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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carnot_Cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carnot_Cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Carnot Cycle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carnot_Cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tanks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tanks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Tanks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tanks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liquid_nitrogen_vehicles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liquid_nitrogen_vehicles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Liquid nitrogen vehicles</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Liquid_nitrogen_vehicles-sublist" class="cdx-button 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href="#Disadvantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Disadvantages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disadvantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Criticisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cost_of_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cost_of_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Cost of 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p>A <b>liquid nitrogen engine</b> is powered by <a href="/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen" title="Liquid nitrogen">liquid nitrogen</a>, which is stored in a tank. Traditional nitrogen engine designs work by heating the liquid nitrogen in a <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">heat exchanger</a>, extracting heat from the ambient air and using the resulting pressurized gas to operate a piston or rotary motor. Vehicles propelled by liquid nitrogen have been demonstrated, but are not used commercially. One such vehicle, <i><a href="/wiki/Liquid_Air" title="Liquid Air">Liquid Air</a></i>, was demonstrated in 1902. </p><p>Liquid nitrogen propulsion may also be incorporated in hybrid systems, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Battery_electric_propulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery electric propulsion">battery electric propulsion</a> and fuel tanks to recharge the batteries. This kind of system is called a hybrid liquid nitrogen-electric propulsion. Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Regenerative_braking" title="Regenerative braking">regenerative braking</a> can also be used in conjunction with this system. </p><p>One advantage of the liquid nitrogen vehicle is that the <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">exhaust gas</a> is simply nitrogen, a component of air, and thus it produces no localized <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> in the tailpipe emissions. This does not make it completely pollution free, since energy had been required to liquify the nitrogen in the first place, but that liquification process can be remote from the vehicle operation, and could in principle be powered by a <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">clean energy</a> source. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Liquid nitrogen is generated by <a href="/wiki/Cryocooler" title="Cryocooler">cryogenic</a> or reversed <a href="/wiki/Stirling_engine" title="Stirling engine">Stirling engine</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> coolers that liquefy the main component of air, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> (N<sub>2</sub>). The cooler can be powered by electricity or through direct mechanical work from <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">hydro</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">wind turbines</a>. Liquid nitrogen is distributed and stored in <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_flask" title="Vacuum flask">insulated containers</a>. The insulation reduces heat flow into the stored nitrogen; this is necessary because heat from the surrounding environment boils the liquid, which then transitions to a gaseous state. Reducing inflowing heat reduces the loss of liquid nitrogen in storage. The requirements of storage prevent the use of pipelines as a means of transport. Since long-distance pipelines would be costly due to the insulation requirements, it would be costly to use distant energy sources for production of liquid nitrogen. Petroleum reserves are typically a vast distance from consumption but can be transferred at ambient temperatures. </p><p>Liquid nitrogen consumption is in essence production in reverse. The <a href="/wiki/Stirling_engine" title="Stirling engine">Stirling engine</a> or cryogenic heat engine offers a way to power vehicles and a means to generate electricity. Liquid nitrogen can also serve as a direct coolant for <a href="/wiki/Refrigerators" class="mw-redirect" title="Refrigerators">refrigerators</a>, <a href="/wiki/CPU_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU cooling">electrical equipment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a> units. The consumption of liquid nitrogen is in effect boiling and returning the <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a>. </p><p>In the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dearman_Engine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dearman Engine (page does not exist)">Dearman Engine</a> the nitrogen is heated by combining it with the heat exchange fluid inside the cylinder of the engine.<sup id="cite_ref-T&T_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-T&T-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2008, the US Patent Office granted a patent on a liquid nitrogen powered turbine engine.