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class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Richard Dawkins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Richard_Dawkins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Richerson_and_Boyd" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Richerson_and_Boyd"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Richerson and Boyd</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Richerson_and_Boyd-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Contemporary usage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div 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Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9" title="حجة صانع الساعة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حجة صانع الساعة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogia_del_rellotger" title="Analogia del rellotger – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Analogia del rellotger" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urmageranalogien" title="Urmageranalogien – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Urmageranalogien" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uhrmacher-Analogie" title="Uhrmacher-Analogie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Uhrmacher-Analogie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog%C3%ADa_del_relojero" title="Analogía del relojero – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Analogía del relojero" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogio_de_la_horlo%C4%9Disto" title="Analogio de la horloĝisto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Analogio de la horloĝisto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%AB%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="تمثیل ساعت‌ساز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تمثیل ساعت‌ساز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analox%C3%ADa_do_reloxeiro" title="Analoxía do reloxeiro – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Analoxía do reloxeiro" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%EA%B3%84%EA%B3%B5_%EC%9C%A0%EC%B6%94" title="시계공 유추 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="시계공 유추" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogi_pembuat_jam" title="Analogi pembuat jam – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Analogi pembuat jam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogia_dell%27orologiaio" title="Analogia dell'orologiaio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Analogia dell'orologiaio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogia_do_relojoeiro" title="Analogia do relojoeiro – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Analogia do relojoeiro" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Watchmaker analogy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kellosepp%C3%A4vertaus" title="Kelloseppävertaus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kelloseppävertaus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urmakaranalogin" title="Urmakaranalogin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Urmakaranalogin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_argument&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Watchmaker argument">Watchmaker argument</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Argument for the existence of God</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Origins</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deus" title="Deus">Deus</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Deus_otiosus" title="Deus otiosus">Deus otiosus</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logos#Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Logos">Logos § Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism#The_One" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism § The One</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_theology#Confucian_theology" title="Chinese theology">Chinese theology § Confucian theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socinianism" title="Socinianism">Socinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Watchmaker God</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deism_in_England_and_France_in_the_18th_century" title="Deism in England and France in the 18th century">18th-century England and France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Deism" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Deism">Christian Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Pandeism_in_Asia" title="Pandeism in Asia">in Asia</a>)</small> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Pandeism_and_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandeism and Christianity">and Christianity</a>)</small> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_pandeism" title="Criticism of pandeism">criticism</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_the_Supreme_Being" title="Cult of the Supreme Being">Cult of the Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilanthropy" title="Theophilanthropy">Theophilanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deistic_evolution" title="Deistic evolution">Deistic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">Natural theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregationalism_in_the_United_States#Disinterested_benevolence" title="Congregationalism in the United States">Congregationalism in the<br />US § Disinterested benevolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism#Polydeism" title="Polytheism">Polydeism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_deists" title="List of deists">Notable figures</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Herbert,_1st_Baron_Herbert_of_Cherbury" title="Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury">Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Matthew Tindal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Blount_(deist)" title="Charles Blount (deist)">Charles Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guido_von_List" title="Guido von List">Guido von List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayetano_Ripoll" title="Cayetano Ripoll">Cayetano Ripoll</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">False equivalencies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_deism" title="Ceremonial deism">Ceremonial deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moralistic_therapeutic_deism" title="Moralistic therapeutic deism">Moralistic therapeutic deism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Opposition</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Deism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church and Deism">Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Leland_(Presbyterian)" title="John Leland (Presbyterian)">John Leland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Stillingfleet#Philosophical_controversy" title="Edward Stillingfleet">Edward Stillingfleet § Philosophical controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Bliss#Anthony_Bliss_(father),_Vicar_of_Portsmouth" title="Anthony Bliss">Anthony Bliss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jackson_(controversialist)" title="John Jackson (controversialist)">John Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">Johann Georg Hamann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Jennens" title="Charles Jennens">Charles Jennens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_thought_of_Edmund_Burke" title="Religious thought of Edmund Burke">Religious thought of Edmund Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Blackmore#Non-epic_writing" title="Richard Blackmore">Richard Blackmore § Non-epic writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McGready" title="James McGready">James McGready</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentin_Ernst_L%C3%B6scher" title="Valentin Ernst Löscher">Valentin Ernst Löscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_prophecies#Themes" title="Continental prophecies"><i>Continental prophecies</i> § Themes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Julius_Stahl" title="Friedrich Julius Stahl">Friedrich Julius Stahl</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Deism_sidebar" title="Template:Deism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Deism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Deism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Deism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Deism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Intelligent_design" title="Category:Intelligent design">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:150%;padding:0 0.2em 0.