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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_collection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_collection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Data collection</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Data_collection-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Data collection subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Data_collection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interviews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interviews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Interviews</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interviews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Participant_observation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Participant_observation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Participant observation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Participant_observation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recursivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recursivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Recursivity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recursivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Data analysis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Data_analysis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Data analysis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Data_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Coding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pattern_thematic_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pattern_thematic_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Pattern thematic analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pattern_thematic_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Content_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Content_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Content analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Content_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Issues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Issues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Computer-assisted_qualitative_data_analysis_software_(CAQDAS)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer-assisted_qualitative_data_analysis_software_(CAQDAS)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer-assisted_qualitative_data_analysis_software_(CAQDAS)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trustworthiness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trustworthiness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Trustworthiness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trustworthiness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limitations_of_qualitative_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limitations_of_qualitative_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Limitations of qualitative research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limitations_of_qualitative_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In psychology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_psychology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In psychology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Community_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Community_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Community psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Community_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Educational_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Educational_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Educational psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Educational_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Health psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_and_organizational_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Industrial and organizational psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_and_organizational_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupational_health_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupational_health_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Occupational health psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occupational_health_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_media_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_media_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Social media psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_media_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Academic journals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Videos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Videos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Videos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Videos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Qualitative research</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%AB_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="بحث نوعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بحث نوعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyfiyy%C9%99t_t%C9%99dqiqat%C4%B1_metodlar%C4%B1" title="Keyfiyyət tədqiqatı metodları – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Keyfiyyət tədqiqatı metodları" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recerca_qualitativa" title="Recerca qualitativa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Recerca qualitativa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvalitativn%C3%AD_v%C3%BDzkum" title="Kvalitativní výzkum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kvalitativní výzkum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymchwil_ansoddol" title="Ymchwil ansoddol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ymchwil ansoddol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvalitativ_metode" title="Kvalitativ metode – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kvalitativ metode" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_Sozialforschung" title="Qualitative Sozialforschung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Qualitative Sozialforschung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvalitatiivsed_uurimismeetodid" title="Kvalitatiivsed uurimismeetodid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kvalitatiivsed uurimismeetodid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigaci%C3%B3n_cualitativa" title="Investigación cualitativa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Investigación cualitativa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DA%98%D9%88%D9%87%D8%B4_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%81%DB%8C" title="پژوهش کیفی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پژوهش کیفی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9thodes_qualitatives" title="Méthodes qualitatives – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Méthodes qualitatives" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigaci%C3%B3n_cualitativa" title="Investigación cualitativa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Investigación cualitativa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%88%EC%A0%81_%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC" title="질적 연구 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="질적 연구" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="गुणात्मक अनुसंधान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गुणात्मक अनुसंधान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvalitativno_istra%C5%BEivanje" title="Kvalitativno istraživanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kvalitativno istraživanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penelitian_kualitatif" title="Penelitian kualitatif – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penelitian kualitatif" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigindlegar_ranns%C3%B3knir" title="Eigindlegar rannsóknir – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Eigindlegar rannsóknir" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodo_qualitativo" title="Metodo qualitativo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Metodo qualitativo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A7%D7%A8_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%99" title="מחקר איכותני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מחקר איכותני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokybinis_tyrimas" title="Kokybinis tyrimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kokybinis tyrimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penelitian_Kualitatif" title="Penelitian Kualitatif – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Penelitian Kualitatif" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Madhurâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0" title="Чанарын судалгаа – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Чанарын судалгаа" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwalitatief_onderzoek" title="Kwalitatief onderzoek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kwalitatief onderzoek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%9A%E6%80%A7%E7%9A%84%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="定性的研究 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="定性的研究" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvalitativ_metode" title="Kvalitativ metode – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kvalitativ metode" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvalitativ_metode" title="Kvalitativ metode – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kvalitativ metode" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%8A%D9%81%D9%8A_%DA%85%DB%90%DA%93%D9%86%D9%87" title="کيفي څېړنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کيفي څېړنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metody_jako%C5%9Bciowe" title="Metody jakościowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Metody jakościowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesquisa_qualitativa" title="Pesquisa qualitativa – Portuguese" 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Research" title="Category:Research">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">Research</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A laptop computer next to archival materials" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG/220px-Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG/330px-Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG/440px-Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Research_design" title="Research design">Research design</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_proposal" title="Research proposal">Proposal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_question" title="Research question">Question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_writing" title="Academic writing">Writing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation" title="Citation">Referencing</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Research strategy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimethodology" title="Multimethodology">Multimethodology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Qualitative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art-based_research" title="Art-based research">Art-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">Philosophical schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Constructivism (philosophy of science)"> Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_realism_(philosophy_of_the_social_sciences)" title="Critical realism (philosophy of the social sciences)">Critical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtle_realism" title="Subtle realism">Subtle realism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">Methodology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_research" title="Action research">Action research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_methodology" title="Art methodology">Art methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grounded_theory" title="Grounded theory">Grounded theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_inquiry" title="Narrative inquiry">Narrative inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology)" title="Phenomenology (sociology)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_statistics" title="Descriptive statistics">Descriptive statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoethnography" title="Autoethnography">Autoethnography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_experiment" title="Field experiment">Field experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-experiment" title="Quasi-experiment">Quasi-experiment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">Field research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">Inferential statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview" title="Interview">Interviews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Mapping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mapping" title="Cultural mapping">Cultural mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenography" title="Phenomenography">Phenomenography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_research" title="Secondary research">Secondary research</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_review" title="Literature review">Literature review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">Meta-analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scoping_review" class="mw-redirect" title="Scoping review">Scoping review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">Systematic review</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">Scientific modelling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simulation" title="Simulation">Simulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Tools and software</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Argument_technology" title="Category:Argument technology">Argument technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:GIS_software" title="Category:GIS software">Geographic information system software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Library_and_information_science_software" title="Category:Library and information science software">Library and information science software</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bibliometrics_software" title="Category:Bibliometrics software">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Reference_management_software" title="Category:Reference management software">Reference management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_software" title="Category:Science software">Science software</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:QDA_software" title="Category:QDA software">Qualitative data analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scientific_simulation_software" title="Category:Scientific simulation software">Simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Statistical_software" title="Category:Statistical software">Statistics</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Template:Research_sidebar" title="Template:Research sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Research_sidebar" title="Template talk:Research sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Research_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Research sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_Network_Diagram_(segment).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/250px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/375px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/500px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Key themes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> <li>Industrial revolutions <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Perspectives</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of sociology">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_architecture" title="Sociology of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrosociology" title="Astrosociology">Astrosociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">Emotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_jealousy" title="Social aspects of jealousy">Jealousy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_sociology" title="Fiscal sociology">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_generations" title="Theory of generations">Generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Jewry" title="Sociology of Jewry">Jewry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">Leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_peace,_war,_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">Peace, war, and social conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Race and ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">History of science</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement_theory" title="Social movement