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The turbine flash-expands liquid nitrogen that is sprayed into the high-pressure section of the turbine, and the expanding gas is combined with incoming pressurized air to produce a high-velocity stream of gas that is ejected from the back of the turbine. The resulting gas stream can be used to drive generators or other devices. The system has not been demonstrated to power electric generators of greater than 1 kW,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however higher output may be possible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carnot_Cycle">Carnot Cycle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Carnot Cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the liquid nitrogen is colder than the ambient temperature, the liquid nitrogen engine is nevertheless an example of a <a href="/wiki/Heat_engine" title="Heat engine">heat engine</a>. A heat engine runs by extracting thermal energy from the temperature difference between a hot and a cold reservoir; in the case of the liquid nitrogen engine, the "hot" reservoir is the air in the ambient ("room temperature") surroundings, which is used to boil the nitrogen. </p><p>As such, the nitrogen engine is extracting energy from the thermal energy of the air, and the conversion efficiency with which it converts energy can be calculated from the <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamics" title="Laws of thermodynamics">laws of thermodynamics</a> using <a href="/wiki/Heat_engine#Efficiency" title="Heat engine">Carnot efficiency</a> equation, which applies to all heat engines. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tanks">Tanks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Tanks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The tanks to store the liquid nitrogen must be designed to safety standards appropriate for a <a href="/wiki/Pressure_vessel" title="Pressure vessel">pressure vessel</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/ISO_11439" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 11439">ISO 11439</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liquid_nitrogen_tank_(Izmir,_Turkey).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Liquid_nitrogen_tank_%28Izmir%2C_Turkey%29.JPG/220px-Liquid_nitrogen_tank_%28Izmir%2C_Turkey%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Liquid_nitrogen_tank_%28Izmir%2C_Turkey%29.JPG/330px-Liquid_nitrogen_tank_%28Izmir%2C_Turkey%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Liquid_nitrogen_tank_%28Izmir%2C_Turkey%29.JPG/440px-Liquid_nitrogen_tank_%28Izmir%2C_Turkey%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Liquid nitrogen tank (Izmir, Turkey)</figcaption></figure> <p>The storage tank may be made of: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fiber">carbon fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevlar" title="Kevlar">Kevlar</a></li> <li>other materials, or combinations of the above.</li></ul> <p>The fiber materials are considerably lighter than metals but generally more expensive. Metal tanks can withstand a large number of pressure cycles, but must be checked for corrosion periodically. Liquid nitrogen, LN2, is commonly transported in insulated tanks, up to 50 litres, at atmospheric pressure. These tanks, being non-pressurized tanks, are not subject to inspection. Very large tanks for LN2 are sometimes pressurized to less than 25 psi to aid in transferring the liquid at point of use. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Liquid_nitrogen_vehicles">Liquid nitrogen vehicles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Liquid nitrogen vehicles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A vehicle propelled by liquid nitrogen, the <i><a href="/wiki/Liquid_Air" title="Liquid Air">Liquid Air</a></i>, was demonstrated in 1902. </p><p>In June 2016 trials will begin in London<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Relative_time_references" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="Clarify the applicable timeframe so that it is unambiguous when read at a later date. (August 2023)">timeframe?</span></a></i>]</sup>, UK on supermarket J. Sainsbury's fleet of food delivery vehicles: using a Dearman nitrogen engine to provide power for the cooling of food cargo when the vehicle is stationary and the main engine is off. Currently delivery lorries mostly have second smaller diesel engines to power cooling when the main engine is off.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emission_output">Emission output</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Emission output"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like other non-combustion energy storage technologies, a liquid nitrogen vehicle displaces the emission source from the vehicle's tail pipe to the central electrical generating plant. Where emissions-free sources are available, net production of pollutants can be reduced. Emission control measures at a central generating plant may be more effective and less costly than treating the emissions of widely dispersed vehicles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advantages">Advantages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Advantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Liquid nitrogen vehicles are comparable in many ways to <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicles</a>, but use liquid nitrogen to store the energy instead of batteries. Their potential advantages over other vehicles include: </p> <ul><li>Much like electrical vehicles, liquid nitrogen vehicles would ultimately be powered through the electrical grid, which makes it easier to focus on reducing pollution from one source, as opposed to the millions of vehicles on the road.</li> <li>Transportation of the fuel would not be required due to drawing power off the electrical grid. This presents significant cost benefits. Pollution created during fuel transportation would be eliminated.</li> <li>Lower maintenance costs</li> <li>Liquid nitrogen tanks can be disposed of or recycled with less pollution than batteries.</li> <li>Liquid nitrogen vehicles are unconstrained by the degradation problems associated with current battery systems.</li> <li>The tank may be able to be refilled more often and in less time than batteries can be recharged, with re-fueling rates comparable to liquid fuels.</li> <li>It can work as part of a <a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle">combined cycle</a> powertrain in conjunction with a petrol or diesel engine, using the <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a> from one to run the other in a <a href="/wiki/Turbocompound" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbocompound">turbocompound</a> system. It can even run as a hybrid system.