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Watch_with_no_background.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Clockwork"><img alt="Clockwork" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Watch_with_no_background.png/180px-Watch_with_no_background.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Watch_with_no_background.png/270px-Watch_with_no_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Watch_with_no_background.png/360px-Watch_with_no_background.png 2x" data-file-width="3645" data-file-height="2698" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Watchmaker analogy</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding:0.15em 0.2em 0.55em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irreducible_complexity" title="Irreducible complexity">Irreducible complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specified_complexity" title="Specified complexity">Specified complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuned universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_designer" title="Intelligent designer">Intelligent designer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_science" title="Theistic science">Theistic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-creationism" title="Neo-creationism">Neo-creationism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement" title="Intelligent design movement">Movement</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding:0.15em 0.2em 0.55em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_intelligent_design" title="Timeline of intelligent design">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge_strategy" title="Wedge strategy">Wedge strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics" title="Intelligent design in politics">Politics</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District" title="Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District">Kitzmiller v. Dover</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Discovery_Institute_intelligent_design_campaigns" title="Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns">Campaigns</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding:0.15em 0.2em 0.55em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_Institute_intelligent_design_campaigns" title="Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns">Discovery Institute campaigns</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Teach_the_Controversy" title="Teach the Controversy">Teach the controversy</a>"</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Authors</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding:0.15em 0.2em 0.55em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Wells_(intelligent_design_advocate)" title="Jonathan Wells (intelligent design advocate)">Jonathan Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Dembski" title="William A. Dembski">William A. Dembski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillip_E._Johnson" title="Phillip E. Johnson">Phillip E. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Behe" title="Michael Behe">Michael Behe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_C._Meyer" title="Stephen C. Meyer">Stephen C. Meyer</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organisations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding:0.15em 0.2em 0.55em;;line-height:1.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_Institute" title="Discovery Institute">Discovery Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Science_and_Culture" title="Center for Science and Culture">Center for Science and Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Intelligent_Design" title="Centre for Intelligent Design">Centre for Intelligent Design</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Complexity,_Information,_and_Design" title="International Society for Complexity, Information, and Design">International Society for Complexity,<br />Information, and Design (ISCID)</a></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_Design_and_Evolution_Awareness_Center" title="Intelligent Design and Evolution Awareness Center">Intelligent Design and<br />Evolution Awareness Center</a></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Physicians_and_Surgeons_for_Scientific_Integrity" class="mw-redirect" title="Physicians and Surgeons for Scientific Integrity">Physicians and Surgeons for<br />Scientific Integrity</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth_in_Science" title="Truth in Science">Truth in Science</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Reactions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding:0.15em 0.2em 0.55em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_reactions_to_intelligent_design" title="Jewish reactions to intelligent design">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_and_the_Catholic_Church" title="Evolution and the Catholic Church">Roman Catholic</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientific_bodies_explicitly_rejecting_intelligent_design" title="List of scientific bodies explicitly rejecting intelligent design">Scientific bodies that explicitly<br />reject intelligent design</a></div></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.3em;"> <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.5em;font-weight:bold;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Intelligent_design" title="Category:Intelligent design">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Intelligent_Design" title="Template:Intelligent Design"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Intelligent_Design" title="Template talk:Intelligent Design"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Intelligent_Design" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Intelligent Design"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>watchmaker analogy</b> or <b>watchmaker argument</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">teleological argument</a>, an argument for the existence of God. In broad terms, the watchmaker analogy states that just as it is readily observed that a watch (e.g.: a pocket watch) did not come to be accidentally or on its own but rather through the intentional handiwork of a skilled watchmaker, it is also readily observed that nature did not come to be accidentally or on its own but through the intentional handiwork of an intelligent designer. The watchmaker analogy originated in <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a> and is often used to argue for the <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudoscientific">pseudoscientific</a> concept of <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">intelligent design</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Analogy" title="Analogy">analogy</a> states that a design implies a designer, by an <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_designer" title="Intelligent designer">intelligent designer</a>, i.e. a <a href="/wiki/Creator_deity" title="Creator deity">creator deity</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Watchmaker" title="Watchmaker">watchmaker</a> analogy was given by <a href="/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">William Paley</a> in his 1802 book <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_Theology_or_Evidences_of_the_Existence_and_Attributes_of_the_Deity" title="Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity">Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original analogy played a prominent role in natural theology and the "argument from design," where it was used to support arguments for the existence of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> of the universe, in both <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a>. Prior to Paley, however, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Isaac Newton">Sir Isaac Newton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, and others from the time of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> had each believed "that the physical laws he [each] had uncovered revealed the mechanical perfection of the workings of the universe to be akin to a watch, wherein the watchmaker is God."