit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_theory" title="Military theory">Theory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_supremacy" title="Air supremacy">Air supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_of_the_sea" title="Command of the sea">Command of the sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-spectrum_dominance" title="Full-spectrum dominance">Full-spectrum dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overmatch" title="Overmatch">Overmatch</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unrestricted_Warfare" title="Unrestricted Warfare">Unrestricted Warfare</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">Philosophy of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_dilemma" title="Security dilemma">Security dilemma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tripwire_force" title="Tripwire force">Tripwire force</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_wargaming" title="Professional wargaming">Wargaming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_simulation" title="Military simulation">Simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Exercises</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_operations_other_than_war" title="Military operations other than war">Non-warfare</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_control" title="Arms control">Arms control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-insurgency" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-insurgency">Counter-insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_response" title="Disaster response">Disaster response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-zone_(international_relations)" title="Grey-zone (international relations)">Grey-zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunboat_diplomacy" title="Gunboat diplomacy">Gunboat diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_aid" title="Humanitarian aid">Humanitarian aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-intensity_conflict" title="Low-intensity conflict">Low-intensity conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism">Multilateralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping" title="Peacekeeping">Peacekeeping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peacebuilding" title="Peacebuilding">Peacebuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_through_strength" title="Peace through strength">Peace through strength</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show_of_force" title="Show of force">Show of force</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_tradition" title="Military tradition">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_awards_and_decorations" title="Military awards and decorations">Awards and decorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_cry" title="Battle cry">Battle cry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_film" title="War film">War film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_science_fiction" title="Military science fiction">Military science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_novel" title="War novel">War novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foot_drill" title="Foot drill">Foot drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_song" title="War song">War song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_uniform" title="Military uniform">Uniform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wargame" title="Wargame">Wargame</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_war" title="Women in war">Women in war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_resister" title="War resister">War resister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_studies" title="War studies">War studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses in warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">Wartime sexual violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">Fifth column</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_lists" title="Category:Military lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles" title="Lists of battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_occupations" title="List of military occupations">Military occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_established_military_terms" title="List of established military terms">Military terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_operations" title="List of military operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges" title="List of sieges">Sieges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_war_crimes" title="List of war crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war#Wars" title="Outline of war">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_weapons" title="Lists of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_writers" title="List of military writers">Writers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:War" title="Template:War"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:War" title="Template talk:War"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:War"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Trench warfare</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Land_warfare" title="Land warfare">land warfare</a> using occupied lines largely comprising <a href="/wiki/Trench#Military_engineering" title="Trench">military trenches</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/Combatant" title="Combatant">combatants</a> are well-protected from the enemy's small arms fire and are substantially sheltered from <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a>. It became archetypically associated with <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> (1914–1918), when the <a href="/wiki/Race_to_the_Sea" title="Race to the Sea">Race to the Sea</a> rapidly expanded trench use on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a> starting in September 1914.<sup id="cite_ref-Ellis,_p_102_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ellis,_p_102-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Trench warfare proliferated when a <a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons of World War I">revolution</a> in <a href="/wiki/Firepower" title="Firepower">firepower</a> was not matched by similar advances in <a href="/wiki/Mobility_(military)" title="Mobility (military)">mobility</a>, resulting in a grueling form of warfare in which the defender held the advantage.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the Western Front in 1914–1918, both sides constructed elaborate trench, underground, and <a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">dugout</a> systems opposing each other along a <a href="/wiki/Front_(military)" title="Front (military)">front</a>, protected from assault by <a href="/wiki/Barbed_wire" title="Barbed wire">barbed wire</a>. The area between opposing trench lines (known as "<a href="/wiki/No_man%27s_land" title="No man's land">no man's land</a>") was fully exposed to artillery fire from both sides. Attacks, even if successful, often sustained severe <a href="/wiki/Casualty_(person)" title="Casualty (person)">casualties</a>. </p><p>The development of <a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">armoured warfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">combined arms</a> tactics permitted static lines to be bypassed and defeated, leading to the decline of trench warfare after the war. Following World War I, "trench warfare" became a byword for stalemate, <a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">attrition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">sieges</a>, and futility in conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Precursors">Precursors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Precursors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mapa_linhas_de_torres_vedras_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Mapa_linhas_de_torres_vedras_cropped.png/220px-Mapa_linhas_de_torres_vedras_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Mapa_linhas_de_torres_vedras_cropped.png/330px-Mapa_linhas_de_torres_vedras_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Mapa_linhas_de_torres_vedras_cropped.png/440px-Mapa_linhas_de_torres_vedras_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1184" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lines_of_Torres_Vedras" title="Lines of Torres Vedras">Lines of Torres Vedras</a>, in Portugal.</figcaption></figure> <p>Field works have existed for as long as there have been armies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Roman_legions" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman legions">Roman legions</a>, when in the presence of an enemy, <a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">entrenched camps</a> nightly when on the move.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERipleyDana1859622_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERipleyDana1859622-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman general <a href="/wiki/Belisarius" title="Belisarius">Belisarius</a> had his soldiers dig a trench as part of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dara" title="Battle of Dara">Battle of Dara</a> in 530 AD. </p><p>Trench warfare was also documented during the defence of <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a> in a siege known as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trench" title="Battle of the Trench">Battle of the Trench</a> (627 AD). The architect of the plan was <a href="/wiki/Salman_the_Persian#Military_career" title="Salman the Persian">Salman the Persian</a> who suggested digging a trench to defend Medina. </p><p>There are examples of trench digging as a defensive measure during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, such as during the <a href="/wiki/Piedmontese_Civil_War" title="Piedmontese Civil War">Piedmontese Civil War</a>, where it was documented that on the morning of May 12, 1640, the French soldiers, having already captured the left bank of the <a href="/wiki/Po_(river)" title="Po (river)">Po river</a> and gaining control of the bridge connecting the two banks of the river, and wanting to advance to the Capuchin Monastery of the Monte, deciding that their position wasn't secure enough for their liking, then choose to advance on a double attack on the trenches, but were twice repelled. Eventually, on the third attempt, the French broke through and the defenders were forced to flee with the civilian population, seeking the sanctuary of the local Catholic church, the <a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_al_Monte_dei_Cappuccini,_Turin" title="Santa Maria al Monte dei Cappuccini, Turin">Santa Maria al Monte dei Cappuccini</a>, in Turin, also known at that time as the <a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Maria_al_Monte_dei_Cappuccini" class="extiw" title="it:Santa Maria al Monte dei Cappuccini">Capuchin Monastery of the Monte</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">early modern warfare</a>, troops used field works to block possible lines of advance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreyFrey1995126–27_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreyFrey1995126–27-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples include the <a href="/wiki/Lines_of_Stollhofen" title="Lines of Stollhofen">Lines of Stollhofen</a>, built at the start of the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> of 1702–1714,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Lines_of_Weissenburg" title="Lines of Weissenburg">Lines of Weissenburg</a> built under the orders of the <a href="/wiki/Claude_Louis_Hector_de_Villars" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Louis Hector de Villars">Duke of Villars</a> in 1706,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911499–500_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911499–500-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Lines_of_Ne_Plus_Ultra" class="mw-redirect" title="Lines of Ne Plus Ultra">Lines of Ne Plus Ultra</a> during the winter of 1710–1711,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreyFrey1995126–27_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreyFrey1995126–27-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Lines_of_Torres_Vedras" title="Lines of Torres Vedras">Lines of Torres Vedras</a> in 1809 and 1810.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERipleyDana1859622_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERipleyDana1859622-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siege_of_Vicksburg_1863_10566.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Siege_of_Vicksburg_1863_10566.jpg/220px-Siege_of_Vicksburg_1863_10566.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Siege_of_Vicksburg_1863_10566.jpg/330px-Siege_of_Vicksburg_1863_10566.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Siege_of_Vicksburg_1863_10566.jpg/440px-Siege_of_Vicksburg_1863_10566.jpg 2x" data-file-width="516" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>Trenches at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vicksburg" title="Siege of Vicksburg">Siege of Vicksburg</a> 1863</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Wars" title="New Zealand Wars">New Zealand Wars</a> (1845–1872), the <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> developed elaborate trench and <a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">bunker</a> systems as part of fortified areas known as <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81" title="Pā">pā</a>, employing them successfully as early as the 1840s to withstand British artillery bombardments.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one British observer, "the fence round the pa is covered between every paling with loose bunches of flax, against which the bullets fall and drop; in the night they repair every hole made by the guns".<sup id="cite_ref-CARv2b2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CARv2b2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These systems included firing trenches, communication trenches, <a href="/wiki/Tunnel_network" title="Tunnel network">tunnels</a>, and anti-artillery bunkers. The <a href="/wiki/Ng%C4%81puhi" title="Ngāpuhi">Ngāpuhi</a> pā <a href="/wiki/Ruapekapeka" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruapekapeka">Ruapekapeka</a> is often considered to be the most sophisticated and technologically impressive by historians.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> British casualties, such as at <a href="/wiki/Gate_Pa" title="Gate Pa">Gate Pa</a> in 1864 and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ohaeawai" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ohaeawai">Battle of Ohaeawai</a> in 1845, suggested that contemporary weaponry, such as <a href="/wiki/Musket" title="Musket">muskets</a> and cannon, proved insufficient to dislodge defenders from a trench system.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has been an academic debate surrounding this since the 1980s, when in his book <i>The New Zealand Wars,</i> historian <a href="/wiki/James_Belich_(historian)" title="James Belich (historian)">James Belich</a> claimed that Northern Māori had effectively invented trench warfare during the first stages of the New Zealand Wars. However, this has been criticised by a few academics of the same period, with Gavin McLean noting that while the Māori had certainly adapted pa to suit contemporary weaponry, many historians have dismissed Belich's claim as "baseless... <a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">revisionism</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others more recently have said that while it is clear the Māori did not invent trench warfare <i>first</i>—Māori did invent trench-based defences without any offshore aid— some believe they may have influenced 20th-century methods of trench design identified with it.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> (1853–1856) saw "massive trench works and trench warfare",<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even though "the modernity of the trench war was not immediately apparent to the contemporaries".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Union and Confederate armies employed field works and extensive trench systems in the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> (1861–1865) — most notably in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vicksburg" title="Siege of Vicksburg">sieges of Vicksburg</a> (1863) <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petersburg" title="Siege of Petersburg">and Petersburg</a> (1864–1865), the latter of which saw the first use by the <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a> of the rapid-fire <a href="/wiki/Gatling_gun#American_Civil_War_and_the_Americas" title="Gatling gun">Gatling gun</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the important precursor to modern-day <a href="/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">machine guns</a>. Trenches were also utilized in the <a href="/wiki/Paraguayan_War" title="Paraguayan War">Paraguayan War</a> (which started in 1864), the <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Boer_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Anglo-Boer War">Second Anglo-Boer War</a> (1899–1902), and the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> (1904–1905). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adoption">Adoption</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Adoption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R34771,_Frankreich,_Arras,_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R34771%2C_Frankreich%2C_Arras%2C_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R34771%2C_Frankreich%2C_Arras%2C_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R34771%2C_Frankreich%2C_Arras%2C_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R34771%2C_Frankreich%2C_Arras%2C_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R34771%2C_Frankreich%2C_Arras%2C_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R34771%2C_Frankreich%2C_Arras%2C_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="479" /></a><figcaption>German forward detachments guarding the entrance to a trench line in front of <a href="/wiki/Arras#World_War_I" title="Arras">Arras</a> in 1915</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cheshire_Regiment_trench_Somme_1916.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Cheshire_Regiment_trench_Somme_1916.jpg/220px-Cheshire_Regiment_trench_Somme_1916.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Cheshire_Regiment_trench_Somme_1916.jpg/330px-Cheshire_Regiment_trench_Somme_1916.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Cheshire_Regiment_trench_Somme_1916.jpg/440px-Cheshire_Regiment_trench_Somme_1916.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1069" /></a><figcaption>Trenches of the 11th <a href="/wiki/Cheshire_Regiment" title="Cheshire Regiment">Cheshire Regiment</a> at Ovillers-la-Boisselle, on the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme" title="Battle of the Somme">Somme</a>, July 1916. One sentry keeps watch while the others sleep. Photo by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Brooks_(photographer)" title="Ernest Brooks (photographer)">Ernest Brooks</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lancashire_Fusiliers_trench_Beaumont_Hamel_1916.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Lancashire_Fusiliers_trench_Beaumont_Hamel_1916.jpg/220px-Lancashire_Fusiliers_trench_Beaumont_Hamel_1916.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Lancashire_Fusiliers_trench_Beaumont_Hamel_1916.jpg/330px-Lancashire_Fusiliers_trench_Beaumont_Hamel_1916.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Lancashire_Fusiliers_trench_Beaumont_Hamel_1916.jpg/440px-Lancashire_Fusiliers_trench_Beaumont_Hamel_1916.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5474" data-file-height="3839" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lancashire_Fusiliers" title="Lancashire Fusiliers">1st Lancashire Fusiliers</a>, in communication trench near <a href="/wiki/Beaumont_Hamel" class="mw-redirect" title="Beaumont Hamel">Beaumont Hamel</a>, Somme, 1916. Photo by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Brooks_(photographer)" title="Ernest Brooks (photographer)">Ernest Brooks</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although technology had dramatically changed the nature of warfare by 1914, the armies of the major combatants had not fully absorbed the implications. Fundamentally, as the range and rate of fire of rifled small-arms increased, a defender shielded from enemy fire (in a trench, at a house window, behind a large rock, or behind other cover) was often able to kill several approaching foes before they closed around the defender's position. Attacks across open ground became even more dangerous after the introduction of rapid-firing <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a>, exemplified by the <a href="/wiki/Canon_de_75_mod%C3%A8le_1897" title="Canon de 75 modèle 1897">"French 75"</a>, and <a href="/wiki/High_explosive" class="mw-redirect" title="High explosive">high explosive</a> <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(weaponry)" title="Fragmentation (weaponry)">fragmentation</a> rounds. The increases in firepower had outstripped the ability of <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a> (or even <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a>) to cover the ground between firing lines, and the ability of armour to withstand fire. It would take a revolution in mobility to change that.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The French and German armies adopted different <a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">tactical doctrines</a>: the French relied on the attack with speed and surprise, and the Germans relied on <a href="/wiki/Firepower" title="Firepower">firepower</a>, investing heavily in <a href="/wiki/Howitzer" title="Howitzer">howitzers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">machine guns</a>. The British lacked an official tactical doctrine, with an officer corps that rejected theory in favour of pragmatism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham200414–19_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham200414–19-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the armies expected to use entrenchments and cover, they did not allow for the effect of <a href="/wiki/Defence_in_depth" title="Defence in depth">defences in depth</a>. They required a deliberate approach to seizing positions from which fire support could be given for the next phase of the attack, rather than a rapid move to break the enemy's line.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham200427_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham200427-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was assumed that artillery could still destroy entrenched troops, or at least suppress them sufficiently for friendly infantry and cavalry to manoeuvre.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham200424–25_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham200424–25-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_trench_battle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/French_trench_battle.jpg/220px-French_trench_battle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/French_trench_battle.jpg/330px-French_trench_battle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/French_trench_battle.jpg/440px-French_trench_battle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5417" data-file-height="3715" /></a><figcaption>French trench in northeastern France</figcaption></figure> <p>Digging-in when defending a position was a standard practice by the start of WWI. To <a href="/wiki/Frontal_assault" title="Frontal assault">attack frontally</a> was to court crippling losses, so an outflanking operation was the preferred method of attack against an entrenched enemy. After the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Aisne" title="First Battle of the Aisne">Battle of the Aisne</a> in September 1914, an extended series of attempted flanking moves, and matching extensions to the fortified defensive lines, developed into the "<a href="/wiki/Race_to_the_Sea" title="Race to the Sea">race to the sea</a>", by the end of which German and Allied armies had produced a matched pair of trench lines from the <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Swiss</a> border in the south to the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> coast of Belgium. </p><p>By the end of October 1914, the whole front in Belgium and France had solidified into lines of trenches, which lasted until the last weeks of the war. Mass infantry assaults were futile in the face of artillery fire, as well as rapid rifle and machine-gun fire. Both sides concentrated on breaking up enemy attacks and on protecting their own troops by digging deep into the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis19774_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis19774-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the buildup of forces in 1915, the Western Front became a stalemated struggle between equals, to be decided by attrition. Frontal assaults, and their associated casualties, became inevitable because the continuous trench lines had no open flanks. Casualties of the defenders matched those of the attackers, as vast reserves were expended in costly counter-attacks or exposed to the attacker's massed artillery. There were periods in which rigid trench warfare broke down, such as during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme" title="Battle of the Somme">Battle of the Somme</a>, but the lines never moved very far. The war would be won by the side that was able to commit the last reserves to the Western Front. Trench warfare prevailed on the Western Front until the Germans launched their <a href="/wiki/Operation_Michael" title="Operation Michael">Spring Offensive</a> on 21 March 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham2004–25_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham2004–25-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trench warfare also took place on other <a href="/wiki/Front_(military)" title="Front (military)">fronts</a>, including in <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War I)">Italy</a> and at <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallipoli Campaign">Gallipoli</a>. </p><p>Armies were also limited by logistics. The heavy use of artillery meant that ammunition expenditure was far higher in WWI than in any previous conflict. Horses and carts were insufficient for transporting large quantities over long distances, so armies had trouble moving far from railheads. This greatly slowed advances, making it impossible for either side to achieve a breakthrough that would change the war. This situation would only be altered in WWII with greater use of motorized vehicles.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Construction">Construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trench_construction_diagram_1914.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Trench_construction_diagram_1914.png/220px-Trench_construction_diagram_1914.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Trench_construction_diagram_1914.png/330px-Trench_construction_diagram_1914.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Trench_construction_diagram_1914.png/440px-Trench_construction_diagram_1914.png 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>Trench construction diagram from a 1914 British infantry manual</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_infantry_digging_trenches_Fauquissart,_France_(Photo_24-299).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Indian_infantry_digging_trenches_Fauquissart%2C_France_%28Photo_24-299%29.jpg/220px-Indian_infantry_digging_trenches_Fauquissart%2C_France_%28Photo_24-299%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Indian_infantry_digging_trenches_Fauquissart%2C_France_%28Photo_24-299%29.jpg/330px-Indian_infantry_digging_trenches_Fauquissart%2C_France_%28Photo_24-299%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Indian_infantry_digging_trenches_Fauquissart%2C_France_%28Photo_24-299%29.jpg/440px-Indian_infantry_digging_trenches_Fauquissart%2C_France_%28Photo_24-299%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="546" data-file-height="712" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a> infantry digging trenches, <a href="/wiki/Fauquissart" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauquissart">Fauquissart</a>, France, 9 August 1915.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trench_warfare.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Trench_warfare.png/220px-Trench_warfare.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Trench_warfare.png/330px-Trench_warfare.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Trench_warfare.png/440px-Trench_warfare.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Soldiers training in trench warfare, with well-defined fire bays connected by offset traverse trenches, with zigzag communication trenches leading to the rear area</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> Trenches were longer, deeper, and better defended by steel, concrete, and barbed wire than ever before. They were far stronger and more effective than chains of forts, for they formed a continuous network, sometimes with four or five parallel lines linked by interfacings. They were dug far below the surface of the earth out of reach of the heaviest artillery....Grand battles with the old maneuvers were out of the question. Only by bombardment, sapping, and assault could the enemy be shaken, and such operations had to be conducted on an immense scale to produce appreciable results. Indeed, it is questionable whether the German lines in France could ever have been broken if the Germans had not wasted their resources in unsuccessful assaults, and the blockade by sea had not gradually cut off their supplies. In such warfare no single general could strike a blow that would make him immortal; the "glory of fighting" sank down into the dirt and mire of trenches and dugouts. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/James_Harvey_Robinson" title="James Harvey Robinson">James Harvey Robinson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Beard" title="Charles A. Beard">Charles A. Beard</a>, The Development Of Modern Europe Volume II The Merging Of European Into World History<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Early World War I trenches were simple. They lacked <a href="/wiki/Traverse_(trench_warfare)" title="Traverse (trench warfare)">traverses</a>, and according to pre-war doctrine were to be packed with men fighting shoulder to shoulder. This doctrine led to heavy casualties from artillery fire. This vulnerability, and the length of the front to be defended, soon led to frontline trenches being held by fewer men. The defenders augmented the trenches themselves with barbed wire strung in front to impede movement; wiring parties went out every night to repair and improve these forward defences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffith200410–11_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffith200410–11-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The small, improvised trenches of the first few months grew deeper and more complex, gradually becoming vast areas of interlocking defensive works. They resisted both artillery bombardment and mass infantry assault. Shell-proof dugouts became a high priority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffith200411_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffith200411-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%AD%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%8F%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD_5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%D0%AD%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%8F%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD_5.jpg/170px-%D0%AD%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%8F%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD_5.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%D0%AD%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%8F%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD_5.jpg/255px-%D0%AD%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%8F%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD_5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%D0%AD%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%8F%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD_5.jpg/340px-%D0%AD%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%8F%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD_5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>A trench of the Änäkäinen fortification in <a href="/wiki/Lieksa" title="Lieksa">Lieksa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A well-developed trench had to be at least 2.5 m (8 ft) deep to allow men to walk upright and still be protected. </p><p>There were three standard ways to dig a trench: entrenching, sapping, and <a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">tunneling</a>. Entrenching, where a man would stand on the surface and dig downwards, was most efficient, as it allowed a large digging party to dig the full length of the trench simultaneously. However, entrenching left the diggers exposed above ground and hence could only be carried out when free of observation, such as in a rear area or at night. <a href="/wiki/Sapping" title="Sapping">Sapping</a> involved extending the trench by digging away at the end face. The diggers were not exposed, but only one or two men could work on the trench at a time. Tunnelling was like sapping except that a "roof" of soil was left in place while the trench line was established and then removed when the trench was ready to be occupied. The guidelines for British trench construction stated that it would take 450 men 6 hours at night to complete 250 m (270 yd) of front-line trench system. Thereafter, the trench would require constant maintenance to prevent deterioration caused by weather or shelling. </p><p>Trenchmen were a specialized unit of trench excavators and repairmen. They usually dug or repaired in groups of four with an escort of two armed soldiers. Trenchmen were armed with one <a href="/wiki/M1911_pistol" title="M1911 pistol">1911 semi-automatic pistol</a>, and were only utilized when either a new trench needed to be dug or expanded quickly, or when a trench was destroyed by artillery fire. Trenchmen were trained to dig with incredible speed; in a dig of three to six hours they could accomplish what would take a normal group of frontline infantry soldiers around two days. Trenchmen were usually looked down upon by fellow soldiers because they did not fight. They were usually called cowards because if they were attacked while digging, they would abandon the post and flee to safety. They were instructed to do this though because through the war there were only around 1,100 trained trenchmen. They were highly valued only by officers higher on the chain of command. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Components">Components</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastwork_trench_at_Armentieres_1916.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Breastwork_trench_at_Armentieres_1916.jpg/220px-Breastwork_trench_at_Armentieres_1916.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Breastwork_trench_at_Armentieres_1916.jpg/330px-Breastwork_trench_at_Armentieres_1916.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Breastwork_trench_at_Armentieres_1916.jpg/440px-Breastwork_trench_at_Armentieres_1916.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Breastwork "trench", Armentières, 1916</figcaption></figure> <p>The banked earth on the lip of the trench facing the enemy was called the <a href="/wiki/Parapet" title="Parapet">parapet</a> and had a fire step. The embanked rear lip of the trench was called the <a href="/wiki/Parados" title="Parados">parados</a>, which protected the soldier's back from shells falling behind the trench. The sides of the trench were often revetted with <a href="/wiki/Sandbag" title="Sandbag">sandbags</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wire_mesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Wire mesh">wire mesh</a>, wooden frames and sometimes roofs.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The floor of the trench was usually covered by wooden <a href="/wiki/Duckboards" class="mw-redirect" title="Duckboards">duckboards</a>. In later designs the floor might be raised on a wooden frame to provide a drainage channel underneath. Due to the substantial casualties taken from indirect fire, some trenches were reinforced with corrugated metal roofs over the top as an improvised defence from shrapnel.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The static movement of trench warfare and a need for protection from <a href="/wiki/Sniper" title="Sniper">snipers</a> created a requirement for <a href="/wiki/Loophole_(firearm)" title="Loophole (firearm)">loopholes</a> both for discharging firearms and for observation.<sup id="cite_ref-One_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-One-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often a steel plate was used with a "keyhole", which had a rotating piece to cover the loophole when not in use.<sup id="cite_ref-One_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-One-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> German snipers used armour-piercing bullets that allowed them to penetrate loopholes. Another means to see over the parapet was the <a href="/wiki/Periscope" title="Periscope">trench periscope</a> – in its simplest form, just a stick with two angled pieces of mirror at the top and bottom. A number of armies made use of the <a href="/wiki/Periscope_rifle" title="Periscope rifle">periscope rifle</a>, which enabled soldiers to snipe at the enemy without exposing themselves over the parapet, although at the cost of reduced shooting accuracy. The device is most associated with Australian and New Zealand troops at Gallipoli, where the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Turks</a> held the high ground. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Periscope_rifle_Gallipoli_1915.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Periscope_rifle_Gallipoli_1915.jpg/180px-Periscope_rifle_Gallipoli_1915.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Periscope_rifle_Gallipoli_1915.jpg/270px-Periscope_rifle_Gallipoli_1915.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Periscope_rifle_Gallipoli_1915.jpg/360px-Periscope_rifle_Gallipoli_1915.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="779" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Australian_light_horse" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian light horse">Australian light horseman</a> using a <a href="/wiki/Periscope_rifle" title="Periscope rifle">periscope rifle</a>, Gallipoli 1915</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dugout (military)">Dugouts</a> of varying degrees of comfort were built in the rear of the support trench. British dugouts were usually 2.5 to 5 m (8 to 16 ft) deep. The Germans, who had based their knowledge on studies of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Keegan,_p._179_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keegan,_p._179-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> made something of a science out of designing and constructing defensive works. They used reinforced concrete to construct deep, shell-proof, ventilated dugouts, as well as strategic strongpoints. German dugouts were typically much deeper, usually a minimum of 4 m (12 ft) deep and sometimes dug three stories down, with concrete staircases to reach the upper levels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Layout">Layout</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Layout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Trench_warfare" title="Special:EditPage/Trench warfare">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Trenches were never straight but were dug in a <a href="/wiki/Zigzag" title="Zigzag">zigzagging</a> or stepped pattern, with all straight sections generally kept less than a dozen metres. Later, this evolved to have the combat trenches broken into distinct <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fire_bay" class="extiw" title="wikt:fire bay">fire bays</a> connected by traverses. While this isolated the view of friendly soldiers along their own trench, this ensured the entire trench could not be <a href="/wiki/Enfilade_and_defilade" title="Enfilade and defilade">enfiladed</a> if the enemy gained access at any one point; or if a bomb, grenade, or shell landed in the trench, the blast could not travel far. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_Loos-Hulluch_trench_system_July_1917.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aerial_view_Loos-Hulluch_trench_system_July_1917.jpg/220px-Aerial_view_Loos-Hulluch_trench_system_July_1917.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aerial_view_Loos-Hulluch_trench_system_July_1917.jpg/330px-Aerial_view_Loos-Hulluch_trench_system_July_1917.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aerial_view_Loos-Hulluch_trench_system_July_1917.jpg/440px-Aerial_view_Loos-Hulluch_trench_system_July_1917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="742" data-file-height="864" /></a><figcaption>Aerial view of opposing trench lines between Loos and Hulluch, July 1917. German trenches at the right and bottom, British at the top-left.