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disadvantages">Disadvantages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Disadvantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The principal disadvantage is the inefficient use of primary energy. Energy is used to liquefy nitrogen, which in turn provides the energy to run the motor. Any conversion of energy has losses. For liquid nitrogen cars, electrical energy is lost during the liquefaction process of nitrogen. </p><p>Liquid nitrogen is not available in public refueling stations; however, there are distribution systems in place at most welding gas suppliers and liquid nitrogen is an abundant by-product of liquid oxygen production. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cost_of_production">Cost of production</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cost of production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Liquid nitrogen production is an energy-intensive process. Currently practical refrigeration plants producing a few tons/day of liquid nitrogen operate at about 50% of <a href="/wiki/Carnot_heat_engine" title="Carnot heat engine">Carnot efficiency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently surplus liquid nitrogen is produced as a byproduct in the production of <a href="/wiki/Liquid_oxygen" title="Liquid oxygen">liquid oxygen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-T&T_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-T&T-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_density_of_liquid_nitrogen">Energy density of liquid nitrogen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Energy density of liquid nitrogen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Any process that relies on a phase-change of a substance will have much lower <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy densities</a> than processes involving a chemical reaction in a substance, which in turn have lower energy densities than nuclear reactions. Liquid nitrogen as an energy store has a low energy density. Liquid hydrocarbon fuels, by comparison, have a high energy density. A high energy density makes the logistics of transport and storage more convenient. Convenience is an important factor in consumer acceptance. The convenient storage of petroleum fuels combined with its low cost has led to an unrivaled success. In addition, a petroleum fuel is a <a href="/wiki/Primary_energy_source" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary energy source">primary energy source</a>, not just an energy storage and transport medium. </p><p>The energy density—derived from nitrogen's isobaric heat of vaporization and specific heat in gaseous state—that can theoretically be realised from liquid nitrogen at atmospheric pressure and 27 °C ambient temperature is about 213 watt-hours per kilogram (W·h/kg), while typically only 97 W·h/kg can be achieved under realistic circumstances. This compares with 100–250 W·h/kg for a <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">lithium-ion battery</a> and 3,000 W·h/kg for a gasoline <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">combustion engine</a> running at 28% <a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">thermal efficiency</a>, 14 times the density of liquid nitrogen used at the Carnot efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-Knowlen_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knowlen-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For an isothermal expansion engine to have a range comparable to an internal combustion engine, a 350-litre (92 US gal) insulated onboard storage vessel is required.<sup id="cite_ref-Knowlen_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knowlen-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A practical volume, but a noticeable increase over the typical 50-litre (13 US gal) gasoline tank. The addition of more complex power cycles would reduce this requirement and help enable frost free operation. However, no commercially practical instances of liquid nitrogen use for vehicle propulsion exist. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frost_formation">Frost formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Frost formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike internal combustion engines, using a cryogenic working fluid requires heat exchangers to warm and cool the working fluid. In a humid environment, frost formation will prevent heat flow and thus represents an engineering challenge. To prevent frost build up, multiple working fluids can be used. This adds topping cycles to ensure the heat exchanger does not fall below freezing. Additional heat exchangers, weight, complexity, efficiency loss, and expense, would be required to enable frost free operation.<sup id="cite_ref-Knowlen_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knowlen-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Safety">Safety</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>However efficient the insulation on the nitrogen fuel tank, there will inevitably be losses by evaporation to the atmosphere. If a vehicle is stored in a poorly ventilated space, there is some risk that leaking nitrogen could reduce the oxygen concentration in the air and cause <a href="/wiki/Asphyxiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Asphyxiation">asphyxiation</a>. Since nitrogen is a colorless and odourless gas that already makes up 78 per cent of air, such a change would be difficult to detect. </p><p>Cryogenic liquids are hazardous if spilled. Liquid nitrogen can cause <a href="/wiki/Frostbite" title="Frostbite">frostbite</a> and can make some materials extremely brittle. </p><p>As liquid nitrogen is colder than 90.2K, oxygen from the atmosphere can condense. Liquid oxygen can spontaneously and violently react with organic chemicals, including petroleum products like asphalt.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the liquid to gas <a href="/wiki/Expansion_ratio" title="Expansion ratio">expansion ratio</a> of this substance is 1:694, a tremendous amount of force can be generated if liquid nitrogen is rapidly vaporized. In an incident in 2006 at <a href="/wiki/Texas_A%26M_University" title="Texas A&M University">Texas A&M University</a>, the pressure-relief devices of a tank of liquid nitrogen were sealed with brass plugs. As a result, the tank failed catastrophically, and exploded.