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.compact-ambox .ambox.mbox-small-left{font-size:100%;width:auto;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text{padding:0!important;margin:0!important}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text-span{display:list-item;line-height:1.5em;list-style-type:disc}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-image,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-imageright,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-empty-cell,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This article has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Scientific_literature" title="Special:EditPage/Scientific literature">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="/wiki/Talk:Scientific_literature" title="Talk:Scientific literature">talk page</a></b>. <small><i>(<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>)</i></small> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Scientific_literature" title="Special:EditPage/Scientific literature">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Scientific+literature%22">"Scientific literature"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Scientific+literature%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Scientific+literature%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Scientific+literature%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Scientific+literature%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Scientific+literature%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2009</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2012</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Scientific literature</b> encompasses a vast body of <a href="/wiki/Academic_papers" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic papers">academic papers</a> that spans various disciplines within the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>. It primarily consists of academic papers that present original <a href="/wiki/Empirical_research" title="Empirical research">empirical research</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theoretical</a> contributions. These papers serve as essential sources of knowledge and are commonly referred to simply as "<b>the literature</b>" within specific research fields. </p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philosophical_Transactions_Volume_1_frontispiece.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Philosophical_Transactions_Volume_1_frontispiece.jpg/220px-Philosophical_Transactions_Volume_1_frontispiece.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Philosophical_Transactions_Volume_1_frontispiece.jpg/330px-Philosophical_Transactions_Volume_1_frontispiece.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Philosophical_Transactions_Volume_1_frontispiece.jpg/440px-Philosophical_Transactions_Volume_1_frontispiece.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2054"></a><figcaption>The frontispiece for some early scientific literature published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</a></i></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>The process of academic publishing involves disseminating <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a> findings to a wider audience. Researchers submit their work to reputable journals or conferences, where it undergoes rigorous evaluation by experts in the field. This evaluation, known as <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a>, ensures the quality, validity, and reliability of the research before it becomes part of the scientific literature. Peer-reviewed publications contribute significantly to advancing our understanding of the world and shaping future research endeavors. </p><p>Original <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific research</a> first published in <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">scientific journals</a> constitutes <a href="/wiki/Primary_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary literature">primary literature</a>. <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">Patents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technical_report" title="Technical report">technical reports</a>, which cover minor research results and engineering and design efforts, including <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">computer software</a>, are also classified as primary literature. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Secondary_source" title="Secondary source">Secondary sources</a> comprise review articles that summarize the results of published studies to underscore progress and new research directions, as well as books that tackle extensive projects or comprehensive arguments, including article compilations. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_source" title="Tertiary source">Tertiary sources</a> encompass <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia" title="Encyclopedia">encyclopedias</a> and similar works designed for widespread public consumption. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Types_of_scientific_publications"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Types of scientific publications</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Scientific_papers_and_articles"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Scientific papers and articles</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Scientific_article"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Scientific article</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Preparation"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Preparation</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Language"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Language</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Structure_and_style"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Structure and style</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Peer_review"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Peer review</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Ethics"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Ethics</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Footnotes"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Footnotes</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Types_of_scientific_publications">Types of scientific publications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_literature&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types of scientific publications" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <p>Scientific literature can include the following kinds of publications:<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Scientific articles published in <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">scientific journals</a>.</li> <li>Patents in the relevant subject (for example, <a href="/wiki/Biological_patent" title="Biological patent">biological patents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_patent" title="Chemical patent">chemical patents</a>).</li> <li>Books wholly written by one author or a few co-authors.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edited_volume" title="Edited volume">Edited volumes</a>, where each <a href="/wiki/Chapter_(books)" title="Chapter (books)">chapter</a> is the responsibility of a different author or group of authors, while the editor is responsible for determining the scope of the project, keeping the work on schedule, and ensuring consistency of style and content.