theory">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sociology" title="Sociology of sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_utopian_sociology" title="Real utopian sociology">Utopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">Major theorists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b>1700s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> · <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a><br /></li></ul> <p><b>1800s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a> · <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> · <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> · <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a> · <a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a> · <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> · <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a> · <a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a> · <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a> · <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a> · <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> · <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a><br /> </p> <b>1900s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a> · <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a> · <a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a> · <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a> · <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a> · <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a> · <a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a> · <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a> · <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a> · <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_sociology" title="Bibliography of sociology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociological_terminology" title="Category:Sociological terminology">Terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociology_journals" title="List of sociology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociological_associations" title="List of sociological associations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_by_country" title="Category:Sociology by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/16px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/24px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sociology" title="Template:Sociology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sociology" title="Template talk:Sociology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Qualitative research</b> is a type of research that aims to gather and analyse non-numerical (descriptive) data in order to gain an understanding of individuals' <a href="/wiki/Social_reality" title="Social reality">social reality</a>, including understanding their attitudes, beliefs, and motivation. This type of research typically involves <a href="/wiki/Interview" title="Interview">in-depth interviews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Focus_group" title="Focus group">focus groups</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">field observations</a> in order to collect data that is rich in detail and context. Qualitative research is often used to explore complex phenomena or to gain insight into people's experiences and perspectives on a particular topic. It is particularly useful when researchers want to understand the meaning that people attach to their experiences or when they want to uncover the underlying reasons for people's behavior. Qualitative methods include <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grounded_theory" title="Grounded theory">grounded theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">discourse analysis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Interpretative_phenomenological_analysis" title="Interpretative phenomenological analysis">interpretative phenomenological analysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qualitative research methods have been used in <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">communication studies</a>, social work, folklore, <a href="/wiki/Educational_research" title="Educational research">educational research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">information science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a> research.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qualitative research has been informed by several strands of philosophical thought and examines aspects of human life, including culture, expression, beliefs, morality, life stress, and imagination.<sup id="cite_ref-Wertz,_Charmaz_2011_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wertz,_Charmaz_2011-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contemporary qualitative research has been influenced by a number of branches of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, for example, <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">postpositivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">constructivism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Guba,_E._G._2005_pp._191-215_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guba,_E._G._2005_pp._191-215-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historical transitions or 'moments' in qualitative research, together with the notion of 'paradigms' (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005), have received widespread popularity over the past decades. However, some scholars have argued that the adoptions of paradigms may be counterproductive and lead to less philosophically engaged communities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Approaches_to_inquiry">Approaches to inquiry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Approaches to inquiry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of nonquantitative material as empirical data has been growing in many areas of the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Learning_sciences" title="Learning sciences">learning sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">development psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">cultural psychology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several philosophical and psychological traditions have influenced investigators' approaches to qualitative research, including <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social constructionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">symbolic interactionism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophical_traditions">Philosophical traditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Philosophical traditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Phenomenology refers to the philosophical study of the structure of an individual's consciousness and general subjective experience. Approaches to qualitative research based on constructionism, such as <a href="/wiki/Grounded_theory" title="Grounded theory">grounded theory</a>, pay attention to how the subjectivity of both the researcher and the study participants can affect the theory that develops out of the research. The symbolic interactionist approach to qualitative research examines how individuals and groups develop an understanding of the world. Traditional positivist approaches to qualitative research seek a more objective understanding of the social world. Qualitative researchers have also been influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">sociology of knowledge</a> and the work of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sch%C3%BCtz" title="Alfred Schütz">Alfred Schütz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Peter L. Berger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Luckmann" title="Thomas Luckmann">Thomas Luckmann</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harold_Garfinkel" title="Harold Garfinkel">Harold Garfinkel</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources_of_data">Sources of data</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sources of data"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qualitative researchers use different sources of data to understand the topic they are studying. These data sources include interview transcripts, videos of social interactions, notes, verbal reports<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and artifacts such as books or works of art. The <a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">case study method</a> exemplifies qualitative researchers' preference for depth, detail, and context.