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_energy_storage" title="Cryogenic energy storage">Cryogenic energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_energy_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Future energy development">Future energy development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-low-emission_vehicle" title="Ultra-low-emission vehicle">Ultra-low-emission vehicle</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>C.A. Ordonez, M.C. Plummer, R.F. Reidy <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040325140500/http://www.phys.unt.edu/~cordonez/IMECE01.pdf">"Cryogenic Heat Engines for Powering Zero Emission Vehicles"</a>, Proceedings of 2001 ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, November 11–16, 2001, New York, NY.</li> <li>Kleppe J.A., Schneider R.N., “A Nitrogen Economy”, Winter Meeting ASEE, Honolulu, HI, December, 1974.</li> <li>Gordon J. Van Wylen and Richard F. Sontag, <i>Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics SI Version 2nd Ed.</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid_nitrogen_engine&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBalmer2011" class="citation book cs1">Balmer, Robert T. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://my.safaribooksonline.com/book/engineering/9780123749963/chapter-14dot-vapor-and-gas-refrigeration-cycles/toc210">"14.15 Reversed Stirling Cycle Refrigeration"</a>. <i>Modern Engineering Thermodynamics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-374996-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-374996-3"><bdi>978-0-12-374996-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=14.15+Reversed+Stirling+Cycle+Refrigeration&rft.btitle=Modern+Engineering+Thermodynamics&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-12-374996-3&rft.aulast=Balmer&rft.aufirst=Robert+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmy.safaribooksonline.com%2Fbook%2Fengineering%2F9780123749963%2Fchapter-14dot-vapor-and-gas-refrigeration-cycles%2Ftoc210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiquid+nitrogen+engine" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stirlingultracold.com/heritage/">"Our History"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Our+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stirlingultracold.com%2Fheritage%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiquid+nitrogen+engine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130203080156/http://www.stirlingcryogenics.com/home/">"Stirling Cryogenics - Cryogenic and cryogenerator engineers"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stirlingcryogenics.com/home/">the original</a> on 2013-02-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-02-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stirling+Cryogenics+-+Cryogenic+and+cryogenerator+engineers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stirlingcryogenics.com%2Fhome%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiquid+nitrogen+engine" class="Z3988"></span> Commercial Stirling engine cooling</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-T&T-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-T&T_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-T&T_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaili_Leino2012" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Raili Leino (2012-10-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130901222611/http://www.tekniikkatalous.fi/autot/mullistava+idea+tulevaisuuden+auto+voi+kulkea+typpimoottorilla/a849225">"Mullistava idea: Tulevaisuuden auto voi kulkea typpimoottorilla"</a>. <i>Tekniikka&Talous</i> (in Finnish). 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(Edtr.) (1991). "Fire Hazards in Oxygen Systems". ASTM Technical Professional training. Philadelphia: ASTM International Subcommittee G-4.05.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrent_S._Mattox" class="citation web cs1">Brent S. Mattox. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081031073557/http://ucih.ucdavis.edu/docs/chemistry_301a.pdf">"Investigative Report on Chemistry 301A Cylinder Explosion"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Texas_A%26M_University" title="Texas A&M University">Texas A&M University</a>. 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href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-19785689">Video of car powered by liquid air</a>, embedded in <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a> report (car appears at 0m 52s).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtsc.unt.edu/CooLN2Car.html">LN2 Vehicle 1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070205063838/http://www.mtsc.unt.edu/CooLN2Car.html">Archived</a> 2007-02-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, a liquid nitrogen–powered car using a Cryogenic Heat Engine at the University of North Texas.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.howstuffworks.com/question133.htm">Discussion on LN2 vehicle feasibility at How stuff works</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060310203337/http://kahuna.sdsu.edu/testcenter/testhome/Test/solve/basics/tables/tablesComb/hhv.html">Thermodynamic Properties of various fuels</a> (tabulated data).