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<li id="toc-Von_Neumann's_kinematic_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Von_Neumann's_kinematic_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Von Neumann's kinematic model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Von_Neumann's_kinematic_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moore's_artificial_living_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moore's_artificial_living_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Moore's artificial living plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moore's_artificial_living_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dyson's_replicating_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dyson's_replicating_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Dyson's replicating systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dyson's_replicating_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advanced_Automation_for_Space_Missions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advanced_Automation_for_Space_Missions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span><i>Advanced Automation for Space Missions</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advanced_Automation_for_Space_Missions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lackner-Wendt_Auxon_replicators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lackner-Wendt_Auxon_replicators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Lackner-Wendt Auxon replicators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lackner-Wendt_Auxon_replicators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Recent work</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Recent_work-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Recent work subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Recent_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-NIAC_studies_on_self-replicating_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#NIAC_studies_on_self-replicating_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>NIAC studies on self-replicating systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-NIAC_studies_on_self-replicating_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bootstrapping_self-replicating_factories_in_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bootstrapping_self-replicating_factories_in_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Bootstrapping self-replicating factories in space</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bootstrapping_self-replicating_factories_in_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_York_University_artificial_DNA_tile_motifs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_York_University_artificial_DNA_tile_motifs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>New York University artificial DNA tile motifs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_York_University_artificial_DNA_tile_motifs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-replication_of_magnetic_polymers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-replication_of_magnetic_polymers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Self-replication of magnetic polymers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-replication_of_magnetic_polymers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-replication_of_neural_circuits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-replication_of_neural_circuits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Self-replication of neural circuits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-replication_of_neural_circuits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Harvard_Wyss_Institute" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harvard_Wyss_Institute"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Harvard Wyss Institute</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harvard_Wyss_Institute-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-replicating_spacecraft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-replicating_spacecraft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Self-replicating spacecraft</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-replicating_spacecraft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prospects_for_implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prospects_for_implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Prospects for implementation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prospects_for_implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>In fiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Other sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8A%D0%B7%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%89%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Самовъзпроизвеждаща се машина – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Самовъзпроизвеждаща се машина" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A0quina_autoreproductora" title="Màquina autoreproductora – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Màquina autoreproductora" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1quina_autorreplicante" title="Máquina autorreplicante – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Máquina autorreplicante" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%AC%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%86" title="دستگاه خودجایگزین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دستگاه خودجایگزین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_autor%C3%A9plicative" title="Machine autoréplicative – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Machine autoréplicative" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macchina_autoreplicante" title="Macchina autoreplicante – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Macchina autoreplicante" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E5%B7%B1%E8%A4%87%E8%A3%BD%E6%A9%9F%E6%A2%B0" title="自己複製機械 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="自己複製機械" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maszyna_samoreplikuj%C4%85ca" title="Maszyna samoreplikująca – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Maszyna samoreplikująca" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1quina_autorreplicadora" title="Máquina autorreplicadora – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Máquina autorreplicadora" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8F%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Самовоспроизводящиеся машины – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Самовоспроизводящиеся машины" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-replicating_machine" title="Self-replicating machine – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Self-replicating machine" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Самовідтворювана машина – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Самовідтворювана машина" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E6%88%91%E5%A4%8D%E5%88%B6%E6%9C%BA" title="自我复制机 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="自我复制机" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q691243#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Self-replicating_machine" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machines_in_fiction&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-replicating machines in fiction">Self-replicating machines in fiction</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Device able to make copies of itself</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Self-replicating_machine.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Self-replicating_machine.png/300px-Self-replicating_machine.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Self-replicating_machine.png/450px-Self-replicating_machine.