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Data <a href="/wiki/Triangulation_(social_science)" title="Triangulation (social science)">triangulation</a> is also a strategy used in qualitative research.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Autoethnography" title="Autoethnography">Autoethnography</a>, the study of self, is a qualitative research method in which the researcher uses his or her personal experience to understand an issue. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Grounded_theory" title="Grounded theory">Grounded theory</a> is an inductive type of research, based on ("grounded" in) a very close look at the empirical observations a study yields.<sup id="cite_ref-Glaser-Strauss_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glaser-Strauss-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thematic_analysis" title="Thematic analysis">Thematic analysis</a> involves analyzing patterns of meaning. <a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a> is primarily used to analyze spoken conversations. <a href="/wiki/Biographical_research" title="Biographical research">Biographical research</a> is concerned with the reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Life_history_(sociology)" title="Life history (sociology)">life histories</a>, based on biographical narratives and documents. <a href="/wiki/Narrative_inquiry" title="Narrative inquiry">Narrative inquiry</a> studies the <a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">narratives</a> that people use to describe their experience. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Data_collection">Data collection</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Data collection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qualitative researchers may gather information through observations, note-taking, interviews, focus groups (group interviews), documents, images and artifacts.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-babbie_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-babbie-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interviews">Interviews</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Interviews"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></div> <p>Research interviews are an important method of data collection in qualitative research. An interviewer is usually a professional or paid researcher, sometimes trained, who poses questions to the interviewee, in an alternating series of usually brief questions and answers, to elicit information. Compared to something like a written survey, qualitative interviews allow for a significantly higher degree of intimacy,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with participants often revealing personal information to their interviewers in a real-time, face-to-face setting. As such, this technique can evoke an array of significant feelings and experiences within those being interviewed. Sociologists Bredal, Stefansen and Bjørnholt identified three "participant orientations", that they described as "telling for oneself", "telling for others" and "telling for the researcher". They also proposed that these orientations implied "different ethical contracts between the participant and researcher".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Participant_observation">Participant observation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Participant observation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">participant observation</a><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ethnographers get to understand a culture by directly participating in the activities of the culture they study.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Participant observation extends further than ethnography and into other fields, including psychology. For example, by training to be an EMT and becoming a participant observer in the lives of EMTs, Palmer studied how EMTs cope with the stress associated with some of the gruesome emergencies they deal with.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recursivity">Recursivity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Recursivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In qualitative research, the idea of <a href="/wiki/Recursion" title="Recursion">recursivity</a> refers to the emergent nature of research design. In contrast to standardized research methods, recursivity embodies the idea that the qualitative researcher can change a study's design during the <a href="/wiki/Data_collection" title="Data collection">data collection</a> phase.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recursivity in qualitative research procedures contrasts to the methods used by scientists who conduct <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experiments</a>. From the perspective of the scientist, data collection, data analysis, discussion of the data in the context of the research literature, and drawing conclusions should be each undertaken once (or at most a small number of times). In qualitative research however, data are collected repeatedly until one or more specific stopping conditions are met, reflecting a nonstatic attitude to the planning and design of research activities. An example of this dynamism might be when the qualitative researcher unexpectedly changes their research focus or design midway through a study, based on their first interim data analysis. The researcher can even make further unplanned changes based on another interim data analysis. Such an approach would not be permitted in an experiment. Qualitative researchers would argue that recursivity in developing the relevant evidence enables the researcher to be more open to unexpected results and emerging new <a href="/wiki/Construct_(psychology)" title="Construct (psychology)">constructs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Data_analysis">Data analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Data analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qualitative researchers have a number of analytic strategies available to them.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coding">Coding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Coding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coding_(social_sciences)" title="Coding (social sciences)">Coding (social sciences)</a></div> <p>In general, coding refers to the act of associating meaningful ideas with the data of interest. In the context of qualitative research, interpretative aspects of the coding process are often explicitly recognized and articulated; coding helps to produce specific words or short phrases believed to be useful <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstractions</a> from the data.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pattern_thematic_analysis">Pattern thematic analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pattern thematic analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Data may be sorted into patterns for thematic analyses as the primary basis for organizing and reporting the study findings.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Content_analysis">Content analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Content analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></div> <p>According to Krippendorf,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Content analysis is a research technique for making replicable and valid inference from data to their context" (p. 21). It is applied to documents and written and oral communication. Content analysis is an important building block in the conceptual analysis of qualitative data. It is frequently used in sociology. For example, content analysis has been applied to research on such diverse aspects of human life as changes in perceptions of race over time,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the lifestyles of contractors,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even reviews of automobiles.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues">Issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NVivo-9-screenshot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/NVivo-9-screenshot.jpg/300px-NVivo-9-screenshot.