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alternative_fuel_vehicles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell_vehicle" title="Fuel cell vehicle">Fuel cell vehicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_power" title="Human power">Human power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_bicycle" title="Electric bicycle">Electric bicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedelec" title="Pedelec">Pedelec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_aircraft" title="Solar-powered aircraft">Solar-powered aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar-powered_boats" title="List of solar-powered boats">boats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_bus" title="Solar bus">Solar bus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car" title="Solar car">Solar car</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prototype_solar-powered_cars" title="List of prototype solar-powered cars">List of prototypes</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_boat" title="Electric boat">Electric boat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_motor" title="Pneumatic motor">Compressed-air <br />engine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compressed-air_car" title="Compressed-air car">Compressed-air car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressed-air_vehicle" title="Compressed-air vehicle">Compressed-air vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tesla_turbine" title="Tesla turbine">Tesla turbine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Electric battery</a> <br />and <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">motor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_locomotive#Battery_locomotive" title="Electric locomotive">Battery-electric locomotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_electric_multiple_unit" title="Battery electric multiple unit">Battery electric multiple unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_bicycle" title="Electric bicycle">Electric bicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedelec" title="Pedelec">Pedelec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_boat" title="Electric boat">Electric boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_bus" title="Electric bus">Electric bus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battery_electric_bus" title="Battery electric bus">Battery electric bus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_car" title="Electric car">Electric car</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battery_electric_vehicles" title="List of battery electric vehicles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_truck" title="Electric truck">Electric truck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_platform_truck" title="Electric platform truck">Electric platform truck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">Electric vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicle" title="Battery electric vehicle">Battery electric vehicle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_motorcycles_and_scooters" title="Electric motorcycles and scooters">Electric motorcycles and scooters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_kick_scooter" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric kick scooter">Electric kick scooter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell_vehicle" title="Fuel cell vehicle">Fuel cell vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentinel_Waggon_Works#The_Gyro_locomotive" title="Sentinel Waggon Works">Gyro flywheel locomotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle" title="Hybrid electric vehicle">Hybrid electric vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_train" title="Hybrid train">Hybrid train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neighborhood_Electric_Vehicle" title="Neighborhood Electric Vehicle">Neighborhood Electric Vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_electric_vehicle" title="Plug-in electric vehicle">Plug-in electric vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battery_electric_vehicles" title="List of battery electric vehicles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_hybrid" title="Plug-in hybrid">Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_aircraft" title="Solar-powered aircraft">aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car" title="Solar car">Solar car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_bus" title="Solar bus">Solar bus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a> <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">ICE</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_fuel" title="Alcohol fuel">Alcohol fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiesel" title="Biodiesel">Biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butanol_fuel" title="Butanol fuel">Butanol fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogasoline" title="Biogasoline">Biogasoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures" title="Common ethanol fuel mixtures">Common ethanol fuel mixtures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E85" title="E85">E85</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">Ethanol fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible-fuel_vehicle" title="Flexible-fuel vehicle">Flexible-fuel vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanol_economy" title="Methanol economy">Methanol economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanol_fuel" title="Methanol fuel">Methanol fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_gas" title="Wood gas">Wood gas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell_vehicle" title="Fuel cell vehicle">Fuel cell vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_economy" title="Hydrogen economy">Hydrogen economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-powered_aircraft" title="Hydrogen-powered aircraft">Hydrogen-powered aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-powered_ship" title="Hydrogen-powered ship">Hydrogen-powered ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_train" title="Hydrogen train">Hydrogen train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_vehicle" title="Hydrogen vehicle">Hydrogen vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_internal_combustion_engine_vehicle" title="Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle">Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autogas" title="Autogas">Autogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle" title="Hybrid electric vehicle">Hybrid electric vehicle</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Liquid nitrogen vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_vehicle" title="Natural gas vehicle">Natural gas vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">Propane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple-fuel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bi-fuel_vehicle" title="Bi-fuel vehicle">Bi-fuel vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible-fuel_vehicle" title="Flexible-fuel vehicle">Flexible-fuel vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle" title="Hybrid electric vehicle">Hybrid electric vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_train" title="Hybrid train">Hybrid train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle" title="Hybrid vehicle">Hybrid vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multifuel" title="Multifuel">Multifuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_hybrid" title="Plug-in hybrid">Plug-in hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car" title="Solar car">Solar car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_bus" title="Solar bus">Solar bus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_boat" title="Electric boat">Electric boat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Who_Killed_the_Electric_Car%3F" title="Who Killed the Electric Car?">Who Killed the Electric Car?