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1859 publication of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">book</a> on <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> put forward an alternative explanation to the watchmaker analogy, for complexity and <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a>. In the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Deists" class="mw-redirect" title="Deists">deists</a>, who championed the watchmaker analogy, held that Darwin's theory fit with "the principle of <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">uniformitarianism</a>—the idea that all processes in the world occur now as they have in the past" and that <a href="/wiki/Deistic_evolution" title="Deistic evolution">deistic evolution</a> "provided an explanatory framework for understanding species variation in a mechanical universe."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When evolutionary biology began being taught in American high schools in the 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Christian fundamentalists</a> used versions of the argument to dispute the concepts of evolution and natural selection, and there was renewed interest in the watchmaker argument. <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> referred to the analogy in his 1986 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Blind_Watchmaker" title="The Blind Watchmaker">The Blind Watchmaker</a></i> when explaining the mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. Others, however, consider the watchmaker analogy to be compatible with <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_creation" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary creation">evolutionary creation</a>, opining that the two concepts are not mutually exclusive.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_predecessor">Ancient predecessor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient predecessor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the second century <a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a> argued that, by analogy to the way a <a href="/wiki/Sword" title="Sword">sword</a> is made by a craftsman to fit with a <a href="/wiki/Scabbard" title="Scabbard">scabbard</a>, so <a href="/wiki/Human_genitals" class="mw-redirect" title="Human genitals">human genitals</a> and the desire of humans to fit them together suggest a type of design or craftsmanship of the human form. Epictetus attributed this design to a type of <a href="/wiki/Providentia" title="Providentia">Providence</a> woven into the fabric of the universe, rather than to a personal monotheistic god.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_Revolution">Scientific Revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Scientific Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> "nurtured a growing awareness" that "there were universal laws of nature at work that ordered the movement of the world and its parts."<sup id="cite_ref-Yong2010_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yong2010-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Amos_Yong" title="Amos Yong">Amos Yong</a> writes that in "astronomy, the <a href="/wiki/Nicholaus_Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholaus Copernicus">Copernican</a> revolution regarding the <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentrism</a> of the solar system, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>'s (1571–1630) three laws of planetary motion, and Isaac Newton's (1642–1727) law of universal gravitation—laws of gravitation and of motion, and notions of absolute space and time—all combined to establish the regularities of heavenly and earthly bodies".<sup id="cite_ref-Yong2010_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yong2010-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Simultaneously, the development of <a href="/wiki/Machine_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine technology">machine technology</a> and the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">mechanical philosophy</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> encouraged mechanical imagery unlikely to have come to the fore in previous ages.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With such a backdrop, "deists suggested the watchmaker analogy: just as watches are set in motion by watchmakers, after which they operate according to their pre-established mechanisms, so also was the world begun by God as creator, after which it and all its parts have operated according to their pre-established natural laws. With these laws perfectly in place, events have unfolded according to the prescribed plan."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For <a href="/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Isaac Newton">Sir Isaac Newton</a>, "the regular motion of the planets made it reasonable to believe in the continued existence of God".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newton also upheld the idea that "like a watchmaker, God was forced to intervene in the universe and tinker with the mechanism from time to time to ensure that it continued operating in good working order". Similarly to Newton, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> (1596–1650) speculated on "the cosmos as a great time machine operating according to fixed laws, a watch created and wound up by the great watchmaker".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="We have varying interpretations of Descartes - can we get a quotation from Descartes himself in context? (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="William_Paley">William Paley</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: William Paley"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">William Paley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_Theology_or_Evidences_of_the_Existence_and_Attributes_of_the_Deity" title="Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity">Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity</a></div> <p>Watches and timepieces have been used as examples of complicated technology in philosophical discussions. For example, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> all used timepieces in arguments regarding purpose. The watchmaker analogy, as described here, was used by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle">Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle</a> in 1686,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but was most famously formulated by Paley. </p><p>Paley used the watchmaker analogy in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_Theology_or_Evidences_of_the_Existence_and_Attributes_of_the_Deity" title="Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity">Natural Theology, or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity collected from the Appearances of Nature</a></i>, published in 1802. In it, Paley wrote that if a <a href="/wiki/Pocket_watch" title="Pocket watch">pocket watch</a> is found on a heath, it is most reasonable to assume that someone dropped it and that it was made by at least one watchmaker, not by natural forces: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WilliamPaley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/WilliamPaley.jpg/170px-WilliamPaley.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/WilliamPaley.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="188" data-file-height="228" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">William Paley</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In crossing a heath, suppose I pitched my foot against a stone, and were asked how the stone came to be there; I might possibly answer, that, for anything I knew to the contrary, it had lain there forever: nor would it perhaps be very easy to show the absurdity of this answer. But suppose I had found a watch upon the ground, and it should be inquired how the watch happened to be in that place; I should hardly think of the answer I had before given, that for anything I knew, the watch might have always been there. ... There must have existed, at some time, and at some place or other, an artificer or artificers, who formed [the watch] for the purpose which we find it actually to answer; who comprehended its construction, and designed its use. ... Every indication of contrivance, every manifestation of design, which existed in the watch, exists in the works of nature; with the difference, on the side of nature, of being greater or more, and that in a degree which exceeds all computation. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>William Paley, <i>Natural Theology</i> (1802)</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Paley went on to argue that the complex structures of living things and the remarkable adaptations of plants and animals required an intelligent designer. He believed the natural world was the creation of God and showed the nature of the creator. According to Paley, God had carefully designed "even the most humble and insignificant organisms" and all of their minute features (such as the <a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">wings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(biology)" title="Antenna (biology)">antennae</a> of <a href="/wiki/Earwig" title="Earwig">earwigs</a>). He believed, therefore, that God must care even more for humanity. </p><p>Paley recognised that there is great suffering in nature and nature appears to be indifferent to pain. His way of reconciling that with his belief in a <a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">benevolent</a> God was to assume that life had more pleasure than pain. </p><p>As a side note, a charge of wholesale <a href="/wiki/Plagiarism" title="Plagiarism">plagiarism</a> from this book was brought against Paley in <a href="/wiki/Athenaeum_(British_magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Athenaeum (British magazine)"><i>The Athenaeum</i></a> for 1848, but the famous illustration of the watch was not peculiar to Nieuwentyt and had been used by many others before either Paley or Nieuwentyt. But the charge of plagiarism was based on more similarities. For example, Nieuwentyt wrote "in the middle of a Sandy down, or in a desart {sic} and solitary Place, where few People are used to pass, any one should find a Watch ..."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Joseph_Butler">Joseph Butler</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Joseph Butler"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>William Paley taught the works of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Joseph Butler</a> and appears to have built on Butler's 1736 design arguments of inferring a designer from evidence of design. Butler noted: "As the manifold Appearances of Design and of final Causes, in the Constitution of the World, prove it to be the Work of an intelligent Mind ... The appearances of <i>Design</i> and of <i>final Causes</i> in the constitution of nature as really prove this acting agent to be an <i>intelligent Designer</i>... ten thousand Instances of Design, cannot but prove a Designer.".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Jean-Jacques Rousseau"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Rousseau also mentioned the watchmaker theory. He wrote the following in his 1762 book, <a href="/wiki/Emile_(Rousseau)" class="mw-redirect" title="Emile (Rousseau)">Emile</a>: </p><blockquote><p> I am like a man who sees the works of a watch for the first time; he is never weary of admiring the mechanism, though he does not know the use of the instrument and has never seen its face. I do not know what this is for, says he, but I see that each part of it is fitted to the rest, I admire the workman in the details of his work, and I am quite certain that all these wheels only work together in this fashion for some common end which I cannot perceive. Let us compare the special ends, the means, the ordered relations of every kind, then let us listen to the inner voice of feeling; what healthy mind can reject its evidence? Unless the eyes are blinded by prejudices, can they fail to see that the visible order of the universe proclaims a supreme intelligence? What sophisms must be brought together before we fail to understand the harmony of existence and the wonderful co-operation of every part for the maintenance of the rest?<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="David_Hume">David Hume</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: David Hume"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before Paley published his book, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> (1711–1776) had already put forward a number of philosophical criticisms of the watch analogy, and to some extent anticipated the concept of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. His criticisms can be separated into three major distinctions. </p><p>His first objection is that we have no experience of world-making. Hume highlighted the fact that everything we claim to know the cause of, we have derived the inductions from previous experiences of similar objects being created or seen the object itself being created ourselves. For example, with a watch, we know it has to be created by a watchmaker because we can observe it being made and compare it to the making of other similar watches or objects to deduce they have alike causes in their creation. However, he argues that we have no experience of the universe's creation or any other universe's creations to compare our own universe to and never will; therefore, it would be illogical to infer that our universe has been created by an intelligent designer in the same way that a watch has.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The second criticism that Hume offers is about the form of the argument as an analogy in itself. An analogical argument claims that because object X (a watch) is like object Y (the universe) in one respect, both are therefore probably alike in another, hidden, respect (their cause, having to be created by an intelligent designer). He points out that for an argument from analogy to be successful, the two things that are being compared have to have an adequate number of similarities that are relevant to the respect that are analogised. For example, a kitten and a lion may be very similar in many respects, but just because a lion makes a "roar", it would not be correct to infer a kitten also "roars": the similarities between the two objects being not enough and the degree of relevance to what sound they make being not relevant enough. Hume then argues that the universe and a watch also do not have enough relevant or close similarities to infer that they were both created the same way. For example, the universe is made of organic natural material, but the watch is made of artificial mechanic materials. He claims that in the same respect, the universe could be argued to be more analogous to something more organic such as a vegetable (which we can observe for ourselves does not need a 'designer' or a 'watchmaker' to be created). Although he admits the analogy of a universe to a vegetable to seem ridiculous, he says that it is just as ridiculous to analogize the universe with a watch.<sup id="cite_ref-HumepartII_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HumepartII-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The third criticism that Hume offers is that even if the argument did give evidence for a designer; it still gives no evidence for the traditional 'omnipotent', 'benevolent' (all-powerful and all-loving) God of traditional Christian theism. One of the main assumptions of Paley's argument is that 'like effects have like causes'; or that machines (like the watch) and the universe have similar features of design and so both also have the same cause of their existence: they must both have an intelligent designer. However, Hume points out that what Paley does not comprehend is to what extent 'like causes' extend: how similar the creation of a universe is to the creation of a watch. Instead, Paley moves straight to the conclusion that this designer of the universe is the 'God' he believes in of traditional Christianity. Hume, however takes the idea of 'like causes' and points out some potential absurdities in how far the 'likeness' of these causes could extend to if the argument were taken further as to explain this. One example that he uses is how a machine or a watch is usually designed by a whole team of people rather than just one person. Surely, if we are analogizing the two in this way, it would point to there being a group of gods who created the universe, not just a single being. Another example he uses is that complex machines are usually the result of many years of trial and error with every new machine being an improved version of the last. Also by analogy of the two, would that not hint that the universe could also have been just one of many of God's 'trials' and that there are much better universes out there? However, if that were taken to be true, surely the 'creator' of it all would not be 'all loving' and 'all powerful' if they had to carry out the process of 'trial and error' when creating the universe?