</figcaption></figure> <p>Very early in the war, British defensive doctrine suggested a main trench system of three parallel lines, interconnected by communications trenches. The point at which a communications trench intersected the front trench was of critical importance, and it was usually heavily fortified. The front trench was lightly garrisoned and typically occupied in force only during "stand to" at dawn and dusk. Between 65 and 90 m (70 and 100 yd) behind the front trench was located the support (or "travel") trench, to which the garrison would retreat when the front trench was bombarded. </p><p>Between 90 and 270 metres (100 and 300 yd) further to the rear was located the third reserve trench, where the reserve troops could amass for a counter-attack if the front trenches were captured. This defensive layout was soon rendered obsolete as the power of artillery grew; however, in certain sectors of the front, the support trench was maintained as a decoy to attract the enemy bombardment away from the front and reserve lines. Fires were lit in the support line to make it appear inhabited and any damage done immediately repaired. </p><p>Temporary trenches were also built. When a major attack was planned, assembly trenches would be dug near the front trench. These were used to provide a sheltered place for the waves of attacking troops who would follow the first waves leaving from the front trench. "Saps" were temporary, unmanned, often dead-end utility trenches dug out into no-man's land. They fulfilled a variety of purposes, such as connecting the front trench to a listening post close to the enemy wire or providing an advance "jumping-off" line for a surprise attack. When one side's front line bulged towards the opposition, a <a href="/wiki/Salient_(military)" title="Salient (military)">salient</a> was formed. The concave trench line facing the salient was called a "re-entrant." Large salients were perilous for their occupants because they could be assailed from three sides. </p><p>Behind the front system of trenches there were usually at least two more partially prepared trench systems, kilometres to the rear, ready to be occupied in the event of a retreat. The Germans often prepared multiple redundant trench systems; in 1916 their <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme" title="Battle of the Somme">Somme</a> front featured two complete trench systems, one kilometre apart, with a third partially completed system a further kilometre behind. This duplication made a decisive breakthrough virtually impossible. In the event that a section of the first trench system was captured, a "switch" trench would be dug to connect the second trench system to the still-held section of the first. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wire">Wire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Wire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_people%27s_war_book;_history,_cyclopaedia_and_chronology_of_the_great_world_war_(1919)_(14781623592).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_people%27s_war_book%3B_history%2C_cyclopaedia_and_chronology_of_the_great_world_war_%281919%29_%2814781623592%29.jpg/220px-The_people%27s_war_book%3B_history%2C_cyclopaedia_and_chronology_of_the_great_world_war_%281919%29_%2814781623592%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_people%27s_war_book%3B_history%2C_cyclopaedia_and_chronology_of_the_great_world_war_%281919%29_%2814781623592%29.jpg/330px-The_people%27s_war_book%3B_history%2C_cyclopaedia_and_chronology_of_the_great_world_war_%281919%29_%2814781623592%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_people%27s_war_book%3B_history%2C_cyclopaedia_and_chronology_of_the_great_world_war_%281919%29_%2814781623592%29.jpg/440px-The_people%27s_war_book%3B_history%2C_cyclopaedia_and_chronology_of_the_great_world_war_%281919%29_%2814781623592%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2384" data-file-height="1694" /></a><figcaption>American soldiers struggle to pass multiple lines of barbed wire</figcaption></figure> <p>The use of lines of <a href="/wiki/Barbed_wire" title="Barbed wire">barbed wire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Razor_wire" title="Razor wire">razor wire</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Wire_obstacle" title="Wire obstacle">wire obstacles</a>, in belts 15 m (49 ft) deep or more, is effective in stalling infantry travelling across the battlefield. Although the barbs or razors might cause minor injuries, the purpose was to entangle the limbs of enemy soldiers, forcing them to stop and methodically pull or work the wire off, likely taking several seconds, or even longer. This is deadly when the wire is emplaced at points of maximum exposure to concentrated enemy firepower, in plain sight of enemy fire bays and machine guns. The combination of wire and firepower was the cause of most failed attacks in trench warfare and their very high casualties. <a href="/wiki/Liddell_Hart" class="mw-redirect" title="Liddell Hart">Liddell Hart</a> identified barbed wire and the machine gun as the elements that had to be broken to regain a mobile battlefield. </p><p>A basic wire line could be created by draping several strands of barbed wire between wooden posts driven into the ground. Loose lines of wire can be more effective in entangling than tight ones, and it was common to use the coils of barbed wire as delivered only partially stretched out, called <a href="/wiki/Concertina_wire" title="Concertina wire">concertina wire</a>. Placing and repairing wire in <a href="/wiki/No_man%27s_land" title="No man's land">no man's land</a> relied on stealth, usually done at night by special <a href="/wiki/Wiring_party" title="Wiring party">wiring parties</a>, who could also be tasked with secretly sabotaging enemy wires. The <a href="/wiki/Screw_picket" title="Screw picket">screw picket</a>, invented by the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germans</a> and later adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a> during the war, was quieter than driving stakes. Wire often stretched the entire length of a battlefield's trench line, in multiple lines, sometimes covering a depth 30 metres (100 ft) or more. </p><p>Methods to defeat it were rudimentary. Prolonged artillery bombardment could damage them, but not reliably. The first soldier meeting the wire could jump onto the top of it, hopefully depressing it enough for those that followed to get over him; this still took at least one soldier out of action for each line of wire. In World War I, British and Commonwealth forces relied on <a href="/wiki/Wire_cutter" class="mw-redirect" title="Wire cutter">wire cutters</a>, which proved unable to cope with the heavier gauge German wire.<sup id="cite_ref-Canada's_Army,_p.79_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canada's_Army,_p.79-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Bangalore_torpedo" title="Bangalore torpedo">Bangalore torpedo</a> was adopted by many armies, and continued in use past the end of World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The barbed wire used differed between nations; the German wire was heavier gauge, and British wire cutters, designed for the thinner native product, were unable to cut it.<sup id="cite_ref-Canada's_Army,_p.79_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canada's_Army,_p.79-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geography">Geography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The confined, static, and subterranean nature of trench warfare resulted in it developing its own peculiar form of <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>. In the forward zone, the conventional transport infrastructure of roads and rail were replaced by the network of trenches and <a href="/wiki/Trench_railways" class="mw-redirect" title="Trench railways">trench railways</a>. The critical advantage that could be gained by holding the high ground meant that minor hills and ridges gained enormous significance. Many slight hills and valleys were so subtle as to have been nameless until the front line encroached upon them. Some hills were named for their height in metres, such as <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hill_60_(Western_Front)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hill 60 (Western Front)">Hill 60</a>. A farmhouse, windmill, quarry, or copse of trees would become the focus of a determined struggle simply because it was the largest identifiable feature. However, it would not take the artillery long to obliterate it, so that thereafter it became just a name on a map. </p><p>The battlefield of <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> presented numerous problems for the practice of trench warfare, especially for the Allied forces, mainly British and Canadians, who were often compelled to occupy the low ground. Heavy shelling quickly destroyed the network of ditches and water channels which had previously drained this low-lying area of Belgium. In most places, the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> was only a metre or so below the surface, meaning that any trench dug in the ground would quickly flood. Consequently, many "trenches" in Flanders were actually above ground and constructed from massive <a href="/wiki/Breastwork_(fortification)" title="Breastwork (fortification)">breastworks</a> of sandbags filled with clay. Initially, both the parapet and parados of the trench were built in this way, but a later technique was to dispense with the parados for much of the trench line, thus exposing the rear of the trench to fire from the reserve line in case the front was breached. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1917_ortler_vorgipfelstellung_3850_m_highest_trench_in_history_of_first_world_war.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/1917_ortler_vorgipfelstellung_3850_m_highest_trench_in_history_of_first_world_war.jpg/220px-1917_ortler_vorgipfelstellung_3850_m_highest_trench_in_history_of_first_world_war.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/1917_ortler_vorgipfelstellung_3850_m_highest_trench_in_history_of_first_world_war.jpg/330px-1917_ortler_vorgipfelstellung_3850_m_highest_trench_in_history_of_first_world_war.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/1917_ortler_vorgipfelstellung_3850_m_highest_trench_in_history_of_first_world_war.jpg/440px-1917_ortler_vorgipfelstellung_3850_m_highest_trench_in_history_of_first_world_war.jpg 2x" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="602" /></a><figcaption>Soldiers in a trench on the Ortler, at an elevation of 3,850 metres (12,630 ft) (1917).</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>, trench warfare even stretched onto vertical slopes and deep into the mountains, to heights of 3,900 m (12,800 ft) above sea level. The <a href="/wiki/Ortler" title="Ortler">Ortler</a> had an artillery position on its summit near the front line. The trench-line management and trench profiles had to be adapted to the rough terrain, hard rock, and harsh weather conditions. Many trench systems were constructed within glaciers such as the <a href="/wiki/Adamello-Presanella" class="mw-redirect" title="Adamello-Presanella">Adamello-Presanella</a> group or the famous city below the ice on the <a href="/wiki/Marmolada" title="Marmolada">Marmolada</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Dolomites" title="Dolomites">Dolomites</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Observation">Observation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Observation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Observing the enemy in trench warfare was difficult, prompting the invention of technology such as the <a href="/wiki/Camouflage_tree" title="Camouflage tree">camouflage tree</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="No_man's_land"><span id="No_man.27s_land"></span>No man's land</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: No man's land"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/No_man%27s_land" title="No man's land">No man's land</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22No_Man%27s_Land.%22_From_the_Captain_Albert_T._Willis_Collection,_1917-1919,_PhC.21;_World_War_I_scenes_in_England_and_France_associated_with_the_322nd_Infantry_and_81st_Division,_1917-1919._(14794302735).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/%22No_Man%27s_Land.%22_From_the_Captain_Albert_T._Willis_Collection%2C_1917-1919%2C_PhC.21%3B_World_War_I_scenes_in_England_and_France_associated_with_the_322nd_Infantry_and_81st_Division%2C_1917-1919._%2814794302735%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/%22No_Man%27s_Land.%22_From_the_Captain_Albert_T._Willis_Collection%2C_1917-1919%2C_PhC.21%3B_World_War_I_scenes_in_England_and_France_associated_with_the_322nd_Infantry_and_81st_Division%2C_1917-1919._%2814794302735%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/%22No_Man%27s_Land.%22_From_the_Captain_Albert_T._Willis_Collection%2C_1917-1919%2C_PhC.21%3B_World_War_I_scenes_in_England_and_France_associated_with_the_322nd_Infantry_and_81st_Division%2C_1917-1919._%2814794302735%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="740" /></a><figcaption>A picture of "no man's land," taken 1917–1919.</figcaption></figure> <p>The space between the opposing trenches was referred to as "<a href="/wiki/No_man%27s_land" title="No man's land">no man's land</a>" and varied in width depending on the battlefield. On the Western Front it was typically between 90 and 275 metres (100 and 300 yd), though only 25 metres (30 yd) on <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vimy_Ridge" title="Battle of Vimy Ridge">Vimy Ridge</a>. </p><p>After the German withdrawal to the <a href="/wiki/Hindenburg_Line" title="Hindenburg Line">Hindenburg Line</a> in March 1917, no man's land stretched to over a kilometre in places. At the "<a href="/wiki/Quinn%27s_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinn's Post">Quinn's Post</a>" in the cramped confines of the Anzac battlefield at <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallipoli Campaign">Gallipoli</a>, the opposing trenches were only 15 metres (16 yd) apart and the soldiers in the trenches constantly threw <a href="/wiki/Hand_grenade" class="mw-redirect" title="Hand grenade">hand grenades</a> at each other. On the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</a> and in the Middle East, the areas to be covered were so vast, and the distances from the factories supplying shells, bullets, concrete and barbed wire so great, trench warfare in the West European style often did not occur. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Weaponry">Weaponry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Weaponry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infantry_weapons_and_machine_guns">Infantry weapons and machine guns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Infantry weapons and machine guns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_infantry_weapons_of_World_War_I" title="List of infantry weapons of World War I">List of infantry weapons of World War I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:N%C2%B023_MkII-Version_Fusil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/N%C2%B023_MkII-Version_Fusil.jpg/110px-N%C2%B023_MkII-Version_Fusil.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/N%C2%B023_MkII-Version_Fusil.jpg/165px-N%C2%B023_MkII-Version_Fusil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/N%C2%B023_MkII-Version_Fusil.jpg/220px-N%C2%B023_MkII-Version_Fusil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="871" data-file-height="1960" /></a><figcaption>British <a href="/wiki/Mills_bomb" title="Mills bomb">Mills bomb</a> N°23 Mk II, with rod for launch by rifle</figcaption></figure> <p>At the start of the First World War, the standard <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a> soldier's primary weapons were the <a href="/wiki/Rifle" title="Rifle">rifle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bayonet" title="Bayonet">bayonet</a>; other weapons got less attention. Especially for the British, what <a href="/wiki/Hand_grenade" class="mw-redirect" title="Hand grenade">hand grenades</a> were issued tended to be few in numbers and less effective. This emphasis began to shift as soon as trench warfare began; militaries rushed improved grenades into mass production, including <a href="/wiki/Rifle_grenade" title="Rifle grenade">rifle grenades</a>. </p><p>The hand grenade came to be one of the primary infantry weapons of trench warfare. Both sides were quick to raise specialist grenadier groups. The grenade enabled a soldier to engage the enemy without exposing himself to fire, and it did not require precise accuracy to kill or maim. Another benefit was that if a soldier could get close enough to the trenches, enemies hiding in trenches could be attacked. The Germans and Turks were well equipped with grenades from the start of the war, but the British, who had ceased using grenadiers in the 1870s and did not anticipate a siege war, entered the conflict with virtually none, so soldiers had to improvise bombs with whatever was available (see <a href="/wiki/Jam_Tin_Grenade" class="mw-redirect" title="Jam Tin Grenade">Jam Tin Grenade</a>). By late 1915, the British <a href="/wiki/Mills_bomb" title="Mills bomb">Mills bomb</a> had entered wide circulation, and by the end of the war 75 million had been used. </p><p>Since the troops were often not adequately equipped for trench warfare, improvised weapons were common in the first encounters, such as <a href="/wiki/Trench_raiding_club" title="Trench raiding club">short wooden clubs and metal maces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">spears</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hatchet" title="Hatchet">hatchets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hammer" title="Hammer">hammers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Entrenching_tool" title="Entrenching tool">entrenching tools</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Trench_knives" class="mw-redirect" title="Trench knives">trench knives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brass_knuckles" title="Brass knuckles">brass knuckles</a>. According to the semi-biographical war novel <i><a href="/wiki/All_Quiet_on_the_Western_Front" title="All Quiet on the Western Front">All Quiet on the Western Front</a></i>, many soldiers preferred to use a sharpened <a href="/wiki/Entrenching_tool" title="Entrenching tool">spade</a> as an improvised melee weapon instead of the bayonet, as the bayonet tended to get "stuck" in stabbed opponents, rendering it useless in heated battle. The shorter length also made them easier to use in the confined quarters of the trenches. These tools could then be used to dig in after they had taken a trench. Modern military digging tools are as a rule designed to also function as a melee weapon. As the war progressed, better equipment was issued, and improvised arms were discarded. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wwitrenchweapons.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Wwitrenchweapons.JPG/220px-Wwitrenchweapons.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Wwitrenchweapons.JPG/330px-Wwitrenchweapons.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Wwitrenchweapons.JPG/440px-Wwitrenchweapons.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Various trench weapons used by British and Canadian soldiers in WWI on display at the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_War_Museum" title="Canadian War Museum">Canadian War Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sauterelle_1915.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Sauterelle_1915.jpg/220px-Sauterelle_1915.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Sauterelle_1915.jpg/330px-Sauterelle_1915.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Sauterelle_1915.jpg/440px-Sauterelle_1915.jpg 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="621" /></a><figcaption>French soldiers with a <a href="/wiki/Sauterelle" title="Sauterelle">Sauterelle</a> bomb-throwing <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbow</a>, c. 1915</figcaption></figure> <p>A specialised group of fighters called <i>trench sweepers</i> (<i>Nettoyeurs de Tranchées</i> or <i>Zigouilleurs</i>) evolved to fight within the trenches. They cleared surviving enemy personnel from recently overrun trenches and made clandestine raids into enemy trenches to gather intelligence. Volunteers for this dangerous work were often exempted from participation in frontal assaults over open ground and from routine work like filling sandbags, draining trenches, and repairing barbed wire in no-man's land. When allowed to choose their own weapons, many selected grenades, knives and pistols. <a href="/wiki/FN_M1900" title="FN M1900">FN M1900</a> pistols were highly regarded for this work, but never available in adequate quantities. <a href="/wiki/Colt_Model_1903_Pocket_Hammerless" title="Colt Model 1903 Pocket Hammerless">Colt Model 1903 Pocket Hammerless</a>, <a href="/wiki/Savage_Model_1907" title="Savage Model 1907">Savage Model 1907</a>, <a href="/wiki/Star_Bonifacio_Echeverria" title="Star Bonifacio Echeverria">Star Bonifacio Echeverria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ruby_pistol" title="Ruby pistol">Ruby pistols</a> were widely used.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various mechanical devices were invented for throwing hand grenades into enemy trenches. The Germans used the <i>Wurfmaschine</i>, a spring-powered device for throwing a hand grenade about 200 m (220 yd).<sup id="cite_ref-Sheffield_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheffield-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French responded with the <i><a href="/wiki/Sauterelle" title="Sauterelle">Sauterelle</a></i> and the British with the <a href="/wiki/Leach_Trench_Catapult" class="mw-redirect" title="Leach Trench Catapult">Leach Trench Catapult</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Spring_Gun" title="West Spring Gun">West Spring Gun</a> which had varying degrees of success and accuracy. By 1916, <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapult</a> weapons were largely replaced by <a href="/wiki/Rifle_grenade" title="Rifle grenade">rifle grenades</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)" title="Mortar (weapon)">mortars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica1922_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica1922-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Germans employed <i>Flammenwerfer</i> (<a href="/wiki/Flamethrower" title="Flamethrower">flamethrowers</a>) during the war for the first time against the French on 25 June 1915, then against the British 30 July in Hooge. The technology was in its infancy, and use was not very common until the end of 1917 when portability and reliability were improved. It was used in more than 300 documented battles. By 1918, it became a weapon of choice for <i><a href="/wiki/Stosstruppen" class="mw-redirect" title="Stosstruppen">Stoßtruppen</a></i> (stormtroopers) with a team of six <i>Pioniere</i> (<a href="/wiki/Combat_engineer" title="Combat engineer">combat engineers</a>) per squad. </p><p>Used by American soldiers in the Western front, the <a href="/wiki/Pump_action_shotgun" class="mw-redirect" title="Pump action shotgun">pump action</a> <a href="/wiki/Shotgun" title="Shotgun">shotguns</a> was a formidable weapon in short range combat, enough so that Germany lodged a formal protest against their use on 14 September 1918, stating "every prisoner found to have in his possession such guns or ammunition belonging thereto forfeits his life", though this threat was apparently never carried out. The U.S. military began to issue models specially modified for combat, called "trench guns", with shorter barrels, higher capacity magazines, no <a href="/wiki/Choke_(firearms)" title="Choke (firearms)">choke</a>, and often heat shields around the barrel, as well as lugs for the <a href="/wiki/M1917_bayonet" title="M1917 bayonet">M1917 bayonet</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_and_New_Zealand_Army_Corps" title="Australian and New Zealand Army Corps">Anzac</a> and some British soldiers were also known to use <a href="/wiki/Sawn-off_shotgun" class="mw-redirect" title="Sawn-off shotgun">sawn-off shotguns</a> in trench raids, because of their portability, effectiveness at close range, and ease of use in the confines of a trench. This practice was not officially sanctioned, and the shotguns used were invariably modified sporting guns. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vickers_machine_gun_in_the_Battle_of_Passchendaele_-_September_1917.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Vickers_machine_gun_in_the_Battle_of_Passchendaele_-_September_1917.jpg/220px-Vickers_machine_gun_in_the_Battle_of_Passchendaele_-_September_1917.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Vickers_machine_gun_in_the_Battle_of_Passchendaele_-_September_1917.jpg/330px-Vickers_machine_gun_in_the_Battle_of_Passchendaele_-_September_1917.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Vickers_machine_gun_in_the_Battle_of_Passchendaele_-_September_1917.jpg/440px-Vickers_machine_gun_in_the_Battle_of_Passchendaele_-_September_1917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3433" data-file-height="2480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vickers_machine_gun" title="Vickers machine gun">Vickers machine gun</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Germans embraced the machine gun from the outset—in 1904, sixteen units were equipped with the 'Maschinengewehr'—and the machine gun crews were the elite infantry units; these units were attached to Jaeger (light infantry) battalions. By 1914, British infantry units were armed with two <a href="/wiki/Vickers_machine_gun" title="Vickers machine gun">Vickers machine guns</a> per battalion; the Germans had six per battalion, and the Russians eight.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It would not be until 1917 that every infantry unit of the American forces carried at least one machine gun.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 1915, the <a href="/wiki/Maschinengewehr_08" class="mw-redirect" title="Maschinengewehr 08">Maschinengewehr 08</a> was the standard issue German machine gun; its number "08/15" entered the German language as idiomatic for "dead plain". At <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli" title="Gallipoli">Gallipoli</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> the Turks provided the infantry, but it was usually Germans who manned the machine guns. </p><p>The British High Command were less enthusiastic about machine guns, supposedly considering the weapon too "unsporting" and encouraging defensive fighting; and they lagged behind the Germans in adopting it. Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig is quoted as saying in 1915, "The machine gun is a much overrated weapon; two per battalion is more than sufficient".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The defensive firepower of the machine gun was exemplified during the first day of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme" title="Battle of the Somme">Battle of the Somme</a> when 60,000 British soldiers were rendered casualties, "the great majority lost under withering machine gun fire".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1915 the Machine Gun Corps was formed to train and provide sufficient heavy machine gun teams. </p><p>It was the Canadians that made the best practice, pioneering <a href="/wiki/Area_denial" class="mw-redirect" title="Area denial">area denial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indirect_fire" title="Indirect fire">indirect fire</a> (soon adopted by all Allied armies) under the guidance of former French Army Reserve officer Major General <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Brutinel" title="Raymond Brutinel">Raymond Brutinel</a>. Minutes before the attack on Vimy Ridge the Canadians thickened the artillery <a href="/wiki/Barrage_(artillery)" title="Barrage (artillery)">barrage</a> by aiming machine guns indirectly to deliver <a href="/wiki/Plunging_fire" title="Plunging fire">plunging fire</a> on the Germans. They also significantly increased the number of machine guns per battalion. To match demand, production of the Vickers machine gun was contracted to firms in the United States. By 1917, every company in the British forces were also equipped with four <a href="/wiki/Lewis_gun" title="Lewis gun">Lewis light machine guns</a>, which significantly enhanced their <a href="/wiki/Firepower" title="Firepower">firepower</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Heavy_machine_gun" title="Heavy machine gun">heavy machine gun</a> was a specialist weapon, and in a static trench system was employed in a scientific manner, with carefully calculated fields of fire, so that at a moment's notice an accurate burst could be fired at the enemy's parapet or a break in the wire. Equally it could be used as light artillery in bombarding distant trenches. Heavy machine guns required teams of up to eight men to move them, maintain them, and keep them supplied with ammunition. This made them impractical for offensive manoeuvres, contributing to the stalemate on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:France1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/France1918.jpg/170px-France1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/France1918.jpg/255px-France1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/France1918.jpg/340px-France1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="472" data-file-height="662" /></a><figcaption>German <a href="/wiki/Stormtroopers_(Imperial_Germany)" title="Stormtroopers (Imperial Germany)">stormtrooper</a> with <a href="/wiki/MP_18" title="MP 18">MP 18</a>, 1918</figcaption></figure> <p>One <a href="/wiki/Machine_gun_nest" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine gun nest">machine gun nest</a> was theoretically able to mow down hundreds of enemies charging in the open through <a href="/wiki/No_man%27s_land" title="No man's land">no man's land</a>. However, while WWI machine guns were able to shoot hundreds of rounds per minute in theory, they were still prone to overheating and jamming, which often necessitated firing in short bursts.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, their potential was increased significantly when emplaced behind multiple lines of barbed wire to slow any advancing enemy. </p><p>In 1917 and 1918, new types of weapons were fielded. They changed the face of warfare tactics and were later employed during World War II. </p><p>The French introduced the <a href="/wiki/Chauchat" title="Chauchat">CSRG 1915 Chauchat</a> during Spring 1916 around the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Walking_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Walking fire">walking fire</a>", employed in 1918 when 250,000 weapons were fielded. More than 80,000 of the best shooters received the semi-automatic <a href="/wiki/Fusil_Automatique_Modele_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Fusil Automatique Modele 1917">RSC 1917</a> rifle, allowing them to rapid fire at waves of attacking soldiers. Firing ports were installed in the newly arrived <a href="/wiki/Renault_FT" title="Renault FT">Renault FT</a> tanks. </p><p>The French Army fielded a ground version of the <a href="/wiki/Hotchkiss_gun" title="Hotchkiss gun">Hotchkiss Canon de 37 mm</a> used by the French Navy. It was primarily used to destroy German machine gun nests and concrete reinforced pillboxes with high explosive and armour-piercing rounds. </p><p>A new type of machine gun was introduced in 1916. Initially an aircraft weapon, the <a href="/wiki/Bergmann_MG15_nA_Gun" class="mw-redirect" title="Bergmann MG15 nA Gun">Bergmann LMG 15</a> was modified for ground use, with the later dedicated ground version being the LMG 15 n. A. It was used as an infantry weapon on all European and Middle Eastern fronts until the end of World War I. It later inspired the <a href="/wiki/MG_30" title="MG 30">MG 30</a> and the <a href="/wiki/MG_34" title="MG 34">MG 34</a> as well as the concept of the <a href="/wiki/General-purpose_machine_gun" title="General-purpose machine gun">general-purpose machine gun</a>. </p><p>What became known as the <a href="/wiki/Submachine_gun" title="Submachine gun">submachine gun</a> had its genesis in World War I, developed around the concepts of infiltration and fire and movement, specifically to clear trenches of enemy soldiers when engagements were unlikely to occur beyond a range of a few feet. The <a href="/wiki/MP_18" title="MP 18">MP 18</a> was the first practical submachine gun used in combat. It was fielded in 1918 by the <a href="/wiki/German_Army_(German_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="German Army (German Empire)">German Army</a> as the primary weapon of the stormtroopers – assault groups that specialised in trench combat. Around the same time, the Italians had developed the <a href="/wiki/Beretta_M1918" title="Beretta M1918">Beretta M1918</a> submachine gun, based on a design from earlier in the war. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artillery">Artillery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Artillery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:15in_howitzer_Menin_Rd_5_October_1917.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/15in_howitzer_Menin_Rd_5_October_1917.jpg/220px-15in_howitzer_Menin_Rd_5_October_1917.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/15in_howitzer_Menin_Rd_5_October_1917.jpg/330px-15in_howitzer_Menin_Rd_5_October_1917.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/15in_howitzer_Menin_Rd_5_October_1917.jpg/440px-15in_howitzer_Menin_Rd_5_October_1917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2427" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>Loading a 15 in (380 mm) howitzer</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a> dominated the battlefields of trench warfare. An infantry attack was rarely successful if it advanced beyond the range of its supporting artillery. In addition to bombarding the enemy infantry in the trenches, the artillery could be used to precede infantry advances with a creeping <a href="/wiki/Barrage_(artillery)" title="Barrage (artillery)">barrage</a>, or engage in <a href="/wiki/Counter-battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-battery">counter-battery</a> duels to try to destroy the enemy's guns. Artillery mainly fired <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(weaponry)" title="Fragmentation (weaponry)">fragmentation</a>, <a href="/wiki/High-explosive" class="mw-redirect" title="High-explosive">high-explosive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shrapnel_shell" title="Shrapnel shell">shrapnel</a> or, later in the war, gas shells. The British experimented with firing <a href="/wiki/Thermite" title="Thermite">thermite</a> <a href="/wiki/Incendiary_ammunition" title="Incendiary ammunition">incendiary</a> shells, to set trees and ruins alight. However, all armies experienced shell shortages during the first year or two of World War I, due to underestimating their usage in intensive combat. This knowledge had been gained by the combatant nations in the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a>, when daily artillery fire consumed ten times more than daily factory output, but had not been applied.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1999229–30_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1999229–30-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Artillery pieces were of two types: <a href="/wiki/Infantry_support_gun" title="Infantry support gun">infantry support guns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Howitzer" title="Howitzer">howitzers</a>. Guns fired high-velocity shells over a flat trajectory and were often used to deliver fragmentation and to cut barbed wire. Howitzers lofted the shell over a high trajectory so it plunged into the ground. The largest calibers were usually howitzers. The German 420 mm (17 in) howitzer weighed 20 tons and could fire a one-ton shell over 10 km (6.2 mi). A critical feature of period artillery pieces was the <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_recoil_mechanism" title="Hydraulic recoil mechanism">hydraulic recoil mechanism</a>, which meant the gun did not need to be re-aimed after each shot, permitting a tremendous increase in rate of fire. </p><p>Initially each gun would need to register its aim on a known target, in view of an observer, in order to fire with precision during a battle. The process of gun registration would often alert the enemy an attack was being planned. Towards the end of 1917, artillery techniques were developed enabling fire to be delivered accurately without registration on the battlefield—the gun registration was done behind the lines then the pre-registered guns were brought up to the front for a surprise attack. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French86mmCompressedAirTrenchMortarNYT17Feb1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/French86mmCompressedAirTrenchMortarNYT17Feb1918.jpg/220px-French86mmCompressedAirTrenchMortarNYT17Feb1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/French86mmCompressedAirTrenchMortarNYT17Feb1918.jpg/330px-French86mmCompressedAirTrenchMortarNYT17Feb1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/French86mmCompressedAirTrenchMortarNYT17Feb1918.jpg/440px-French86mmCompressedAirTrenchMortarNYT17Feb1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="594" /></a><figcaption>French soldiers operating a compressed-air trench mortar of 86-millimetre calibre</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)" title="Mortar (weapon)">Mortars</a>, which lobbed a shell in a high arc over a relatively short distance, were widely used in trench fighting for harassing the forward trenches, for cutting wire in preparation for a raid or attack, and for destroying dugouts, saps and other entrenchments. In 1914, the British fired a total of 545 mortar shells; in 1916, they fired over 6,500,000. Similarly, howitzers, which fire on a more direct arc than mortars, raised in number from over 1,000 shells in 1914, to over 4,500,000 in 1916. The smaller numerical difference in mortar rounds, as opposed to howitzer rounds, is presumed by many to be related to the expanded costs of manufacturing the larger and more resource intensive howitzer rounds. </p><p>The main British mortar was the <a href="/wiki/Stokes_Mortar" class="mw-redirect" title="Stokes Mortar">Stokes</a>, a precursor of the modern mortar. It was a light mortar, simple in operation, and capable of a rapid rate of fire by virtue of the propellant cartridge being attached to the base shell. To fire the Stokes mortar, the round was simply dropped into the tube, where the percussion cartridge was detonated when it struck the firing pin at the bottom of the barrel, thus being launched. The Germans used a range of mortars. The smallest were grenade-throwers ('<a href="/wiki/Granatenwerfer_16" title="Granatenwerfer 16">Granatenwerfer</a>') which fired the stick grenades which were commonly used. Their medium trench-mortars were called mine-throwers ('<a href="/wiki/Minenwerfer" title="Minenwerfer">Minenwerfer</a>'). The <a href="/wiki/Heavy_mortar" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy mortar">heavy mortar</a> was called the '<a href="/wiki/24_cm_schwerer_LadungsWerfer_Ehrhardt" title="24 cm schwerer LadungsWerfer Ehrhardt">Ladungswerfer</a>', which threw "aerial torpedoes", containing a 200 lb (91 kg) charge to a range of 1,000 yd (910 m). The flight of the missile was so slow and leisurely that men on the receiving end could make some attempt to seek shelter. </p><p>Mortars had certain advantages over artillery such as being much more portable and the ability to fire without leaving the relative safety of trenches. Moreover, mortars were able to fire directly into the trenches, which was hard to do with artillery.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Strategy_and_tactics">Strategy and tactics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Strategy and tactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vimy_Memorial_-_German_trenches,_mortar_emplacement.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Vimy_Memorial_-_German_trenches%2C_mortar_emplacement.jpg/220px-Vimy_Memorial_-_German_trenches%2C_mortar_emplacement.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Vimy_Memorial_-_German_trenches%2C_mortar_emplacement.jpg/330px-Vimy_Memorial_-_German_trenches%2C_mortar_emplacement.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Vimy_Memorial_-_German_trenches%2C_mortar_emplacement.jpg/440px-Vimy_Memorial_-_German_trenches%2C_mortar_emplacement.jpg 2x" data-file-width="604" data-file-height="403" /></a><figcaption>German trenches in <a href="/wiki/Vimy" title="Vimy">Vimy</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The fundamental strategy of trench warfare in World War I was to defend one's own position strongly while trying to achieve a breakthrough into the enemy's rear. The effect was to end up in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_attrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of attrition">attrition</a>, the process of progressively grinding down the opposition's resources until, ultimately, they are no longer able to wage war. This did not prevent the ambitious commander from pursuing the strategy of annihilation—the ideal of an offensive battle which produces victory in one decisive engagement. </p><p>The Commander in Chief of the British forces during most of World War I, General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Haig,_1st_Earl_Haig" title="Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig">Douglas Haig</a>, was constantly seeking a "breakthrough" which could then be exploited with cavalry divisions. His major trench offensives—the Somme in 1916 and Flanders in 1917—were conceived as breakthrough battles but both degenerated into costly attrition. The Germans actively pursued a strategy of attrition in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">Battle of Verdun</a>, the sole purpose of which was to "bleed the French Army white". At the same time the Allies needed to mount offensives in order to draw attention away from other hard-pressed areas of the line.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoley2007191–192_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoley2007191–192-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Periscope_tranch%C3%A9e_fran%C3%A7aise.