</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/What_Is_the_Electric_Car%3F" title="What Is the Electric Car?">What Is the Electric Car?</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Revenge_of_the_Electric_Car" title="Revenge of the Electric Car">Revenge of the Electric Car</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maglev" title="Maglev">Maglev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram_air_turbine" title="Ram air turbine">Ram air turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vactrain" title="Vactrain">Vactrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power_ship" title="Wave power ship">Wave power ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windmill_ship" title="Windmill ship">Windmill ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind-powered_vehicle" title="Wind-powered vehicle">Wind-powered vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-emissions_vehicle" title="Zero-emissions vehicle">Zero-emissions vehicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Car_design" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Automobile_configuration" title="Template:Automobile configuration"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Automobile_configuration" title="Template talk:Automobile configuration"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Automobile_configuration" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Automobile configuration"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Car_design" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Car" title="Car">Car</a> design</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Car_classification" title="Car classification">Classification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By size</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microcar" title="Microcar">Micro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kei_car" title="Kei car">Kei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcompact_car" title="Subcompact car">Subcompact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B-segment" title="B-segment">Supermini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_car" title="Family car">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_car" title="Compact car">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-size_car" title="Mid-size car">Mid-size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-size_car" title="Full-size car">Full-size</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Custom_car" title="Custom car">Custom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hot_rod" title="Hot rod">Hot rod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_sled" title="Lead sled">Lead sled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowrider" title="Lowrider">Lowrider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_rod#1960s_rise_of_the_street_rod" title="Hot rod">Street rod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-bucket" title="T-bucket">T-bucket</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Luxury_car" title="Luxury car">Luxury</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compact_executive_car" title="Compact executive car">Compact executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_car" title="Executive car">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_luxury_car" title="Personal luxury car">Personal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Minivan" title="Minivan">Minivan / MPV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compact_MPV" title="Compact MPV">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leisure_activity_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Leisure activity vehicle">Leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini_MPV" title="Mini MPV">Mini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/SUV" title="SUV">SUV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compact_sport_utility_vehicle" title="Compact sport utility vehicle">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossover_(automobile)" title="Crossover (automobile)">Crossover (CUV)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini_SUV" class="mw-redirect" title="Mini SUV">Mini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupe_SUV" title="Coupe SUV">Coupe SUV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sports_car" title="Sports car">Sports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_tourer" title="Grand tourer">Grand tourer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_hatch" title="Hot hatch">Hot hatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_car" title="Muscle car">Muscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pony_car" title="Pony car">Pony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_compact" title="Sport compact">Sport compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_sedan" title="Sports sedan">Sports sedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercar" title="Supercar">Super</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Go-kart" title="Go-kart">Go-kart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antique_car" title="Antique car">Antique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_car" title="Classic car">Classic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_car" title="Economy car">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_(vehicle)" title="Ute (vehicle)">Ute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van" title="Van">Van</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vintage_car" title="Vintage car">Vintage car</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Euro_Car_Segment" title="Euro Car Segment">EU</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A-segment" title="A-segment">A-segment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B-segment" title="B-segment">B-segment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-segment" title="C-segment">C-segment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D-segment" title="D-segment">D-segment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-segment" title="E-segment">E-segment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-segment" title="F-segment">F-segment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J-segment" class="mw-redirect" title="J-segment">J-segment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M-segment" class="mw-redirect" title="M-segment">M-segment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-segment" title="S-segment">S-segment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Car_body_style" title="Car body style">Body styles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2%2B2_(car_body_style)" title="2+2 (car body style)">2+2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baquet_(car_body_style)" class="mw-redirect" title="Baquet (car body style)">Baquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barchetta" title="Barchetta">Barchetta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlinetta" title="Berlinetta">Berlinetta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brougham_(car_body)" title="Brougham (car body)">Brougham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabrio_coach" title="Cabrio coach">Cabrio coach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cab_over" title="Cab over">Cab over</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convertible" title="Convertible">Cabriolet / Convertible / Drophead coupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupe" title="Coupe">Coupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupe_de_Ville" class="mw-redirect" title="Coupe de Ville">Coupé de Ville / Sedanca de Ville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coup%C3%A9_utility" title="Coupé utility">Coupé utility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fastback" title="Fastback">Fastback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardtop" title="Hardtop">Hardtop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatchback" title="Hatchback">Hatchback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kammback" title="Kammback">Kammback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landaulet_(car)" title="Landaulet (car)">Landaulet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liftback" title="Liftback">Liftback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limousine" title="Limousine">Limousine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microvan" title="Microvan">Microvan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minibus" title="Minibus">Minibus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-stop_truck" title="Multi-stop truck">Multi-stop truck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notchback" title="Notchback">Notchback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panel_van" title="Panel van">Panel van</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaeton_body" title="Phaeton body">Phaeton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pickup_truck" title="Pickup truck">Pickup truck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quad_coup%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Quad coupé">Quad coupé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convertible" title="Convertible">Retractable hardtop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roadster_(automobile)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roadster (automobile)">Roadster / Spider / Spyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runabout_(car)" title="Runabout (car)">Runabout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedan_(automobile)" title="Sedan (automobile)">Saloon / Sedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panel_van" title="Panel van">Sedan delivery/Panel van</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_brake" title="Shooting brake">Shooting brake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Station_wagon" title="Station wagon">Station wagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targa_top" title="Targa top">Targa top</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_(car)" title="Torpedo (car)">Torpedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touring_car" title="Touring car">Touring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupe_de_Ville" class="mw-redirect" title="Coupe de Ville">Town (Coupé de Ville)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-top" title="T-top">T-top</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vis-%C3%A0-vis_(carriage)" title="Vis-à-vis (carriage)">Vis-à-vis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialized <br />vehicles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All-terrain_vehicle" title="All-terrain vehicle">All-terrain vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_vehicle" title="Amphibious vehicle">Amphibious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connected_car" title="Connected car">Connected</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-driving_car" title="Self-driving car">Driverless (autonomous)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Go-kart" title="Go-kart">Go-kart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyrocar" title="Gyrocar">Gyrocar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadracycle" title="Quadracycle">Pedal car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_rapid_transit" title="Personal rapid transit">Personal rapid transit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_car" title="Police car">Police car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_car" title="Flying car">Flying