<sup id="cite_ref-HumepartV_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HumepartV-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hume also points out there is still a possibility that the universe could have been created by random chance but still show evidence of design as the universe is eternal and would have an infinite amount of time to be able to form a universe so complex and ordered as our own. He called that the 'Epicurean hypothesis'. It argued that when the universe was first created, the universe was random and chaotic, but if the universe is eternal, over an unlimited period of time, natural forces could have naturally 'evolved' by random particles coming together over time into the incredibly ordered system we can observe today without the need of an intelligent designer as an explanation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The last objection that he makes draws on the widely discussed <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a>. He argues that all the daily unnecessary suffering that goes on everywhere within the world is yet another factor that pulls away from the idea that God is an 'omnipotent' 'benevolent' being.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charles_Darwin">Charles Darwin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Charles Darwin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Darwin_1880.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Charles_Darwin_1880.jpg/170px-Charles_Darwin_1880.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Charles_Darwin_1880.jpg/255px-Charles_Darwin_1880.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Charles_Darwin_1880.jpg/340px-Charles_Darwin_1880.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2986" data-file-height="4096" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> in 1880</figcaption></figure> <p>When Darwin <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin%27s_education" title="Charles Darwin's education">completed his studies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> at <a href="/wiki/Christ%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="Christ's College, Cambridge">Christ's College, Cambridge</a> in 1831, he read Paley's <i>Natural Theology</i> and believed that the work gave rational proof of the <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence of God</a>. That was because living beings showed complexity and were exquisitely fitted to their places in a happy world. </p><p>Subsequently, on <a href="/wiki/Second_voyage_of_HMS_Beagle" title="Second voyage of HMS Beagle">the voyage of the <i>Beagle</i></a>, Darwin found that nature was not so beneficent, and the distribution of <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> did not support ideas of divine creation. In 1838, shortly after his return, Darwin <a href="/wiki/Inception_of_Darwin%27s_theory" title="Inception of Darwin's theory">conceived his theory</a> that <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, rather than divine design, was the best explanation for gradual change in populations over many generations. He published the theory in <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> in 1859, and in later editions, he noted responses that he had received: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It can hardly be supposed that a false theory would explain, in so satisfactory a manner as does the theory of natural selection, the several large classes of facts above specified. It has recently been objected that this is an unsafe method of arguing; but it is a method used in judging of the common events of life, and has often been used by the greatest natural philosophers ... I see no good reason why the views given in this volume should shock the religious feelings of any one. It is satisfactory, as showing how transient such impressions are, to remember that the greatest discovery ever made by man, namely, the law of the attraction of gravity, was also attacked by Leibnitz, "as subversive of natural, and inferentially of revealed, religion." A celebrated author and divine has written to me that "he has gradually learnt to see that it is just as noble a conception of the Deity to believe that He created a few original forms capable of self-development into other and needful forms, as to believe that He required a fresh act of creation to supply the voids caused by the action of His laws."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species (1859)</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Darwin reviewed the implications of this finding in his autobiography: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Although I did not think much about the existence of a personal God until a considerably later period of my life, I will here give the vague conclusions to which I have been driven. The old argument of design in nature, as given by Paley, which formerly seemed to me so conclusive, fails, now that the law of natural selection has been discovered. We can no longer argue that, for instance, the beautiful hinge of a bivalve shell must have been made by an intelligent being, like the hinge of a door by man. There seems to be no more design in the variability of organic beings and in the action of natural selection, than in the course which the wind blows. Everything in nature is the result of fixed laws.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Charles Darwin, The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809–1882. With the original omissions restored.</cite></div></blockquote> <p>The idea that nature was governed by laws was already common, and in 1833, <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> as a proponent of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a> that Paley had inspired had written that "with regard to the material world, we can at least go so far as this—we can perceive that events are brought about not by insulated interpositions of Divine power, exerted in each particular case, but by the establishment of general laws."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Darwin, who spoke of the "fixed laws" concurred with Whewell, writing in his second edition of <i>On The Origin of Species</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species (1860)</cite></div></blockquote> <p>By the time that Darwin published his theory, theologians of <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">liberal Christianity</a> were already supporting such ideas, and by the late 19th century, their modernist approach was predominant in theology. In science, <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> theory incorporating Darwin's natural selection became completely accepted. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Richard_Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Richard Dawkins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dawkins_at_UT_Austin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Dawkins_at_UT_Austin.jpg/170px-Dawkins_at_UT_Austin.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Dawkins_at_UT_Austin.jpg/255px-Dawkins_at_UT_Austin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Dawkins_at_UT_Austin.jpg/340px-Dawkins_at_UT_Austin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1067" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Richard Dawkins</figcaption></figure> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Blind_Watchmaker" title="The Blind Watchmaker">The Blind Watchmaker</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> argues that the watch analogy conflates the complexity that arises from living organisms that are able to reproduce themselves (and may become more complex over time) with the complexity of inanimate objects, unable to pass on any reproductive changes (such as the multitude of parts manufactured in a watch). The comparison breaks down because of this important distinction.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a <i><a href="/wiki/Horizon_(BBC_TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Horizon (BBC TV series)">BBC Horizon</a></i> episode, also entitled <i>The Blind Watchmaker</i>, Dawkins described Paley's argument as being "as mistaken as it is elegant". In both contexts, he saw Paley as having made an incorrect proposal as to a certain problem's solution, but Dawkins did not disrespect him. In his essay <i>The Big Bang</i>, <a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven Pinker</a> discusses Dawkins's coverage of Paley's argument, adding: "Biologists today do not disagree with Paley's laying out of the problem. They disagree only with his solution." </p><p>In his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_God_Delusion" title="The God Delusion">The God Delusion</a></i>, Dawkins argues that rather than luck, the evolution of human life is the result of natural selection. He suggests that it is fallacious to view "coming about by chance" and "coming about by design" as the only possibilities, with natural selection being the alternative to the existence of an intelligent designer. By amassing a large number of small changes, the theory of natural selection allows for a seemingly impossible end product to be produced.