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Self-replicating_machine.png/600px-Self-replicating_machine.png 2x" data-file-width="3329" data-file-height="2085" /></a><figcaption>A simple form of machine self-replication</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>self-replicating machine</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_robot" title="Autonomous robot">autonomous robot</a> that is capable of reproducing itself autonomously using raw materials found in the environment, thus exhibiting <a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">self-replication</a> in a way analogous to that found in <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Granqvist_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Granqvist-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of self-replicating machines has been advanced and examined by <a href="/wiki/Homer_Jacobson" title="Homer Jacobson">Homer Jacobson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_F._Moore" title="Edward F. Moore">Edward F. Moore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freeman_Dyson" title="Freeman Dyson">Freeman Dyson</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a><sup id="cite_ref-Böttiger_2011_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Böttiger_2011-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eibisch_2016_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eibisch_2016-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in more recent times by <a href="/wiki/K._Eric_Drexler" title="K. Eric Drexler">K. Eric Drexler</a> in his book on <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Engines_of_Creation" title="Engines of Creation">Engines of Creation</a></i> (coining the term <b>clanking replicator </b> for such machines) and by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Freitas" title="Robert Freitas">Robert Freitas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Merkle" title="Ralph Merkle">Ralph Merkle</a> in their review <i>Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines</i><sup id="cite_ref-Freitas_2004_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freitas_2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which provided the first comprehensive analysis of the entire replicator design space. The future development of such technology is an integral part of several plans involving the mining of <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">moons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a> belts for ore and other materials, the creation of lunar factories, and even the construction of <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar power satellite">solar power satellites</a> in space. The <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Von Neumann probe">von Neumann probe</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is one theoretical example of such a machine. Von Neumann also worked on what he called the <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_universal_constructor" title="Von Neumann universal constructor">universal constructor</a>, a self-replicating machine that would be able to evolve and which he formalized in a <a href="/wiki/Cellular_automaton" title="Cellular automaton">cellular automata</a> environment. Notably, <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_universal_constructor" title="Von Neumann universal constructor">Von Neumann's Self-Reproducing Automata scheme</a> posited that open-ended evolution requires inherited information to be copied and passed to offspring separately from the self-replicating machine, an insight that preceded the discovery of the structure of the DNA molecule by <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">Watson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Crick</a> and how it is separately translated and replicated in the cell.<sup id="cite_ref-Rocha1998_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rocha1998-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brenner2012_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brenner2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A self-replicating machine is an artificial <a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">self-replicating</a> system that relies on conventional large-scale technology and automation. The concept, first proposed by Von Neumann no later than the 1940s, has attracted a range of different approaches involving various types of technology. Certain idiosyncratic terms are occasionally found in the literature. For example, the term clanking replicator was once used by Drexler<sup id="cite_ref-EoC_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EoC-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to distinguish macroscale replicating systems from the microscopic <a href="/wiki/Nanorobot" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanorobot">nanorobots</a> or "<a href="/wiki/Assembler_(nanotechnology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assembler (nanotechnology)">assemblers</a>" that <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a> may make possible, but the term is informal and is rarely used by others in popular or technical discussions. Replicators have also been called "von Neumann machines" after John von Neumann, who first rigorously studied the idea. However, the term "von Neumann machine" is less specific and also refers to a completely unrelated <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">computer architecture</a> that von Neumann proposed and so its use is discouraged where accuracy is important.<sup id="cite_ref-Freitas_2004_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freitas_2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Von Neumann used the term <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_universal_constructor" title="Von Neumann universal constructor">universal constructor</a> to describe such self-replicating machines. </p><p>Historians of <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</a>, even before the <a href="/wiki/Numerical_control" title="Numerical control">numerical control</a> era, sometimes figuratively said that machine tools were a unique class of machines because they have the ability to "reproduce themselves"<sup id="cite_ref-Colvin1947pp6-7_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colvin1947pp6-7-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by copying all of their parts. Implicit in these discussions is that a human would direct the cutting processes (later planning and programming the machines), and would then assemble the parts. The same is true for <a href="/wiki/RepRap_project" class="mw-redirect" title="RepRap project">RepRaps</a>, which are another class of machines sometimes mentioned in reference to such non-autonomous "self-replication". Such discussions refer to collections of machine tools, and such collections have an ability to reproduce their own parts which is finite and low for one machine, and ascends to nearly 100% with collections of only about a dozen similarly made, but uniquely functioning machines, establishing what authors Frietas and Merkle refer to as matter or material closure. Energy closure is the next most difficult dimension to close, and control the most difficult, noting that there are no other dimensions to the problem. In contrast, machines that are <i>truly autonomously</i> self-replicating (like <a href="/wiki/Molecular_machine#Biological" title="Molecular machine">biological machines</a>) are the main subject discussed here, and would have closure in each of the three dimensions. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The general concept of artificial machines capable of producing copies of themselves dates back at least several hundred years. An early reference is an anecdote regarding the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, who suggested to Queen <a href="/wiki/Christina_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Christina of Sweden">Christina of Sweden</a> that the human body could be regarded as a machine; she responded by pointing to a clock and ordering "see to it that it reproduces offspring."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several other variations on this anecdotal response also exist. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Butler_(novelist)" title="Samuel Butler (novelist)">Samuel Butler</a> proposed in his 1872 novel <i><a href="/wiki/Erewhon" title="Erewhon">Erewhon</a></i> that machines were already capable of reproducing themselves but it was man who made them do so,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and added that <i>"machines which reproduce machinery do not reproduce machines after their own kind"</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/George_Eliot" title="George Eliot">George Eliot's</a> 1879 book <i><a href="/wiki/Impressions_of_Theophrastus_Such" title="Impressions of Theophrastus Such">Impressions of Theophrastus Such</a></i>, a series of essays that she wrote in the character of a fictional scholar named Theophrastus, the essay "Shadows of the Coming Race" speculated about self-replicating machines, with Theophrastus asking "how do I know that they may not be ultimately made to carry, or may not in themselves evolve, conditions of self-supply, self-repair, and reproduction".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1802 <a href="/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">William Paley</a> formulated the first known <a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">teleological argument</a> depicting machines producing other machines,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggesting that the <a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Watchmaker argument">question of who originally made a watch</a> was rendered moot if it were demonstrated that the watch was able to manufacture a copy of itself.