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Periscope_tranch%C3%A9e_fran%C3%A7aise.jpg/170px-Periscope_tranch%C3%A9e_fran%C3%A7aise.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Periscope_tranch%C3%A9e_fran%C3%A7aise.jpg/255px-Periscope_tranch%C3%A9e_fran%C3%A7aise.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Periscope_tranch%C3%A9e_fran%C3%A7aise.jpg/340px-Periscope_tranch%C3%A9e_fran%C3%A7aise.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1853" data-file-height="2622" /></a><figcaption>French troopers using a <a href="/wiki/Periscope" title="Periscope">periscope</a>, 1915</figcaption></figure> <p>The popular image of a trench assault is of a wave of soldiers, bayonets fixed, going "over the top" and marching in a line across no man's land into a hail of enemy fire. This was the standard method early in the war; it was rarely successful. More common was an attack at night from an advanced post in no man's land, having cut the barbed wire beforehand. In 1915, the Germans innovated with <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_tactics" title="Infiltration tactics">infiltration tactics</a> where small groups of highly trained and well-equipped troops would attack vulnerable points and bypass strong points, driving deep into the rear areas. The distance they could advance was still limited by their ability to supply and communicate. </p><p>The role of artillery in an infantry attack was twofold. The first aim of a bombardment was to prepare the ground for an infantry assault, killing or demoralising the enemy garrison and destroying their defences. The duration of these initial bombardments varied, from seconds to days. Artillery bombardments prior to infantry assaults were often ineffective at destroying enemy defences, only serving to provide advance notice of an attack. The British bombardment that began the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme" title="Battle of the Somme">Battle of the Somme</a> lasted eight days but did little damage to either the German barbed wire or their deep dug-outs, where defenders were able to wait out the bombardment in relative safety.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once the guns stopped, the defenders had time to emerge and were usually ready for the attacking infantry. The second aim was to protect the attacking infantry by providing an impenetrable "<a href="/wiki/Barrage_(artillery)" title="Barrage (artillery)">barrage</a>" or curtain of shells to prevent an enemy counter-attack. The first attempt at sophistication was the "lifting barrage" where the first objective of an attack was intensely bombarded for a period before the entire barrage "lifted" to fall on a second objective farther back. However, this usually expected too much of the infantry, and the usual outcome was that the barrage would outpace the attackers, leaving them without protection. </p><p>This resulted in the use of the "creeping barrage" which would lift more frequently but in smaller steps, sweeping the ground ahead and moving so slowly that the attackers could usually follow closely behind it. This became the standard method of attack from late 1916 onward. The main benefit of the barrage was suppression of the enemy rather than to cause casualties or material damage. </p><p>Capturing the objective was half the battle, but the battle was won only if the objective was held. The attacking force would have to advance with not only the weapons required to capture a trench but also the tools—sandbags, picks and shovels, barbed wire—to fortify and defend from counter-attack. A successful advance would take the attackers beyond the range of their own field artillery, making them vulnerable, and it took time to move guns up over broken ground. The Germans placed great emphasis on immediately counter-attacking to regain lost ground. This strategy cost them dearly in 1917 when the British started to limit their advances so as to be able to meet the anticipated counter-attack from a position of strength. Part of the British artillery was positioned close behind the original start line and took no part in the initial bombardment, so as to be ready to support later phases of the operation while other guns were moved up. </p><p>The Germans were the first to apply the concept of "defence in depth", where the front-line zone was hundreds of metres deep and contained a series of <a href="/wiki/Redoubt" title="Redoubt">redoubts</a> rather than a continuous trench. Each redoubt could provide supporting fire to its neighbours, and while the attackers had freedom of movement between the redoubts, they would be subjected to withering <a href="/wiki/Enfilade_and_defilade" title="Enfilade and defilade">enfilade</a> fire. They were also more willing than their opponents to make a strategic withdrawal to a superior prepared defensive position. The British eventually adopted a similar approach, but it was incompletely implemented when the Germans launched the 1918 Spring Offensive and proved disastrously ineffective. France, by contrast, relied on artillery and reserves, not entrenchment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life_in_the_trenches">Life in the trenches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Life in the trenches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Distribution_de_pinard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Distribution_de_pinard.jpg/170px-Distribution_de_pinard.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Distribution_de_pinard.jpg/255px-Distribution_de_pinard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Distribution_de_pinard.jpg/340px-Distribution_de_pinard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="759" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of <i>pinard</i> (ration wine) in a French trench in winter, considered important for morale</figcaption></figure> <p>An individual unit's time in a front-line trench was usually brief; from as little as one day to as much as two weeks at a time before being relieved. The 31st Australian Battalion once spent 53 days in the line at <a href="/wiki/Villers-Bretonneux" title="Villers-Bretonneux">Villers-Bretonneux</a>, but such a duration was a rare exception. The <a href="/wiki/10th_Battalion,_CEF" class="mw-redirect" title="10th Battalion, CEF">10th Battalion, CEF</a>, averaged frontline tours of six days in 1915 and 1916.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The units who manned the frontline trenches the longest were the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Expeditionary_Corps" title="Portuguese Expeditionary Corps">Portuguese Expeditionary Corps</a> from <a href="/wiki/First_Portuguese_Republic" title="First Portuguese Republic">Portugal</a> stationed in Northern France; unlike the other allies the Portuguese couldn't rotate units from the front lines due to lack of reinforcements sent from Portugal, nor could they replace the depleted units that lost manpower due to the war of attrition. With this rate of casualties and no reinforcements forthcoming, most of the men were denied leave and had to serve long periods in the trenches with some units spending up to six consecutive months in the front line with little to no leave during that time.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On an individual level, a typical British soldier's year could be divided as follows: </p> <ul><li>15% front line</li> <li>10% support line</li> <li>30% reserve line</li> <li>20% rest</li> <li>25% other (hospital, travelling, leave, training courses, etc.)</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Studying_French.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Studying_French.jpg/180px-Studying_French.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Studying_French.jpg/270px-Studying_French.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Studying_French.jpg/360px-Studying_French.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1538" data-file-height="1607" /></a><figcaption>"Studying French in the Trenches", <i>The Literary Digest</i>, October 20, 1917</figcaption></figure> <p>Even when in the front line, the typical <a href="/wiki/Battalion" title="Battalion">battalion</a> would be called upon to engage in fighting only a handful of times a year; making an attack, defending against an attack or participating in a raid. The frequency of combat would increase for the units of the "elite" fighting divisions; on the Allied side, these were the British regular divisions, the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Corps" title="Canadian Corps">Canadian Corps</a>, the French XX Corps, and the <a href="/wiki/Australian_and_New_Zealand_Army_Corps" title="Australian and New Zealand Army Corps">Anzacs</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_army.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/French_army.jpg/220px-French_army.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/French_army.jpg/330px-French_army.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/French_army.jpg/440px-French_army.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1217" data-file-height="692" /></a><figcaption>Hot shower-bath establishment installed by a French engineer, November 1914</figcaption></figure> <p>Some sectors of the front saw little activity throughout the war, making life in the trenches comparatively easy. When the <a href="/wiki/I_Anzac_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="I Anzac Corps">I Anzac Corps</a> first arrived in France in April 1916 after the evacuation of Gallipoli, they were sent to a relatively peaceful sector south of <a href="/wiki/Armenti%C3%A8res" title="Armentières">Armentières</a> to "acclimatise". In contrast, some other sectors were in a perpetual state of violent activity. On the Western Front, <a href="/wiki/Ypres" title="Ypres">Ypres</a> was invariably hellish, especially for the British in the exposed, overlooked salient. However, even quiet sectors amassed daily casualties through <a href="/wiki/Sniper" title="Sniper">sniper</a> fire, artillery, disease, and <a href="/wiki/Poison_gas_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Poison gas in World War I">poison gas</a>. In the first six months of 1916, before the launch of the <a href="/wiki/Somme_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Somme Offensive">Somme Offensive</a>, the British did not engage in any significant battles on their sector of the Western Front and yet suffered 107,776 casualties. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:H84_356_39_Front_Line_Anzac_SLV.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/H84_356_39_Front_Line_Anzac_SLV.jpg/220px-H84_356_39_Front_Line_Anzac_SLV.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/H84_356_39_Front_Line_Anzac_SLV.jpg/330px-H84_356_39_Front_Line_Anzac_SLV.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/H84_356_39_Front_Line_Anzac_SLV.jpg/440px-H84_356_39_Front_Line_Anzac_SLV.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1161" /></a><figcaption> Frontline Anzac</figcaption></figure> <p>A sector of the front would be allocated to an army <a href="/wiki/Corps" title="Corps">corps</a>, usually comprising three <a href="/wiki/Division_(military)" title="Division (military)">divisions</a>. Two divisions would occupy adjacent sections of the front, and the third would be in rest to the rear. This breakdown of duty would continue down through the army structure, so that within each front-line division, typically comprising three <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a> <a href="/wiki/Brigade" title="Brigade">brigades</a> (regiments for the Germans), two brigades would occupy the front and the third would be in reserve. Within each front-line brigade, typically comprising four <a href="/wiki/Battalion" title="Battalion">battalions</a>, two battalions would occupy the front with two in reserve, and so on for companies and platoons. The lower down the structure this division of duty proceeded, the more frequently the units would rotate from front-line duty to support or reserve. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barbier_fran%C3%A7ais_tranch%C3%A9es.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Barbier_fran%C3%A7ais_tranch%C3%A9es.jpg/220px-Barbier_fran%C3%A7ais_tranch%C3%A9es.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Barbier_fran%C3%A7ais_tranch%C3%A9es.jpg/330px-Barbier_fran%C3%A7ais_tranch%C3%A9es.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Barbier_fran%C3%A7ais_tranch%C3%A9es.jpg/440px-Barbier_fran%C3%A7ais_tranch%C3%A9es.jpg 2x" data-file-width="988" data-file-height="711" /></a><figcaption>A barber in a French trench</figcaption></figure> <p>During the day, snipers and <a href="/wiki/Artillery_observer" title="Artillery observer">artillery observers</a> in <a href="/wiki/Observation_balloon" title="Observation balloon">balloons</a> made movement perilous, so the trenches were mostly quiet. It was during these daytime hours that the soldiers would amuse themselves with <a href="/wiki/Trench_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Trench Magazine">trench magazines</a>. Because of the peril associated with daytime activities, trenches were busiest at night when the cover of darkness allowed movement of troops and supplies, the maintenance and expansion of the barbed wire and trench system, and reconnaissance of the enemy's defences. Sentries in listening posts out in no man's land would try to detect enemy patrols and working parties, or indications that an attack was being prepared. </p><p>Pioneered by the <a href="/wiki/Princess_Patricia%27s_Canadian_Light_Infantry" title="Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry">Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry</a> in February 1915,<sup id="cite_ref-CanadasArmyp82_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CanadasArmyp82-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Trench_raiding" title="Trench raiding">trench raids</a> were carried out in order to capture prisoners and "booty"—letters and other documents to provide intelligence about the unit occupying the opposing trenches. As the war progressed, raiding became part of the general British policy, the intention being to maintain the fighting spirit of the troops and to deny no man's land to the Germans. As well, they were intended to compel the enemy to reinforce, which exposed their troops to artillery fire.<sup id="cite_ref-CanadasArmyp82_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CanadasArmyp82-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such dominance was achieved at a high cost when the enemy replied with their own artillery,<sup id="cite_ref-CanadasArmyp82_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CanadasArmyp82-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a post-war British analysis concluded the benefits were probably not worth the cost. Early in the war, surprise raids would be mounted, particularly by the Canadians, but increased vigilance made achieving surprise difficult as the war progressed. By 1916, raids were carefully planned exercises in combined arms and involved close co-operation between infantry and artillery. </p><p>A raid would begin with an intense artillery bombardment designed to drive off or kill the front-trench garrison and cut the barbed wire. Then the bombardment would shift to form a "box barrage", or cordon, around a section of the front line to prevent a counter-attack intercepting the raid. However, the bombardment also had the effect of notifying the enemy of the location of the planned attack, thus allowing reinforcements to be called in from wider sectors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dangers">Dangers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Dangers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Captured_World_War_I_German_machine_gun_position,_Grevillers,_France_(21610477616).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Captured_World_War_I_German_machine_gun_position%2C_Grevillers%2C_France_%2821610477616%29.jpg/220px-Captured_World_War_I_German_machine_gun_position%2C_Grevillers%2C_France_%2821610477616%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Captured_World_War_I_German_machine_gun_position%2C_Grevillers%2C_France_%2821610477616%29.jpg/330px-Captured_World_War_I_German_machine_gun_position%2C_Grevillers%2C_France_%2821610477616%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Captured_World_War_I_German_machine_gun_position%2C_Grevillers%2C_France_%2821610477616%29.jpg/440px-Captured_World_War_I_German_machine_gun_position%2C_Grevillers%2C_France_%2821610477616%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5094" data-file-height="3755" /></a><figcaption>A German machine gun position just after its capture by New Zealand soldiers, with a dead German among the debris, <a href="/wiki/Grevillers" class="mw-redirect" title="Grevillers">Grevillers</a>, 24 August 1918, Hundred Days Offensive</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_team_of_stretcher_bearers_struggle_through_deep_mud_to_carry_a_wounded_man_to_safety_near_Boesinghe_on_1_August_1917_during_the_Third_Battle_of_Ypres._Q5935.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/A_team_of_stretcher_bearers_struggle_through_deep_mud_to_carry_a_wounded_man_to_safety_near_Boesinghe_on_1_August_1917_during_the_Third_Battle_of_Ypres._Q5935.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/A_team_of_stretcher_bearers_struggle_through_deep_mud_to_carry_a_wounded_man_to_safety_near_Boesinghe_on_1_August_1917_during_the_Third_Battle_of_Ypres._Q5935.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/A_team_of_stretcher_bearers_struggle_through_deep_mud_to_carry_a_wounded_man_to_safety_near_Boesinghe_on_1_August_1917_during_the_Third_Battle_of_Ypres._Q5935.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5236" data-file-height="4014" /></a><figcaption>Stretcher bearers, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Passchendaele" title="Battle of Passchendaele">Passchendaele</a>, August 1917</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NLS_Haig_-_Smashed_up_German_trench_on_Messines_Ridge_with_dead.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/NLS_Haig_-_Smashed_up_German_trench_on_Messines_Ridge_with_dead.jpg/220px-NLS_Haig_-_Smashed_up_German_trench_on_Messines_Ridge_with_dead.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/NLS_Haig_-_Smashed_up_German_trench_on_Messines_Ridge_with_dead.jpg/330px-NLS_Haig_-_Smashed_up_German_trench_on_Messines_Ridge_with_dead.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/NLS_Haig_-_Smashed_up_German_trench_on_Messines_Ridge_with_dead.jpg/440px-NLS_Haig_-_Smashed_up_German_trench_on_Messines_Ridge_with_dead.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2318" data-file-height="1501" /></a><figcaption>Dead German soldiers lie in the rubble of a trench destroyed by <a href="#Mining">mine explosion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Messines_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Messines Ridge">Messines Ridge</a>, 1917</figcaption></figure> <p>Approximately 10–15 percent of all soldiers who fought in the First World War died as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the main cause of death in the trenches came from shelling and gunfire, diseases and <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infections</a> were always present, and became prevalent for all sides as the war progressed. Medical procedures, while considerably more effective than at any previous time in history, were still not very helpful; <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a> had not yet been discovered or invented. As a result, an infection caught in a trench often went untreated and could fester until the soldier died. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Injuries">Injuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Injuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main killer in the trenches was <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> fire; around 75 percent of known casualties.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even if a soldier was not hit directly by the artillery, shell fragments and debris had a high chance of wounding those in close proximity to the blast. Artillery use increased tremendously during the war; for example, the percentage of the French army that was artillerymen grew from 20 per cent in 1914 to 38 percent by 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second largest contributor to death was gunfire (bullets from rifles and machine-guns), which was responsible for 34 per cent of French military casualties.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once the war entered the static phase of trench warfare, the number of lethal head wounds that troops were receiving from <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(weaponry)" title="Fragmentation (weaponry)">fragmentation</a> increased dramatically. The French were the first to see a need for greater protection and began to introduce steel helmets in the summer of 1915. The <a href="/wiki/Adrian_helmet" title="Adrian helmet">Adrian helmet</a> replaced the traditional French <a href="/wiki/Kepi" title="Kepi">kepi</a> and was later adopted by the Belgian, Italian and many other armies. At about the same time the British were developing their own helmets. The French design was rejected as not strong enough and too difficult to mass-produce. The design that was eventually approved by the British was the <a href="/wiki/Brodie_helmet" title="Brodie helmet">Brodie helmet</a>. This had a wide brim to protect the wearer from falling objects, but offered less protection to the wearer's neck. When the Americans entered the war, this was the helmet they chose, though some units used the French Adrian helmet. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disease">Disease</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The predominant disease in the trenches of the Western Front was <a href="/wiki/Trench_fever" title="Trench fever">trench fever</a>. Trench fever was a common disease spread through the faeces of <a href="/wiki/Body_louse" title="Body louse">body lice</a>, which were rampant in trenches. Trench fever caused headaches, shin pain, <a href="/wiki/Splenomegaly" title="Splenomegaly">splenomegaly</a>, rashes and relapsing fevers – resulting in <a href="/wiki/Lethargy" title="Lethargy">lethargy</a> for months.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First reported on the Western Front in 1915 by a British medical officer, additional cases of trench fever became increasingly common mostly in the frontline troops.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1921, microbiologist Sir David Bruce reported that over one million Allied soldiers were infected by trench fever throughout the war.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even after the Great War had ended, disabled veterans in Britain attributed their decreasing quality of life to trench fever they had sustained during wartime. </p><p>Early in the war, <a href="/wiki/Gas_gangrene" title="Gas gangrene">gas gangrene</a> commonly developed in major wounds, in part because the <i><a href="/wiki/Clostridium" title="Clostridium">Clostridium</a></i> bacteria responsible are ubiquitous in manure-fertilized soil<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (common in western European agriculture, such as France and Belgium), and dirt would often get into a wound (or be rammed in by shrapnel, explosion, or bullet). In 1914, 12% of wounded British soldiers developed gas gangrene, and at least 100,000 German soldiers died directly from the infection.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After rapid advances in medical procedures and practices, the incidence of gas gangrene fell to 1% by 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Entrenched soldiers also carried many intestinal parasites, such as <a href="/wiki/Ascariasis" title="Ascariasis">ascariasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trichuriasis" title="Trichuriasis">trichuriasis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tapeworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapeworm">tapeworm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These parasites were common amongst soldiers, and spread amongst them, due to the unhygienic environment created by the common trench, where there were no true <a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">sewage</a> management procedures. This ensured that parasites (and diseases) would spread onto rations and food sources that would then be eaten by other soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Trench_foot" title="Trench foot">Trench foot</a> was a common environmental ailment affecting many soldiers, especially during the winter. It is one of several <a href="/wiki/Immersion_foot_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Immersion foot syndrome">immersion foot syndromes</a>. It was characterized by numbness and pain in the feet, but in bad cases could result in necrosis of the lower limbs. Trench foot was a large problem for the Allied forces, resulting in 75,000 British and 2,000 American casualties.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mandatory routine (daily or more often) foot inspections by fellow soldiers, along with systematic use of soap, foot powder, and changing socks, greatly reduced cases of trench foot.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1918, US infantry were issued with an improved and more waterproof '<a href="/wiki/Trench_boot" title="Trench boot">Pershing boot</a>' in an attempt to reduce casualties from trench foot. </p><p>To the surprise of medical professionals at the time, there was no outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a> in the trenches of the Western Front, despite the cold and harsh conditions being perfect for the reproduction of body lice that transmit the disease.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, on the Eastern Front an epidemic of typhus claimed between 150,000 – 200,000 lives in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia" title="Kingdom of Serbia">Serbia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> also suffered a globally unprecedented typhus epidemic during the last two years of the conflict that was exacerbated by harsh winters. This outbreak resulted in approximately 2.5 million recorded deaths, 100,000 of them being <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Symptoms of typhus include a characteristic spotted <a href="/wiki/Rash" title="Rash">rash</a> (which was not always present), severe <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headache</a>, sustained high <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a> of 39 °C (102 °F), <a href="/wiki/Cough" title="Cough">cough</a>, severe muscle pain, <a href="/wiki/Chills" title="Chills">chills</a>, falling blood pressure, <a href="/wiki/Stupor" title="Stupor">stupor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photophobia" title="Photophobia">sensitivity to light</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">delirium</a>; 10% to 60% die. Typhus is spread by <a href="/wiki/Body_louse" title="Body louse">body lice</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trench_rats">Trench rats</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Trench rats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trench_rats" title="Trench rats">Trench rats</a></div> <p>The trenches were inhabited by millions of <a href="/wiki/Rat" title="Rat">rats</a> which were often responsible for the spread of diseases. Soldiers' attempts to cull hordes of trench rats with rifle bayonets were common early in the war, but the rats reproduced faster than they could be slaughtered.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, soldiers still partook in rat hunts as a form of entertainment. Rats would feed on half-eaten or uneaten rations as well as corpses. Many soldiers were more afraid of rats than other horrors found in the trenches.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychological_impact">Psychological impact</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Psychological impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nervous and mental breakdowns amongst soldiers were common, due to unrelenting shellfire and the claustrophobic trench environment.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Men who suffered such intense breakdowns were often rendered completely immobile, and were often seen cowering low in the trenches, unable even to perform instinctive human responses such as running away or fighting back. This condition came to be known as "<a href="/wiki/Shell_shock" title="Shell shock">shell shock</a>", "war neurosis" or "battle hypnosis".<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although trenches provided cover from shelling and small-arms fire, they also amplified the psychological effects of shell shock, as there was no way to escape a trench if shellfire was coming.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a soldier became too debilitated from shell shock, they were evacuated from the trench and hospitalized if possible.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, shell shocked soldiers were executed for "<a href="/wiki/Cowardice" title="Cowardice">cowardice</a>" by their commanders as they became a liability.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was often done by a <a href="/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad" title="Execution by firing squad">firing squad</a> composed of their fellow soldiers – often from the same unit.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only years later would it be understood that such men were suffering from shell shock. During the war, 306 British soldiers were officially executed by their own side.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Circumvention">Circumvention</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Circumvention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout World War I, the major combatants slowly developed different ways of breaking the stalemate of trench warfare; the Germans focused more on new tactics while the British and French focused on <a href="/wiki/Tank" title="Tank">tanks</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infiltration_tactics">Infiltration tactics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Infiltration tactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_tactics" title="Infiltration tactics">Infiltration tactics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1974-132-26A,_Sto%C3%9Ftrupp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1974-132-26A%2C_Sto%C3%9Ftrupp.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1974-132-26A%2C_Sto%C3%9Ftrupp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1974-132-26A%2C_Sto%C3%9Ftrupp.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1974-132-26A%2C_Sto%C3%9Ftrupp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1974-132-26A%2C_Sto%C3%9Ftrupp.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1974-132-26A%2C_Sto%C3%9Ftrupp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="782" data-file-height="577" /></a><figcaption>German <i><a href="/wiki/Stosstruppen" class="mw-redirect" title="Stosstruppen">Stoßtruppen</a></i> (stormtroopers) rising from trenches to attack</figcaption></figure> <p>As far back as the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Army" title="Prussian Army">Prussian military</a> doctrine (<i><a href="/wiki/Vernichtungsgedanke" title="Vernichtungsgedanke">Vernichtungsgedanke</a></i>) stressed manoeuvre and force concentration to achieve a decisive battle. The German military searched for ways to apply this in the face of trench warfare. Experiments with new tactics by <a href="/wiki/Willy_Rohr" title="Willy Rohr">Willy Rohr</a>, a Prussian captain serving in the <a href="/wiki/Vosges_mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Vosges mountains">Vosges mountains</a> in 1915, got the attention of the Minister of War. These tactics carried Prussian military doctrine down to smallest units — specially trained troops manoeuvred and massed to assault positions they chose on their own.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the next two years the German army tried to establish special stormtrooper detachments in all its units by sending selected men to Rohr and have those men then train their comrades in their original units. </p><p>Similar tactics were developed independently in other countries, such as French Army captain <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andr%C3%A9_Laffargue&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="André Laffargue (page does not exist)">André Laffargue</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Laffargue" class="extiw" title="fr:André Laffargue">fr</a>]</span> in 1915 and Russian general <a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Brusilov" title="Aleksei Brusilov">Aleksei Brusilov</a> in 1916, but these failed to be adopted as any military doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The German stormtrooper methods involved men rushing forward in small groups using whatever cover was available and laying down covering fire for other groups in the same unit as they moved forward. The new tactics, intended to achieve surprise by disrupting entrenched enemy positions, aimed to bypass strongpoints and to attack the weakest parts of an enemy's line. Additionally, they acknowledged the futility of managing a grand detailed plan of operations from afar, opting instead for junior officers on the spot to exercise initiative.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Germans employed and improved infiltration tactics in a series of smaller to larger battles, each increasingly successful, leading up to the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Caporetto" title="Battle of Caporetto">Battle of Caporetto</a> against the Italians in 1917, and finally the massive <a href="/wiki/German_spring_offensive" title="German spring offensive">German spring offensive</a> in 1918 against the British and French. German infiltration tactics are sometimes called "Hutier tactics" by others, after <a href="/wiki/Oskar_von_Hutier" title="Oskar von Hutier">Oskar von Hutier</a>, the general leading the German <a href="/wiki/18th_Army_(German_Empire)" title="18th Army (German Empire)">18th Army</a>, which had the farthest advance in that offensive. After a stunningly rapid advance, the offensive failed to achieve a <a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_(military)" title="Breakthrough (military)">breakthrough</a>; German forces stalled after outrunning their supply, artillery, and reinforcements, which could not catch up over the shell-torn ground left ruined by Allied attacks in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme" title="Battle of the Somme">Battle of the Somme</a> in 1916. The exhausted German forces were soon pushed back in the Allied Hundred Days Offensive, and the Germans were unable to organise another major offensive before the war's end. In post-war years, other nations did not fully appreciate these German tactical innovations amidst the overall German defeat. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mining">Mining</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Mining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mining_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mining (military)">Mining (military)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mine-explosion-1916.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Mine-explosion-1916.jpg/220px-Mine-explosion-1916.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Mine-explosion-1916.jpg/330px-Mine-explosion-1916.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Mine-explosion-1916.jpg/440px-Mine-explosion-1916.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4120" data-file-height="2968" /></a><figcaption>Explosion of a mine seen from a French position. 1916</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_the_Somme_1916_-_Y_Sap_mine,_La_Boisselle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Battle_of_the_Somme_1916_-_Y_Sap_mine%2C_La_Boisselle.jpg/220px-Battle_of_the_Somme_1916_-_Y_Sap_mine%2C_La_Boisselle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Battle_of_the_Somme_1916_-_Y_Sap_mine%2C_La_Boisselle.jpg/330px-Battle_of_the_Somme_1916_-_Y_Sap_mine%2C_La_Boisselle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Battle_of_the_Somme_1916_-_Y_Sap_mine%2C_La_Boisselle.jpg/440px-Battle_of_the_Somme_1916_-_Y_Sap_mine%2C_La_Boisselle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1581" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Plan of the <i>Y Sap</i> mine</div></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Mines</a> – tunnels under enemy lines packed with explosives and detonated – were widely used in WWI to destroy or disrupt enemy's trench lines. Mining and counter-mining became a major part of trench warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The dry chalk of the <a href="/wiki/River_Somme" class="mw-redirect" title="River Somme">Somme</a> was especially suited to mining, but with the aid of pumps, it was also possible to mine in the sodden clay of <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>. Specialist tunneling companies, usually made up of men who had been <a href="/wiki/Miners" class="mw-redirect" title="Miners">miners</a> in civilian life, would dig tunnels under no man's land and beneath the enemy's trenches.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These mines would then be packed with explosives and detonated, producing a large crater. The crater served two purposes: it could destroy or breach the enemy's trench and, by virtue of the raised lip that they produced, could provide a ready-made "trench" closer to the enemy's line. When a mine was detonated, both sides would race to occupy and fortify the crater. </p><p>If the miners detected an enemy tunnel in progress, they would often <a href="/wiki/Counter-mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-mine">counter-mine</a> and try to drive a tunnel under the enemy's tunnel in which they would detonate explosives to create a <a href="/wiki/Camouflet" title="Camouflet">camouflet</a> to destroy the enemy's tunnel. Night raids were also conducted with the sole purpose of destroying the enemy's mine workings. On occasion, mines would cross and fighting would occur underground. The mining skills could also be used to move troops unseen. On one occasion a whole British division was moved through interconnected workings and sewers without German observation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The British detonated <a href="/wiki/Mines_on_the_first_day_of_the_Somme" title="Mines on the first day of the Somme">19 mines of varying sizes</a> on July 1, 1916, the first day of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme_(1916)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Somme (1916)">Battle of the Somme</a>. The largest mines—the Y Sap Mine and the <a href="/wiki/Lochnagar_Mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lochnagar Mine">Lochnagar Mine</a>—each containing 24 tons of explosives, were blown near <a href="/wiki/La_Boiselle" class="mw-redirect" title="La Boiselle">La Boiselle</a>, throwing earth 4,000 feet (1,200 m) into the air.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="4,000' sounds dubious (July 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>At 3.10 <small>AM</small> on June 7, 1917, a <a href="/wiki/Mines_in_the_Battle_of_Messines_(1917)" title="Mines in the Battle of Messines (1917)">series of mines</a> was detonated by the British to launch the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Messines_(1917)" title="Battle of Messines (1917)">Battle of Messines</a>. The average mine contained 21 tons of explosive and the largest, 125 feet (38 m) beneath <a href="/wiki/Sint-Elooi" title="Sint-Elooi">Saint-Eloi</a>, was twice the average at 42 tons. As remarked by General Plumer to his staff the evening before the attack: </p> <dl><dd>"Gentlemen, we may not make history tomorrow, but we shall certainly change the geography."<sup id="cite_ref-ww1dotcom_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ww1dotcom-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The craters from these and many other mines on the Western Front are still visible today. Two undetonated mines remained in the ground near Messines, with their location mislaid after the war. One blew during a thunderstorm in 1955; the other remains in the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-ww1dotcom_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ww1dotcom-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Significant <a href="/wiki/Mines_on_the_Italian_Front_(World_War_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mines on the Italian Front (World War I)">mining operations</a> were also carried out on the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Front_(World_War_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Front (World War I)">Italian Front</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gas">Gas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons_in_World_War_I" title="Chemical weapons in World War I">Chemical weapons in World War I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Australian_infantry_small_box_respirators_Ypres_1917.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Australian_infantry_small_box_respirators_Ypres_1917.jpg/170px-Australian_infantry_small_box_respirators_Ypres_1917.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Australian_infantry_small_box_respirators_Ypres_1917.jpg/255px-Australian_infantry_small_box_respirators_Ypres_1917.