car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxicab" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxicab">Taxicab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tow_truck" title="Tow truck">Tow truck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiturette" title="Voiturette">Voiturette</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ground_propulsion" title="Ground propulsion">Propulsion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autogas" title="Autogas">Autogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiesel" title="Biodiesel">Biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogasoline" title="Biogasoline">Biogasoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressed_natural_gas" title="Compressed natural gas">Compressed natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_engine" title="Diesel engine">Diesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">Electric</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicle" title="Battery electric vehicle">battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neighborhood_Electric_Vehicle" title="Neighborhood Electric Vehicle">NEV</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures" title="Common ethanol fuel mixtures">Ethanol</a> (<a href="/wiki/E85" title="E85">E85</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_gas" title="Fuel gas">Fuel gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrol_engine" title="Petrol engine">Gasoline / petrol</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gasoline_direct_injection" title="Gasoline direct injection">direct injection</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homogeneous_charge_compression_ignition" title="Homogeneous charge compression ignition">Homogeneous charge compression ignition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle" title="Hybrid electric vehicle">Hybrid</a> (<a href="/wiki/Plug-in_hybrid" title="Plug-in hybrid">plug-in</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_vehicle" title="Hydrogen vehicle">Hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">Internal combustion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Liquid nitrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquified_petroleum_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquified petroleum gas">Liquified petroleum gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_car" title="Steam car">Steam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Drive_wheel" title="Drive wheel">Drive wheels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Front-wheel_drive" title="Front-wheel drive">Front-wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powertrain_layout#Rear_wheel_drive_layouts" title="Powertrain layout">Rear-wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-wheel_drive" title="Two-wheel drive">Two-wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-wheel_drive" title="Four-wheel drive">Four-wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-wheel_drive" title="Six-wheel drive">Six-wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-wheel_drive" title="Eight-wheel drive">Eight-wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten-wheel_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten-wheel drive">Ten-wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve-wheel_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelve-wheel drive">Twelve-wheel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Powertrain_layout" title="Powertrain layout">Engine position</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Front-engine_design" title="Front-engine design">Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-engine_design" title="Mid-engine design">Mid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rear-engine_design" title="Rear-engine design">Rear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Powertrain_layout" title="Powertrain layout">Layout</a> <br /><span class="nobold">(engine / drive)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Front-engine,_front-wheel-drive_layout" title="Front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout">Front-front</a> </li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Front-mid-engine,_front-wheel-drive_layout" title="Front-mid-engine, front-wheel-drive layout">Front mid-front</a> </li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Rear-engine,_front-wheel-drive_layout" title="Rear-engine, front-wheel-drive layout">Rear-front</a> </li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Front-engine,_rear-wheel-drive_layout" title="Front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout">Front-rear</a> </li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Rear_mid-engine,_rear-wheel-drive_layout" title="Rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout">Rear mid-rear</a> </li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Rear-engine,_rear-wheel-drive_layout" title="Rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout">Rear-rear</a> </li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Front-engine,_four-wheel-drive_layout" title="Front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout">Front-four-wheel</a> </li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Mid-engine,_four-wheel-drive_layout" title="Mid-engine, four-wheel-drive layout">Mid-four-wheel</a> </li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Rear-engine,_four-wheel-drive_layout" title="Rear-engine, four-wheel-drive layout">Rear-four-wheel</a> </li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Dual-motor,_four-wheel-drive_layout" title="Dual-motor, four-wheel-drive layout">Dual motor-four-wheel</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Engine_configuration" title="Engine configuration">Engine configuration</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flat_engine" title="Flat engine">Boxer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_engine" title="Flat engine">Flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-stroke_engine" title="Four-stroke engine">Four-stroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H_engine" title="H engine">H-block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocating_engine" title="Reciprocating engine">Reciprocating</a></li> <li><a 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