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientific study of self-reproducing machines was anticipated by <a href="/wiki/John_Bernal" class="mw-redirect" title="John Bernal">John Bernal</a> as early as 1929<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by mathematicians such as <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Kleene" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Kleene">Stephen Kleene</a> who began developing <a href="/wiki/Recursion_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Recursion theory">recursion theory</a> in the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of this latter work was motivated by interest in information processing and algorithms rather than physical implementation of such a system, however. In the course of the 1950s, suggestions of several increasingly simple mechanical systems capable of self-reproduction were made — notably by <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Penrose" title="Lionel Penrose">Lionel Penrose</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Von_Neumann's_kinematic_model"><span id="Von_Neumann.27s_kinematic_model"></span>Von Neumann's kinematic model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Von Neumann's kinematic model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A detailed conceptual proposal for a <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_universal_constructor" title="Von Neumann universal constructor">self-replicating machine</a> was first put forward by mathematician <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a> in lectures delivered in 1948 and 1949, when he proposed a <a href="/wiki/Kinematic" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinematic">kinematic</a> model of <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_universal_constructor" title="Von Neumann universal constructor">self-reproducing automata</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TSRA_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TSRA-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Von Neumann's concept of a physical self-replicating machine was dealt with only abstractly, with the hypothetical machine using a "sea" or stockroom of spare parts as its source of raw materials. The machine had a program stored on a memory tape that instructed it to retrieve parts from this "sea" using a manipulator, assemble them into a copy of itself, and then transfer the contents of its memory tape into the new duplicate. The machine was envisioned as consisting of as few as eight different types of components: four logic elements for sending and receiving stimuli and four mechanical elements for providing structural support and mobility. Although qualitatively sound, von Neumann was evidently dissatisfied with this self-replicating machine model due to the difficulty of analyzing it with mathematical precision. He went on to instead develop an even more abstract model self-replicator based on <a href="/wiki/Cellular_automata" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular automata">cellular automata</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His original kinematic concept remained obscure until it was popularized in a 1955 issue of <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Von Neumann's goal for his <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_universal_constructor" title="Von Neumann universal constructor">self-reproducing automata theory</a>, as specified in his lectures at the University of Illinois in 1949,<sup id="cite_ref-TSRA_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TSRA-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was to design a machine whose complexity could grow automatically akin to biological organisms under <a href="/wiki/Natural_Selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Selection">natural selection</a>. He asked what is the <i>threshold of complexity</i> that must be crossed for machines to be able to evolve.<sup id="cite_ref-Rocha1998_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rocha1998-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His answer was to design an abstract machine which, when run, would replicate itself. Notably, his design implies that open-ended evolution requires inherited information to be copied and passed to offspring separately from the self-replicating machine, an insight that preceded the discovery of the structure of the DNA molecule by <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">Watson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Crick</a> and how it is separately translated and replicated in the cell.<sup id="cite_ref-Rocha1998_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rocha1998-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brenner2012_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brenner2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moore's_artificial_living_plants"><span id="Moore.27s_artificial_living_plants"></span>Moore's artificial living plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Moore's artificial living plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1956 mathematician <a href="/wiki/Edward_F._Moore" title="Edward F. Moore">Edward F. Moore</a> proposed the first known suggestion for a practical real-world self-replicating machine, also published in <i>Scientific American</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moore's "artificial living plants" were proposed as machines able to use air, water and soil as sources of raw materials and to draw its energy from sunlight via a <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar battery</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a>. He chose the seashore as an initial habitat for such machines, giving them easy access to the chemicals in seawater, and suggested that later generations of the machine could be designed to float freely on the ocean's surface as self-replicating factory barges or to be placed in barren desert terrain that was otherwise useless for industrial purposes. The self-replicators would be "harvested" for their component parts, to be used by humanity in other non-replicating machines. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dyson's_replicating_systems"><span id="Dyson.27s_replicating_systems"></span>Dyson's replicating systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dyson's replicating systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The next major development of the concept of self-replicating machines was a series of thought experiments proposed by physicist <a href="/wiki/Freeman_Dyson" title="Freeman Dyson">Freeman Dyson</a> in his 1970 Vanuxem Lecture.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He proposed three large-scale applications of machine replicators. First was to send a self-replicating system to <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>'s moon <a href="/wiki/Enceladus_(moon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enceladus (moon)">Enceladus</a>, which in addition to producing copies of itself would also be programmed to manufacture and launch <a href="/wiki/Solar_sail" title="Solar sail">solar sail</a>-propelled cargo spacecraft. These spacecraft would carry blocks of Enceladean ice to <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>, where they would be used to <a href="/wiki/Terraforming_of_Mars" title="Terraforming of Mars">terraform the planet</a>. His second proposal was a solar-powered factory system designed for a terrestrial desert environment, and his third was an "industrial development kit" based on this replicator that could be sold to developing countries to provide them with as much industrial capacity as desired. When Dyson revised and reprinted his lecture in 1979 he added proposals for a modified version of Moore's seagoing artificial living plants that was designed to distill and store fresh water for human use<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the "<a href="/wiki/Astrochicken" title="Astrochicken">Astrochicken</a>." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advanced_Automation_for_Space_Missions"><i>Advanced Automation for Space Missions</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Advanced Automation for Space Missions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Advanced_Automation_for_Space_Missions_figure_5-19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Advanced_Automation_for_Space_Missions_figure_5-19.jpg/220px-Advanced_Automation_for_Space_Missions_figure_5-19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Advanced_Automation_for_Space_Missions_figure_5-19.jpg/330px-Advanced_Automation_for_Space_Missions_figure_5-19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Advanced_Automation_for_Space_Missions_figure_5-19.jpg/440px-Advanced_Automation_for_Space_Missions_figure_5-19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="535" /></a><figcaption>An artist's conception of a "self-growing" robotic lunar factory</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1980, inspired by a 1979 "New Directions Workshop" held at Wood's Hole, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> conducted a joint summer study with <a href="/wiki/ASEE" class="mw-redirect" title="ASEE">ASEE</a> entitled <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Advanced_Automation_for_Space_Missions" class="extiw" title="s:Advanced Automation for Space Missions">Advanced Automation for Space Missions</a> to produce a detailed proposal for self-replicating factories to develop <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">lunar</a> resources without requiring additional launches or human workers on-site. The study was conducted at <a href="/wiki/Santa_Clara_University" title="Santa Clara University">Santa Clara University</a> and ran from June 23 to August 29, with the final report published in 1982.