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Australian_infantry_small_box_respirators_Ypres_1917.jpg/340px-Australian_infantry_small_box_respirators_Ypres_1917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1607" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australian</a> infantry wearing <a href="/wiki/WWI_gas_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="WWI gas mask">WWI gas masks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ypres" title="Ypres">Ypres</a>, September 1917</figcaption></figure> <p>World War I saw large-scale use of poison gases. At the start of the war, the gas agents used were relatively weak and delivery unreliable, but by mid-war advances in this <a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">chemical warfare</a> reached horrifying levels. </p><p>The first methods of employing gas was by releasing it from a cylinder when the wind was favourable. This was prone to miscarry if the direction of the wind was misjudged. Also, the cylinders needed to be positioned in the front trenches where they were likely to be ruptured by enemy bombardment. Later, gas was delivered directly to enemy trenches by artillery or mortar shell, reducing friendly casualties significantly. Lingering agents could still affect friendly troops that advanced to enemy trenches following its use. </p><p>Early on, soldiers made improvised <a href="/wiki/WWI_gas_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="WWI gas mask">gas masks</a> by urinating on a handkerchief and putting it over their nose and mouth so the <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> would disable the poison. Armies rushed to issue regulation gas masks as regular equipment for front line troops. Anti-gas equipment and procedures improved significantly during the war, to the point that gas attacks had become less devastating at the war's end. </p><p>Several different gas agents were used. <a href="/wiki/Tear_gas" title="Tear gas">Tear gas</a> was first employed in August 1914 by the French, but this could only temporarily disable the enemy. In April 1915, <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> gas was first used by Germany at the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres" title="Second Battle of Ypres">Second Battle of Ypres</a>. Exposure to a large dose could kill, and those not killed could suffer permanent lung damage. But the gas was easy to detect by scent and sight. <a href="/wiki/Phosgene" title="Phosgene">Phosgene</a>, first used in December 1915, was the most lethal killing gas of World War I; it was 18 times more powerful than chlorine and much more difficult to detect. </p><p>However, the most effective gas was <a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a>, introduced by Germany in July 1917. Mustard gas was not as fatal as phosgene, but it was hard to detect and lingered on the surface of the battlefield, so could inflict casualties over a long period. Even if not inhaled, it could slowly <a href="/wiki/Blister_agent" title="Blister agent">burn the skin</a>, but quickly burned via the eyes or any wounds, causing blindness and intense suffering. Mustard gas also had the property of being heavier than air, causing it to sink down hills and therefore down into trenches. Casualties from mustard gas were unlikely to be fit to fight again, yet only 2% of mustard gas casualties died. The added burden of long-term care of casualties from mustard gas actually increased its overall effectiveness compared to more immediately lethal gas agents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tanks">Tanks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Tanks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tanks_in_World_War_I" title="Tanks in World War I">Tanks in World War I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Mark_IV_Tadpole_tank.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/British_Mark_IV_Tadpole_tank.jpg/220px-British_Mark_IV_Tadpole_tank.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/British_Mark_IV_Tadpole_tank.jpg/330px-British_Mark_IV_Tadpole_tank.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/British_Mark_IV_Tadpole_tank.jpg/440px-British_Mark_IV_Tadpole_tank.jpg 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>This British <a href="/wiki/Mark_IV_tank" title="Mark IV tank">Mark IV tank</a> displays a "tadpole tail" extension for crossing especially wide trenches, an experiment that was not successful</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Mark_IV_(Male)_tank_of_%27H%27_Battalion,_%27Hyacinth%27,_ditched_in_a_German_trench_while_supporting_1st_Battalion,_Leicestershire_Regiment_near_Ribecourt_during_the_Battle_of_Cambrai,_20_November_1917._Q6432.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/A_Mark_IV_%28Male%29_tank_of_%27H%27_Battalion%2C_%27Hyacinth%27%2C_ditched_in_a_German_trench_while_supporting_1st_Battalion%2C_Leicestershire_Regiment_near_Ribecourt_during_the_Battle_of_Cambrai%2C_20_November_1917._Q6432.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/A_Mark_IV_%28Male%29_tank_of_%27H%27_Battalion%2C_%27Hyacinth%27%2C_ditched_in_a_German_trench_while_supporting_1st_Battalion%2C_Leicestershire_Regiment_near_Ribecourt_during_the_Battle_of_Cambrai%2C_20_November_1917._Q6432.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/A_Mark_IV_%28Male%29_tank_of_%27H%27_Battalion%2C_%27Hyacinth%27%2C_ditched_in_a_German_trench_while_supporting_1st_Battalion%2C_Leicestershire_Regiment_near_Ribecourt_during_the_Battle_of_Cambrai%2C_20_November_1917._Q6432.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5098" data-file-height="4011" /></a><figcaption>Failure of a tank to cross an <a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_trench" title="Anti-tank trench">anti-tank trench</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Tanks were developed by the British and French as a means to attack enemy trenches, by combining heavy firepower (<a href="/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">machine guns</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tank_gun" title="Tank gun">light artillery guns</a>), protection from <a href="/wiki/Small-arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Small-arms">small-arms</a> fire (<a href="/wiki/Vehicle_armour" title="Vehicle armour">armour</a>), and battlefield mobility (<a href="/wiki/Continuous_track" title="Continuous track">tracks</a>). <a href="/wiki/British_heavy_tanks_of_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="British heavy tanks of World War I">The British tanks</a> were designed with a <a href="/wiki/Rhomboid" title="Rhomboid">rhomboid</a> shape, to easily surmount barbed wire and other obstacles. They were first deployed in 1916 at the Battle of the Somme in limited numbers, proving unreliable and ineffective at first, as mechanical and logistical issues overshadowed implementing a coherent tank doctrine, with the additional challenge of traversing ground torn apart by years of shell fire. At the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Cambrai" class="mw-redirect" title="First Battle of Cambrai">First Battle of Cambrai</a> in 1917, improved tanks in larger numbers demonstrated the potential of tank warfare, though German improvised <a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare#Anti-tank_tactics" title="Anti-tank warfare">anti-tank tactics</a>, including using direct fire from field artillery, also proved effective. </p><p>By 1918, tank capabilities and tactics improved, their numbers increased and, combined with <a href="/wiki/French_tanks_of_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="French tanks of World War I">French tanks</a>, finally helped break the stalemate. During the last 100 days of the war, Allied forces harried the Germans back using infantry supported by tanks and by close air support. By the war's end, tanks become a significant element of warfare; the proposed British <a href="/wiki/Plan_1919" title="Plan 1919">Plan 1919</a> would have employed tanks as a primary factor in military strategy. However, the impact of tanks in World War I was less than it could have been, due to their late introduction and the inherent issues that plague implementing revolutionary technology. The introduction of the tanks would mark the beginning of the end of trench warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between the two world wars many nations developed their own <a href="/wiki/Tanks_of_the_interwar_period" title="Tanks of the interwar period">unique tanks</a> and divergent theories of tank tactics, including the UK, <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a>, the Soviet Union, <a href="/wiki/Second_Czechoslovak_Republic" title="Second Czechoslovak Republic">Czechoslovakia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a>, the US, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a>. Though German tank development was restricted by the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">treaty ending World War I</a>, Germany successfully combined their own tanks (plus <a href="/wiki/Tanks_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Tanks of Czechoslovakia">Czech tanks</a> from <a href="/wiki/Occupied_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupied Czechoslovakia">occupied Czechoslovakia</a>) with infiltration tactics to produce <a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">blitzkrieg</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_use">Later use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Later use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manoeuvre_tourelle.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Manoeuvre_tourelle.gif/220px-Manoeuvre_tourelle.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Manoeuvre_tourelle.gif/330px-Manoeuvre_tourelle.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Manoeuvre_tourelle.gif/440px-Manoeuvre_tourelle.gif 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="557" /></a><figcaption>Side view diagram of a gun in a retractable turret, in block 3 in <a href="/wiki/Ouvrage_Schoenenbourg" title="Ouvrage Schoenenbourg">Ouvrage Schoenenbourg</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Maginot_Line" title="Maginot Line">Maginot Line</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:For%C3%A7a_Expedicion%C3%A1ria_Brasileira_-_For%C3%A7a_Expedicion%C3%A1ria_Brasileira_na_It%C3%A1lia_(14).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/For%C3%A7a_Expedicion%C3%A1ria_Brasileira_-_For%C3%A7a_Expedicion%C3%A1ria_Brasileira_na_It%C3%A1lia_%2814%29.jpg/220px-For%C3%A7a_Expedicion%C3%A1ria_Brasileira_-_For%C3%A7a_Expedicion%C3%A1ria_Brasileira_na_It%C3%A1lia_%2814%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/For%C3%A7a_Expedicion%C3%A1ria_Brasileira_-_For%C3%A7a_Expedicion%C3%A1ria_Brasileira_na_It%C3%A1lia_%2814%29.jpg/330px-For%C3%A7a_Expedicion%C3%A1ria_Brasileira_-_For%C3%A7a_Expedicion%C3%A1ria_Brasileira_na_It%C3%A1lia_%2814%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/For%C3%A7a_Expedicion%C3%A1ria_Brasileira_-_For%C3%A7a_Expedicion%C3%A1ria_Brasileira_na_It%C3%A1lia_%2814%29.jpg/440px-For%C3%A7a_Expedicion%C3%A1ria_Brasileira_-_For%C3%A7a_Expedicion%C3%A1ria_Brasileira_na_It%C3%A1lia_%2814%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1914" data-file-height="1309" /></a><figcaption>Soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force" title="Brazilian Expeditionary Force">Brazilian Expeditionary Force</a> in a trench in <a href="/wiki/Montese" title="Montese">Montese</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a> of World War II, 1944</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spanish_Civil_War">Spanish Civil War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Spanish Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trenches were often used in both sides<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> particularly the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_faction_(Spanish_Civil_War)" title="Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)">Nationalists</a> whose military ground doctrine emphasized static defence. The <a href="/wiki/Republican_faction_(Spanish_Civil_War)" title="Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)">Republicans</a> also employed the use of trenches, but also <a href="/wiki/Human_wave_attack" title="Human wave attack">human wave attacks</a> most notably during their defence of <a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Campo" title="Casa de Campo">Casa de Campo</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Madrid" title="Siege of Madrid">Siege of Madrid</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the decade <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">leading up to World War II</a>, the French built the <a href="/wiki/Maginot_Line" title="Maginot Line">Maginot Line</a>, based on their experience with trench warfare in World War I. The Maginot Line was an extensive <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_art" title="State of the art">state-of-the-art</a> defensive system far superior to any previous trench system: a chain of massive constructions of concrete, iron, and steel fortresses, bunkers, retractable turrets, outposts, obstacles, and sunken artillery emplacements, linked by <a href="/wiki/Tunnel_network" title="Tunnel network">tunnel networks</a>. It covered the length of the Franco-German border and was 20–25 kilometres (12–16 mi) wide. It was supported by numerous underground barracks, shelters, ammunition dumps and depots, with its own telephone network and <a href="/wiki/Narrow_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrow gauge">narrow gauge</a> railways with <a href="/wiki/Armoured_train" title="Armoured train">armoured locomotives</a>, backed up with heavy <a href="/wiki/Railway_gun" title="Railway gun">rail artillery</a>. French military experts placed high value on the line, saying it would curb German aggression, as any invasion force would be halted long enough for French forces to mobilize and counterattack. Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/French_war_planning_1920%E2%80%931940" title="French war planning 1920–1940">French military planning during the inter-war period</a> believed that the line would force the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germans</a> to invade Belgium. This would allow any future conflict to take place off of French soil. By bypassing the Maginot Line and fighting the Belgian Army, it would allow the French military to move its best formations to counter. In the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a>, Germany invaded Belgium and the best Anglo-French forces moved to meet them as planned. However, the Germans had only recently changed their plans from what the French had anticipated would happen. Instead of an attack through central Belgium, the main German attack was delivered through the <a href="/wiki/Ardennes_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Ardennes forest">Ardennes forest</a>. Inter-war French planning believed it would take the Germans 9 days to move forces through this area, and that it could be held by small forces. The German forces outpaced expectations and soon crossed into France between the main French forces and the Maginot Line. They then advanced towards the English Channel, and surrounded the Anglo-French armies. Small secondary German attacks concentrated at a few points in the Line had mixed success. The bulk of the Maginot Line was untouched, its garrisons withdrawn, and flanked. Due to the lack of combat, much of it has survived. </p><p>The return of <a href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">mobile warfare</a> in World War II reduced the emphasis of trench warfare, as defenders commonly lacked the time to build up such battlefield defences before they were forced to redeploy, due to the more rapidly-changing strategic situation. But trench systems were still effective, wherever mobility was limited, the front lines were static, or around known critical objectives that could not be bypassed. More quickly improvised <a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">defensive fighting positions</a>, using "scrapes" or "foxholes", that can be supplemented by <a href="/wiki/Sand_bag" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand bag">sand bags</a>, local materials, debris, or rubble, remain in common use. These are typically improved and expanded by the defenders, eventually becoming full trench systems, if given enough time and resources. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mannerheim_Line" title="Mannerheim Line">Mannerheim Line</a> was a system of flexible field fortification for the defending Finns. While having very few bunkers and artillery compared to heavy defence lines like the <a href="/wiki/Maginot_Line" title="Maginot Line">Maginot Line</a>, it allowed defensive platoons to regroup between field fortifications (<a href="/wiki/Field_fortifications" class="mw-redirect" title="Field fortifications">wood-earth firing posts, dugouts and pillboxes</a>) instead of locking them into bunkers, while forcing the invaders to attack trenches as in World War I without armor and direct fire support. It caused heavy losses to the Soviets and repelled them for two months.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1940_E932.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1940_E932.jpg/220px-The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1940_E932.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1940_E932.jpg/330px-The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1940_E932.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1940_E932.jpg/440px-The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1940_E932.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>A British trench mortar post in North Africa, 1940</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:62._armata_a_Stalingrado.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/62._armata_a_Stalingrado.jpg/220px-62._armata_a_Stalingrado.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/62._armata_a_Stalingrado.jpg/330px-62._armata_a_Stalingrado.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/62._armata_a_Stalingrado.jpg/440px-62._armata_a_Stalingrado.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> soldiers running through the ruins of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Stalingrad</a>, 1942</figcaption></figure> <p>At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sevastopol" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Sevastopol">Battle of Sevastopol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> forces successfully held trench systems on the narrow peninsula for several months against intense German bombardment. The Western Allies in 1944 broke through the incomplete <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Wall" title="Atlantic Wall">Atlantic Wall</a> with relative ease through a combination of amphibious landings, naval gunfire, air attack, and <a href="/wiki/Airborne_troops" class="mw-redirect" title="Airborne troops">airborne</a> landings. Combined arms tactics where infantry, artillery, armour and aircraft cooperate closely greatly reduced the importance of trench warfare. It was, however, still a valuable method for reinforcing natural boundaries and creating a line of defence. For example, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>, soldiers on both sides dug trenches within the ruins; as well in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hurtgen_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hurtgen Forest">Battle of Hurtgen Forest</a>, both American and German soldiers also dug trenches and <a href="/wiki/Fox_hole" class="mw-redirect" title="Fox hole">foxholes</a> in the rugged woods of the forest which led to continuous stalemates and failed offensives that lasted for months, which was reminiscent of the trench warfare of World War I. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Scheldt" title="Battle of the Scheldt">Battle of the Scheldt</a>, due to the geography of the battle field greatly involved the use of trench warfare. In addition, before the start of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Battle of Kursk</a>, the Soviets constructed a system of defence more elaborate than any they built during World War I.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These defences succeeded in stopping the German armoured pincers from meeting and enveloping the salient.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a> fought from 1943 until the end of the war in Europe largely consisted of the Allies storming strongly fortified German lines which stretched from one coast, over the mountains to the other coast. When the Allies broke through one line, the Germans would retreat up the peninsula to yet another freshly prepared fortified line. </p><p>At the start of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a>, the last major assault on Germany, the Soviets <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Seelow_Heights" title="Battle of the Seelow Heights">attacked over the river</a> <a href="/wiki/Oder" title="Oder">Oder</a> against German troops dug in on the <a href="/wiki/Seelow_Heights" title="Seelow Heights">Seelow Heights</a>, about 50 km (31 mi) east of Berlin. Entrenchment allowed the Germans, who were massively outnumbered, to survive a bombardment from the largest concentration of artillery in history; as the Red Army attempted to cross the marshy riverside terrain they lost tens of thousands of casualties to the entrenched Germans before breaking through. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a> used a labyrinth of underground fixed positions to slow down the Allied advances on many Pacific Islands. The Japanese built fixed fortifications on <a href="/wiki/Iwo_Jima" title="Iwo Jima">Iwo Jima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Okinawa_Prefecture" title="Okinawa Prefecture">Okinawa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peleliu" title="Peleliu">Peleliu</a> using a <a href="/wiki/Tunnel_network" title="Tunnel network">system of tunnels</a> to interconnect their fortified positions. Many of these were former mine shafts that were turned into defence positions. Engineers added sliding armored steel doors with multiple openings to serve both artillery and machine guns. Cave entrances were built slanted as a defence against grenade and flamethrower attacks. The caves and bunkers were connected to a vast system throughout the defences, which allowed the Japanese to evacuate or reoccupy positions as needed, and to take advantage of shrinking interior lines. This network of <a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">bunkers</a>, tunnels, and <a href="/wiki/Pillbox_(military)" title="Pillbox (military)">pillboxes</a> favoured the defence. For instance, the Japanese on <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Iwo Jima</a> had several levels of honeycombed fortifications. The Nanpo Bunker (Southern Area Islands Naval Air HQ), which was located east of Airfield Number 2, had enough food, water and ammo for the Japanese to hold out for three months. The bunker was 90 feet deep and had tunnels running in various directions. Approximately 500 55-gallon drums filled with water, kerosene, and fuel oil for generators were located inside the complex. Gasoline powered generators allowed for radios and lighting to be operated underground.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Japanese caused the American advance to slow down and caused massive casualties with these underground fixed positions. The Americans eventually used <a href="/wiki/Flamethrower" title="Flamethrower">flamethrowers</a> and systematic hand-to-hand fighting to oust the defenders.<sup id="cite_ref-WW2MMDb_Letters_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WW2MMDb_Letters-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BattleFleet_IwoDefense_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BattleFleet_IwoDefense-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The American ground forces were supported by extensive <a href="/wiki/Naval_artillery" title="Naval artillery">naval artillery</a>, and had complete <a href="/wiki/Air_supremacy" title="Air supremacy">air supremacy</a> provided by <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a> aviators throughout the entire battle.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-1945_to_modern_day">Post-1945 to modern day</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Post-1945 to modern day"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:101st_Airborne_Division_-_Vietnam_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/101st_Airborne_Division_-_Vietnam_01.jpg/220px-101st_Airborne_Division_-_Vietnam_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/101st_Airborne_Division_-_Vietnam_01.jpg/330px-101st_Airborne_Division_-_Vietnam_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/101st_Airborne_Division_-_Vietnam_01.jpg/440px-101st_Airborne_Division_-_Vietnam_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Men of the 1st Brigade, <a href="/wiki/101st_Airborne_Division" title="101st Airborne Division">101st Airborne Division</a>, fire from old <a href="/wiki/Viet_Cong" title="Viet Cong">Viet Cong</a> trenches during the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Trench warfare has been infrequent in recent wars. When two large armoured armies meet, the result has generally been mobile warfare of the type which developed in World War II. However, trench warfare re-emerged in the latter stages of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> (<a href="/wiki/Huaihai_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Huaihai Campaign">Huaihai Campaign</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> (from July 1951 to its end). </p><p>During the Cold War, <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> forces routinely trained to fight through extensive works called "Soviet-style trench systems", named after the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a>'s complex systems of field fortifications, an extension of Soviet field entrenching practices for which they were famous in their <a href="/wiki/Great_Patriotic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Patriotic War">Great Patriotic War</a> (the Eastern Front of World War II). </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a>, both armies lacked training in <a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">combined arms</a> operations. Both countries often prepared entrenched defensive positions and <a href="/wiki/Tunnel_network" title="Tunnel network">tunnels</a> to protect and supply the cities and bases throughout the regions. Military mobility was drastically reduced; hidden <a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_mine" title="Anti-tank mine">anti-tank mines</a>, and unstable footing made it easy to slide into or get buried in a camouflaged <a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_trench" title="Anti-tank trench">anti-tank trench</a>. Tactics used included trench warfare, machine gun posts, bayonet charges, booby traps, use of barbed wire across trenches and on <a href="/wiki/No-man%27s_land" class="mw-redirect" title="No-man's land">no-man's land</a>, Iranian <a href="/wiki/Human_wave_attack" title="Human wave attack">human wave attacks</a>, and Iraq's extensive use of chemical weapons such as <a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a> against Iranian troops.<sup id="cite_ref-Benschopvan_der_Schans1997_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benschopvan_der_Schans1997-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Iraq again attempted to use trenches during the 1991 <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Kuwait">Invasion of Kuwait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> with the objective of forcing the <a href="/wiki/Coalition_of_the_Gulf_War" title="Coalition of the Gulf War">coalition</a> to engage in costly World War I-era trench warfare, ordered the construction of a massive fortification line in the <a href="/wiki/Kuwait%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_border" title="Kuwait–Saudi Arabia border">Saudi-Kuwait border</a>, consisting of regular trench lines, "flame trenches" (ditches filled with oil to be ignited in case of attack), sand <a href="/wiki/Berm" title="Berm">berms</a>, trench works, anti-tank ditches, barbed wire and <a href="/wiki/Minefield" class="mw-redirect" title="Minefield">minefields</a>, which became known as the <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Line" title="Saddam Line">Saddam Line</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LATimes_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LATimes-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:03_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, at the start of the <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Kuwait_campaign" title="Liberation of Kuwait campaign">Liberation of Kuwait</a>, the US forces charged the Iraqi lines with <a href="/wiki/M1_Abrams" title="M1 Abrams">M1 Abrams</a> tanks modified with <a href="/wiki/Demining" title="Demining">minesweeping ploughs</a> and <a href="/wiki/M728_Combat_Engineer_Vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle">M728 Combat Engineer Vehicles</a> which buried the trench lines, and in many cases, buried Iraqi troops alive.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In less than three hours after the initial assault, US and coalition forces had already broken through and bypassed the Saddam line and the rest of war was composed by highly mobile <a href="/wiki/Manoeuvre_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Manoeuvre warfare">manoeuvre warfare</a> focusing on overwhelming power against the Iraqis.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:03_98-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Soldiers_and_Afghan_soldiers_provide_security_while_standing_behind_HESCO_barriers_during_strongpoint_construction_at_Zharay_district,_Kandahar_province,_Afghanistan,_Feb_120210-A-QD683-134.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/U.S._Soldiers_and_Afghan_soldiers_provide_security_while_standing_behind_HESCO_barriers_during_strongpoint_construction_at_Zharay_district%2C_Kandahar_province%2C_Afghanistan%2C_Feb_120210-A-QD683-134.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/U.S._Soldiers_and_Afghan_soldiers_provide_security_while_standing_behind_HESCO_barriers_during_strongpoint_construction_at_Zharay_district%2C_Kandahar_province%2C_Afghanistan%2C_Feb_120210-A-QD683-134.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/U.S._Soldiers_and_Afghan_soldiers_provide_security_while_standing_behind_HESCO_barriers_during_strongpoint_construction_at_Zharay_district%2C_Kandahar_province%2C_Afghanistan%2C_Feb_120210-A-QD683-134.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4994" data-file-height="3330" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Afghan_Armed_Forces_(2002%E2%80%932021)" title="History of the Afghan Armed Forces (2002–2021)">Afghan</a> and U.S. soldiers provide security while standing behind a <a href="/wiki/Blast_wall" title="Blast wall">blast wall</a> made from <a href="/wiki/Hesco_bastion" title="Hesco bastion">HESCO bastions</a> Afghanistan, 2012</figcaption></figure> <p>There was an extensive trench system inside and outside the city during the 1992–1996 <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sarajevo" title="Siege of Sarajevo">Siege of Sarajevo</a>. It was used mainly for transportation to the front-line or to avoid <a href="/wiki/Sniper" title="Sniper">snipers</a> inside the city. Any pre-existing structures were used as trenches; the best known example is the bobsleigh course at <a href="/wiki/Trebevi%C4%87" title="Trebević">Trebević</a>, which was used by both <a href="/wiki/Serbs" title="Serbs">Serb</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bosniaks" title="Bosniaks">Bosniaks</a> forces during the siege. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Eritrean-Ethiopian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Eritrean-Ethiopian War">Eritrean-Ethiopian War</a> of 1998–2000, the widespread use of trenches raised comparisons to the trench warfare of World War I.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to some reports, trench warfare led to the loss of "thousands of young lives in human-wave assaults on Eritrea's positions".<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Eritrean defences were eventually overtaken by a surprise Ethiopian pincer movement on the Western front, attacking a mined, but lightly defended mountain (without trenches), resulting in the capture of Barentu and an Eritrean retreat. The element of surprise in the attack involved the use of donkeys as pack animals as well as being a solely infantry affair, with tanks coming in afterwards only to secure the area.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Korean_Demilitarized_Zone" title="Korean Demilitarized Zone">front line in Korea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Line_of_Control" title="Line of Control">Line of Control</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> between Pakistan and India are two examples of demarcation lines which could become hot at any time. They consist of kilometres of trenches linking fortified strongpoints and in Korea surrounded by millions of <a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">land mines</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Army" title="Indian Army">Indian Army</a> has fortified the LOC with 900 <a href="/wiki/Gun_turret_fortifications" class="mw-redirect" title="Gun turret fortifications">fixed tank turrets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The borders between <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> amid the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" title="Nagorno-Karabakh conflict">Nagorno-Karabakh conflict</a> are also heavily fortified with trenches and barbed wire, with the two sides regularly trading fire.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russo-Ukrainian_War">Russo-Ukrainian War</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Russo-Ukrainian War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Bakhmut_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Battle_of_Bakhmut_3.jpg/200px-Battle_of_Bakhmut_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Battle_of_Bakhmut_3.jpg/300px-Battle_of_Bakhmut_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Battle_of_Bakhmut_3.jpg/400px-Battle_of_Bakhmut_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Ukrainian soldier in a trench during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bakhmut" title="Battle of Bakhmut">Battle of Bakhmut</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a>, to safeguard and assert their territories, both Ukrainian and <a href="/wiki/Pro-Russian_conflict_in_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro-Russian conflict in Ukraine">Russian proxy forces</a> have resorted to digging small trench networks and engaging in warfare somewhat akin to the trench fights of World War I in some aspects. This involves soldiers spending extended periods within trenches, employing cement mixers and excavators to construct tunnel networks and deep bunkers for added protection.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Minsk_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Minsk Protocol">Minsk peace agreements</a> the front lines did not move significantly until the <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>, as both sides dug elaborate networks of trenches and deep bunkers for protection and the two sides mostly fired mortars and sniper shots at each other.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 2022 invasion also saw the construction of trench lines and similar defensive structures by both sides, especially after the end of the initial Russian offensive, resulting in a static war of attrition with slow advances and artillery duels, especially in <a href="/wiki/Donetsk_Oblast" title="Donetsk Oblast">Donetsk Oblast</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pictures of muddy trenches, stumps of charred trees in a shell-pocked landscape made the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bakhmut" title="Battle of Bakhmut">Battle of Bakhmut</a> emblematic for its trench warfare conditions, with neither side making any significant breakthroughs amid hundreds of casualties reported daily.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern technology has adapted to the trench warfare, and use of drones and mobile networks is common. The battlefield has been described as "World War I with 21st-century Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance".<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_impact">Cultural impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Cultural impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trench warfare has become a powerful symbol of the futility of war.<sup id="cite_ref-g4_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-g4-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its image is of young men going "over the top" (over the parapet of the trench, to attack the enemy trench line) into a maelstrom of fire leading to near-certain death, typified by the <a href="/wiki/First_day_on_the_Somme" title="First day on the Somme">first day</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme" title="Battle of the Somme">Battle of the Somme</a> (on which the British Army suffered nearly 60,000 casualties) or the grinding slaughter in the mud of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Passchendaele" title="Battle of Passchendaele">Passchendaele</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdmonds199124_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdmonds199124-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the French, the equivalent is the attrition of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">Battle of Verdun</a> in which the <a href="/wiki/French_Army" title="French Army">French Army</a> suffered over 380,000 documented combat deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Trench warfare is associated with mass slaughter in appalling conditions. Many critics have argued that brave men went to their deaths because of incompetent and narrow-minded commanders who failed to adapt to the new conditions of trench warfare: class-ridden and backward-looking generals put their faith in the attack, believing superior morale and dash would overcome the weapons and moral inferiority of the defender.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis197780–87_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis197780–87-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> British public opinion often repeated the theme that their soldiers were "<a href="/wiki/Lions_led_by_donkeys" title="Lions led by donkeys">lions led by donkeys</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffith19965–6_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffith19965–6-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>World War I generals are often portrayed as callously persisting in repeated hopeless attacks against trenches. There were failures such as Passchendaele, and <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Haig,_1st_Earl_Haig" title="Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig">Sir Douglas Haig</a> has often been criticised for allowing his battles to continue long after they had lost any purpose other than attrition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffith199610_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffith199610-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Haig's defenders counter that the attrition was necessary in order to cause attrition in the German army.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The problems of trench warfare were recognised, and attempts were made to address them. These included improvements in artillery, infantry tactics, and the development of <a href="/wiki/Tanks_in_World_War_I" title="Tanks in World War I">tanks</a>. By 1918, taking advantage of failing German morale, Allied attacks were generally more successful and suffered fewer casualties; in the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days_Offensive" title="Hundred Days Offensive">Hundred Days Offensive</a>, there was a return to mobile warfare. However, if both sides have comparable equipment, capability, and conditions, the trench is still seen in modern wars.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Patch" title="Harry Patch">Harry Patch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy_dog" title="Mercy dog">Mercy dog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangar_(fortification)" title="Sangar (fortification)">Sangar (fortification)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_living" title="Underground living">Underground living</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Notes</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Ellis,_p_102-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ellis,_p_102_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllis1977">Ellis 1977</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMurray,_Nicholas2013" class="citation book cs1">Murray, Nicholas (2013). <i>The Rocky Road to the Great War: The Evolution of Trench Warfare to 1914</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rocky+Road+to+the+Great+War%3A+The+Evolution+of+Trench+Warfare+to+1914&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Murray%2C+Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/trench%20warfare">"Trench warfare"</a>. <i>Cultural Dictionary</i>. Dictionary.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cultural+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Trench+warfare&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2Ftrench%2520warfare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERipleyDana1859622-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERipleyDana1859622_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERipleyDana1859622_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRipleyDana1859">Ripley & Dana 1859</a>, p. 622.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIstituto_San_Clemente_I_Papa_e_Martire2006" class="citation web cs1">Istituto San Clemente I Papa e Martire (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.therealpresence.org/eucharst/mir/english_pdf/Turin3.pdf">"Eucharistic Miracle of TURIN ITALY, 1640"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>therealpresence.