</li> <li>Presentations at <a href="/wiki/Academic_conference" title="Academic conference">academic conferences</a>, especially those organized by <a href="/wiki/Learned_society" title="Learned society">learned societies</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a> reports such as a <a href="/wiki/Forensic_investigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensic investigation">forensic investigation</a> conducted by a government agency such as the <a href="/wiki/NTSB" class="mw-redirect" title="NTSB">NTSB</a>.</li> <li>Scientific publications on the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> (although e.g. scientific journals are now commonly published on the web).</li> <li>Books, <a href="/wiki/Technical_report" title="Technical report">technical reports</a>, pamphlets, and <a href="/wiki/Working_paper" title="Working paper">working papers</a> issued by individual researchers or research organizations on their own initiative; these are sometimes organized into a series.</li></ul> <p>Literature may also be published in areas considered to be "<a href="/wiki/Grey_literature" title="Grey literature">grey</a>", as they are published outside of traditional channels.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This material is customarily not indexed by major databases and can include manuals, theses and dissertations, or newsletters and bulletins.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The significance of different types of the scientific publications can vary between disciplines and change over time.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> According to <a href="/wiki/James_Speight" class="mw-redirect" title="James Speight">James G. Speight</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russell_Foster" title="Russell Foster">Russell Foote</a>, peer-reviewed journals are the most prominent and prestigious form of publication.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> University presses are more prestigious than commercial press publication.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The status of working papers and <a href="/wiki/Conference_proceeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Conference proceeding">conference proceedings</a> depends on the discipline; they are typically more important in the <a href="/wiki/Applied_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied sciences">applied sciences</a>. The value of publication as a <a href="/wiki/Preprint" title="Preprint">preprint</a> or scientific report on the web has in the past been low, but in some subjects, such as <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> or <a href="/wiki/High_energy_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="High energy physics">high energy physics</a>, it is now an accepted alternative.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_papers_and_articles">Scientific papers and articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_literature&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scientific papers and articles" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Scientific papers have been categorised into ten types. Eight of these carry specific objectives, while the other two can vary depending on the style and the intended goal.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Papers that carry specific objectives are:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>An <i>original article</i> provides new information from original research supported by evidence.</li> <li><i>Case reports</i> are unique events<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> that researchers read to obtain information on the subject.</li> <li>A <i>technical note</i> is a description of a technique or piece of equipment that has been modified from an existing one to be new and more effective.</li> <li>A <i><a href="/wiki/Pictorial_essay" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictorial essay">pictorial essay</a></i> is a series of high-quality images published for teaching purposes.</li> <li>A <i><a href="/wiki/Review_article" title="Review article">review</a></i> is a detailed analysis of recent developments on a topic.</li> <li>A <i>commentary</i> is a short summary of an author's personal experience.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Editorial" title="Editorial">Editorials</a></i> are short reviews or critiques of original articles.</li> <li><i>Letters to the editor</i> are communications directed to the editor of an article to ask questions and provide constructive criticism.</li></ul> <p>The following two categories are variable, including for example historical articles and speeches:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>Nonscientific material</i>: This type of material comes from the result of an article being published.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It does not advance an article scientifically but instead contributes to its reputation as a scientific article.</li> <li><i>Other</i>: Other types of papers not listed under non-scientific material or in any of the above eight categories. They can vary depending on the objective and style of the article.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Scientific_article">Scientific article</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_literature&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Scientific article" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For broader class of these articles, see <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholarly article">Scholarly article</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journal#Types_of_articles" title="Scientific journal">Types of scientific journal articles</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preparation">Preparation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_literature&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Preparation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The actual day-to-day records of scientific information are kept in research notebooks or logbooks. These are usually kept indefinitely as the basic evidence of the work, and are often kept in duplicate, signed, notarized, and archived. The purpose is to preserve the evidence for scientific priority, and in particular for priority for obtaining patents. They have also been used in scientific disputes. Since the availability of computers, the notebooks in some data-intensive fields have been kept as database records, and appropriate software is commercially available.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The work on a project is typically published as one or more technical reports, or articles. In some fields both are used, with preliminary reports, working papers, or <a href="/wiki/Preprint" title="Preprint">preprints</a> followed by a formal article. Articles are usually prepared at the end of a project, or at the end of components of a particularly large one. In preparing such an article vigorous rules for <a href="/wiki/Scientific_writing" title="Scientific writing">scientific writing</a> have to be followed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_literature&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Impact_factor" title="Impact factor">Impact factor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copy_editing" title="Copy editing">Copy editing</a></div> <p>Often, career advancement depends upon publishing in high-impact journals, which, especially in hard and applied sciences, are usually published in English.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, scientists with poor English writing skills are at a disadvantage when trying to publish in these journals, regardless of the quality of the scientific study itself.