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, he argues that the watchmaker's creation of the watch implies that the watchmaker must be more complex than the watch. Design is top-down, someone or something more complex designs something less complex. To follow the line upwards demands that the watch was designed by a (necessarily more complex) watchmaker, the watchmaker must have been created by a more complex being than himself. So the question becomes who designed the designer? Dawkins argues that (a) this line continues ad infinitum, and (b) it does not explain anything. Evolution, on the other hand, takes a bottom-up approach; it explains how more complexity can arise gradually by building on or combining lesser complexity.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Richerson_and_Boyd">Richerson and Boyd</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Richerson and Boyd"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biologist <a href="/wiki/Peter_Richerson" title="Peter Richerson">Peter Richerson</a> and anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyd_(anthropologist)" title="Robert Boyd (anthropologist)">Robert Boyd</a> offer an oblique criticism by arguing that watches were not "hopeful monsters created by single inventors," but were created by watchmakers building up their skills in a cumulative fashion over time, each contributing to a watch-making tradition from which any individual watchmaker draws their designs.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_usage">Contemporary usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Contemporary usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 20th century, the modernist theology of <a href="/wiki/Higher_criticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher criticism">higher criticism</a> was contested in the United States by <a href="/wiki/Biblical_literalism" title="Biblical literalism">Biblical literalists</a>, who campaigned successfully against the teaching of evolution and began calling themselves <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationists</a> in the 1920s. When teaching of evolution was reintroduced into <a href="/wiki/Public_school_(government_funded)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public school (government funded)">public schools</a> in the 1960s, they adopted what they called <i><a href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">creation science</a></i> that had a central concept of design in similar terms to Paley's argument. That idea was then relabeled <i><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">intelligent design</a></i>, which presents the same analogy as an argument against evolution by natural selection without explicitly stating that the "intelligent designer" was God. The argument from the complexity of biological organisms was now presented as the <i><a href="/wiki/Irreducible_complexity" title="Irreducible complexity">irreducible complexity</a></i> argument, the most notable proponent of which was <a href="/wiki/Michael_Behe" title="Michael Behe">Michael Behe</a>, and, leveraging off the verbiage of <a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Specified_complexity" title="Specified complexity">specified complexity</a></i> argument, the most notable proponent of which was <a href="/wiki/William_Dembski" class="mw-redirect" title="William Dembski">William Dembski</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The watchmaker analogy was referenced in the 2005 <i><a href="/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District" title="Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District">Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District</a></i> trial. Throughout the trial, Paley was mentioned several times.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The defense's expert witness <a href="/wiki/John_Haught" class="mw-redirect" title="John Haught">John Haught</a> noted that both intelligent design and the watchmaker analogy are "reformulations" of the same theological argument.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On day 21 of the trial, Mr. Harvey walked Dr. Minnich through a modernized version of Paley's argument, substituting a cell phone for the watch.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his ruling, the judge stated that the use of the argument from design by intelligent design proponents "is merely a restatement of the Reverend William Paley's argument applied at the cell level,"<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> adding "Minnich, Behe, and Paley reach the same conclusion, that complex organisms must have been designed using the same reasoning, except that Professors Behe and Minnich refuse to identify the designer, whereas Paley inferred from the presence of design that it was God." The judge ruled that such an inductive argument is not accepted as science because it is unfalsifiable.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_algorithm" title="Genetic algorithm">Genetic algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_of_the_gaps" title="God of the gaps">God of the gaps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinite_monkey_theorem" title="Infinite monkey theorem">Infinite monkey theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreducible_complexity" title="Irreducible complexity">Irreducible complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junkyard_tornado" title="Junkyard tornado">Junkyard tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" title="Objections to evolution">Objections to evolution</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wmcarey.edu/carey/paley/">William Paley - William Carey University</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMcMahan2008" class="citation book cs1">McMahan, David L. (2008). <i>The Making of Buddhist Modernism</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-988478-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-988478-0"><bdi>978-0-19-988478-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Buddhist+Modernism&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-988478-0&rft.aulast=McMahan&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2010" class="citation book cs1">Smith, James K. A. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SAfMRAWoYr4C"><i>Science and the Spirit: A Pentecostal Engagement with the Sciences</i></a>. Indiana University Press. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00466-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00466-6"><bdi>978-0-253-00466-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+the+Spirit%3A+A+Pentecostal+Engagement+with+the+Sciences&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-253-00466-6&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=James+K.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSAfMRAWoYr4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPigliucci2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Massimo_Pigliucci" title="Massimo Pigliucci">Pigliucci, Massimo</a> (2017). <i>How to Be a Stoic</i>. New York: Basic Books. pp. 79–85. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/958798463">958798463</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+Be+a+Stoic&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=79-85&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F958798463&rft.aulast=Pigliucci&rft.aufirst=Massimo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yong2010-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yong2010_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yong2010_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYong2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amos_Yong" title="Amos Yong">Yong, Amos</a> (26 August 2010). "How Does God Do What God Does? Pentecostal-Charismatic Perspectives on Divine Action in Dialogue with Modern Science". In <a href="/wiki/James_K._A._Smith" title="James K. A. Smith">Smith, James K. A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Amos_Yong" title="Amos Yong">Yong, Amos</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SAfMRAWoYr4C"><i>Science and the Spirit: A Pentecostal Engagement with the Sciences</i></a>. Bloomington: <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a> (published 2010). p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780253004666" title="Special:BookSources/9780253004666"><bdi>9780253004666</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2021</span>. <q>In astronomy, the Copernican revolution regarding the heliocentrism of the solar system, Johannes Kepler's (1571–1630) three laws of planetary motion, and Isaac Newton's (1642–1727) law of universal gravitation—laws of gravitation and of motion, and notions of absolute space and time—all combined to establish the regularities of heavenly and earthly bodies.