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/NVivo-9-screenshot.jpg/450px-NVivo-9-screenshot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/NVivo-9-screenshot.jpg/600px-NVivo-9-screenshot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1145" data-file-height="807" /></a><figcaption>A screenshot of a user coding text on <a href="/wiki/NVivo" title="NVivo">NVivo</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer-assisted_qualitative_data_analysis_software_(CAQDAS)"><span id="Computer-assisted_qualitative_data_analysis_software_.28CAQDAS.29"></span>Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contemporary qualitative data analyses can be supported by computer programs (termed <a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_qualitative_data_analysis_software" title="Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software">computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Silver_&_Lewins_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silver_&_Lewins-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These programs have been employed with <i>or</i> without detailed hand coding or labeling. Such programs do not supplant the interpretive nature of coding. The programs are aimed at enhancing analysts' efficiency at applying, retrieving, and storing the codes generated from reading the data. Many programs enhance efficiency in editing and revising codes, which allow for more effective work sharing, peer review, data examination, and analysis of large datasets.<sup id="cite_ref-Silver_&_Lewins_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silver_&_Lewins-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Common qualitative data analysis software includes: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlas.ti" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlas.ti">ATLAS.ti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dedoose" title="Dedoose">Dedoose</a> (mixed methods)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MAXQDA" title="MAXQDA">MAXQDA</a> (mixed methods)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NVivo" title="NVivo">NVivo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QDA_Miner" title="QDA Miner">QDA MINER</a></li></ul> <p>A criticism of quantitative coding approaches is that such coding sorts qualitative data into predefined (<a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">nomothetic</a>) categories that are reflective of the categories found in <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objective science</a>. The variety, richness, and individual characteristics of the qualitative data are reduced or, even, lost.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>To defend against the criticism that qualitative approaches to data are too <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjective</a>, qualitative researchers assert that by clearly articulating their definitions of the codes they use and linking those codes to the underlying data, they preserve some of the richness that might be lost if the results of their research boiled down to a list of predefined categories. Qualitative researchers also assert that their procedures are repeatable, which is an idea that is valued by quantitatively oriented researchers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Sometimes researchers rely on computers and their software to scan and reduce large amounts of qualitative data. At their most basic level, numerical coding schemes rely on counting words and phrases within a dataset; other techniques involve the analysis of phrases and exchanges in analyses of conversations. A computerized approach to data analysis can be used to aid content analysis, especially when there is a large corpus to unpack. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trustworthiness">Trustworthiness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Trustworthiness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A central issue in qualitative research is trustworthiness (also known as credibility or, in quantitative studies, validity).<sup id="cite_ref-Lincoln_&_Guba_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lincoln_&_Guba-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many ways of establishing trustworthiness, including <a href="/wiki/Member_check" title="Member check">member check</a>, interviewer corroboration, peer debriefing, prolonged engagement, negative case analysis, auditability, confirmability, bracketing, and balance.<sup id="cite_ref-Lincoln_&_Guba_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lincoln_&_Guba-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Data triangulation and eliciting examples of interviewee accounts are two of the most commonly used methods of establishing the trustworthiness of qualitative studies.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transferability of results has also been considered as an indicator of validity.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limitations_of_qualitative_research">Limitations of qualitative research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Limitations of qualitative research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qualitative research is not without limitations. These limitations include participant reactivity, the potential for a qualitative investigator to over-identify with one or more study participants, "the impracticality of the <a href="/wiki/Grounded_theory" title="Grounded theory">Glaser-Strauss</a> idea that hypotheses arise from data unsullied by prior expectations," the inadequacy of qualitative research for testing cause-effect hypotheses, and the <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Baconian</a> character of qualitative research.<sup id="cite_ref-Schonfeld_&_Mazzola_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schonfeld_&_Mazzola-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Reactivity_(psychology)" title="Reactivity (psychology)">Participant reactivity</a> refers to the fact that people often behave differently when they know they are being observed. Over-identifying with participants refers to a sympathetic investigator studying a group of people and ascribing, more than is warranted, a virtue or some other characteristic to one or more participants. Compared to qualitative research, <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimental research</a> and certain types of nonexperimental research (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Prospective_cohort_study" title="Prospective cohort study">prospective studies</a>), although not perfect, are better means for drawing cause-effect conclusions. </p><p>Glaser and Strauss,<sup id="cite_ref-Glaser-Strauss_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glaser-Strauss-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> influential members of the qualitative research community, pioneered the idea that theoretically important categories and hypotheses can emerge "naturally" from the observations a qualitative researcher collects, provided that the researcher is not guided by preconceptions. The ethologist <a href="/wiki/David_Katz_(psychologist)" title="David Katz (psychologist)">David Katz</a> wrote "a hungry animal divides the environment into edible and inedible things....Generally speaking, objects change...according to the needs of the animal."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> carrying forward Katz's point wrote that "objects can be classified and can become similar or dissimilar, only in this way--by being related to needs and interests. This rule applied not only to animals but also to scientists."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popper made clear that observation is always selective, based on past research and the investigators' goals and motives and that preconceptionless research is impossible. </p><p>The Baconian character of qualitative research refers to the idea that a qualitative researcher can collect enough observations such that categories and hypotheses will emerge from the data. Glaser and Strauss developed the idea of theoretical sampling by way of collecting observations until <i>theoretical saturation</i> is obtained and no additional observations are required to understand the character of the individuals under study.<sup id="cite_ref-Glaser-Strauss_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glaser-Strauss-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> suggested that there can be no orderly arrangement of observations such that a hypothesis will jump out of those ordered observations; some provisional hypothesis usually guides the collection of observations.