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=therealpresence.org&rft.atitle=Eucharistic+Miracle+of+TURIN+ITALY%2C+1640&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Istituto+San+Clemente+I+Papa+e+Martire&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.therealpresence.org%2Feucharst%2Fmir%2Fenglish_pdf%2FTurin3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreyFrey1995126–27-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreyFrey1995126–27_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreyFrey1995126–27_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFreyFrey1995">Frey & Frey 1995</a>, pp. 126–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNolan2008" class="citation cs2">Nolan, Cathal J. (2008), <i>Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715</i>, Greenwood encyclopedias of modern world wars, ABC-CLIO, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nn_61ts-hQwC&pg=PA253">253</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313359200" title="Special:BookSources/9780313359200"><bdi>9780313359200</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wars+of+the+Age+of+Louis+XIV%2C+1650%E2%80%931715&rft.series=Greenwood+encyclopedias+of+modern+world+wars&rft.pages=253&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780313359200&rft.aulast=Nolan&rft.aufirst=Cathal+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911499–500-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911499–500_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>, pp. 499–500.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowen1955" class="citation book cs1">Cowen, James (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Cow01NewZ-c7.html">"Chapter 7: The Attack on Ohaeawai"</a>. <i>The New Zealand Wars: A History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period (1845–1864)</i>. Vol. I. Wellington: R.E. Owen, Government Printer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7%3A+The+Attack+on+Ohaeawai&rft.btitle=The+New+Zealand+Wars%3A+A+History+of+the+Maori+Campaigns+and+the+Pioneering+Period+%281845%E2%80%931864%29&rft.place=Wellington&rft.pub=R.E.+Owen%2C+Government+Printer&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Cowen&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnzetc.victoria.ac.nz%2Ftm%2Fscholarly%2Ftei-Cow01NewZ-c7.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130202000402/http://doc.govt.nz/about-doc/news/media-releases/2008/early-maori-military-engineering-skills-to-be-honoured-by-new-zealand-professional-engineers/">"Early Maori military engineering skills to be honoured by New Zealand Professional Engineers"</a>. New Zealand Department of Conservation. 14 February 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.doc.govt.nz/about-doc/news/media-releases/2008/early-maori-military-engineering-skills-to-be-honoured-by-new-zealand-professional-engineers/">the original</a> on 2 February 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Early+Maori+military+engineering+skills+to+be+honoured+by+New+Zealand+Professional+Engineers&rft.pub=New+Zealand+Department+of+Conservation&rft.date=2008-02-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.doc.govt.nz%2Fabout-doc%2Fnews%2Fmedia-releases%2F2008%2Fearly-maori-military-engineering-skills-to-be-honoured-by-new-zealand-professional-engineers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CARv2b2-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CARv2b2_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarleton1874" class="citation book cs1">Carleton, Hugh (1874). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.enzb.auckland.ac.nz/document?wid=1050&page=1&action=null"><i>Vol. II, The Life of Henry Williams – Letter of Mrs. Williams to Mrs. Heathcote, July 5, 1845</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Early_New_Zealand_Books" title="Early New Zealand Books">Early New Zealand Books</a> (ENZB), University of Auckland Library. p. 115.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vol.+II%2C+The+Life+of+Henry+Williams+%E2%80%93+Letter+of+Mrs.+Williams+to+Mrs.+Heathcote%2C+July+5%2C+1845&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Early+New+Zealand+Books+%28ENZB%29%2C+University+of+Auckland+Library&rft.date=1874&rft.aulast=Carleton&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enzb.auckland.ac.nz%2Fdocument%3Fwid%3D1050%26page%3D1%26action%3Dnull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/programmes/nz-wars/story/2018619186/nz-wars-the-stories-of-ruapekapeka">"NZ WARS - The Stories of Ruapekapeka"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/RNZ" class="mw-redirect" title="RNZ">RNZ</a></i>. 25 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RNZ&rft.atitle=NZ+WARS+-+The+Stories+of+Ruapekapeka&rft.date=2017-10-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rnz.co.nz%2Fprogrammes%2Fnz-wars%2Fstory%2F2018619186%2Fnz-wars-the-stories-of-ruapekapeka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham" class="citation web cs1">Graham, James. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyorb.com/nz/ohaeawai.shtml">"The battle for Kawiti's Ohaeawai Pa"</a>. <i>HistoryOrb.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HistoryOrb.com&rft.atitle=The+battle+for+Kawiti%27s+Ohaeawai+Pa&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyorb.com%2Fnz%2Fohaeawai.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nzhistory.govt.nz/media/photo/ruapekapeka">"Ruapekapeka | NZHistory, New Zealand history online"</a>. <i>nzhistory.govt.nz</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nzhistory.govt.nz&rft.atitle=Ruapekapeka+%7C+NZHistory%2C+New+Zealand+history+online&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnzhistory.govt.nz%2Fmedia%2Fphoto%2Fruapekapeka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/programmes/nz-wars/story/2018623840/podcast-the-battle-of-ruapekapeka">"Podcast: The Battle of Ruapekapeka"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/RNZ" class="mw-redirect" title="RNZ">RNZ</a></i>. 1 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RNZ&rft.atitle=Podcast%3A+The+Battle+of+Ruapekapeka&rft.date=2017-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rnz.co.nz%2Fprogrammes%2Fnz-wars%2Fstory%2F2018623840%2Fpodcast-the-battle-of-ruapekapeka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowne2019" class="citation web cs1">Browne, Alister (30 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/books/116984332/new-zealand-wars-sow-the-seed-of-racial-division-we-experience-today">"New Zealand Wars sow the seed of racial division we experience today"</a>. <i>Stuff</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stuff&rft.atitle=New+Zealand+Wars+sow+the+seed+of+racial+division+we+experience+today&rft.date=2019-10-30&rft.aulast=Browne&rft.aufirst=Alister&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stuff.co.nz%2Fentertainment%2Fbooks%2F116984332%2Fnew-zealand-wars-sow-the-seed-of-racial-division-we-experience-today&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinnish_Oriental_SocietySuomen_Itämainen_Seura2003" class="citation book cs1">Finnish Oriental Society; Suomen Itämainen Seura, eds. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aEbtAAAAMAAJ"><i>Studia Orientalia</i></a>. Vol. 95. Finnish Oriental Society, Suomen Itämainen Seura. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789519380544" title="Special:BookSources/9789519380544"><bdi>9789519380544</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2017</span>. <q>The Crimean War did have its own innovations: massive trench works and trench warfare [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studia+Orientalia&rft.pub=Finnish+Oriental+Society%2C+Suomen+It%C3%A4mainen+Seura&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9789519380544&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaEbtAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeller2001" class="citation book cs1">Keller, Ulrich (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-eWOAQAAQBAJ"><i>The Ultimate Spectacle: A Visual History of the Crimean War</i></a>. New York: Routledge (published 2013). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134392094" title="Special:BookSources/9781134392094"><bdi>9781134392094</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ultimate+Spectacle%3A+A+Visual+History+of+the+Crimean+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9781134392094&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-eWOAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPritchard_Jr.,_Russ_A.-" class="citation book cs1">Pritchard Jr., Russ A.-. <i>Civil War Weapons And Equipment</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+War+Weapons+And+Equipment&rft.au=Pritchard+Jr.%2C+Russ+A.-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dyer, Gwynn. <i>War</i>; Dupuy, Trevor N. <i>Evolution of Weapons and Warfare</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham200414–19-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham200414–19_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBidwellGraham2004">Bidwell & Graham 2004</a>, pp. 14–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham200427-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham200427_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBidwellGraham2004">Bidwell & Graham 2004</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham200424–25-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham200424–25_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBidwellGraham2004">Bidwell & Graham 2004</a>, pp. 24–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis19774-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis19774_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllis1977">Ellis 1977</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham2004–25-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBidwellGraham2004–25_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBidwellGraham2004">Bidwell & Graham 2004</a>, pp. –25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Creveld, p. 109-41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/transport-and-supply-during-the-first-world-war">"Transport and Supply During the First World War"</a>. <i>Imperial War Museum</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 September</span> 2021</span>. <q>The adequacy of transport and supply networks played a major role in shaping strategies for operations throughout the First World War and in influencing their success or failure.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Imperial+War+Museum&rft.atitle=Transport+and+Supply+During+the+First+World+War&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iwm.org.uk%2Fhistory%2Ftransport-and-supply-during-the-first-world-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentofmod007381mbp">James Harvey Robinson and Charles A. Beard, <i>The Development Of Modern Europe Volume II The Merging Of European Into World History</i> (1930) pp 324–25</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffith200410–11-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffith200410–11_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGriffith2004">Griffith 2004</a>, pp. 10–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffith200411-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffith200411_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGriffith2004">Griffith 2004</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theworldwar.org/learn/about-wwi/trench-warfare">"Trench Warfare Life in the trenches,1914-1918"</a>. <i>The World War</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+War&rft.atitle=Trench+Warfare+Life+in+the+trenches%2C1914-1918&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theworldwar.org%2Flearn%2Fabout-wwi%2Ftrench-warfare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230311195637/http://www.history-of-american-wars.com/world-war-1-trenches.html">"World War 1 Trenches, 1914-1918"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-of-american-wars.com/world-war-1-trenches.html/">the original</a> on 11 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+War+1+Trenches%2C+1914-1918&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history-of-american-wars.com%2Fworld-war-1-trenches.html%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-One-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-One_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-One_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ww1revisited.com/2014/03/16/trench-loopholes-le-linge/">Trench Loopholes, Le Linge</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keegan,_p._179-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Keegan,_p._179_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeegan1999">Keegan 1999</a>, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Canada's_Army,_p.79-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Canada's_Army,_p.79_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canada's_Army,_p.79_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Canada's Army</i>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Bangalore torpedo", in Fitzsimons, Bernard, editor, <i>Encyclopedia of 20th Century Weapons and Warfare</i> (London: Phoebus Publishing Company 1977), Volume 3, p. 269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/the-journey-of-the-camouflage-tree">"The Journey Of The Camouflage Tree"</a>. <i>Imperial War Museums</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Imperial+War+Museums&rft.atitle=The+Journey+Of+The+Camouflage+Tree&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iwm.org.uk%2Fhistory%2Fthe-journey-of-the-camouflage-tree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vanderlinden, Anthony <i><a href="/wiki/American_Rifleman" title="American Rifleman">American Rifleman</a></i> (October 2008) pp. 91–120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sheffield-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sheffield_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGary_Sheffield2007" class="citation book cs1">Gary Sheffield (2007). <i>War on the Western Front: In the Trenches of World War I</i>. Osprey Publishing. p. 201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1846032103" title="Special:BookSources/978-1846032103"><bdi>978-1846032103</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+on+the+Western+Front%3A+In+the+Trenches+of+World+War+I&rft.pages=201&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1846032103&rft.au=Gary+Sheffield&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica1922-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica1922_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHugh_Chisholm1922" class="citation book cs1">Hugh Chisholm (1922). <i>The Encyclopædia Britannica: The New Volumes of the Period 1910 to 1921 Inclusive, Volume 1</i>. Encyclopædia Britannica Company Limited. p. 470.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%3A+The+New+Volumes+of+the+Period+1910+to+1921+Inclusive%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=470&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Company+Limited&rft.date=1922&rft.au=Hugh+Chisholm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span> There is no wikilink available to the article "Bombthrowers"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJordan2002" class="citation journal cs1">Jordan, Jonathan W. (1 November 2002). "Weaponry: Hiram Maxim's machine gun probably claimed more lives than any other weapon ever made". <i>Military History</i>. <b>19</b> (4): 16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Military+History&rft.atitle=Weaponry%3A+Hiram+Maxim%27s+machine+gun+probably+claimed+more+lives+than+any+other+weapon+ever+made&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=16&rft.date=2002-11-01&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_K._Mahon_and_Romana_Danysh1972" class="citation book cs1">John K. Mahon and Romana Danysh (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100301200342/http://www.history.army.mil/books/Lineage/in/infantry.htm"><i>Infantry Part I: Regular Army</i></a>. Army Lineage Series. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Center_of_Military_History" title="United States Army Center of Military History">United States Army Center of Military History</a>. LOC number: 74-610219. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/books/Lineage/in/infantry.htm">the original</a> on 1 March 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Infantry+Part+I%3A+Regular+Army&rft.series=Army+Lineage+Series&rft.pub=United+States+Army+Center+of+Military+History&rft.date=1972&rft.au=John+K.+Mahon+and+Romana+Danysh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2Fbooks%2FLineage%2Fin%2Finfantry.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061117025055/http://history.enotes.com/peoples-chronology/year-1916">"1916 | Political Events: The People's Chronology"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.enotes.com/peoples-chronology/year-1916">the original</a> on 17 November 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1916+%26%23124%3B+Political+Events%3A+The+People%27s+Chronology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.enotes.com%2Fpeoples-chronology%2Fyear-1916&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaturday,_22_August_2009_Michael_Duffy2009" class="citation web cs1">Saturday, 22 August 2009 Michael Duffy (22 August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.firstworldwar.com/weaponry/machineguns.htm">"Weapons of War: Machine Guns"</a>. First World War.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Weapons+of+War%3A+Machine+Guns&rft.pub=First+World+War.com&rft.date=2009-08-22&rft.au=Saturday%2C+22+August+2009+Michael+Duffy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.firstworldwar.com%2Fweaponry%2Fmachineguns.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.firstworldwar.com/weaponry/machineguns.htm">"First World War.com – Weapons of War: Machine Guns"</a>. <i>Firstworldwar.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Firstworldwar.com&rft.atitle=First+World+War.com+%E2%80%93+Weapons+of+War%3A+Machine+Guns&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.firstworldwar.com%2Fweaponry%2Fmachineguns.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1999229–30-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1999229–30_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeegan1999">Keegan 1999</a>, pp. 229–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">General Sir Martin Farndale, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naval-military-press.com/FMPro?-db=nmp%5fproducts.fp5&-format=nmpweb%2fdetail.htm&-lay=cgi&-sortfield=date&Co=NMP&search=History%20of%20the%20Royal%20Regiment%20of%20Artillery.%20Western%20Front%201914-18&-max=20&-recid=35933&-token.0=3668698&-find=">History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery. Western Front 1914–18. London: Royal Artillery Institution, 1986</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoley2007191–192-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoley2007191–192_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoley2007">Foley 2007</a>, pp. 191–192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/entertainment/14625124.The_Somme_from_the_German_side_of_the_wire/">"The Somme from the German side of the wire (From The Northern Echo)"</a>. <i>Thenorthernecho.co.uk</i>. 18 July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Thenorthernecho.co.uk&rft.atitle=The+Somme+from+the+German+side+of+the+wire+%28From+The+Northern+Echo%29&rft.date=2016-07-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenorthernecho.co.uk%2Fentertainment%2F14625124.The_Somme_from_the_German_side_of_the_wire%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110708112043/http://calgaryhighlanders.com/history/10th/history/1915.htm">"1915 history"</a>. <i>Calgaryhighlanders.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://calgaryhighlanders.com/history/10th/history/1915.htm">the original</a> on 8 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Calgaryhighlanders.com&rft.atitle=1915+history&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcalgaryhighlanders.com%2Fhistory%2F10th%2Fhistory%2F1915.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodrigues, Hugo. France at War – Portugal in the Great War. Available* <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070603044406/http://www.worldwar1.com/france/portugal.htm">"France at War - Portugal in the Great War"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldwar1.com/france/portugal.htm">the original</a> on 3 June 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=France+at+War+-+Portugal+in+the+Great+War&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldwar1.com%2Ffrance%2Fportugal.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CanadasArmyp82-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CanadasArmyp82_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CanadasArmyp82_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CanadasArmyp82_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Canada's Army</i>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProst2014" class="citation journal cs1">Prost, Antoine (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/war_losses">"War Losses"</a>. <i>International Encyclopedia of the First World War</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+First+World+War&rft.atitle=War+Losses&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Prost&rft.aufirst=Antoine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Fwar_losses&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDieter2014" class="citation journal cs1">Dieter, Storz (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/artillery">"Artillery"</a>. <i>International Encyclopedia of the First World War</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+First+World+War&rft.atitle=Artillery&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Dieter&rft.aufirst=Storz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Fartillery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtenstaedt2006" class="citation journal cs1">Atenstaedt, R L (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1633565">"Trench fever: the British medical response in the Great War"</a>. <i>Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine</i>. <b>99</b> (11): 564–568. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F014107680609901114">10.1177/014107680609901114</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1633565">1633565</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17082300">17082300</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Trench+fever%3A+the+British+medical+response+in+the+Great+War&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=564-568&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1633565%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17082300&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F014107680609901114&rft.aulast=Atenstaedt&rft.aufirst=R+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1633565&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnstead2016" class="citation journal cs1">Anstead, Gregory (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7106389">"The centenary of the discovery of trench fever, an emerging infectious disease of World War 1"</a>. <i>The Lancet Infectious Diseases</i>. <b>16</b> (8): 164–172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2816%2930003-2">10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30003-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7106389">7106389</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27375211">27375211</a> – via Elsevier BV.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=The+centenary+of+the+discovery+of+trench+fever%2C+an+emerging+infectious+disease+of+World+War+1&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=164-172&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7106389%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27375211&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2816%2930003-2&rft.aulast=Anstead&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7106389&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruce1921" class="citation journal cs1">Bruce, David (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2207074">"Trench Fever. Final Report Of The War Office Trench Fever Investigation Committee"</a>. <i>Journal of Hygiene</i>. <b>20</b> (3): 258–288. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022172400034008">10.1017/S0022172400034008</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2207074">2207074</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20474739">20474739</a> – via Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Hygiene&rft.atitle=Trench+Fever.+Final+Report+Of+The+War+Office+Trench+Fever+Investigation+Committee&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=258-288&rft.date=1921&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2207074%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20474739&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022172400034008&rft.aulast=Bruce&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2207074&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes" class="citation journal cs1">Holmes, Grace. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201009141043/http://www.kumc.edu/wwi/index-of-essays/gas-gangrene.html">"Gas Gangrene in the First World War"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kumc.edu/wwi/index-of-essays/gas-gangrene.html">the original</a> on 9 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Gas+Gangrene+in+the+First+World+War&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=Grace&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kumc.edu%2Fwwi%2Findex-of-essays%2Fgas-gangrene.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaillerLabeeu1986" class="citation journal cs1">Pailler, J. L.; Labeeu, F. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3716723/">"Gas gangrene: a military disease?"</a>. <i>Acta Chirurgica Belgica</i>. <b>86</b> (2): 63–71. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3716723">3716723</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Chirurgica+Belgica&rft.atitle=Gas+gangrene%3A+a+military+disease%3F&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=63-71&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3716723&rft.aulast=Pailler&rft.aufirst=J.+L.&rft.au=Labeeu%2C+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F3716723%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPennington2019" class="citation journal cs1">Pennington, Hugh (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2217%2Ffmb-2018-0323">"The impact of infectious disease in war time: a look back at WW1"</a>. <i>Future Microbiology</i>. <b>14</b> (3): 165–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2217%2Ffmb-2018-0323">10.2217/fmb-2018-0323</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30628481">30628481</a> – via Future Medicine Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Future+Microbiology&rft.atitle=The+impact+of+infectious+disease+in+war+time%3A+a+look+back+at+WW1&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=165-168&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2217%2Ffmb-2018-0323&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30628481&rft.aulast=Pennington&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2217%252Ffmb-2018-0323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLe_BailyLandolt2014" class="citation journal cs1">Le Baily, Metthieu; Landolt, Michaël (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4198135">"Intestinal Parasites in First World War German Soldiers from "Kilianstollen", Carspach, France"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>9</b> (10): e109543. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PLoSO...9j9543L">2014PLoSO...9j9543L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0109543">10.1371/journal.pone.0109543</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4198135">4198135</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25333988">25333988</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Intestinal+Parasites+in+First+World+War+German+Soldiers+from+%22Kilianstollen%22%2C+Carspach%2C+France&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=e109543&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4198135%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25333988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0109543&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PLoSO...9j9543L&rft.aulast=Le+Baily&rft.aufirst=Metthieu&rft.au=Landolt%2C+Micha%C3%ABl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4198135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtenstaedt2006" class="citation journal cs1">Atenstaedt, Robert L. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1580%2F06-weme-lh-027r.1">"Trench foot: The medical response in the first World War 1914–18"</a>. <i>Wilderness & Environmental Medicine</i>. <b>17</b> (4): 282–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1580%2F06-weme-lh-027r.1">10.1580/06-weme-lh-027r.1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17219792">17219792</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7341839">7341839</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wilderness+%26+Environmental+Medicine&rft.atitle=Trench+foot%3A+The+medical+response+in+the+first+World+War+1914%E2%80%9318&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=282-9&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7341839%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17219792&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1580%2F06-weme-lh-027r.1&rft.aulast=Atenstaedt&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1580%252F06-weme-lh-027r.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaller1990" class="citation journal cs1">Haller, John S. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1002454">"Trench Foot – A study in Military-Medical Responsiveness in the Great War, 1914–1918"</a>. <i>The Western Journal of Medicine</i>. <b>152</b> (6): 729–730. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1002454">1002454</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1972307">1972307</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Western+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Trench+Foot+%E2%80%93+A+study+in+Military-Medical+Responsiveness+in+the+Great+War%2C+1914%E2%80%931918&rft.volume=152&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=729-730&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1002454%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1972307&rft.aulast=Haller&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1002454&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://microbiologysociety.org/publication/past-issues/world-war-i/article/typhus-in-world-war-i.html">"Typhus in World War I"</a>. <i>Microbiology Society</i>. 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Microbiology+Society&rft.atitle=Typhus+in+World+War+I&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmicrobiologysociety.org%2Fpublication%2Fpast-issues%2Fworld-war-i%2Farticle%2Ftyphus-in-world-war-i.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRistanovic2015" class="citation journal cs1">Ristanovic, Elizabeta (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5937%2Fbezbednost1502005r">"Infectious agents as a security challenge: Experience of typhus, variola and tularemia outbreaks in Serbia"</a>. <i>Bezbednost, Beograd</i>. <b>57</b> (2): 5–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5937%2Fbezbednost1502005r">10.5937/bezbednost1502005r</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:79506569">79506569</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bezbednost%2C+Beograd&rft.atitle=Infectious+agents+as+a+security+challenge%3A+Experience+of+typhus%2C+variola+and+tularemia+outbreaks+in+Serbia&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=5-20&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5937%2Fbezbednost1502005r&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A79506569%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ristanovic&rft.aufirst=Elizabeta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5937%252Fbezbednost1502005r&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatterson1993" class="citation journal cs1">Patterson, K David (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1036775">"Typhus and its control in Russia, 1870–1940"</a>. <i>Medical History</i>. <b>37</b> (4): 361–381. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025727300058725">10.1017/s0025727300058725</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1036775">1036775</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8246643">8246643</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29949150">29949150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+History&rft.atitle=Typhus+and+its+control+in+Russia%2C+1870%E2%80%931940&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=361-381&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1036775%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29949150%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8246643&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0025727300058725&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=K+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1036775&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thebiomedicalscientist.net/science/disease-trenches">"Disease in the trenches"</a>. <i>The Biomedical Scientist</i>. 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Biomedical+Scientist&rft.atitle=Disease+in+the+trenches&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthebiomedicalscientist.net%2Fscience%2Fdisease-trenches&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2013" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Jon E. (2013). <i>On the Front Line: True World War I Stories</i>. Hachette UK: Constable & Robinson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Front+Line%3A+True+World+War+I+Stories&rft.place=Hachette+UK&rft.pub=Constable+%26+Robinson&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Jon+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoughran2008" class="citation journal cs1">Loughran, Tracey (2008). "Shell-Shock and Psychological Medicine in First World War Britain". <i>Social History of Medicine</i>. <b>22</b>: 79–95. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.854.26">10.1.1.854.26</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fshm%2Fhkn093">10.1093/shm/hkn093</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+History+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Shell-Shock+and+Psychological+Medicine+in+First+World+War+Britain&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=79-95&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.854.26%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fshm%2Fhkn093&rft.aulast=Loughran&rft.aufirst=Tracey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrocq2000" class="citation journal cs1">Crocq, Marc-Antoine (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181586">"From shell shock and war neurosis to posttraumatic stress disorder: a history of psychotraumatology"</a>. <i>Dialogues Clin Neurosci</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 47–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31887%2FDCNS.2000.2.1%2Fmacrocq">10.31887/DCNS.2000.2.1/macrocq</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181586">3181586</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22033462">22033462</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogues+Clin+Neurosci&rft.atitle=From+shell+shock+and+war+neurosis+to+posttraumatic+stress+disorder%3A+a+history+of+psychotraumatology&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=47-55&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3181586%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22033462&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31887%2FDCNS.2000.2.1%2Fmacrocq&rft.aulast=Crocq&rft.aufirst=Marc-Antoine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3181586&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowning2016" class="citation book cs1">Downing, Taylor (2016). <i>Breakdown</i>. London: Brown Book Group.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Breakdown&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Brown+Book+Group&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Downing&rft.aufirst=Taylor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2014" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, Edgar (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/kcmhr/publications/assetfiles/2014/Jones2014e.pdf">"Battle for the mind: World War 1 and the birth of military psychiatry"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Lancet</i>. <b>384</b> (9955): 1708–1714. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0140-6736%2814%2961260-5">10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61260-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25441201">25441201</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19557543">19557543</a> – via Elsevier BV.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet&rft.atitle=Battle+for+the+mind%3A+World+War+1+and+the+birth+of+military+psychiatry&rft.volume=384&rft.issue=9955&rft.pages=1708-1714&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19557543%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25441201&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0140-6736%2814%2961260-5&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Edgar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kcl.ac.uk%2Fkcmhr%2Fpublications%2Fassetfiles%2F2014%2FJones2014e.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen2005" class="citation book cs1">Rosen, David M. (2005). <i>Armies of the young</i>. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 6–9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Armies+of+the+young&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+NJ&rft.pages=6-9&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2016" class="citation journal cs1">Chen, Daniel L. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191003050454/https://sole-jole.org/13382.pdf">"The Deterrent Effect of the Death Penalty? Evidence from British Commutations During World War I"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.2740549">10.2139/ssrn.2740549</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sole-jole.org/13382.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 3 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2019</span> – via Elsevier BV.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Deterrent+Effect+of+the+Death+Penalty%3F+Evidence+from+British+Commutations+During+World+War+I&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.2740549&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsole-jole.org%2F13382.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/1399983.stm">"Tribute to WWI 'cowards'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Tribute+to+WWI+%27cowards%27&rft.date=2001&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fuk_news%2F1399983.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hermann Cron: <i>Geschichte des Deutschen Heeres im Welkriege 1914–1918</i>; Berlin 1937, p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/csir_13/csir_13.asp">CSI Report No. 13: Tactical responses to concentrated artillery: Introduction</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110602111844/http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/csir_13/csir_13.asp">Archived</a> 2011-06-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hellmuth Gruss: <i>Die deutschen Sturmbataillone im Weltkrieg. Aufbau und Verwendung</i>.; Berlin, 1939</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/guides/zggykqt">"Was the tunnellers' secret war the most barbaric of WW1?"</a>. <i>BBC Guides</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+Guides&rft.atitle=Was+the+tunnellers%27+secret+war+the+most+barbaric+of+WW1%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fguides%2Fzggykqt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/mine_warfare">"Mine Warfare – International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net&rft.atitle=Mine+Warfare+%E2%80%93+International+Encyclopedia+of+the+First+World+War+%28WW1%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Fmine_warfare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Finlayson, Damien (2010): <i>Crumps and Camouflets: Australian Tunnelling Companies on the Western Front.</i> Big Sky Publishing, Newport, N.S.W., Australia. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780980658255" title="Special:BookSources/9780980658255">9780980658255</a> Accessed 2 January 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Branagan, D.F. (2005): <i>T.W. Edgeworth David: A Life: Geologist, Adventurer, Soldier and "Knight in the old brown hat"</i>, National Library of Australia, Canberra, pp. 255–314. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0642107912" title="Special:BookSources/0642107912">0642107912</a> Accessed 2 January 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ww1dotcom-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ww1dotcom_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ww1dotcom_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.firstworldwar.com/battles/messines.htm">"Battles: The Battle of Messines, 1917"</a>. <i>Firstworldwar.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Firstworldwar.com&rft.atitle=Battles%3A+The+Battle+of+Messines%2C+1917&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.firstworldwar.com%2Fbattles%2Fmessines.