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=How+Does+God+Do+What+God+Does%3F+Pentecostal-Charismatic+Perspectives+on+Divine+Action+in+Dialogue+with+Modern+Science&rft.btitle=Science+and+the+Spirit%3A+A+Pentecostal+Engagement+with+the+Sciences&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2010-08-26&rft.isbn=9780253004666&rft.aulast=Yong&rft.aufirst=Amos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSAfMRAWoYr4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYong2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amos_Yong" title="Amos Yong">Yong, Amos</a> (26 August 2010). "How Does God Do What God Does? Pentecostal-Charismatic Perspectives on Divine Action in Dialogue with Modern Science". In <a href="/wiki/James_K._A._Smith" title="James K. A. Smith">Smith, James K. A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Amos_Yong" title="Amos Yong">Yong, Amos</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SAfMRAWoYr4C"><i>Science and the Spirit: A Pentecostal Engagement with the Sciences</i></a>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press (published 2010). p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780253004666" title="Special:BookSources/9780253004666"><bdi>9780253004666</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2021</span>. <q>Parallel to this, the mechanical philosophers, led by René Descartes (1596-1650) [...] argued [...] that all material entities [...] were extensions in space and time that were subject to the laws of physics and governed by efficient causes.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=How+Does+God+Do+What+God+Does%3F+Pentecostal-Charismatic+Perspectives+on+Divine+Action+in+Dialogue+with+Modern+Science&rft.btitle=Science+and+the+Spirit%3A+A+Pentecostal+Engagement+with+the+Sciences&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2010-08-26&rft.isbn=9780253004666&rft.aulast=Yong&rft.aufirst=Amos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSAfMRAWoYr4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Keith_Stewart_Thomson" title="Keith Stewart Thomson">Thomson, Keith</a> (28 June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cyVvJWRg8i0C"><i>The Watch on the Heath: Science and religion before Darwin</i></a>. HarperCollins UK (published 2012). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780007394371" title="Special:BookSources/9780007394371"><bdi>9780007394371</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2021</span>. <q>A machine analogy for natural phenomena had long been a consistent element in Enlightenment philosophy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Watch+on+the+Heath%3A+Science+and+religion+before+Darwin&rft.pub=HarperCollins+UK&rft.date=2012-06-28&rft.isbn=9780007394371&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcyVvJWRg8i0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrett2007" class="citation book cs1">Garrett, Brian (2007). <i>What is this thing called Metaphysics?</i>. Taylor & Francis. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-96844-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-96844-4"><bdi>978-0-203-96844-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+this+thing+called+Metaphysics%3F&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-203-96844-4&rft.aulast=Garrett&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2012" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Thomas (October 2012). "Essay 8: Descartes' clockwork universe". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PEw6svLrrrsC"><i>William Harvey: A Life in Circulation</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press (published 2012). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199977017" title="Special:BookSources/9780199977017"><bdi>9780199977017</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2021</span>. <q>Could the universe, Descartes speculated, have been devised by a sort of 'industrious watchmaker' deity? Could it be 'similar to a clock' rather than to that 'divine animated being' imagined by natural philosophers down the centuries?</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Essay+8%3A+Descartes%27+clockwork+universe&rft.btitle=William+Harvey%3A+A+Life+in+Circulation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012-10&rft.isbn=9780199977017&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPEw6svLrrrsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurant,_WillDurant,_Ariel1935" class="citation book cs1">Durant, Will; Durant, Ariel (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jCFmAAAAMAAJ&q=%22the+situation+by+pointing+out%22+watch"><i>Will and Ariel Durant, the age of Louis XIV (1963)</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. pp. Section V, FONTENELLE: 1657–1757.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Will+and+Ariel+Durant%2C+the+age+of+Louis+XIV+%281963%29&rft.pages=Section+V%2C+FONTENELLE%3A+1657-1757&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1935&rft.au=Durant%2C+Will&rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjCFmAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522the%2Bsituation%2Bby%2Bpointing%2Bout%2522%2Bwatch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nieuwentyt quotation given in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenjamin_C._Jantzen2014" class="citation book cs1">Benjamin C. Jantzen (2014). <i>An Introduction to Design Arguments</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18303-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18303-1"><bdi>978-0-521-18303-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Design+Arguments&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-521-18303-1&rft.au=Benjamin+C.+Jantzen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span>, pages 69–70. Jantzen elaborates on the charge of plagiarism on pages 168–169, and concludes "... I will take it as a given that, in fact, Paley passed off as his own (or, more charitably, 'reworked') an argument that he took from Nieuwentyt."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Butler1740" class="citation book cs1">Joseph Butler (1740). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4HFKAAAAYAAJ&q=design&pg=PA158"><i>The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature, 3rd Ed. London, MDCCXL (1740) pp 65, 158, 424</i></a>. John and Paul Knapton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Analogy+of+Religion%2C+Natural+and+Revealed%2C+to+the+Constitution+and+Course+of+Nature%2C+3rd+Ed.+London%2C+MDCCXL+%281740%29+pp+65%2C+158%2C+424&rft.pub=John+and+Paul+Knapton&rft.date=1740&rft.au=Joseph+Butler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4HFKAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Ddesign%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5427"><i>Emile</i>, by Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1762</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HumepartII-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HumepartII_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHume,_David1948" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume, David</a> (1948). "Part II". <i>Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</i> (with introduction by Norman Kemp Smith ed.). Social Sciences Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+II&rft.btitle=Dialogues+Concerning+Natural+Religion&rft.edition=with+introduction+by+Norman+Kemp+Smith&rft.pub=Social+Sciences+Publishers&rft.date=1948&rft.au=Hume%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HumepartV-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HumepartV_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHume1948" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume, David</a> (1948). "Part V". <i>Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</i> (with introduction by Norman Kemp Smith ed.). Social Sciences Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+V&rft.btitle=Dialogues+Concerning+Natural+Religion&rft.edition=with+introduction+by+Norman+Kemp+Smith&rft.pub=Social+Sciences+Publishers&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Hume&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darwin, C. R. 1859. <i>On the Origin of Species</i>. London: John Murray, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=F373&pageseq=7">ii</a>.