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_psychology">In psychology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: In psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Community_psychology">Community psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Community psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Autobiographical narrative research has been conducted in the field of community psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-Wertz,_Charmaz_2011_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wertz,_Charmaz_2011-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A selection of autobiographical narratives of community psychologists can be found in the book <i>Six Community Psychologists Tell Their Stories: History, Contexts, and Narrative</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Educational_psychology">Educational psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Educational psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Edwin Farrell used qualitative methods to understand the social reality of at-risk high school students.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later he used similar methods to understand the reality of successful high school students who came from the same neighborhoods as the at-risk students he wrote about in his previously mentioned book.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_psychology">Health psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Health psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the field of <a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">health psychology</a>, qualitative methods have become increasingly employed in research on understanding health and illness and how health and illness are socially constructed in everyday life.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, a broad range of qualitative methods have been adopted by health psychologists, including <a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">discourse analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thematic_analysis" title="Thematic analysis">thematic analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Narrative_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative analysis">narrative analysis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Interpretative_phenomenological_analysis" title="Interpretative phenomenological analysis">interpretative phenomenological analysis</a>. In 2015, the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Health_Psychology_(journal)" title="Health Psychology (journal)">Health Psychology</a></i> published a special issue on qualitative research.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_and_organizational_psychology">Industrial and organizational psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Industrial and organizational psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Doldor and colleagues<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> organizational psychologists extensively use qualitative research "during the design and implementation of activities like organizational change, training needs analyses, strategic reviews, and employee development plans." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupational_health_psychology">Occupational health psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Occupational health psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although research in the field of <a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology#Qualitative_research_methods" title="Occupational health psychology">occupational health psychology</a> (OHP) has predominantly been quantitatively oriented, some OHP researchers<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have employed qualitative methods. Qualitative research efforts, if directed properly, can provide advantages for quantitatively oriented OHP researchers. These advantages include help with (1) theory and hypothesis development, (2) item creation for surveys and interviews, (3) the discovery of stressors and coping strategies not previously identified, (4) interpreting difficult-to-interpret quantitative findings, (5) understanding why some stress-reduction interventions fail and others succeed, and (6) providing rich descriptions of the lived lives of people at work.<sup id="cite_ref-Schonfeld_&_Mazzola_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schonfeld_&_Mazzola-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some OHP investigators have united qualitative and quantitative methods within a single study (e.g., Elfering et al., [2005]<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>); these investigators have used qualitative methods to assess job stressors that are difficult to ascertain using standard measures and well validated standardized instruments to assess coping behaviors and dependent variables such as mood.<sup id="cite_ref-Schonfeld_&_Mazzola_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schonfeld_&_Mazzola-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_media_psychology">Social media psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Social media psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the advent of social media in the early 2000s, formerly private accounts of personal experiences have become widely shared with the public by millions of people around the world. Disclosures are often made openly, which has contributed to social media's key role in movements like the #metoo movement.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The abundance of self-disclosure on social media has presented an unprecedented opportunity for qualitative and mixed methods researchers; mental health problems can now be investigated qualitatively more widely, at a lower cost, and with no intervention by the researchers.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To take advantage of these data, researchers need to have mastered the tools for conducting qualitative research.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_journals">Academic journals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Academic journals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumption_Markets_%26_Culture" title="Consumption Markets & Culture">Consumption Markets & Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Consumer_Research" title="Journal of Consumer Research">Journal of Consumer Research</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_Inquiry" title="Qualitative Inquiry">Qualitative Inquiry</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_Market_Research" title="Qualitative Market Research">Qualitative Market Research</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_Research_(journal)" title="Qualitative Research (journal)">Qualitative Research</a></i></li> <li><i>The Qualitative Report</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 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<li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative geography</a> – Subfield of geographic methods</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_psychological_research" title="Qualitative psychological research">Qualitative psychological research</a> – Psychological research with qualitative methods</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative research</a> – All procedures for the numerical representation of empirical facts</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_world_data" title="Real world data">Real world data</a> – Medical data derived from many sources</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCreswell" class="citation book cs1">Creswell, John W. <i>Educational research : planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-299-95719-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-299-95719-6"><bdi>1-299-95719-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/859836343">859836343</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Educational+research+%3A+planning%2C+conducting%2C+and+evaluating+quantitative+and+qualitative+research&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F859836343&rft.isbn=1-299-95719-6&rft.aulast=Creswell&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingKeohaneVerba2021" class="citation book cs1">King, Gary; Keohane, Robert O.; Verba, Sidney (2021-08-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RFMgEAAAQBAJ"><i>Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research, New Edition</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-22464-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-22464-0"><bdi>978-0-691-22464-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Designing+Social+Inquiry%3A+Scientific+Inference+in+Qualitative+Research%2C+New+Edition&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2021-08-17&rft.isbn=978-0-691-22464-0&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft.au=Keohane%2C+Robert+O.