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proposed system would have been capable of <a href="/wiki/Exponential_growth" title="Exponential growth">exponentially increasing</a> productive capacity and the design could be modified to build self-replicating probes to explore the galaxy. </p><p>The reference design included small computer-controlled electric carts running on rails inside the factory, mobile "paving machines" that used large parabolic mirrors to focus sunlight on lunar <a href="/wiki/Regolith" title="Regolith">regolith</a> to melt and sinter it into a hard surface suitable for building on, and robotic front-end loaders for <a href="/wiki/Strip_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Strip mining">strip mining</a>. Raw lunar regolith would be refined by a variety of techniques, primarily <a href="/wiki/Hydrofluoric_acid" title="Hydrofluoric acid">hydrofluoric acid</a> <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(metallurgy)" title="Leaching (metallurgy)">leaching</a>. Large transports with a variety of manipulator arms and tools were proposed as the constructors that would put together new factories from parts and assemblies produced by its parent. </p><p>Power would be provided by a "canopy" of solar cells supported on pillars. The other machinery would be placed under the canopy. </p><p>A "<a href="/wiki/Casting" title="Casting">casting</a> <a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">robot</a>" would use sculpting tools and templates to make <a href="/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">plaster</a> <a href="/wiki/Molding_(process)" title="Molding (process)">molds</a>. Plaster was selected because the molds are easy to make, can make precise parts with good surface finishes, and the plaster can be easily recycled afterward using an oven to bake the water back out. The robot would then cast most of the parts either from nonconductive molten rock (<a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>) or purified metals. A carbon dioxide <a href="/wiki/Laser_cutting" title="Laser cutting">laser cutting</a> and welding system was also included. </p><p>A more speculative, more complex microchip fabricator was specified to produce the computer and electronic systems, but the designers also said that it might prove practical to ship the chips from Earth as if they were "vitamins." </p><p>A 2004 study supported by NASA's Institute for Advanced Concepts took this idea further.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some experts are beginning to consider self-replicating machines for <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_mining" title="Asteroid mining">asteroid mining</a>. </p><p>Much of the design study was concerned with a simple, flexible chemical system for processing the ores, and the differences between the ratio of elements needed by the replicator, and the ratios available in lunar <a href="/wiki/Regolith" title="Regolith">regolith</a>. The element that most limited the growth rate was <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, needed to process regolith for <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>. Chlorine is very rare in lunar regolith. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lackner-Wendt_Auxon_replicators">Lackner-Wendt Auxon replicators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Lackner-Wendt Auxon replicators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1995, inspired by Dyson's 1970 suggestion of seeding uninhabited deserts on Earth with self-replicating machines for industrial development, <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Lackner" title="Klaus Lackner">Klaus Lackner</a> and Christopher Wendt developed a more detailed outline for such a system.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They proposed a colony of cooperating mobile robots 10–30 cm in size running on a grid of electrified ceramic tracks around stationary manufacturing equipment and fields of solar cells. Their proposal didn't include a complete analysis of the system's material requirements, but described a novel method for extracting the ten most common chemical elements found in raw desert topsoil (Na, Fe, Mg, Si, Ca, Ti, Al, C, O<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>) using a high-temperature carbothermic process. This proposal was popularized in <a href="/wiki/Discover_(magazine)" title="Discover (magazine)"><i>Discover</i> magazine</a>, featuring solar-powered desalination equipment used to irrigate the desert in which the system was based.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They named their machines "Auxons", from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> word <i>auxein</i> which means "to grow". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_work">Recent work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Recent work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="NIAC_studies_on_self-replicating_systems">NIAC studies on self-replicating systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: NIAC studies on self-replicating systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the spirit of the 1980 "Advanced Automation for Space Missions" study, the <a href="/wiki/NASA_Institute_for_Advanced_Concepts" title="NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts">NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts</a> began several studies of self-replicating system design in 2002 and 2003. Four phase I grants were awarded: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hod_Lipson" title="Hod Lipson">Hod Lipson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>), "Autonomous Self-Extending Machines for Accelerating Space Exploration"<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Chirikjian" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory Chirikjian">Gregory Chirikjian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a>), "Architecture for Unmanned Self-Replicating Lunar Factories"<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Todd_(biophysicist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Todd (biophysicist) (page does not exist)">Paul Todd</a> (Space Hardware Optimization Technology Inc.), "Robotic Lunar Ecopoiesis"<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tihamer_Toth-Fejel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tihamer Toth-Fejel (page does not exist)">Tihamer Toth-Fejel</a> (<a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics" title="General Dynamics">General Dynamics</a>), "Modeling Kinematic Cellular Automata: An Approach to Self-Replication"<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study concluded that complexity of the development was equal to that of a Pentium 4, and promoted a design based on cellular automata.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bootstrapping_self-replicating_factories_in_space">Bootstrapping self-replicating factories in space</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Bootstrapping self-replicating factories in space"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2012, NASA researchers <a href="/wiki/Philip_T._Metzger" title="Philip T. Metzger">Metzger</a>, Muscatello, Mueller, and Mantovani argued for a so-called "bootstrapping approach" to start self-replicating factories in space.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They developed this concept on the basis of <a href="/wiki/In_situ_resource_utilization" title="In situ resource utilization">In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU)</a> technologies that NASA has been developing to "live off the land" on the Moon or Mars. Their modeling showed that in just 20 to 40 years this industry could become self-sufficient then grow to large size, enabling greater exploration in space as well as providing benefits back to Earth. In 2014, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kalil" title="Thomas Kalil">Thomas Kalil</a> of the White House <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Science_and_Technology_Policy" title="Office of Science and Technology Policy">Office of Science and Technology Policy</a> published on the White House blog an interview with Metzger on bootstrapping solar system civilization through self-replicating space industry.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kalil requested the public submit ideas for how "the Administration, the private sector, philanthropists, the research community, and storytellers can further these goals." Kalil connected this concept to what former NASA Chief technologist <a href="/wiki/Mason_Peck" title="Mason Peck">Mason Peck</a> has dubbed "Massless Exploration", the ability to make everything in space so that you do not need to launch it from Earth. Peck has said, "...all the mass we need to explore the solar system is already in space. It's just in the wrong shape."