<br /> Whewell, William, 1833. <i>Astronomy and general physics considered with reference to natural theology</i>. W. Pickering, London, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HB4HAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA356&vq=But+with+regard+to+the+material+world,&dq=%22Astronomy+and+General+Physics+Considered+with+Reference+to+Natural+Theology&source=gbs_search_s">356</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNagasawa2011" class="citation book cs1">Nagasawa, Yujin (2011). <i>The Existence of God: A Philosophical Introduction</i>. Taylor & Francis. p. 93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-73746-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-73746-6"><bdi>978-1-136-73746-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Existence+of+God%3A+A+Philosophical+Introduction&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-136-73746-6&rft.aulast=Nagasawa&rft.aufirst=Yujin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Dawkins1986" class="citation book cs1">Richard Dawkins (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sPpaZnZMDG0C"><i>The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe Without Design</i></a>. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 43–76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31570-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31570-7"><bdi>978-0-393-31570-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blind+Watchmaker%3A+Why+the+Evidence+of+Evolution+Reveals+a+Universe+Without+Design&rft.pages=43-76&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-393-31570-7&rft.au=Richard+Dawkins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsPpaZnZMDG0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawkins2006" class="citation book cs1">Dawkins, Richard (2006). <i>The God Delusion</i>. London: Bantam Press. pp. 119–121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780593055489" title="Special:BookSources/9780593055489"><bdi>9780593055489</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+God+Delusion&rft.place=London&rft.pages=119-121&rft.pub=Bantam+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780593055489&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichersonBoyd2005">Richerson & Boyd 2005</a>, pp. 51–52</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott_EC,_Matzke_NJ2007" class="citation journal cs1">Scott EC, Matzke NJ (May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1876445">"Biological design in science classrooms"</a>. <i>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A</i>. <b>104</b> (suppl. 1): 8669–76. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PNAS..104.8669S">2007PNAS..104.8669S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0701505104">10.1073/pnas.0701505104</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1876445">1876445</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17494747">17494747</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Biological+design+in+science+classrooms&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=suppl.+1&rft.pages=8669-76&rft.date=2007-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1876445%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17494747&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0701505104&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PNAS..104.8669S&rft.au=Scott+EC%2C+Matzke+NJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1876445&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day1pm.html">"Kitzmiller v. Dover: Day 1, PM: Kenneth R. Miller"</a>. <i>www.talkorigins.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.talkorigins.org&rft.atitle=Kitzmiller+v.+Dover%3A+Day+1%2C+PM%3A+Kenneth+R.+Miller&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.talkorigins.org%2Ffaqs%2Fdover%2Fday1pm.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day5pm.html">Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District Day 5 PM session</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day21am2.html">"Kitzmiller v. Dover: Day 21, AM: Scott Minnich (continued)"</a>. <i>www.talkorigins.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.talkorigins.org&rft.atitle=Kitzmiller+v.+Dover%3A+Day+21%2C+AM%3A+Scott+Minnich+%28continued%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.talkorigins.org%2Ffaqs%2Fdover%2Fday21am2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190401043729/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District/4:Whether_ID_Is_Science">Ruling, Whether ID Is Science, page 79</a> <a href="/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District" title="Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District">Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District</a> 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"It is readily apparent to the Court that the only attribute of design that biological systems appear to share with human artifacts is their complex appearance, i.e., if it looks complex or designed, it must have been designed. (23:73 (Behe)). This inference to design based upon the appearance of a "purposeful arrangement of parts" is a completely subjective proposition, determined in the eye of each beholder and his/her viewpoint concerning the complexity of a system." <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District#4._Whether_ID_is_Science" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District">Ruling, Whether ID Is Science</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaley1802" class="citation book cs1">Paley, William (1802). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/naturaltheologyo1802pale"><i>Natural Theology, Or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity. Collected from the Appearances of Nature</i></a>. Philadelphia: John Morgan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Theology%2C+Or%2C+Evidences+of+the+Existence+and+Attributes+of+the+Deity.+Collected+from+the+Appearances+of+Nature.&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=John+Morgan&rft.date=1802&rft.aulast=Paley&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnaturaltheologyo1802pale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichersonBoyd2005" class="citation book cs1">Richerson, Peter J.; Boyd, Robert (2005). <i>Not by Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-71284-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-71284-2"><bdi>0-226-71284-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Not+by+Genes+Alone%3A+How+Culture+Transformed+Human+Evolution&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-226-71284-2&rft.aulast=Richerson&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.au=Boyd%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWatchmaker+analogy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watchmaker_analogy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110320030751/http://www.christian-apologetics-resources-and-education.com/Divine-Watchmaker.html">The Divine Watchmaker</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metaweb.com/wiki/wiki.phtml?title=Robert_Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/paley.html">William Paley (1743–1805)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Autobiography_of_Charles_Darwin" title="The Autobiography of Charles Darwin">The Autobiography of Charles Darwin</a></i>, revised version published in 1958 by Darwin's granddaughter <a href="/wiki/Nora_Barlow" title="Nora Barlow">Nora Barlow</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Essays/Best/DarwinConclusions.htm">"Recapitulation and Conclusion", By Charles Darwin.</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Concepts in religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a> <ul><li>or <a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">religious belief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />of religion</a></div><br />(by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br />1990<br />2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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