&rft.au=Verba%2C+Sidney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRFMgEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/socsi/qualiti/PubSocMethJourn.html">"QUALITI"</a>. cardiff.ac.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=QUALITI&rft.pub=cardiff.ac.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cardiff.ac.uk%2Fsocsi%2Fqualiti%2FPubSocMethJourn.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlasuutari2010" class="citation journal cs1">Alasuutari, Pertti (2010). "The rise and relevance of qualitative research". <i>International Journal of Social Research Methodology</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 139–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13645570902966056">10.1080/13645570902966056</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143736805">143736805</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Social+Research+Methodology&rft.atitle=The+rise+and+relevance+of+qualitative+research&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=139-55&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13645570902966056&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143736805%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Alasuutari&rft.aufirst=Pertti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeaman1999" class="citation journal cs1">Seaman, Carolyn (1999). "Qualitative methods in empirical studies of software engineering". <i>Transactions on Software Engineering</i>. <b>25</b> (4): 557–572. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F32.799955">10.1109/32.799955</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+on+Software+Engineering&rft.atitle=Qualitative+methods+in+empirical+studies+of+software+engineering&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=557-572&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F32.799955&rft.aulast=Seaman&rft.aufirst=Carolyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wertz,_Charmaz_2011-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wertz,_Charmaz_2011_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wertz,_Charmaz_2011_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wertz, Charmaz, McMullen. "Five Ways of Doing Qualitative Analysis: Phenomenological Psychology, Grounded Theory, Discourse Analysis, Narrative Research, and Intuitive Inquiry". 16-18. The Guilford Press: March 30, 2011. 1st ed. Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guba,_E._G._2005_pp._191-215-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Guba,_E._G._2005_pp._191-215_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). "Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging influences" In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), <i>The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research</i> (3rd ed.), pp. 191-215. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7619-2757-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7619-2757-3">0-7619-2757-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPacker2010" class="citation book cs1">Packer, Martin (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/science-of-qualitative-research/DF2D130955944017C256F6BDD0B74F11"><i>The Science of Qualitative Research</i></a>. 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A. & Adler, P. (1987). : context and meaning in social inquiry / edited by Richard Jessor, Anne Colby, and Richard A. Shweder <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46597302">46597302</a></li> <li>Baškarada, S. (2014) "Qualitative Case Study Guidelines", in <i>The Qualitative Report</i>, 19(40): 1-25. Available from <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR19/baskarada24.pdf">[1]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoas1943" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boas, Franz</a> (1943). "Recent anthropology". <i>Science</i>. <b>98</b> (2546): 311–314, 334–337. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1943Sci....98..334B">1943Sci....98..334B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.98.2546.334">10.1126/science.98.2546.334</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17794461">17794461</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Recent+anthropology&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=2546&rft.pages=311-314%2C+334-337&rft.date=1943&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17794461&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.98.2546.334&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1943Sci....98..334B&rft.aulast=Boas&rft.aufirst=Franz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Creswell, J. W. (2003). <i>Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches.</i> Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</li> <li>Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). <i>Handbook of qualitative research ( 2nd ed.)</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</li> <li>Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2011). <i>The SAGE Handbook of qualitative research ( 4th ed.)</i>. Los Angeles: Sage Publications.</li> <li>DeWalt, K. M. & DeWalt, B. R. (2002). <i>Participant observation</i>. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.</li> <li>Fischer, C.T. (Ed.) (2005). <i>Qualitative research methods for psychologists: Introduction through empirical studies</i>. Academic Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-088470-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-088470-4">0-12-088470-4</a>.</li> <li>Franklin, M. I. (2012), "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415490801/">Understanding Research: Coping with the Quantitative-Qualitative Divide</a>". London/New York. Routledge</li> <li>Giddens, A. (1990). <i>The consequences of modernity</i>. Stanford, CA: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>.</li> <li>Gubrium, J. F. and J. A. Holstein. (2000). "The New Language of Qualitative Method." New York: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Gubrium, J. F. and J. A. Holstein (2009). "Analyzing Narrative Reality." Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.</li> <li>Gubrium, J. F. and J. A. Holstein, eds. (2000). "Institutional Selves: Troubled Identities in a Postmodern World." New York: Oxford University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyn_Hammersley" title="Martyn Hammersley">Hammersley, M</a>. (2008) <i>Questioning Qualitative Inquiry</i>, London, Sage.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyn_Hammersley" title="Martyn Hammersley">Hammersley, M</a>. (2013) <i>What is qualitative research?</i>, London, Bloomsbury.</li> <li>Holliday, A. R. (2007). <i>Doing and Writing Qualitative Research, 2nd Edition</i>. London: Sage Publications</li> <li>Holstein, J. A. and J. F. Gubrium, eds. (2012). "Varieties of Narrative Analysis." Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaminski,_Marek_M.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaminski, Marek M. (page does not exist)">Kaminski, Marek M.</a> (2004). <i>Games Prisoners Play</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-11721-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-11721-7">0-691-11721-7</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahoneyGoertz2006" class="citation journal cs1">Mahoney, J; Goertz, G (2006). "A Tale of Two Cultures: Contrasting Quantitative and Qualitative Research". <i>Political Analysis</i>. <b>14</b> (3): 227–249. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.135.3256">10.1.1.135.3256</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpan%2Fmpj017">10.1093/pan/mpj017</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Analysis&rft.atitle=A+Tale+of+Two+Cultures%3A+Contrasting+Quantitative+and+Qualitative+Research&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=227-249&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.135.3256%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpan%2Fmpj017&rft.aulast=Mahoney&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Goertz%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Malinowski, B. (1922/1961). <i>Argonauts of the Western Pacific</i>. New York: E. P. Dutton.</li> <li>Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). <i>Qualitative Data Analysis</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.</li> <li>Pamela Maykut, Richard Morehouse. 1994 Beginning Qualitative Research. Falmer Press.</li> <li>Pernecky, T. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://au.sagepub.com/en-gb/oce/epistemology-and-metaphysics-for-qualitative-research/book242187">Epistemology and Metaphysics for Qualitative Research</a>. London, UK: Sage Publications.