<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2016, Metzger argued that fully self-replicating industry can be started over several decades by astronauts at a lunar outpost for a total cost (outpost plus starting the industry) of about a third of the space budgets of the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> partner nations, and that this industry would solve Earth's energy and environmental problems in addition to providing massless exploration.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_York_University_artificial_DNA_tile_motifs">New York University artificial DNA tile motifs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: New York University artificial DNA tile motifs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2011, a team of scientists at <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a> created a structure called 'BTX' (bent triple helix) based around three double helix molecules, each made from a short strand of DNA. Treating each group of three double-helices as a code letter, they can (in principle) build up self-replicating structures that encode large quantities of information.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-replication_of_magnetic_polymers">Self-replication of magnetic polymers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Self-replication of magnetic polymers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2001, Jarle Breivik at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oslo" title="University of Oslo">University of Oslo</a> created a system of magnetic building blocks, which in response to temperature fluctuations, spontaneously form self-replicating polymers.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-replication_of_neural_circuits">Self-replication of neural circuits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Self-replication of neural circuits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1968, <a href="/wiki/Zellig_Harris" title="Zellig Harris">Zellig Harris</a> wrote that "the metalanguage is in the language,"<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggesting that self-replication is part of language. In 1977 <a href="/wiki/Niklaus_Wirth" title="Niklaus Wirth">Niklaus Wirth</a> formalized this proposition by publishing a self-replicating <a href="/wiki/Deterministic_context-free_grammar" title="Deterministic context-free grammar">deterministic context-free grammar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adding to it probabilities, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_du_Castel" title="Bertrand du Castel">Bertrand du Castel</a> published in 2015 a self-replicating <a href="/wiki/Stochastic_grammar" title="Stochastic grammar">stochastic grammar</a> and presented a mapping of that grammar to <a href="/wiki/Neural_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural networks">neural networks</a>, thereby presenting a <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_model" title="Conceptual model">model</a> for a self-replicating neural circuit.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harvard_Wyss_Institute">Harvard Wyss Institute</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Harvard Wyss Institute"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>November 29, 2021 a team at Harvard Wyss Institute built the first living robots that can reproduce.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Self-replicating_spacecraft">Self-replicating spacecraft</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Self-replicating spacecraft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Self-replicating_spacecraft" title="Self-replicating spacecraft">Self-replicating spacecraft</a></div> <p>The idea of an automated spacecraft capable of constructing copies of itself was first proposed in scientific literature in 1974 by <a href="/wiki/Michael_A._Arbib" title="Michael A. Arbib">Michael A. Arbib</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the concept had appeared earlier in <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> such as the 1967 novel <i><a href="/wiki/Berserker_(Saberhagen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Berserker (Saberhagen)">Berserker</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Fred_Saberhagen" title="Fred Saberhagen">Fred Saberhagen</a> or the 1950 novellette trilogy <i><a href="/wiki/The_Voyage_of_the_Space_Beagle" title="The Voyage of the Space Beagle">The Voyage of the Space Beagle</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/A._E._van_Vogt" title="A. E. van Vogt">A. E. van Vogt</a>. The first quantitative engineering analysis of a self-replicating spacecraft was published in 1980 by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Freitas" title="Robert Freitas">Robert Freitas</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which the non-replicating <a href="/wiki/Project_Daedalus" title="Project Daedalus">Project Daedalus</a> design was modified to include all subsystems necessary for self-replication. The design's strategy was to use the probe to deliver a "seed" factory with a mass of about 443 tons to a distant site, have the seed factory replicate many copies of itself there to increase its total manufacturing capacity, and then use the resulting automated industrial complex to construct more probes with a single seed factory on board each. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prospects_for_implementation">Prospects for implementation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Prospects for implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the use of industrial automation has expanded over time, some factories have begun to approach a semblance of self-sufficiency that is suggestive of self-replicating machines.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, such factories are unlikely to achieve "full closure"<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until the cost and flexibility of automated machinery comes close to that of human labour and the manufacture of spare parts and other components locally becomes more economical than transporting them from elsewhere. As <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Butler_(novelist)" title="Samuel Butler (novelist)">Samuel Butler</a> has pointed out in <i><a href="/wiki/Erewhon" title="Erewhon">Erewhon</a></i>, replication of partially closed universal machine tool factories is already possible. Since safety is a primary goal of all legislative consideration of regulation of such development, future development efforts may be limited to systems which lack either control, matter, or energy closure. Fully capable machine replicators are most useful for developing resources in dangerous environments which are not easily reached by existing transportation systems (such as <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>). </p><p>An artificial replicator can be considered to be a form of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_life" title="Artificial life">artificial life</a>. Depending on its design, it might be subject to <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> over an extended period of time.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, with robust <a href="/wiki/Error_correction" class="mw-redirect" title="Error correction">error correction</a>, and the possibility of external intervention, the common <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> scenario of robotic life run amok will remain extremely unlikely for the foreseeable future.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_fiction">In fiction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In fiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Authors who have used self-replicating machine in works of fiction include: <a href="/wiki/Phillip_K_Dick" class="mw-redirect" title="Phillip K Dick">Phillip K Dick</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_C_Clarke" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur C Clarke">Arthur C Clarke</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Karel_%C4%8Capek" title="Karel Čapek">Karel Čapek</a>: (<i><a href="/wiki/R.U.R." title="R.U.R.">R.U.R.</a>: Rossum’s Universal Robots</i> (1920)),<sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Sladek" title="John Sladek">John Sladek</a> (<i>The Reproductive System</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Butler_(novelist)" title="Samuel Butler (novelist)">Samuel Butler</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Erewhon" title="Erewhon">Erewhon</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, Dennis E. Taylor<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/E._M._Forster" title="E. M. Forster">E. M. Forster</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Machine_Stops" title="The Machine Stops">The Machine Stops</a></i> (1909)).<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_sources">Other sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Other sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>A number of patents have been granted for self-replicating machine concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US5659477">U.S. patent 5,659,477</a></span> "Self reproducing fundamental fabricating machines (F-Units)" Inventor: Collins; Charles M. (Burke, Va.) (August 1997), <span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US5764518">U.S. patent 5,764,518</a></span> " Self reproducing fundamental fabricating machine system" Inventor: Collins; Charles M. (Burke, Va.)