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet many<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (August 2018)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> international universities require publication in these high-impact journals by both their students and faculty. One way that some international authors are beginning to overcome this problem is by contracting with freelance copy editors who are native speakers of English and specialize in ESL (English as a second language) editing to polish their manuscripts' English to a level that high-impact journals will accept.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure_and_style">Structure and style</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_literature&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Structure and style" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/IMRAD" title="IMRAD">IMRAD</a></div> <p>Although the content of an article is more important than the format, it is customary for scientific articles to follow a standard structure, which varies only slightly in different subjects. Although the IMRAD structure emphasizes the organization of content, and in scientific journal articles, each section (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) has unique conventions for scientific writing style.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following are key guidelines for formatting, although each journal etc will to some extent have its own house style: </p> <ul><li>The <i>title</i> attracts readers' attention and informs them about the contents of the article.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Titles are distinguished into three main types: declarative titles (state the main conclusion), descriptive titles (describe a paper's content), and interrogative titles (challenge readers with a question that is answered in the text).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some journals indicate, in their instructions to authors, the type (and length) of permitted titles.</li> <li>The names and affiliations of all <i>authors</i> are given. In the wake of some <a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">scientific misconduct</a> cases, publishers often require that all co-authors know and agree on the content of the article.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>An <a href="/wiki/Abstract_(summary)" title="Abstract (summary)"><i>abstract</i></a> summarizes the work (in a single paragraph or in several short paragraphs) and is intended to represent the article in bibliographic databases and to furnish subject <a href="/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">metadata</a> for indexing services.</li> <li>The <i>context</i> of previous scientific investigations should be presented, by citation of relevant documents in the existing literature, usually in a section called an "Introduction".</li> <li><i>Empirical techniques</i>, laid out in a section usually called "Materials and Methods", should be described in such a way that a subsequent scientist, with appropriate knowledge of and experience in the relevant field, should be able to repeat the observations and know whether he or she has obtained the same result. This naturally varies between subjects, and does not apply to mathematics and related subjects.</li> <li>Similarly, the <i>results</i> of the investigation, in a section usually called "Results", should be presented in tabular or graphic form (<a href="/wiki/Image" title="Image">image</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chart" title="Chart">chart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schematic" title="Schematic">schematic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diagram" title="Diagram">diagram</a> or <a href="/wiki/Drawing" title="Drawing">drawing</a>). These display elements should be accompanied by a caption and should be discussed in the text of the article.</li> <li><i>Interpretation</i> of the meaning of the results is usually addressed in a "Discussion" or "Conclusions" section. The conclusions drawn should be based on the new empirical results while taking established knowledge into consideration, in such a way that any reader with knowledge of the field can follow the argument and confirm that the conclusions are sound. That is, acceptance of the conclusions must not depend on personal <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal to authority">authority</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetorical skill</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a>.</li> <li>Finally, a "References" or "Literature Cited" section lists the <i>sources</i> cited by the authors.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Peer_review">Peer review</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_literature&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Peer review" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_peer_review" title="Scholarly peer review">Scholarly peer review</a></div> <p>Increasing reliance on digital <a href="/wiki/Indexing_and_abstracting_service" title="Indexing and abstracting service">abstracting services</a> and <a href="/wiki/Academic_search_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic search engines">academic search engines</a> means that the <i>de facto</i> acceptance in the academic discourse is predicted by the inclusion in such selective sources. Commercial providers of proprietary data include <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Abstracts_Service" title="Chemical Abstracts Service">Chemical Abstracts Service</a>, <a href="/wiki/Web_of_Science" title="Web of Science">Web of Science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scopus" title="Scopus">Scopus</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Open_data" title="Open data">open data</a> (and often <a href="/wiki/Open_source" title="Open source">open source</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-profit" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-profit">non-profit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Library" title="Library">library</a>-led) services include <a href="/wiki/DOAB" class="mw-redirect" title="DOAB">DOAB</a>, <a href="/wiki/DOAJ" class="mw-redirect" title="DOAJ">DOAJ</a> and (for <a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="Open access">open access</a> works) <a href="/wiki/Unpaywall" class="mw-redirect" title="Unpaywall">Unpaywall</a> (based on <a href="/wiki/CrossRef" class="mw-redirect" title="CrossRef">CrossRef</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Academic" title="Microsoft Academic">Microsoft Academic</a> records enriched with <a href="/wiki/OAI-PMH" class="mw-redirect" title="OAI-PMH">OAI-PMH</a> data from <a href="/wiki/Open_archive" class="mw-redirect" title="Open archive">open archives</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Ethics">Ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_literature&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ethics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_integrity" title="Scientific integrity">Scientific integrity</a></div> <p>The transfer of <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a> from author to publisher, used by some journals, can be controversial because many authors want to propagate their ideas more widely and re-use their material elsewhere without the need for permission. Usually an author or authors circumvent that problem by rewriting an article and using other pictures. Some publishers may also want publicity for their journal so will approve <a href="/wiki/Facsimile" title="Facsimile">facsimile</a> <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproduction</a> unconditionally; other publishers are more resistant.