</li> <li>Patton, M. Q. (2002). <i>Qualitative research & evaluation methods ( 3rd ed.)</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</li> <li>Pawluch D. & Shaffir W. & Miall C. (2005). <i>Doing Ethnography: Studying Everyday Life</i>. Toronto, ON Canada: Canadian Scholars' Press.</li> <li>Racino, J. (1999). Policy, Program Evaluation and Research in Disability: Community Support for All." New York, NY: Haworth Press (now Routledge imprint, Francis and Taylor, 2015).</li> <li>Ragin, C. C. (1994). <i>Constructing Social Research: The Unity and Diversity of Method</i>, Pine Forge Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8039-9021-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8039-9021-9">0-8039-9021-9</a></li> <li>Riessman, Catherine K. (1993). "Narrative Analysis." Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriele_Rosenthal" title="Gabriele Rosenthal">Rosenthal, Gabriele</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.univerlag.uni-goettingen.de/bitstream/handle/3/isbn-978-3-86395-374-4/rosenthal_interpretive.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y"><i>Interpretive Social Research</i>. <i>An Introduction</i></a>. Göttingen, Germany: Universitätsverlag Göttingen.</li> <li>Savin-Baden, M. and Major, C. (2013). "Qualitative research: The essential guide to theory and practice." London, Rutledge.</li> <li>Silverman, David, (ed), (2011), "Qualitative Research: Issues of Theory, Method and Practice". Third Edition. London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi, Sage Publications</li> <li>Stebbins, Robert A. (2001) <i>Exploratory Research in the Social Sciences</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steven_J._Taylor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Steven J. Taylor (page does not exist)">Taylor, Steven J.</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Bogdan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Bogdan (page does not exist)">Bogdan, Robert</a>, <i>Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods</i>, Wiley, 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-16868-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-16868-8">0-471-16868-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Van_Maanen" title="John Van Maanen">Van Maanen, J.</a> (1988) Tales of the field: on writing ethnography, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li> <li>Wolcott, H. F. (1995). <i>The art of fieldwork</i>. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.</li> <li>Wolcott, H. F. (1999). <i>Ethnography: A way of seeing</i>. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.</li> <li>Ziman, John (2000). <i>Real Science: what it is, and what it means</i>. Cambridge, Uk: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 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href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Qualitative+research">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Qualitative+research&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div 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Philosophy</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080527231135/http://ddl.uwinnipeg.ca/res_des/files/readings/cwmills-intel_craft.pdf">C.Wright Mills, On intellectual Craftsmanship, The Sociological Imagination,1959</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fhi360.org/resource/qualitative-research-methods-data-collectors-field-guide">Participant Observation, <i>Qualitative research methods: a Data collector's field guide</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130326175632/http://answers.mheducation.com/marketing/marketing-research/analyzing-and-reporting-qualitative-market-research"><i>Analyzing and Reporting Qualitative Market Research</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sosciso.de/en/software/datenanalyse/qualitativ/">Overview of available QDA Software</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Videos">Videos</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualitative_research&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Videos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRL4PF2u9XA"><span class="plainlinks">Qualitative analysis, with a focus on interview data</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AFl3PUrwG_8"><span class="plainlinks">Living Theory Approach to Qualitative Action Research</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wbdN_sLWl88&list=PLqHnHG5X2PXCsCMyN3_EzugAF7GKN2poQ"><span class="plainlinks">Yale University series by Leslie Curry</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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style="width:12.0em">Perspectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankean_historical_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rankean historical positivism">Rankean historical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Machism" title="Russian Machism">Russian Machism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_dualism" title="Methodological dualism">Methodological dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a><br />in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a> (1830s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty principle</a> (1927)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-behavioralism" title="Post-behavioralism">Post-behavioralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_nihilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological nihilism">nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_pluralism" title="Epistemological pluralism">pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_realism" title="Epistemological realism">realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Positivist-related_debate" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Positivist-related debate</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit">Methodenstreit</a></i></span> (1890s)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a></i></span> (1909–1959)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a></i></span> (1960s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a> (1980s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a> (1990s)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a></i> (1830)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i> (1848)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critical_History_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical History of Philosophy">Critical History of Philosophy</a></i> (1869)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idealism_and_Positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealism and Positivism">Idealism and Positivism</a></i> (1879–1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Analysis_of_Sensations" class="mw-redirect" title="The Analysis of Sensations">The Analysis of Sensations</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._P._Snow" title="C. P. Snow">C. P. Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a></i> (1909)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i> (1934)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_and_Human_Interests" title="Knowledge and Human Interests">Knowledge and Human Interests</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="The Poverty of Theory">The Poverty of Theory</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Scientific_Image" class="mw-redirect" title="The Scientific Image">The Scientific Image</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rhetoric_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rhetoric of Economics">The Rhetoric of Economics</a></i> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pepper" title="Stephen Pepper">Stephen Pepper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">E. P. Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Concepts in contention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Category:Positivism" title="Category:Positivism">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q839486#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4137346-7">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh99004969">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb14533813g">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb14533813g">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="kvalitativní výzkum"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph115045&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007539592905171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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