(June 1998); and Collins' PCT patent WO 96/20453:<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Method and system for self-replicating manufacturing stations" Inventors: Merkle; Ralph C. (Sunnyvale, Calif.), Parker; Eric G. (Wylie, Tex.), Skidmore; George D. (Plano, Tex.) (January 2003).</li> <li>Macroscopic replicators are mentioned briefly in the fourth chapter of <a href="/wiki/K._Eric_Drexler" title="K. Eric Drexler">K. Eric Drexler's</a> 1986 book <i><a href="/wiki/Engines_of_Creation" title="Engines of Creation">Engines of Creation</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-EoC_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EoC-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1995, <a href="/wiki/Nick_Szabo" title="Nick Szabo">Nick Szabo</a> proposed a challenge to build a macroscale replicator from <a href="/wiki/Lego" title="Lego">Lego</a> robot kits and similar basic parts.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szabo wrote that this approach was easier than previous proposals for macroscale replicators, but successfully predicted that even this method would not lead to a macroscale replicator within ten years.</li> <li>In 2004, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Freitas" title="Robert Freitas">Robert Freitas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Merkle" title="Ralph Merkle">Ralph Merkle</a> published the first comprehensive review of the field of self-replication (from which much of the material in this article is derived, with permission of the authors), in their book <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinematic_Self-Replicating_Machines_(book)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines (book) (page does not exist)">Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines</a></i>, which includes 3000+ literature references.<sup id="cite_ref-Freitas_2004_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freitas_2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This book included a new molecular assembler design,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a primer on the mathematics of replication,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the first comprehensive analysis of the entire replicator design space.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autopoiesis" title="Autopoiesis">Autopoiesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey_goo" class="mw-redirect" title="Grey goo">Grey goo scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-reconfiguring_modular_robot" title="Self-reconfiguring modular robot">Self-reconfiguring modular robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AI_takeover" title="AI takeover">AI takeover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_virus" title="Computer virus">Computer virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_worm" title="Computer worm">Computer worm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecophagy" title="Ecophagy">Ecophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_risk_from_advanced_artificial_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence">Existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrochicken" title="Astrochicken">Astrochicken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lights_out_(manufacturing)" title="Lights out (manufacturing)">Lights out (manufacturing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">Nanorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiegelman%27s_Monster" title="Spiegelman's Monster">Spiegelman's Monster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-replicating_spacecraft" title="Self-replicating spacecraft">Self-replicating spacecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RepRap_project" class="mw-redirect" title="RepRap project">RepRap project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecubes" title="Molecubes">Self-reconfiguring and self-reproducing molecube robots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quine_(computing)" title="Quine (computing)">Quine</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Taylor-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTaylorDorin2020" class="citation cs2">Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020), Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48234-3_4">"Robot Evolution and the Fate of Humanity: Pop Culture and Futurology in the Early 20th Century"</a>, <i>Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve</i>, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 29–40, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-48234-3_4">10.1007/978-3-030-48234-3_4</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-48234-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-48234-3"><bdi>978-3-030-48234-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-04-06</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rise+of+the+Self-Replicators%3A+Early+Visions+of+Machines%2C+AI+and+Robots+That+Can+Reproduce+and+Evolve&rft.atitle=Robot+Evolution+and+the+Fate+of+Humanity%3A+Pop+Culture+and+Futurology+in+the+Early+20th+Century&rft.pages=29-40&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-48234-3_4&rft.isbn=978-3-030-48234-3&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft.au=Dorin%2C+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-48234-3_4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guardian-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a 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Petersberg, Germany: <a href="/wiki/Michael_Imhof_Verlag" title="Michael Imhof Verlag">Michael Imhof Verlag</a>. pp. 69–75 [70–74]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-86568-743-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-86568-743-2"><bdi>978-3-86568-743-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Der+Philosoph+-+Die+technische+Keimzelle&rft.btitle=Konrad+Zuse%3A+Erfinder%2C+Unternehmer%2C+Philosoph+und+K%C3%BCnstler&rft.place=Petersberg%2C+Germany&rft.pages=69-75+70-74&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Michael+Imhof+Verlag&rft.date=2011-10-26&rft.isbn=978-3-86568-743-2&rft.aulast=B%C3%B6ttiger&rft.aufirst=Helmut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span> (128 pages)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eibisch_2016-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eibisch_2016_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEibisch2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-location-test cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Eibisch, Nora (2016). Written at Mountain View, California, USA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nluhCwAAQBAJ"><i>Selbstreproduzierende Maschinen: Konrad Zuses Montagestraße SRS 72 und ihr Kontext</i></a> (Thesis). Research (in German). Wiesbaden, Germany: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Vieweg" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Vieweg">Springer Vieweg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Springer_Fachmedien_Wiesbaden_GmbH" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH">Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-658-12942-2">10.1007/978-3-658-12942-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-658-12941-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-658-12941-5"><bdi>978-3-658-12941-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selbstreproduzierende+Maschinen%3A+Konrad+Zuses+Montagestra%C3%9Fe+SRS+72+und+ihr+Kontext&rft.place=Wiesbaden%2C+Germany&rft.series=Research&rft.pub=Springer+Vieweg+%2F+Springer+Fachmedien+Wiesbaden+GmbH&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-658-12942-2&rft.isbn=978-3-658-12941-5&rft.aulast=Eibisch&rft.aufirst=Nora&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnluhCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span> (272+4 pages)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Freitas_2004-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Freitas_2004_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freitas_2004_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freitas_2004_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreitasRalph_C._Merkle2004" class="citation book cs1">Freitas, Robert A.; Ralph C. Merkle (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM.htm"><i>Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines</i></a>. Georgetown, Texas: Landes Bioscience. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57059-690-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57059-690-2"><bdi>978-1-57059-690-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kinematic+Self-Replicating+Machines&rft.place=Georgetown%2C+Texas&rft.pub=Landes+Bioscience&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-57059-690-2&rft.aulast=Freitas&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft.au=Ralph+C.+Merkle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.MolecularAssembler.com%2FKSRM.