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/trench-warfare">"trench warfare"</a>. <i>Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica&rft.atitle=trench+warfare&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Ftrench-warfare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerrett1983" class="citation book cs1">Perrett, Bryan (1983). <i>A History of Blitzkrieg</i>. New York: Jove Books. pp. 30–31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-515-10234-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-515-10234-5"><bdi>978-0-515-10234-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Blitzkrieg&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=30-31&rft.pub=Jove+Books&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-515-10234-5&rft.aulast=Perrett&rft.aufirst=Bryan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historyextra.com/period/spains-very-international-civil-war/">Spain's very international civil war</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libcom.org/library/quiet-fronts-michael-seidman">Quiet fronts in the Spanish civil war</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzabó2002" class="citation book cs1">Szabó, János J. (2002). <i>The Árpád-line</i>. Budapest: Timp. pp. 6–67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/963-204-140-2" title="Special:BookSources/963-204-140-2"><bdi>963-204-140-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%C3%81rp%C3%A1d-line&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pages=6-67&rft.pub=Timp&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=963-204-140-2&rft.aulast=Szab%C3%B3&rft.aufirst=J%C3%A1nos+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/.amp/topics/world-war-ii/battle-of-kursk">"Battle of Kursk"</a>. <i>www.history.com</i>. 29 October 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.history.com&rft.atitle=Battle+of+Kursk&rft.date=2009-10-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2F.amp%2Ftopics%2Fworld-war-ii%2Fbattle-of-kursk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Remson, Andrew and Anderson, Debbie. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091026215617/http://geocities.com/armysappersforward/kursk.htm">"World War II Battle of Kursk: Mine/Countermine operations"</a>. Archived from the original on 26 October 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+War+II+Battle+of+Kursk%3A+Mine%2FCountermine+operations&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeocities.com%2Farmysappersforward%2Fkursk.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span> 25 April 2000, (Prepared for U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Command, Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate) Section "The Soviet defense system and minefields"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2014" class="citation book cs1">King, Dan (2014). <i>A Tomb Called Iwo Jima</i>. Pacific Press. pp. 58–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1500343385" title="Special:BookSources/978-1500343385"><bdi>978-1500343385</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Tomb+Called+Iwo+Jima&rft.pages=58-59&rft.pub=Pacific+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1500343385&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WW2MMDb_Letters-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WW2MMDb_Letters_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071212233438/http://worldwar2database.com/html/letters_from_iwo_jima.htm">"Letters from Iwo Jima"</a>. World War II Multimedia Database. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldwar2database.com/html/letters_from_iwo_jima.htm">the original</a> on 12 December 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letters+from+Iwo+Jima&rft.pub=World+War+II+Multimedia+Database&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldwar2database.com%2Fhtml%2Fletters_from_iwo_jima.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BattleFleet_IwoDefense-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BattleFleet_IwoDefense_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170805015433/http://www.battle-fleet.com/pw/his/Battle-Iwo-Jima-Defense.htm">"Battle of Iwo Jima—Japanese Defense"</a>. <i>World War II Naval Strategy</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.battle-fleet.com/pw/his/Battle-Iwo-Jima-Defense.htm">the original</a> on 5 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+War+II+Naval+Strategy&rft.atitle=Battle+of+Iwo+Jima%E2%80%94Japanese+Defense&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.battle-fleet.com%2Fpw%2Fhis%2FBattle-Iwo-Jima-Defense.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1945-03-19_Carriers_Hit_Tokyo"><i>Video: Carriers Hit Tokyo! 1945/03/19 (1945)</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Universal_Newsreel" title="Universal Newsreel">Universal Newsreel</a>. 19 March 1945<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Video%3A+Carriers+Hit+Tokyo%21+1945%2F03%2F19+%281945%29&rft.pub=Universal+Newsreel&rft.date=1945-03-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F1945-03-19_Carriers_Hit_Tokyo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Benschopvan_der_Schans1997-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Benschopvan_der_Schans1997_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenschopvan_der_SchansNoortFidder1997" class="citation journal cs1">Benschop, H. P.; van der Schans, G. P.; Noort, D.; Fidder, A.; Mars-Groenendijk, R. H.; de Jong, L. P. A. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjat%2F21.4.249">"Verification of Exposure to Sulfur Mustard in Two Casualties of the Iran-Iraq Conflict"</a>. <i>Journal of Analytical Toxicology</i>. <b>21</b> (4): 249–251. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjat%2F21.4.249">10.1093/jat/21.4.249</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0146-4760">0146-4760</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9248939">9248939</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Analytical+Toxicology&rft.atitle=Verification+of+Exposure+to+Sulfur+Mustard+in+Two+Casualties+of+the+Iran-Iraq+Conflict&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=249-251&rft.date=1997&rft.issn=0146-4760&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9248939&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjat%2F21.4.249&rft.aulast=Benschop&rft.aufirst=H.+P.&rft.au=van+der+Schans%2C+G.+P.&rft.au=Noort%2C+D.&rft.au=Fidder%2C+A.&rft.au=Mars-Groenendijk%2C+R.+H.&rft.au=de+Jong%2C+L.+P.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fjat%252F21.4.249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaffn.d." class="citation web cs1">Staff (n.d.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fas.org/irp/gulf/cia/960702/70086_01.htm">"Iraq and the Gulf War 1990-1991"</a>. (<a href="/wiki/CIA_Directorate_of_Intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA Directorate of Intelligence">Directorate of Intelligence</a> document) <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">U.S. Department of Defense</a> (via the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_American_Scientists" title="Federation of American Scientists">Federation of American Scientists</a>)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Iraq+and+the+Gulf+War+1990-1991&rft.pub=%28Directorate+of+Intelligence+document%29+U.S.+Department+of+Defense+%28via+the+Federation+of+American+Scientists%29&rft.au=Staff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.org%2Firp%2Fgulf%2Fcia%2F960702%2F70086_01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LATimes-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LATimes_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrogin,_Bob1991" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bob_Drogin" title="Bob Drogin">Drogin, Bob</a> (25 February 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-02-25-mn-1412-story.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Saddam Line' Falls Easily to Marines"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=%27Saddam+Line%27+Falls+Easily+to+Marines&rft.date=1991-02-25&rft.au=Drogin%2C+Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1991-02-25-mn-1412-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:03_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_98-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.military.com/history/bulldozer-assault-of-desert-storm-saw-us-army-opt-out-of-trench-warfare.html">"The 'Bulldozer Assault' of Desert Storm Saw the US Army Opt Out of Trench Warfare"</a>. <i>www.military.com</i>. 18 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.military.com&rft.atitle=The+%27Bulldozer+Assault%27+of+Desert+Storm+Saw+the+US+Army+Opt+Out+of+Trench+Warfare&rft.date=2022-04-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.military.com%2Fhistory%2Fbulldozer-assault-of-desert-storm-saw-us-army-opt-out-of-trench-warfare.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKellner,_Douglas1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Kellner" title="Douglas Kellner">Kellner, Douglas</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/kellner/essays/gulfwarch8.pdf">"Chapter 8 – Countdown to the Ground War"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Persian Gulf TV War</i>. Boulder, Colorado: <a href="/wiki/Westview_Press" title="Westview Press">Westview Press</a> (via the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a>). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-1614-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-1614-7"><bdi>978-0-8133-1614-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8+%E2%80%93+Countdown+to+the+Ground+War&rft.btitle=The+Persian+Gulf+TV+War&rft.place=Boulder%2C+Colorado&rft.pub=Westview+Press+%28via+the+University+of+California%2C+Los+Angeles%29&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-1614-7&rft.au=Kellner%2C+Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgseis.ucla.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fkellner%2Fessays%2Fgulfwarch8.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTareke2009" class="citation book cs1">Tareke, Gebru (2009). <i>The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa</i>. New Haven: Yale University. p. 345. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-14163-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-14163-4"><bdi>978-0-300-14163-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ethiopian+Revolution%3A+War+in+the+Horn+of+Africa&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=345&rft.pub=Yale+University&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-300-14163-4&rft.aulast=Tareke&rft.aufirst=Gebru&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher1999" class="citation news cs1">Fisher, Ian (23 August 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1999/08/23/world/peace-deal-may-be-near-for-ethiopia-and-eritrea.html">"Peace Deal May Be Near for Ethiopia and Eritrea"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Peace+Deal+May+Be+Near+for+Ethiopia+and+Eritrea&rft.date=1999-08-23&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1999%2F08%2F23%2Fworld%2Fpeace-deal-may-be-near-for-ethiopia-and-eritrea.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBond,_Catherine2000" class="citation news cs1">Bond, Catherine (22 May 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080618113000/http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/africa/05/22/ethiopia.eritrea/">"Eritrean independence celebrations muted as Ethiopian troops advance"</a>. <i>Archives.cnn.com</i>. Associated Press and Reuters. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/africa/05/22/ethiopia.eritrea/">the original</a> on 18 June 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives.cnn.com&rft.atitle=Eritrean+independence+celebrations+muted+as+Ethiopian+troops+advance&rft.date=2000-05-22&rft.au=Bond%2C+Catherine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.cnn.com%2F2000%2FWORLD%2Fafrica%2F05%2F22%2Fethiopia.eritrea%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/transformers-retired-tanks-functioning-as-bunkers-975973-2017-05-08">"Transformers: Retired tanks functioning as bunkers"</a>. 9 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Transformers%3A+Retired+tanks+functioning+as+bunkers&rft.date=2017-05-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiatoday.in%2Findia%2Fstory%2Ftransformers-retired-tanks-functioning-as-bunkers-975973-2017-05-08&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRettman2017" class="citation news cs1">Rettman, Andrew (24 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://euobserver.com/foreign/137017">"Armenia-Azerbaijan war: line of contact"</a>. <i>EUobserver</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EUobserver&rft.atitle=Armenia-Azerbaijan+war%3A+line+of+contact&rft.date=2017-02-24&rft.aulast=Rettman&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feuobserver.com%2Fforeign%2F137017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurent" class="citation magazine cs1">Laurent, Olivier. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/3715642/ukraine-russia-trenches-photos/">"Go Inside the Frozen Trenches of Eastern Ukraine"</a>. <i>Time</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Go+Inside+the+Frozen+Trenches+of+Eastern+Ukraine&rft.aulast=Laurent&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftime.com%2F3715642%2Fukraine-russia-trenches-photos%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2017" class="citation news cs1">Brown, Daniel (16 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/heres-what-the-bunkers-ukrainian-troops-dig-for-protection-look-like-2017-8?r=US&IR=T#/#the-soldiers-first-dig-out-a-hole-which-is-usually-at-least-waist-deep-then-they-put-down-a-layer-of-timber-and-cover-it-with-dirt-the-bunkers-are-also-sometimes-fortified-with-concrete-1">"Here's what it's like inside the bunkers Ukrainian troops are living in every day"</a>. <i>Business Insider Australia</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider+Australia&rft.atitle=Here%27s+what+it%27s+like+inside+the+bunkers+Ukrainian+troops+are+living+in+every+day&rft.date=2017-08-16&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fheres-what-the-bunkers-ukrainian-troops-dig-for-protection-look-like-2017-8%3Fr%3DUS%26IR%3DT%23%2F%23the-soldiers-first-dig-out-a-hole-which-is-usually-at-least-waist-deep-then-they-put-down-a-layer-of-timber-and-cover-it-with-dirt-the-bunkers-are-also-sometimes-fortified-with-concrete-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220614-echoes-of-wwi-in-ukraine-war-s-artillery-duels-and-trenches">"Echoes of WWI in Ukraine war's artillery duels and trenches"</a>. <i>France 24</i>. 14 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=France+24&rft.atitle=Echoes+of+WWI+in+Ukraine+war%27s+artillery+duels+and+trenches&rft.date=2022-06-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.france24.com%2Fen%2Flive-news%2F20220614-echoes-of-wwi-in-ukraine-war-s-artillery-duels-and-trenches&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/nov/28/hundreds-dead-in-ukraine-as-frontline-trench-war-escalates">"Fighting in east Ukraine descends into trench warfare as Russia seeks breakthrough"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 28 November 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Fighting+in+east+Ukraine+descends+into+trench+warfare+as+Russia+seeks+breakthrough&rft.date=2022-11-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2022%2Fnov%2F28%2Fhundreds-dead-in-ukraine-as-frontline-trench-war-escalates&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllyatt2022" class="citation web cs1">Ellyatt, Holly (30 November 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnbc.com/2022/11/30/trenches-endless-mud-and-death-the-battle-of-bakhmut.html">"Trenches, mud and death: One Ukrainian battlefield looks like something out of World War I"</a>. <i>CNBC</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNBC&rft.atitle=Trenches%2C+mud+and+death%3A+One+Ukrainian+battlefield+looks+like+something+out+of+World+War+I&rft.date=2022-11-30&rft.aulast=Ellyatt&rft.aufirst=Holly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnbc.com%2F2022%2F11%2F30%2Ftrenches-endless-mud-and-death-the-battle-of-bakhmut.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/ukraine-using-world-war-i-era-machine-guns-sniper-traps-to-fight-off-russia-2023-3">"Ukraine's troops fight off 'massive' Russian attacks in Bakhmut with World War I-era machine guns and sniper traps"</a>. <i>businessinsider</i>. 30 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=businessinsider&rft.atitle=Ukraine%27s+troops+fight+off+%27massive%27+Russian+attacks+in+Bakhmut+with+World+War+I-era+machine+guns+and+sniper+traps.&rft.date=2022-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fukraine-using-world-war-i-era-machine-guns-sniper-traps-to-fight-off-russia-2023-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-g4-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-g4_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGriffith1996">Griffith 1996</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdmonds199124-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdmonds199124_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdmonds1991">Edmonds 1991</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lavalle, John in <i>World War I – a student encyclopaedia</i>, ABC-Clio, 2006, p. 1886</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis197780–87-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis197780–87_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllis1977">Ellis 1977</a>, pp. 80–87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffith19965–6-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffith19965–6_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGriffith1996">Griffith 1996</a>, pp. 5–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffith199610-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffith199610_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGriffith1996">Griffith 1996</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter_Malkasian2002" class="citation book cs1">Carter Malkasian (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xxu2iEEKi-IC&pg=PA40"><i>A History of Modern Wars of Attrition</i></a>. Greenwood. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780275973797" title="Special:BookSources/9780275973797"><bdi>9780275973797</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Wars+of+Attrition&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780275973797&rft.au=Carter+Malkasian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXxu2iEEKi-IC%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/ukraine-war-why-wwi-comparisons-can-lead-to-underestimates-of-russias-strengths-201267">"Ukraine war: why WWI comparisons can lead to underestimates of Russia's strengths"</a>. <i>The conversation</i>. 18 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+conversation&rft.atitle=Ukraine+war%3A+why+WWI+comparisons+can+lead+to+underestimates+of+Russia%27s+strengths&rft.date=2023-04-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fukraine-war-why-wwi-comparisons-can-lead-to-underestimates-of-russias-strengths-201267&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p><b>Bibliography</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBidwellGraham2004" class="citation cs2">Bidwell, Shelford; Graham, Dominick (2004), <i>Fire-power – The British Army Weapons and Theory of War 1904–1945</i>, Pen & Sword Books</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fire-power+%E2%80%93+The+British+Army+Weapons+and+Theory+of+War+1904%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Bidwell&rft.aufirst=Shelford&rft.au=Graham%2C+Dominick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Weissenburg"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Weissenburg">"Weissenburg" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 499–500.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Weissenburg&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=499-500&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: postscript (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_postscript" title="Category:CS1 maint: postscript">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdmonds1991" class="citation book cs1">Edmonds, J. E. (1991) [1948]. <i>Military Operations France and Belgium 1917: 7 June – 10 November. Messines and Third Ypres (Passchendaele)</i>. History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. II (Imperial War Museum and Battery Press ed.). London: HMSO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89839-166-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89839-166-4"><bdi>978-0-89839-166-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Military+Operations+France+and+Belgium+1917%3A+7+June+%E2%80%93+10+November.+Messines+and+Third+Ypres+%28Passchendaele%29&rft.place=London&rft.series=History+of+the+Great+War+Based+on+Official+Documents+by+Direction+of+the+Historical+Section+of+the+Committee+of+Imperial+Defence&rft.edition=Imperial+War+Museum+and+Battery+Press&rft.pub=HMSO&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-89839-166-4&rft.aulast=Edmonds&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis1977" class="citation cs2">Ellis, John (1977), <i>Eye-Deep in Hell – Life in the Trenches 1914–1918</i>, Fontana</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eye-Deep+in+Hell+%E2%80%93+Life+in+the+Trenches+1914%E2%80%931918&rft.pub=Fontana&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoley2007" class="citation book cs1">Foley, R. T. (2007) [2005]. <i>German Strategy and the Path to Verdun: Erich von Falkenhayn and the Development of Attrition, 1870–1916</i> (pbk. ed.). Cambridge: CUP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-04436-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-04436-3"><bdi>978-0-521-04436-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Strategy+and+the+Path+to+Verdun%3A+Erich+von+Falkenhayn+and+the+Development+of+Attrition%2C+1870%E2%80%931916&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=pbk.&rft.pub=CUP&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-04436-3&rft.aulast=Foley&rft.aufirst=R.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreyFrey1995" class="citation cs2">Frey, Linda; Frey, Marsha, eds. (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wrJmCvFY6ocC&q=lines%20of%20the%20Lauter&pg=PA125">"Defensive Lines"</a>, <i>The Treaties of the War of the Spanish Succession: An Historical and Critical Dictionary</i> (illus. ed.), Greenwood, pp. 126–27, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313278846" title="Special:BookSources/9780313278846"><bdi>9780313278846</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 August</span> 2015</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Defensive+Lines&rft.btitle=The+Treaties+of+the+War+of+the+Spanish+Succession%3A+An+Historical+and+Critical+Dictionary&rft.pages=126-27&rft.edition=illus.&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780313278846&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwrJmCvFY6ocC%26q%3Dlines%2520of%2520the%2520Lauter%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffith1996" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Paddy_Griffith" title="Paddy Griffith">Griffith, Paddy</a> (1996), <i>Battle Tactics of the Western Front – The British Army's Art of Attack 1916–18</i>, Yale University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-06663-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-06663-5"><bdi>0-300-06663-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battle+Tactics+of+the+Western+Front+%E2%80%93+The+British+Army%27s+Art+of+Attack+1916%E2%80%9318&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-300-06663-5&rft.aulast=Griffith&rft.aufirst=Paddy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffith2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Paddy_Griffith" title="Paddy Griffith">Griffith, Paddy</a> (2004), <i>Fortifications of the Western Front 1914–18</i>, Oxford: Osprey, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-760-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-760-4"><bdi>978-1-84176-760-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fortifications+of+the+Western+Front+1914%E2%80%9318&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-84176-760-4&rft.aulast=Griffith&rft.aufirst=Paddy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeegan1999" class="citation cs2">Keegan, John (1999), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/firstworldwar00keeg_0"><i>The First World War</i></a></span>, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-40052-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-40052-4"><bdi>0-375-40052-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+World+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-375-40052-4&rft.aulast=Keegan&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffirstworldwar00keeg_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKonstam2011" class="citation cs2">Konstam, Angus (2011), <i>Marlborough</i> (illus. ed.), Oxford: Osprey, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780962320" title="Special:BookSources/9781780962320"><bdi>9781780962320</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marlborough&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=illus.&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781780962320&rft.aulast=Konstam&rft.aufirst=Angus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Murray, Nicholas. <i>The Rocky Road to the Great War: The Evolution of Trench Warfare to 1914</i>. Potomac Books Inc. (an imprint of the University of Nebraska Press), 2013.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRipleyDana1859" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/George_Ripley_(transcendentalist)" title="George Ripley (transcendentalist)">Ripley, George</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Anderson_Dana" title="Charles Anderson Dana">Dana, Charles Anderson</a>, eds. (1859), "Fortification: III Field Fortifications", <i>The New American Cyclopaedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge</i>, <a href="/wiki/D._Appleton_%26_Company" title="D. Appleton & Company">D. Appleton & Company</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MtEGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA622">622</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fortification%3A+III+Field+Fortifications&rft.btitle=The+New+American+Cyclopaedia%3A+A+Popular+Dictionary+of+General+Knowledge&rft.pages=622&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+%26+Company&rft.date=1859&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Creveld1980" class="citation cs2">Van Creveld, Martin (1980), <i>Supplying War: Logistics from Wallenstein to Patton</i>, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supplying+War%3A+Logistics+from+Wallenstein+to+Patton&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Van+Creveld&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrench+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Trench_warfare" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Trench warfare">Trench warfare</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>Johnson, Patrick <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/5102512.stm">In Depth: A century of mud and fire</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>, 27 June 2006</li> <li>Historic films and photos showing <i>"Trench Warfare in World War I"</i> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.europeanfilmgateway.eu/node/33/trench%20efg1914/multilingual%3A1">europeanfilmgateway.eu</a></li> <li>World War I Tanks at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tanks-encyclopedia.com/world-war-I-tanks.php">Tanks Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v-8zwFx-VE8">YouTube video of excavated and restored British WWI trench near Ypres</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/sanctuary-wood">Preserved Trenches Sanctuary Wood, Ypres, Belgium</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docsonline.tv/trench-warfare/">Trench Warfare | Apocalypse World War</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/trench-warfare">Trench warfare: Britannica.com article</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MPfAg2DwCk">YouTube video of Hill 60 on the Messines Ridge, site of a huge underground explosion</a></li> <li>William Philpott: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/Warfare_1914-1918/">Warfare 1914–1918</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Jeffrey LaMonica: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/Infantry/">Infantry</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/Weapons/">Weapons</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Markus Pöhlmann: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/close_combat_weapons/">Close Combat Weapons</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Nathan Watanabe: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/Hand_Grenade/">Hand Grenade</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fortifications" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fortifications" title="Template:Fortifications"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fortifications" title="Template talk:Fortifications"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fortifications" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fortifications"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fortifications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">Fortifications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abatis" title="Abatis">Abatis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acropolis" title="Acropolis">Acropolis</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Agger_(ancient_Rome)" title="Agger (ancient Rome)">Agger</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco"><a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">Broch</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Burgus" title="Burgus">Burgus</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Castellum" title="Castellum">Castellum</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">Castra</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Castro_culture" title="Castro culture">Castros</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_city_wall" title="Chinese city wall">Chengqiang</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_rampart" title="Circular rampart">Circular rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_gate" title="City gate">City gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crannog" title="Crannog">Crannog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditch_(fortification)" title="Ditch (fortification)">Ditch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_wall" title="Defensive wall">Defensive wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dun_(fortification)" title="Dun (fortification)">Dun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faussebraye" title="Faussebraye">Faussebraye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatehouse" title="Gatehouse">Gatehouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gord_(archaeology)" title="Gord (archaeology)">Gord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">Hillfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landwehr_(border)" title="Landwehr (border)">Landwehr</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">Limes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuraghe" title="Nuraghe">Nuraghe</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">Oppidum</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palisade" title="Palisade">Palisade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pincer_gate" title="Pincer gate">Pincer gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promontory_fort" title="Promontory fort">Promontory fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rampart_(fortification)" title="Rampart (fortification)">Rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringfort" title="Ringfort">Ringfort</a> (Rath)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_castle" title="Refuge castle">Refuge castle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Schwedenschanze" title="Schwedenschanze">Schwedenschanze</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockade" title="Stockade">Stockade</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sudis_(stake)" title="Sudis (stake)">Sudis</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Trou_de_loup" title="Trou de loup">Trou de loup</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Vallum" title="Vallum">Vallum</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagon_fort" title="Wagon fort">Wagon fort</a> (<span title="Afrikaans-language text"><i lang="af">Laager</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrified_fort" title="Vitrified fort">Vitrified fort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_work" title="Advanced work">Advanced work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albarrana_tower" title="Albarrana tower">Albarrana tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcazaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcazaba">Alcazaba</a></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%A1zar" title="Alcázar">Alcázar</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amba_(landform)" title="Amba (landform)">Amba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrowslit" title="Arrowslit">Arrowslit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbican" title="Barbican">Barbican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartizan" title="Bartizan">Bartizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastion" title="Bastion">Bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_tower" title="Battery tower">Battery tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlement" title="Battlement">Battlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bawn" title="Bawn">Bawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bent_entrance" title="Bent entrance">Bent entrance</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Bergfried" title="Bergfried">Bergfried</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Berm" title="Berm">Berm</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boom_(navigational_barrier)" title="Boom (navigational barrier)">Boom</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Bret%C3%A8che" title="Bretèche">Bretèche</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_castle" title="Bridge castle">Bridge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_tower" title="Bridge tower">Bridge tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burh" title="Burh">Burh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butter-churn_tower" title="Butter-churn tower">Butter-churn tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caer" title="Caer">Caer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caltrop" title="Caltrop">Caltrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_gate" title="Chamber gate">Chamber gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartaque" title="Chartaque">Chartaque</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Chashi" title="Chashi">Chashi</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Chemin_de_ronde" title="Chemin de ronde">Chemin de ronde</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Chemise_(wall)" title="Chemise (wall)">Chemise</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Cheval_de_frise" title="Cheval de frise">Cheval de frise</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">Citadel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_castle" title="Coercion castle">Coercion castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">Concentric castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corner_tower" title="Corner tower">Corner tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-castle" title="Counter-castle">Counter-castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtain_wall_(fortification)" title="Curtain wall (fortification)">Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drawbridge" title="Drawbridge">Drawbridge</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Enceinte" title="Enceinte">Enceinte</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Embrasure" title="Embrasure">Embrasure</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flanking_tower" title="Flanking tower">Flanking tower</a></li> <li>Fortified buildings (<a href="/wiki/Fortified_church" title="Fortified church">church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fortified_house" title="Fortified house">house</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fujian_tulou" title="Fujian tulou">Fujian tulou</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganerbenburg" title="Ganerbenburg">Ganerbenburg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_tower" title="Gate tower">Gate tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Glacis" title="Glacis">Glacis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guard_tower" title="Guard tower">Guard tower</a></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gulyay-gorod" title="Gulyay-gorod">Gulyay-gorod</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gusuku" title="Gusuku">Gusuku</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half_tower" title="Half tower">Half tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoarding_(castle)" title="Hoarding (castle)">Hoarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_bailey" title="Inner bailey">Inner bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasbah" title="Kasbah">Kasbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep" title="Keep">Keep</a></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kremlin_(fortification)" title="Kremlin (fortification)">Kremlin</a></i></span> <small>(<span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Detinets" title="Detinets">Detinets</a></i></span>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ksar" title="Ksar">Ksar</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Landesburg" title="Landesburg">Landesburg</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-plan_castle" title="L-plan castle">L-plan castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machicolation" title="Machicolation">Machicolation</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Merlon" title="Merlon">Merlon</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moat" title="Moat">Moat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle" title="Motte-and-bailey castle">Motte-and-bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_hole" title="Murder hole">Murder hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neck_ditch" title="Neck ditch">Neck ditch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_bailey" title="Outer bailey">Outer bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outwork" title="Outwork">Outwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peel_tower" title="Peel tower">Peel tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portcullis" title="Portcullis">Portcullis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postern" title="Postern">Postern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_tower" title="Powder tower">Powder tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalat_(fortress)" title="Qalat (fortress)">Qalat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduit" title="Reduit">Reduit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribat" title="Ribat">Ribat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricetto" title="Ricetto">Ricetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringwork" title="Ringwork">Ringwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundel_(fortification)" title="Roundel (fortification)">Roundel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrangular_castle" title="Quadrangular castle">Quadrangular castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_keep" title="Shell keep">Shell keep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield_wall_(castle)" title="Shield wall (castle)">Shield wall</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_castle" title="Japanese castle">Shiro</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_castle" title="Toll castle">Toll castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_castle" title="Tower castle">Tower castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_house" title="Tower house">Tower house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turret_(architecture)" title="Turret (architecture)">Turret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ring_fortress" title="Viking ring fortress">Viking ring fortress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_tower" title="Fortified tower">Wall tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailey_(castle)" title="Bailey (castle)">Bailey (or ward)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchtower" title="Watchtower">Watchtower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_tower" title="Witch tower">Witch tower</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Yagura_(tower)" title="Yagura (tower)">Yagura</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yett" title="Yett">Yett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zwinger" title="Zwinger">Zwinger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Abwurfdach" class="mw-redirect" title="Abwurfdach">Abwurfdach</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenal" title="Arsenal">Arsenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barricade" title="Barricade">Barricade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastion" title="Bastion">Bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockhouse" title="Blockhouse">Blockhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastwork_(fortification)" title="Breastwork (fortification)">Breastwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Caponier" title="Caponier">Caponier</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">Casemate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalier_(fortification)" title="Cavalier (fortification)">Cavalier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterguard" title="Counterguard">Counterguard</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Couvreface" title="Couvreface">Couvreface</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Coupure" title="Coupure">Coupure</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covertway" title="Covertway">Covertway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crownwork" title="Crownwork">Crownwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Device_Forts" title="Device Forts">Device Forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrenchment_(fortification)" title="Entrenchment (fortification)">Entrenchment</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Fl%C3%A8che_(fortification)" title="Flèche (fortification)">Flèche</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorge_(fortification)" title="Gorge (fortification)">Gorge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_magazine" title="Gunpowder magazine">Gunpowder magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hornwork" title="Hornwork">Hornwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotta_mara" title="Kotta mara">Kotta mara</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Lunette_(fortification)" title="Lunette (fortification)">Lunette</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magazine_(artillery)" title="Magazine (artillery)">Magazine</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Orillon" title="Orillon">Orillon</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ostrog_(fortress)" title="Ostrog (fortress)">Ostrog</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palanka_(fortification)" title="Palanka (fortification)">Palanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place-of-arms" title="Place-of-arms">Place-of-arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_fort" title="Polygonal fort">Polygonal fort</a></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Presidio" title="Presidio">Presidio</a></i></span> (Spanish America)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punji_stick" title="Punji stick">Punji sticks</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ravelin" title="Ravelin">Ravelin</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Redan" title="Redan">Redan</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redoubt" title="Redoubt">Redoubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrenchment_(military)" title="Retrenchment (military)">Retrenchment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sally_port" title="Sally port">Sally port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandbag" title="Sandbag">Sandbag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterscarp" title="Counterscarp">Scarp and Counterscarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sconce_(fortification)" title="Sconce (fortification)">Sconce</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Schanze" title="Schanze">Schanze</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea fort">Sea fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Station_(frontier_defensive_structure)" title="Station (frontier defensive structure)">Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Star fort">Star fort</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Tenaille" title="Tenaille">Tenaille</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbed_wire" title="Barbed wire">Barbed wire</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Barbette" title="Barbette">Barbette</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_outpost" title="Border outpost">Border outpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">Bunker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_artillery" title="Coastal artillery">Coastal artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearing_gun" title="Disappearing gun">Disappearing gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_control_tower" title="Fire control tower">Fire control tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_turret" title="Gun turret">Gun turret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">Land mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martello_tower" title="Martello tower">Martello tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">Outpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_fort" title="Polygonal fort">Polygonal fort</a></li> <li><span title="Persian-language text"><i lang="fa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sangar_(fortification)" title="Sangar (fortification)">Sangar</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire_obstacle" title="Wire obstacle">Wire obstacles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_scaffolding" title="Admiralty scaffolding">Admiralty scaffolding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_raid_shelter" title="Air raid shelter">Air raid shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_trench" title="Anti-tank trench">Anti-tank trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbed_tape" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbed tape">Barbed tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cointet-element" title="Cointet-element">Belgian gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_shelter" title="Blast shelter">Blast shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_wall" title="Blast wall">Blast wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Border security">Border security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomb_shelter" title="Bomb shelter">Bomb shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buoy_anti-tank_obstacle" title="Buoy anti-tank obstacle">Buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremer_wall" title="Bremer wall">Bremer wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concertina_wire" title="Concertina wire">Concertina wire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Defensive fighting position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_anti-invasion_preparations_of_the_Second_World_War#Lines_and_islands" title="British anti-invasion preparations of the Second World War">British "hedgehog" road block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_hedgehog" title="Czech hedgehog">Czech hedgehog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon%27s_teeth_(fortification)" title="Dragon's teeth (fortification)">Dragon's teeth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">Entry control point (ECP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_fence" title="Electric fence">Electric fence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">Fallout shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_support_base" title="Fire support base">Fire support base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flak_tower" title="Flak tower">Flak tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardened_aircraft_shelter" title="Hardened aircraft shelter">Hardened aircraft shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesco_bastion" title="Hesco bastion">Hesco bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabal_(earthworks)" title="Kabal (earthworks)">Kabal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole_(firearm)" title="Loophole (firearm)">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_line_of_resistance" title="Main line of resistance">Main line of resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_launch_facility" title="Missile launch facility">Missile launch facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pillbox_(military)" title="Pillbox (military)">Pillbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revetment_(aircraft)" title="Revetment (aircraft)">Revetment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentry_gun" title="Sentry gun">Sentry gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_hole" title="Spider hole">Spider hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_pen" title="Submarine pen">Submarine pen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_hangar" title="Underground hangar">Underground hangar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_storage_area" title="Weapon storage area">Weapon storage area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_Storage_and_Security_System" title="Weapons Storage and Security System">Weapons Storage and Security System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_castle" title="Cave castle">Cave castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_castle" title="Hill castle">Hill castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">Hillfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillside_castle" title="Hillside castle">Hillside castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilltop_castle" title="Hilltop castle">Hilltop castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_castle" title="Island castle">Island castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowland_castle" title="Lowland castle">Lowland castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_castle" title="Marsh castle">Marsh castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_castle" title="Water castle">Moated castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promontory_fort" title="Promontory fort">Promontory fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_castle" title="Ridge castle">Ridge castle</a></li> <li><span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it"><a href="/wiki/Rocca_(fortification)" title="Rocca (fortification)">Rocca</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_castle" title="Rock castle">Rock castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spur_castle" title="Spur castle">Spur castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_castle" title="Water castle">Water castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotta_mara" title="Kotta mara">Floating water castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By role</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Border_barrier" title="Border barrier">Border barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_castle" title="Coercion castle">Coercion castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-castle" title="Counter-castle">Counter-castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fence" title="Fence">Fence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganerbenburg" title="Ganerbenburg">Ganerbenburg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdschloss" title="Jagdschloss">Hunting lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_castle" title="Imperial castle">Imperial castle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Kaiserpfalz" title="Kaiserpfalz">Kaiserpfalz</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Landesburg" title="Landesburg">Landesburg</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Lustschloss" title="Lustschloss">Lustschloss</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Military base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstacle" title="Obstacle">Obstacle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Ordensburg" title="Ordensburg">Ordensburg</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_castle" title="Refuge castle">Refuge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_castle" title="Toll castle">Toll castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_castle" title="Urban castle">Urban castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By design</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bastion_fort" title="Bastion fort">Bastion fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_castle" title="Bridge castle">Bridge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_rampart" title="Circular rampart">Circular rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">Concentric castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-plan_castle" title="L-plan castle">L-plan castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle" title="Motte-and-bailey castle">Motte-and-bailey castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrangular_castle" title="Quadrangular castle">Quadrangular castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringfort" title="Ringfort">Ringfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringwork" title="Ringwork">Ringwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_castle" title="Tower castle">Tower castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-plan_castle" title="Z-plan castle">Z-plan castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bastion_forts" title="List of bastion forts">Bastion forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles" title="List of castles">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_with_defensive_walls" title="List of cities with defensive walls">Cities with defensive walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_line" title="Defense line">Defense line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortified estate">Fortified estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fortifications" title="List of fortifications">Fortifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forts" title="List of forts">Forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_military_installations" title="Lists of military installations">Military installations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_walls" title="List of walls">Walls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related word</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castle_town" title="Castle town">Castle town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau" title="Château">Château</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungeon" title="Dungeon">Dungeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festung" title="Festung">Festung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_gateway" title="Fortified gateway">Fortified gateway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatekeeper" title="Gatekeeper">Gatekeeper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole_(firearm)" title="Loophole (firearm)">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_redoubt" title="National redoubt">National redoubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palas" title="Palas">Palas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picket_(military)" title="Picket (military)">Picket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schloss" title="Schloss">Schloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench" title="Trench">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedette_(sentry)" title="Vedette (sentry)">Vedette</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense" title="Civil defense">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_of_government" title="Continuity of government">Continuity of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_urbanism" title="Military urbanism">Military urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">Siege engine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_siege_engines" title="List of siege engines">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel warfare</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trench warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_guerrilla_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nobold">See also</span>: <b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Fortification" title="Category:Fortification">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_War_I" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_I" title="Template:World War I"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_I" title="Template talk:World War I"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_War_I" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World War I"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_War_I" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_I" title="Outline of World War I">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_engagements_of_World_War_I" title="List of military engagements of World War I">Military engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Economic history of World War I">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_geography_in_World_War_I" title="Role of geography in World War I">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_I" title="Home front during World War I">Home fronts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_memorials" title="World War I memorials">Memorials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_I" title="Opposition to World War I">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_in_popular_culture" title="World War I in popular culture">Popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_World_War_I" title="Propaganda in World War I">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_I_puppet_states" title="List of World War I puppet states">Puppet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_I" title="Technology during World War I">Technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">Theatres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="European theatre of World War I">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkans_theatre" title="Balkans theatre">Balkans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_campaign" title="Serbian campaign">Serbia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I" title="Romania in World War I">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_front_(World_War_I)" title="Italian front (World War I)">Italian Front</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Middle Eastern theatre of World War I">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Gallipoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_campaign" title="Sinai and Palestine campaign">Sinai and Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_campaign" title="Caucasus campaign">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="Persian campaign (World War I)">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign" title="Mesopotamian campaign">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Hejaz & Levant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="African theatre of World War I">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Africa_campaign" title="South West Africa campaign">South West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="East African campaign (World War I)">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamerun_campaign" title="Kamerun campaign">Kamerun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togoland_campaign" title="Togoland campaign">Togoland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_operations_in_North_Africa_during_World_War_I" title="Military operations in North Africa during World War I">North</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Asian_and_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Asian and Pacific theatre of World War I">Asian and Pacific</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">Tsingtao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_German_Samoa" title="Occupation of German Samoa">German Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_occupation_of_German_New_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian occupation of German New Guinea">German New Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare_of_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare of World War I">Naval warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U-boat_campaign" title="U-boat campaign">U-boat campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_U-boat_campaign_of_World_War_I" title="Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I">North Atlantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare_in_the_Mediterranean_during_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare in the Mediterranean during World War I">Mediterranean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Principal<br />participants</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Entente Powers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_I" title="Allied leaders of World War I">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_I" title="Belgium in World War I">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_during_World_War_I" title="Brazil during World War I">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_during_World_War_I" title="China during World War I">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Army_in_World_War_I" title="French Army in World War I">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_during_World_War_I" title="Greece during World War I">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz" title="Kingdom of Hejaz">Hejaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montenegro#World_War_I" title="History of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_I" title="Portugal during World War I">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I" title="Romania in World War I">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_in_the_First_World_War" title="Russia in the First World War">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1894%E2%80%931917)#Russia_at_war,_1914–1916" title="History of Russia (1894–1917)">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbia#Serbia_in_World_War_I_(1914–1918)" title="History of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siam_in_World_War_I" title="Siam in World War I">Siam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaders_of_the_Central_Powers_of_World_War_I" title="Leaders of the Central Powers of World War I">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria-Hungary_during_World_War_I" title="History of Austria-Hungary during World War I">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_I" title="Bulgaria during World War I">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senussi_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Senussi Campaign">Senussi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritz_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritz Rebellion">South African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Darfur" title="Invasion of Darfur">Darfur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_I" title="Timeline of World War I">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Pre-War conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> (1870–71)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> (1880–1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis" title="First Moroccan Crisis">Tangier Crisis</a> (1905–06)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a> (1908–09)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agadir_Crisis" title="Agadir Crisis">Agadir Crisis</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish War</a> (1911–12)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First Balkan War</a> (1912–13)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Balkan_War" title="Second Balkan War">Second Balkan War</a> (1913)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Prelude</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I" title="Causes of World War I">Origins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of the causes of World War I">Historiography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand" title="Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand">Sarajevo assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_riots_in_Sarajevo" title="Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo">Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">July Crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">1914</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1914)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1914)">German invasion of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Frontiers" title="Battle of the Frontiers">Battle of the Frontiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cer" title="Battle of Cer">Battle of Cer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Galicia" title="Battle of Galicia">Battle of Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_East_Prussia_(1914)" title="Russian invasion of East Prussia (1914)">Russian invasion of East Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg" title="Battle of Tannenberg">Battle of Tannenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">Siege of Tsingtao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Masurian_Lakes" title="First Battle of the Masurian Lakes">First Battle of the Masurian Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Grand_Couronn%C3%A9" title="Battle of Grand Couronné">Battle of Grand Couronné</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Marne" title="First Battle of the Marne">First Battle of the Marne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Przemy%C5%9Bl" title="Siege of Przemyśl">Siege of Przemyśl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_to_the_Sea" title="Race to the Sea">Race to the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Ypres" title="First Battle of Ypres">First Battle of Ypres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_raid" title="Black Sea raid">Black Sea raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kolubara" title="Battle of Kolubara">Battle of Kolubara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish" title="Battle of Sarikamish">Battle of Sarikamish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_truce" title="Christmas truce">Christmas truce</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">1915</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Masurian_Lakes" title="Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes">Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_%C5%81om%C5%BCa" title="Battle of Łomża">Battle of Łomża</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres" title="Second Battle of Ypres">Second Battle of Ypres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_RMS_Lusitania" title="Sinking of the RMS Lusitania">Sinking of the RMS <i>Lusitania</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Battle of Gallipoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Artois" title="Second Battle of Artois">Second Battle of Artois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_the_Isonzo" title="Battles of the Isonzo">Battles of the Isonzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorlice%E2%80%93Tarn%C3%B3w_offensive" title="Gorlice–Tarnów offensive">Gorlice–Tarnów offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Retreat_(Russia)" title="Great Retreat (Russia)">Great Retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bug%E2%80%93Narew_Offensive" title="Bug–Narew Offensive">Bug-Narew Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Novogeorgievsk" title="Siege of Novogeorgievsk">Siege of Novogeorgievsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Bug_offensive" title="Vistula–Bug offensive">Vistula–Bug offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Champagne" title="Second Battle of Champagne">Second Battle of Champagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_offensive_(1915)" title="Kosovo offensive (1915)">Kosovo offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kut" title="Siege of Kut">Siege of Kut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Loos" title="Battle of Loos">Battle of Loos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Robat_Karim" title="Battle of Robat Karim">Battle of Robat Karim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">1916</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erzurum_offensive" title="Erzurum offensive">Erzurum offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">Battle of Verdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Naroch_offensive" title="Lake Naroch offensive">Lake Naroch offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Asiago" title="Battle of Asiago">Battle of Asiago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jutland" title="Battle of Jutland">Battle of Jutland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme" title="Battle of the Somme">Battle of the Somme</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_day_on_the_Somme" title="First day on the Somme">first day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brusilov_offensive" title="Brusilov offensive">Brusilov offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baranovichi_offensive" title="Baranovichi offensive">Baranovichi offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Romani" title="Battle of Romani">Battle of Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastir_offensive" title="Monastir offensive">Monastir offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Transylvania" title="Battle of Transylvania">Battle of Transylvania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_I_(1917%E2%80%931918)" title="Timeline of World War I (1917–1918)">1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Baghdad_(1917)" title="Fall of Baghdad (1917)">Capture of Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimmermann_telegram" title="Zimmermann telegram">Zimmermann telegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_(1917)" title="Battle of Arras (1917)">Second battle of Arras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_battle_of_the_Aisne" class="mw-redirect" title="Second battle of the Aisne">Second battle of the Aisne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerensky_offensive" title="Kerensky offensive">Kerensky offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C4%83r%C4%83%C8%99ti" title="Battle of Mărăști">Battle of Mărăști</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Passchendaele" title="Battle of Passchendaele">Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C4%83r%C4%83%C8%99e%C8%99ti" title="Battle of Mărășești">Battle of Mărășești</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Oituz" title="Third Battle of Oituz">Third Battle of Oituz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Caporetto" title="Battle of Caporetto">Battle of Caporetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Palestine_offensive" title="Southern Palestine offensive">Southern Palestine offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_La_Malmaison" title="Battle of La Malmaison">Battle of La Malmaison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cambrai_(1917)" title="Battle of Cambrai (1917)">Battle of Cambrai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Foc%C8%99ani" title="Armistice of Focșani">Armistice of Focșani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_between_Russia_and_the_Central_Powers" title="Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers">Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_I_(1917%E2%80%931918)" title="Timeline of World War I (1917–1918)">1918</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Faustschlag" title="Operation Faustschlag">Operation Faustschlag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_spring_offensive" title="German spring offensive">German spring offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeebrugge_Raid" title="Zeebrugge Raid">Zeebrugge Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1918)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1918)">Treaty of Bucharest of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Goychay" title="Battle of Goychay">Battle of Goychay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Piave_River" title="Second Battle of the Piave River">Second Battle of the Piave River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Marne" title="Second Battle of the Marne">Second Battle of the Marne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days_Offensive" title="Hundred Days Offensive">Hundred Days Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vardar_offensive" title="Vardar offensive">Vardar offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Megiddo_(1918)" title="Battle of Megiddo (1918)">Battle of Megiddo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Transjordan_attack" title="Third Transjordan attack">Third Transjordan attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse%E2%80%93Argonne_offensive" title="Meuse–Argonne offensive">Meuse–Argonne offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vittorio_Veneto" title="Battle of Vittorio Veneto">Battle of Vittorio Veneto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Salonica" title="Armistice of Salonica">Armistice of Salonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros" title="Armistice of Mudros">Armistice of Mudros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Villa_Giusti" title="Armistice of Villa Giusti">Armistice of Villa Giusti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Romanian_campaign_of_World_War_I" title="Second Romanian campaign of World War I">Second Romanian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">Armistice with Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bollettino_della_Vittoria_Navale" title="Bollettino della Vittoria Navale">Naval Victory Bulletin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Belgrade" title="Armistice of Belgrade">Armistice of Belgrade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Co-belligerent conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland_campaign" title="Somaliland campaign">Somaliland campaign</a> (1900–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a> (1910–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritz_rebellion" title="Maritz rebellion">Maritz rebellion</a> (1914–15)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat_rebellion" title="Muscat rebellion">Muscat rebellion</a> (1913–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaian_War" title="Zaian War">Zaian War</a> (1914–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_rebellions_during_World_War_I" title="Kurdish rebellions during World War I">Kurdish rebellions</a> (1914–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovambo_Uprising" title="Ovambo Uprising">Ovambo Uprising</a> (1914–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelantan_rebellion" title="Kelantan rebellion">Kelantan rebellion</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senussi_campaign" title="Senussi campaign">Senussi campaign</a> (1915–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volta-Bani_War" title="Volta-Bani War">Volta-Bani War</a> (1915–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a> (1916–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916" title="Central Asian revolt of 1916">Central Asian Revolt</a> (1916–17)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Darfur" title="Invasion of Darfur">Invasion of Darfur</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easter_Rising" title="Easter Rising">Easter Rising</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaocen_revolt" title="Kaocen revolt">Kaocen revolt</a> (1916–17)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a> (1918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Post-War conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> (1917–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Ukrainian–Soviet War">Ukrainian–Soviet War</a> (1917–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_war_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)">Armenian–Azerbaijani War</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armeno-Georgian_War" title="Armeno-Georgian War">Armeno-Georgian War</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_and_interventions_in_Hungary_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Revolutions and interventions in Hungary (1918–1920)">Revolutions and interventions in Hungary</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian%E2%80%93Romanian_War" title="Hungarian–Romanian War">Hungarian–Romanian War</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)">Greater Poland Uprising</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonian War of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvian War of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Wars_of_Independence" title="Lithuanian Wars of Independence">Lithuanian Wars of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">Polish–Ukrainian War</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Third Anglo-Afghan War">Third Anglo-Afghan War</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919_Egyptian_revolution" title="1919 Egyptian revolution">Egyptian Revolution</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_War" title="Polish–Lithuanian War">Polish–Lithuanian War</a> (1919–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> (1919–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence" title="Irish War of Independence">Irish War of Independence</a> (1919–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_during_the_Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="United Kingdom during the Turkish War of Independence">Anglo-Turkish War</a> (1918–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Turkish_War" title="Franco-Turkish War">Franco-Turkish War</a> (1918–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_(1919%E2%80%931922)" title="Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)">Greco-Turkish War</a> (1919–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish%E2%80%93Armenian_War" title="Turkish–Armenian War">Turkish–Armenian War</a> (1920)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Revolt" title="Iraqi Revolt">Iraqi Revolt</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlora_War" title="Vlora War">Vlora War</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Syrian_War" title="Franco-Syrian War">Franco-Syrian War</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Soviet–Georgian War</a> (1921)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Warfare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_World_War_I" title="Aviation in World War I">Aviation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_I" title="Strategic bombing during World War I">Strategic bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons_in_World_War_I" title="Chemical weapons in World War I">Chemical weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_cryptography" title="World War I cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_World_War_I" title="Horses in World War I">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistics_in_World_War_I" title="Logistics in World War I">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare_of_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare of World War I">Naval warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convoys_in_World_War_I" title="Convoys in World War I">Convoy system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trench warfare</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Conscription" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Conscription</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_conscription_in_Australia" title="World War I conscription in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1917" title="Conscription Crisis of 1917">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seferberlik" title="Seferberlik">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_to_the_British_Army_during_World_War_I" title="Recruitment to the British Army during World War I">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1918" title="Conscription Crisis of 1918">Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_Service_Act_of_1917" title="Selective Service Act of 1917">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_casualties" title="World War I casualties">Casualties</a> /<br />Civilian impact</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>British casualties <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_parliamentarians_who_died_in_the_First_World_War" title="List of British parliamentarians who died in the First World War">Parliamentarians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_casualties_of_World_War_I" title="Ottoman casualties of World War I">Ottoman casualties</a></li> <li>Sports <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_rugby_union_players_killed_in_World_War_I" title="List of international rugby union players killed in World War I">Rugby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Olympians_killed_in_World_War_I" title="List of Olympians killed in World War I">Olympians</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Disease</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1899%E2%80%931923_cholera_pandemic" title="1899–1923 cholera pandemic">1899–1923 cholera pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1915_typhus_and_relapsing_fever_epidemic_in_Serbia" title="1915 typhus and relapsing fever epidemic in Serbia">1915 typhus epidemic in Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_occupation_of_Serbia" title="Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia">Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia</a></li> <li>Bulgarian occupations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_occupation_of_Albania" title="Bulgarian occupation of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_occupation_of_Serbia_(World_War_I)" title="Bulgarian occupation of Serbia (World War I)">Serbia</a></li></ul></li> <li>German occupations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Belgium_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Belgium during World War I">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_north-east_France_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of north-east France during World War I">Northeast France</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ober_Ost" title="Ober Ost">Ober Ost</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration" title="Occupied Enemy Territory Administration">Occupied Enemy Territory Administration</a></li> <li>Russian occupations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Eastern_Galicia_(1914%E2%80%931915)" title="Russian occupation of Eastern Galicia (1914–1915)">Eastern Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Western_Armenia" title="Occupation of Western