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/3.11.htm#p3">"3.11 Freitas Interstellar Probe Replicator (1979-1980)"</a>. Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=3.11+Freitas+Interstellar+Probe+Replicator+%281979-1980%29&rft.pub=Molecularassembler.com&rft.date=2005-08-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.MolecularAssembler.com%2FKSRM%2F3.11.htm%23p3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rocha1998-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rocha1998_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rocha1998_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rocha1998_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRocha1998" class="citation cs2">Rocha, Luis M. (1998), "Selected Self-Organization and the Semiotics of Evolutionary Systems", <i>Evolutionary Systems</i>, Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 341–358, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-017-1510-2_25">10.1007/978-94-017-1510-2_25</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-5103-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-5103-5"><bdi>978-90-481-5103-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Selected+Self-Organization+and+the+Semiotics+of+Evolutionary+Systems&rft.btitle=Evolutionary+Systems&rft.pages=341-358&rft.pub=Springer%2C+Dordrecht&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-017-1510-2_25&rft.isbn=978-90-481-5103-5&rft.aulast=Rocha&rft.aufirst=Luis+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brenner2012-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brenner2012_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brenner2012_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrenner2012" class="citation cs2">Brenner, Sydney (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/482461a">"Life's code script"</a>, <i>Nature</i>, <b>482</b> (7386): 461, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F482461a">10.1038/482461a</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22358811">22358811</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205070101">205070101</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Life%27s+code+script&rft.volume=482&rft.issue=7386&rft.pages=461&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205070101%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22358811&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F482461a&rft.aulast=Brenner&rft.aufirst=Sydney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2F482461a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EoC-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EoC_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EoC_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrexler1986" class="citation web cs1">Drexler, K. Eric (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110807060924/http://e-drexler.com/d/06/00/EOC/EOC_Chapter_4.html#section01of03">"Engines of Abundance (Chapter 4) Clanking Replicators"</a>. <i>Engines of Creation</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.e-drexler.com/d/06/00/EOC/EOC_Chapter_4.html#section01of03">the original</a> on 2011-08-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Engines+of+Creation&rft.atitle=Engines+of+Abundance+%28Chapter+4%29+Clanking+Replicators&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Drexler&rft.aufirst=K.+Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.e-drexler.com%2Fd%2F06%2F00%2FEOC%2FEOC_Chapter_4.html%23section01of03&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Colvin1947pp6-7-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Colvin1947pp6-7_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFColvin1947">Colvin 1947</a>, pp. 6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSipperReggia2001" class="citation journal cs1">Sipper, Moshe; Reggia, James A. (August 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26059294">"Build Your Own Replicator"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>285</b> (2): 38–39. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001SciAm.285b..34S">2001SciAm.285b..34S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0801-34">10.1038/scientificamerican0801-34</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26059294">26059294</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11478000">11478000</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Build+Your+Own+Replicator&rft.volume=285&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=38-39&rft.date=2001-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0801-34&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11478000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26059294%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001SciAm.285b..34S&rft.aulast=Sipper&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft.au=Reggia%2C+James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26059294&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span> Several other variations on this anecdotal response also exist.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_A._Freitas_Jr.Ralph_C._Merkle2004" class="citation book cs1">Robert A. Freitas Jr.; Ralph C. Merkle (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/1.htm#p5"><i>Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines</i></a>. Landes Bioscience. p. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kinematic+Self-Replicating+Machines&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Landes+Bioscience&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Robert+A.+Freitas+Jr.&rft.au=Ralph+C.+Merkle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.MolecularAssembler.com%2FKSRM%2F1.htm%23p5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuel_Butler" class="citation web cs1">Samuel Butler. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-ButErew.html">"Erewhon, Chapter 24, The book Of the Machines"</a>. Nzetc.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Erewhon%2C+Chapter+24%2C+The+book+Of+the+Machines&rft.pub=Nzetc.org&rft.au=Samuel+Butler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnzetc.victoria.ac.nz%2Ftm%2Fscholarly%2Ftei-ButErew.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_Eliot" class="citation web cs1">George Eliot. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.online-literature.com/george_eliot/theophrastus-such/17/">"Impressions of Theophrastus Such, Chapter 17, Shadows of the Coming Race"</a>. online-literature.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-08-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Impressions+of+Theophrastus+Such%2C+Chapter+17%2C+Shadows+of+the+Coming+Race&rft.pub=online-literature.com&rft.au=George+Eliot&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.online-literature.com%2Fgeorge_eliot%2Ftheophrastus-such%2F17%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_A._Freitas_Jr.Ralph_C._Merkle2004" class="citation book cs1">Robert A. Freitas Jr.; Ralph C. Merkle (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/1.htm#p11"><i>Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines</i></a>. Landes Bioscience. p. 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kinematic+Self-Replicating+Machines&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Landes+Bioscience&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Robert+A.+Freitas+Jr.&rft.au=Ralph+C.+Merkle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.MolecularAssembler.com%2FKSRM%2F1.htm%23p11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaley1802" class="citation book cs1">Paley, William (1802). "Chapter i, Section 1". <i>Natural Theology: or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, Collected from the Appearances of Nature</i>. E. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%28WO%2F1996%2F020453%29+SELF+REPRODUCING+FUNDAMENTAL+FABRICATING+MACHINES+%28F-UNITS%29&rft.pub=Wipo.int&rft.au=WIPO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatents.google.com%2Fpatent%2FWO1996020453A1%2Fen%3Fq%3Df-units%26assignee%3Dcollins%2Bcharles%2Bm%26oq%3Df-units%2Bcollins%2Bcharles%2Bm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzabo" class="citation web cs1">Szabo, Nick. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060307220916/http://www.lucifer.com/~sean/N-FX/macro.html">"Macroscale Replicator"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lucifer.com/~sean/N-FX/macro.html">the original</a> on 2006-03-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-03-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Macroscale+Replicator&rft.aulast=Szabo&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lucifer.com%2F~sean%2FN-FX%2Fmacro.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/4.11.3.htm">"4.11.3 Merkle-Freitas Hydrocarbon Molecular Assembler (2000-2003)"</a>. Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=4.11.3+Merkle-Freitas+Hydrocarbon+Molecular+Assembler+%282000-2003%29&rft.pub=Molecularassembler.com&rft.date=2005-08-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.MolecularAssembler.com%2FKSRM%2F4.11.3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/5.9.htm">"5.9 Brief Mathematical Primer on Self-Replicating Systems"</a>. Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=5.9+Brief+Mathematical+Primer+on+Self-Replicating+Systems&rft.pub=Molecularassembler.com&rft.date=2005-08-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.MolecularAssembler.com%2FKSRM%2F5.9.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/5.1.9.htm">"5.1.9 Freitas-Merkle Map of the Kinematic Replicator Design Space (2003-2004)"</a>. Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=5.1.9+Freitas-Merkle+Map+of+the+Kinematic+Replicator+Design+Space+%282003-2004%29&rft.pub=Molecularassembler.com&rft.date=2005-08-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.MolecularAssembler.com%2FKSRM%2F5.1.9.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-replicating_machine&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColvin1947" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Fred_H._Colvin" title="Fred H. Colvin">Colvin, Fred H.</a> (1947), <i>Sixty Years with Men and Machines</i>, New York and London: McGraw-Hill, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/47003762">47003762</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sixty+Years+with+Men+and+Machines&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1947&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F47003762&rft.aulast=Colvin&rft.aufirst=Fred+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASelf-replicating+machine" class="Z3988"></span>. Available as a reprint from Lindsay Publications (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-917914-86-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-917914-86-7">978-0-917914-86-7</a>). Foreword by <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Flanders" title="Ralph Flanders">Ralph Flanders</a>.</li> <li>M. Sipper, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B6G3tbmMcpR4MkpqY3EyN3k0djQ/view?usp=sharing">Fifty years of research on self-replication: An overview</a>, Artificial Life, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 237–257, Summer 1998.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeman_Dyson" title="Freeman Dyson">Freeman Dyson</a> expanded upon Neumann's automata theories, and advanced a biotechnology-inspired theory. See <a href="/wiki/Astrochicken" title="Astrochicken">Astrochicken</a>.</li> <li>The first technical design study of a self-replicating interstellar probe was published in a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/ReproJBISJuly1980.htm">1980 paper</a> by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Freitas" title="Robert Freitas">Robert Freitas</a>.</li> <li>Clanking replicators are also mentioned briefly in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_Chapter_4.html#section01of03">fourth chapter</a> of <a href="/wiki/K._Eric_Drexler" title="K. Eric Drexler">K. Eric Drexler</a>'s 1986 book <i><a href="/wiki/Engines_of_Creation" title="Engines of Creation">Engines of Creation</a></i>.</li> <li>Article about a proposed clanking replicator system to be used for developing Earthly deserts in the October 1995 <a href="/wiki/Discover_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Discover Magazine">Discover Magazine</a>, featuring forests of solar panels that powered desalination equipment to irrigate the land.</li> <li>In 1995, <a href="/wiki/Nick_Szabo" title="Nick Szabo">Nick Szabo</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060307220916/http://www.lucifer.com/~sean/N-FX/macro.html">proposed</a> a challenge to build a macroscale replicator from Lego(tm) robot kits and similar basic parts. Szabo wrote that this approach was easier than previous proposals for macroscale replicators, but successfully predicted that even this method would not lead to a macroscale replicator within ten years.</li> <li>In 1998, <a href="/wiki/Chris_Phoenix_(nanotechnologist)" title="Chris Phoenix (nanotechnologist)">Chris Phoenix</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://groups.google.com/groups?hl=en&selm=6f0nui%248ih%241%40news.nanospace.com">suggested</a> a general idea for a macroscale replicator on the sci.nanotech <a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">newsgroup</a>, operating in a pool of <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a>-cured liquid <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastic</a>, selectively solidifying the plastic to form solid parts. Computation could be done by <a href="/wiki/Fluidic_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluidic logic">fluidic logic</a>. Power for the process could be supplied by a pressurized source of the liquid.</li> <li>In 2001, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ward_(paleontologist)" title="Peter Ward (paleontologist)">Peter Ward</a> mentioned an escaped clanking replicator destroying the human race in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Future_Evolution" title="Future Evolution">Future Evolution</a></i>.</li> <li>In 2004, General Dynamics completed a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.niac.usra.edu/files/studies/final_report/883Toth-Fejel.pdf">study</a> for NASA's Institute for Advanced Concepts. It concluded that complexity of the development was equal to that of a Pentium 4, and promoted a design based on cellular automata.</li> <li>In 2004, Robert Freitas and <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Merkle" title="Ralph Merkle">Ralph Merkle</a> published the first comprehensive review of the field of self-replication, in their book <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM.htm">Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines</a>, which includes 3000+ literature references.</li> <li>In 2005, <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Bowyer" title="Adrian Bowyer">Adrian Bowyer</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bath" title="University of Bath">University of Bath</a> started the <a href="/wiki/RepRap" title="RepRap">RepRap</a> project to develop a <a href="/wiki/Rapid_prototyping" title="Rapid prototyping">rapid prototyping</a> machine that would be able to replicate itself, making such machines cheap enough for people to buy and use in their homes. The project is releasing material under the <a href="/wiki/GNU_GPL" class="mw-redirect" title="GNU GPL">GNU GPL</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070112200308/http://staff.bath.ac.uk/ensab/replicator/">[1]</a></li> <li>In 2015, advances in <a href="/wiki/Graphene" title="Graphene">graphene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silicene" title="Silicene">silicene</a> suggested that it could form the basis for a neural network with densities comparable to the human brain if integrated with <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">silicon carbide</a> based nanoscale CPUs containing <a href="/wiki/Memristors" class="mw-redirect" title="Memristors">memristors</a>.</li></ul> <p>The power source might be <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">solar</a> or possibly <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioisotope</a> based given that new liquid based compounds can generate substantial power from radioactive decay. 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navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/K._Eric_Drexler" title="K. Eric Drexler">K. Eric Drexler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Peterson" title="Christine Peterson">Christine Peterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Storrs_Hall" title="J. Storrs Hall">J. Storrs Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Montemagno" title="Carlo Montemagno">Carlo Montemagno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Merkle" title="Ralph Merkle">Ralph Merkle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Freitas" title="Robert Freitas">Robert Freitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Bennett" title="James C. Bennett">James C. Bennett</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Engines_of_Creation" title="Engines of Creation">Engines of Creation</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Great_Mambo_Chicken_and_the_Transhuman_Condition" title="Great Mambo Chicken and the Transhuman Condition">Great Mambo Chicken and the Transhuman Condition</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/There%27s_Plenty_of_Room_at_the_Bottom" title="There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom">There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feynman_Prize_in_Nanotechnology" title="Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology">Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drexler%E2%80%93Smalley_debate_on_molecular_nanotechnology" title="Drexler–Smalley debate on molecular nanotechnology">Drexler–Smalley debate on molecular nanotechnology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">Cryonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">Impact of nanotechnology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Societal_impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Societal impact of nanotechnology">Societal</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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