Armenia">Western Armenia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_I" title="Prisoners of war in World War I">POWs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Germans <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_I" title="Italian prisoners of war in World War I">Italians</a></li> <li>POW locations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_I_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_Canada" title="List of World War I prisoner-of-war camps in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_prisoners_of_war_in_Germany" title="World War I prisoners of war in Germany">Germany</a> / <a href="/wiki/German_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_World_War_I" title="German prisoner-of-war camps in World War I">camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war_camps_in_Switzerland_during_World_War_I" title="Prisoner of war camps in Switzerland during World War I">Switzerland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_World_War_I" title="Refugees of World War I">Refugees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Belgian refugees <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_refugees_in_the_Netherlands_during_the_First_World_War" title="Belgian refugees in the Netherlands during the First World War">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_refugees_in_Britain_during_the_First_World_War" title="Belgian refugees in Britain during the First World War">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_I" title="War crimes in World War I">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Allied blockades <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_the_Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Blockade of the Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Great Famine of Mount Lebanon">Mount Lebanon famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_(1914%E2%80%931919)" title="Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)">Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportations_from_East_Prussia_during_World_War_I" title="Deportations from East Prussia during World War I">Deportations from East Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Kalisz" title="Destruction of Kalisz">Destruction of Kalisz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Dinant" title="Sack of Dinant">Sack of Dinant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrian genocide (Sayfo)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Pontic Greek genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium" title="Rape of Belgium">Rape of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916" title="Central Asian revolt of 1916">Urkun (Kyrgyzstan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Albanians_in_World_War_I" title="Massacres of Albanians in World War I">Massacres of Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Canadian_internment" title="Ukrainian Canadian internment">Ukrainian Canadian internment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Diplomacy</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Entry into the war</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_entry_into_World_War_I" title="French entry into World War I">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_entry_into_World_War_I" title="German entry into World War I">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Japanese entry into World War I">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Ottoman entry into World War I">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Russian entry into World War I">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_entry_into_World_War_I" title="British entry into World War I">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I" title="American entry into World War I">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_I" title="Declarations of war during World War I">Declarations of war</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/To_my_peoples" title="To my peoples">Austria-Hungary against Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_declaration_of_war_upon_Germany_(1914)" title="United Kingdom declaration of war upon Germany (1914)">UK against Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I#Declaration_of_jihad" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottomans against the Triple Entente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1917)" title="United States declaration of war on Germany (1917)">USA against Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Austria-Hungary" title="United States declaration of war on Austria-Hungary">USA against Austria-Hungary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople_Agreement" title="Constantinople Agreement">Constantinople Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1915)" title="Treaty of London (1915)">Treaty of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Protocol" title="Damascus Protocol">Damascus Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria%E2%80%93Germany_treaty_(1915)" title="Bulgaria–Germany treaty (1915)">Bulgaria–Germany treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Darin" title="Treaty of Darin">Treaty of Darin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement" title="Sykes–Picot Agreement">Sykes–Picot Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sazonov%E2%80%93Pal%C3%A9ologue_Agreement" title="Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement">Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Economy_Pact" title="Paris Economy Pact">Paris Economy Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1916)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1916)">Treaty of Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agreement_of_Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne" title="Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne">Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Peace treaties</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modus_vivendi_of_Acroma" title="Modus vivendi of Acroma">Modus vivendi of Acroma</a></li> <li>Treaties of Brest-Litovsk <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Russia–Central Powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk_(Ukraine%E2%80%93Central_Powers)" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Ukraine–Central Powers)">Ukraine–Central Powers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1918)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1918)">Treaty of Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_(1919)" title="Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)">Treaty of St. Germain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Neuilly-sur-Seine" title="Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine">Treaty of Neuilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon" title="Treaty of Trianon">Treaty of Trianon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">Treaty of Sèvres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne" title="Treaty of Lausanne">Treaty of Lausanne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arrest_of_a_Suspect_in_Sarajevo" title="Arrest of a Suspect in Sarajevo">Arrest of a Suspect in Sarajevo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutilated_victory" title="Mutilated victory">Mutilated victory</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Virgin" title="The Golden Virgin">The Golden Virgin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/They_shall_not_pass" title="They shall not pass">They shall not pass</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:World_War_I" title="Category:World War I">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Subterranea" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Subterranea" title="Template:Subterranea"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Subterranea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Subterranea (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Subterranea" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Subterranea"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Subterranea" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Subterranea_(geography)" title="Subterranea (geography)">Subterranea</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Natural features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcove_(landform)" title="Alcove (landform)">Alcove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant_colony" title="Ant colony">Ant colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burrow" title="Burrow">Burrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burrow_fossil" title="Burrow fossil">Burrow fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_burrow" title="Communal burrow">Communal burrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoburrow" title="Paleoburrow">Paleoburrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_cave" title="Glacier cave">Glacier cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grotto" title="Grotto">Grotto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cave" title="Ice cave">Ice cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_cave" title="Lava cave">Lava cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_tube" title="Lava tube">Lava tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_Cave" class="mw-redirect" title="Pit Cave">Pit Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show_cave" title="Show cave">Show cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutional_cave" title="Solutional cave">Solutional cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talus_cave" title="Talus cave">Talus cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenote" title="Cenote">Cenote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karst" title="Karst">Karst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_tree_mold" title="Lava tree mold">Lava tree mold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magma_chamber" title="Magma chamber">Magma chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternity_den" title="Maternity den">Maternity den</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nest" title="Nest">Nest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beehive" title="Beehive">Bee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_crater" title="Pit crater">Pit crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_shelter" title="Rock shelter">Rock shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">Sinkhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_fauna" title="Subterranean fauna">Subterranean fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_river" title="Subterranean river">Subterranean river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_waterfall" title="Subterranean waterfall">Subterranean waterfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_lake" title="Underground lake">Underground lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_pipe" title="Volcanic pipe">Volcanic pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_(burrow)" title="Warren (burrow)">Warren</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">Exemplars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balve_Cave" title="Balve Cave">Balve Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castellana_Caves" title="Castellana Caves">Castellana Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hang_S%C6%A1n_%C4%90o%C3%B2ng" title="Hang Sơn Đoòng">Hang Sơn Đoòng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewel_Cave_National_Monument" title="Jewel Cave National Monument">Jewel Cave National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazumura_Cave" title="Kazumura Cave">Kazumura Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lechuguilla_Cave" title="Lechuguilla Cave">Lechuguilla Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammoth_Cave_National_Park" title="Mammoth Cave National Park">Mammoth Cave National Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_Flute_Cave" title="Reed Flute Cave">Reed Flute Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_rivers_of_London" title="Subterranean rivers of London">Subterranean rivers of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veryovkina_Cave" title="Veryovkina Cave">Veryovkina Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_Cave_National_Park" title="Wind Cave National Park">Wind Cave National Park</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Man-made features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_raid_shelter" title="Air raid shelter">Air raid shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basement" title="Basement">Basement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burial_vault_(tomb)" title="Burial vault (tomb)">Burial vault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borehole" title="Borehole">Borehole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">Bunker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_shelter" title="Blast shelter">Blast shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacombs" title="Catacombs">Catacombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">Casemate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum" title="Mausoleum">Crypt Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungeon" title="Dungeon">Dungeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">Dugout (shelter)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_well" title="Dry well">Dry well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_shelter" title="Earth shelter">Earth shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erdstall" title="Erdstall">Erdstall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">Fallout shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fogou" title="Fogou">Fogou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position#Terminology" title="Defensive fighting position">Foxhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypogeum" title="Hypogeum">Hypogeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhole" title="Manhole">Manhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_launch_facility" title="Missile launch facility">Missile launch facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_grave" title="Passage grave">Passage grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock-cut_tomb" title="Rock-cut tomb">Rock-cut tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root_cellar" title="Root cellar">Root cellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">Tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_vault" title="Utility vault">Utility vault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_city" title="Underground city">Underground city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_base" title="Underground base">Underground base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_hangar" title="Underground hangar">Underground hangar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_cave" title="Wine cave">Wine cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_transit" title="Rapid transit">Subway system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_passage" title="Secret passage">Secret passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-basement" title="Semi-basement">Semi-basement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewerage" title="Sewerage">Sewerage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepwell" title="Stepwell">Stepwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_cellar" title="Storm cellar">Storm cellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smuggling_tunnel" title="Smuggling tunnel">Smuggling tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_hole" title="Spider hole">Spider hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_shaft" title="Ventilation shaft">Ventilation shaft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">Exemplars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/816_Nuclear_Military_Plant" title="816 Nuclear Military Plant">816 Nuclear Military Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caves_of_Maastricht" title="Caves of Maastricht">Caves of Maastricht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Caves_of_%C3%86giss%C3%AD%C3%B0a" title="The Caves of Ægissíða">The Caves of Ægissíða</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritage_of_Mercury._Almad%C3%A9n_and_Idrija" title="Heritage of Mercury. Almadén and Idrija"> Almadén Mercury Mines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coober_Pedy" title="Coober Pedy">Coober Pedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_Mountain_Complex" title="Cheyenne Mountain Complex">Cheyenne Mountain Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Tunnel_Company" title="Chicago Tunnel Company">Chicago Tunnel Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houston_tunnel_system" title="Houston tunnel system">Houston tunnel system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosvinsky_Kamen" title="Kosvinsky Kamen">Kosvinsky Kamen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C5%91b%C3%A1nya_cellar_system" title="Kőbánya cellar system">Kőbánya cellar system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kome_Caves" title="Kome Caves">Kome Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_City_(Beijing)" title="Underground City (Beijing)">Underground City (Beijing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_City,_Montreal" title="Underground City, Montreal">Underground City, Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Great_Wall_of_China" title="Underground Great Wall of China">Underground Great Wall of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maginot_Line" title="Maginot Line">Maginot Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mines_of_Paris" title="Mines of Paris">Mines of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustang_Caves" title="Mustang Caves">Mustang Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Yamantau" title="Mount Yamantau">Mount Yamantau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naples_underground_geothermal_zone" title="Naples underground geothermal zone">Naples underground geothermal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">North American Aerospace Defense Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raven_Rock_Mountain_Complex" title="Raven Rock Mountain Complex">Raven Rock Mountain Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_tunnels" title="Shanghai tunnels">Shanghai tunnels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_London" title="Subterranean London">Subterranean London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_Toledo" title="Subterranean Toledo">Subterranean Toledo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turda_Salt_Mines" class="mw-redirect" title="Turda Salt Mines">Turda Salt Mines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaodong" title="Yaodong">Yaodong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fictional features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollow_Earth" title="Hollow Earth">Hollow Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_fiction" title="Subterranean fiction">Subterranean fiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">Exemplars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegory_of_the_cave" title="Allegory of the cave">Allegory of the cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batcave" title="Batcave">Batcave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_underworld" title="Greek underworld">Greek Underworld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journey_to_the_Center_of_the_Earth" title="Journey to the Center of the Earth">Journey to the Center of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moria_(Middle-earth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moria (Middle-earth)">Moria (Middle-earth)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nome_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Nome Kingdom">Nome Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pellucidar" title="Pellucidar">Pellucidar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranea_(comics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subterranea (comics)">Subterranea (comics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnels_in_popular_culture" title="Tunnels in popular culture">Tunnels in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdark" title="Underdark">Underdark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underland_(Narnia)" title="Underland (Narnia)">Underland (Narnia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wonderland_(fictional_country)" title="Wonderland (fictional country)">Wonderland (fictional country)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Reclamation_Sciences" title="American Society of Reclamation Sciences">American Society of Reclamation Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergamt" title="Bergamt">Bergamt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Research_Foundation" title="Cave Research Foundation">Cave Research Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hard_rock_miners%27_organizations" title="History of hard rock miners' organizations">History of hard rock miners' organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mine_Map_Repository" title="National Mine Map Repository">National Mine Map Repository</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mining_Association" title="National Mining Association">National Mining Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Speleological_Society" title="National Speleological Society">National Speleological Society</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grotto_(National_Speleological_Society)" title="Grotto (National Speleological Society)">Grotto</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Materials,_Minerals_and_Mining" title="Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining">Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Mining_Engineers" title="Institution of Mining Engineers">Institution of Mining Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Speleology" title="International Union of Speleology">International Union of Speleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_Centre_for_Deep_Drilling" title="Research Centre for Deep Drilling">Research Centre for Deep Drilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Economic_Geologists" title="Society of Economic Geologists">Society of Economic Geologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Institute_of_Mining_and_Metallurgy" title="Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy">Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_conservation" title="Cave conservation">Cave conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_dweller" title="Cave dweller">Cave dweller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">Cave diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_gate" title="Cave gate">Cave gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_rescue" title="Cave rescue">Cave rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caving" title="Caving">Caving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense" title="Civil defense">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_network" title="Tunnel network">Tunnel network</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trench warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_construction" title="Underground construction">Underground construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_construction" title="Tunnel construction">Tunnel construction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_living" title="Underground living">Underground living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mine_rescue" title="Mine rescue">Mine rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mine_exploration" title="Mine exploration">Mine exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mole_people" title="Mole people">Mole people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mole_people_(fiction)" title="Mole people (fiction)">in fiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speleology" title="Speleology">Speleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean warfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Man-made_and_man-related_subterranea" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Man-made_and_man-related_subterranea" title="Template:Man-made and man-related subterranea"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Man-made_and_man-related_subterranea" title="Template talk:Man-made and man-related subterranea"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Man-made_and_man-related_subterranea" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Man-made and man-related subterranea"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Man-made_and_man-related_subterranea" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Man-made and man-related <a href="/wiki/Subterranea_(geography)" title="Subterranea (geography)">subterranea</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Natural features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenote" title="Cenote">Cenote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grotto" title="Grotto">Grotto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">Sinkhole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilian features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basement" title="Basement">Basement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burial_vault_(tomb)" title="Burial vault (tomb)">Burial vault (tomb)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borehole" title="Borehole">Borehole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacombs" title="Catacombs">Catacombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungeon" title="Dungeon">Dungeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">Dugout (shelter)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_well" title="Dry well">Dry well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_shelter" title="Earth shelter">Earth shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erdstall" title="Erdstall">Erdstall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fogou" title="Fogou">Fogou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypogeum" title="Hypogeum">Hypogeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhole" title="Manhole">Manhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_transit" title="Rapid transit">Rapid transit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock-cut_tomb" title="Rock-cut tomb">Rock-cut tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root_cellar" title="Root cellar">Root cellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">Tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_vault" title="Utility vault">Utility vault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_city" title="Underground city">Underground city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_cave" title="Wine cave">Wine cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_passage" title="Secret passage">Secret passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-basement" title="Semi-basement">Semi-basement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepwell" title="Stepwell">Stepwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_cellar" title="Storm cellar">Storm cellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smuggling_tunnel" title="Smuggling tunnel">Smuggling tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_shaft" title="Ventilation shaft">Ventilation shaft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_raid_shelter" title="Air raid shelter">Air raid shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">Bunker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_shelter" title="Blast shelter">Blast shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">Casemate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">Fallout shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_launch_facility" title="Missile launch facility">Missile launch facility</a> (silo)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scallywag_bunker" title="Scallywag bunker">Scallywag bunker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_base" title="Underground base">Underground base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_hangar" title="Underground hangar">Underground hangar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_hole" title="Spider hole">Spider hole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quarrying" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarrying">quarrying</a>, and<br /><a href="/wiki/Underground_construction" title="Underground construction">underground construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rock-cut_architecture" title="Rock-cut architecture">Rock-cut architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_utility_engineering" title="Subsurface utility engineering">Subsurface utility engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_construction" title="Tunnel construction">Tunnel construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_mine_ventilation" title="Underground mine ventilation">Underground mine ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(hard_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (hard rock)">Underground mining (hard rock)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(soft_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (soft rock)">Underground mining (soft rock)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_dweller" title="Cave dweller">Cave dweller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caves_of_Maastricht" title="Caves of Maastricht">Caves of Maastricht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense" title="Civil defense">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coober_Pedy" title="Coober Pedy">Coober Pedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houston_tunnel_system" title="Houston tunnel system">Houston tunnel system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C5%91b%C3%A1nya_cellar_system" title="Kőbánya cellar system">Kőbánya cellar system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_network" title="Tunnel network">Tunnel network</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trench warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_living" title="Underground living">Underground living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_City_(Beijing)" title="Underground City (Beijing)">Underground City (Beijing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_City,_Montreal" title="Underground City, Montreal">Underground City, Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mine_exploration" title="Mine exploration">Mine exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mines_of_Paris" title="Mines of Paris">Mines of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mole_people" title="Mole people">Mole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naples_underground_geothermal_zone" title="Naples underground geothermal zone">Naples underground geothermal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapping" title="Sapping">Sapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_London" title="Subterranean London">Subterranean London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_Toledo" title="Subterranean Toledo">Subterranean Toledo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_fiction" title="Subterranean fiction">Subterranean fiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Earth shelters US</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates%27_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill Gates' house">Bill Gates' house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestiere_Underground_Gardens" title="Forestiere Underground Gardens">Forestiere Underground Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_House_Colorado" title="Underground House Colorado">Underground House Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_House_Las_Vegas" title="Underground House Las Vegas">Underground House Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_World_Home" title="Underground World Home">Underground World Home</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Earth shelters UK</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underhill,_Holme" title="Underhill, Holme">Underhill, Holme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hockerton_Housing_Project" title="Hockerton Housing Project">Hockerton Housing Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malator" title="Malator">Malator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Earth shelters Australia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coober_Pedy" title="Coober Pedy">Coober Pedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Lightning Ridge">Lightning Ridge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q241059#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4157974-4">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="zákopová válka"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph573134&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&oldid=1259408438">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&oldid=1259408438</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Trench_warfare" title="Category:Trench warfare">Trench warfare</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_doctrines" title="Category:Military doctrines">Military doctrines</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_strategy" title="Category:Military strategy">Military strategy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Subterranea_(geography)" title="Category:Subterranea (geography)">Subterranea (geography)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Warfare_by_type" title="Category:Warfare by type">Warfare by type</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_January_2018" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from January 2018">Articles with dead external links from January 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_missing_periodical" title="Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical">CS1 errors: missing periodical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_December_2022" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from December 2022">Articles needing additional references from December 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_British_English_from_July_2020" title="Category:Use British English from July 2020">Use British English from July 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_May_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from May 2022">Use dmy dates from May 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_November_2024" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from November 2024">Articles needing additional references from November 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_March_2007" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2007">Articles with unsourced statements from March 2007</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2018" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_postscript" title="Category:CS1 maint: postscript">CS1 maint: postscript</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_1911_Encyclopaedia_Britannica_with_Wikisource_reference" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 25 November 2024, at 00:18<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trench_warfare&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-57488d5c7d-htt9x","wgBackendResponseTime":168,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.157","walltime":"2.538","ppvisitednodes":{"value":10334,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":496108,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":8262,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":17,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":392894,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1984.273 1 -total"," 35.02% 694.838 1 Template:Reflist"," 15.80% 313.475 7 Template:Navbox"," 14.06% 279.026 1 Template:Fortifications"," 11.05% 219.255 53 Template:Lang"," 9.57% 189.964 20 Template:Cite_book"," 9.49% 188.397 36 Template:Cite_web"," 8.82% 175.076 18 Template:Sfn"," 6.58% 130.555 19 Template:Cite_journal"," 6.26% 124.129 1 Template:War"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.278","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":30738546,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAnstead2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAtenstaedt2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBenschopvan_der_SchansNoortFidder1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBidwellGraham2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBond,_Catherine2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowne2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBruce1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarleton1874\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarter_Malkasian2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowen1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrocq2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDieter2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDowning2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrogin,_Bob1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdmonds1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllis1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllyatt2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinnish_Oriental_SocietySuomen_Itämainen_Seura2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisher1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoley2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreyFrey1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGary_Sheffield2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraham\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffith1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffith2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaller1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmes\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHugh_Chisholm1922\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIstituto_San_Clemente_I_Papa_e_Martire2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_K._Mahon_and_Romana_Danysh1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordan2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeegan1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeller2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKellner,_Douglas1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKonstam2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaurent\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLe_BailyLandolt2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoughran2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurray,_Nicholas2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaillerLabeeu1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatterson1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPennington2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerrett1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPritchard_Jr.,_Russ_A.-\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProst2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRettman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRipleyDana1859\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRistanovic2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaturday,_22_August_2009_Michael_Duffy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaffn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzabó2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTareke2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Creveld1980\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 10,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 20,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 19,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite video\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 36,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 23,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Fortifications\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 3,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"Interlanguage link\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 7,\n [\"Man-made and man-related Subterranea\"] = 1,\n [\"More citations needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 18,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Subterranea\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreferenced section\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"War\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"World War I\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","18.1"],["?","240","16.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","5.6"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","5.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","60","4.2"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","60","4.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::newTitle","40","2.8"],["citation0 \u003CModule:Citation/CS1:2614\u003E","40","2.8"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","40","2.8"],["(for generator)","40","2.8"],["[others]","500","34.7"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-57488d5c7d-8mqtl","timestamp":"20241128020053","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Trench warfare","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trench_warfare","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q241059","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q241059","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-02-12T09:36:04Z","dateModified":"2024-11-25T00:18:07Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/ed\/Aerial_Photography_on_the_Western_Front%2C_1916._HU100394.jpg","headline":"land warfare involving static fortification of lines"}</script> </body> </html>