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In scientific publishing, a number of key issues include and are not restricted to:<sup id="cite_ref-Chanson2008_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chanson2008-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">Honesty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_integrity" title="Scientific integrity">integrity</a> is a duty of each author and person, expert-reviewer and member of journal editorial boards.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> process contributes to quality control and it is an essential step to ascertain the standing and originality of the research.<sup id="cite_ref-Chanson2007_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chanson2007-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Redundant publications: Publications generally should contain new unpublished material.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_fabrication" title="Data fabrication">Data fabrication</a> is the process of purposefully changing data to make the information more in the favor of the author.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Ethical standards: Recent journal editorials presented some experience of unscrupulous activities.<sup id="cite_ref-Mavinic2006_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mavinic2006-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AIAA2007_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AIAA2007-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Human welfare concerns: The guidelines for human experimentation started during WWII with the Nuremberg Code. It has evolved into three main principles from The Belmont Report. The subject must be able to make their own choices to protect themselves, benefits must outweigh the risks, and subjects must be evaluated for their selection and benefits must go to all of society.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Animal welfare concerns: Is the ethical care of animals in scientific experiments. The APS has set strict guidelines and regulations to stop animals from being unnecessarily harmed in experiments. These are being updated regularly by the APS and is a federal law in the United States enforced by DHHS.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Authorship: Who may claim a right to authorship?<sup id="cite_ref-Chanson2008_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chanson2008-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In which order should the authors be listed? <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflicts of interest">Conflicts of interest</a>: This refers to biases due to private interest. It can be done knowingly or not. This is unethical because it makes data inaccurate.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Authorship disputes: The authorship of an article is simply the author of the article. The ethical issue with this is when there are two people that believe to be the author, but there is only one true author. There are guidelines to help pick which get authorship of the writing. The one that does not get authorship is put in the acknowledgments. The guidelines come from NIH and The Council of Science Editors.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_literature&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_writing#History" title="Scientific writing">Scientific writing § History</a></div> <p>The first recorded editorial pre-publication peer-review occurred in 1665 by the founding editor of <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Oldenburg" title="Henry Oldenburg">Henry Oldenburg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Technical and scientific books were a specialty of <a href="/wiki/David_Van_Nostrand" title="David Van Nostrand">David Van Nostrand</a>, and his <a href="/wiki/David_Van_Nostrand#Engineering_magazine" title="David Van Nostrand">Engineering Magazine</a> re-published contemporary scientific articles. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_literature&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acknowledgment_index" title="Acknowledgment index">Acknowledgment index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation_index" title="Citation index">Citation index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">Digital object identifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey_literature" title="Grey literature">Grey literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_access_(publishing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open access (publishing)">Open access (publishing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_paper_mill" title="Research paper mill">Research paper mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_communication" title="Scientific communication">Scientific communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKSG" title="UKSG">UKSG</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_literature&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Bartle" title="Robert G. Bartle">Robert G. Bartle</a> (1990) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ams.org/publications/60ann/BartleHistory.pdf">"A brief history of the mathematical literature"</a> from <a href="/wiki/American_Mathematical_Society" title="American Mathematical Society">American Mathematical Society</a>.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_literature&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Footnotes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style 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href="#cite_ref-:1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFÖchsner2013" class="citation cs2">Öchsner, Andreas (2013), "Types of Scientific Publications", <i>Introduction to Scientific Publishing</i>, SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 9–21, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-38646-6_3">10.1007/978-3-642-38646-6_3</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642386459" title="Special:BookSources/9783642386459"><bdi>9783642386459</bdi></a></cite><span 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href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4ORgP4AwPtQC&q=peer-reviewed+journal+articles+remain+the+predominant+publication+type%2C+and+have+the+highest+prestige.&pg=PA241"><i>Ethics in Science and Engineering</i></a>. 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"Ethics and scientific publication". <i>Advances in Physiology Education</i>. <b>29</b> (2): 59–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fadvan.00056.2004">10.1152/advan.00056.2004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1043-4046">1043-4046</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15905149">15905149</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27019082">27019082</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Physiology+Education&rft.atitle=Ethics+and+scientific+publication&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=59-74&rft.date=2005%2F2006&rft.issn=1043-4046&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27019082%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15905149&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fadvan.00056.2004&rft.aulast=Benos&rft.aufirst=Dale+J.&rft.au=Fabres%2C+Jorge&rft.au=Farmer%2C+John&rft.au=Gutierrez%2C+Jessica+P.&rft.au=Hennessy%2C+Kristin&rft.au=Kosek%2C+David&rft.au=Lee%2C+Joo+Hyoung&rft.au=Olteanu%2C+Dragos&rft.au=Russell%2C+Tara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mavinic2006-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mavinic2006_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._Mavinic2006" class="citation journal cs1">D. Mavinic (2006). "The "Art" of Plagiarism". <i>Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering</i>. <b>33</b> (3): iii–vi. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fl06-901">10.1139/l06-901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Civil+Engineering&rft.atitle=The+%22Art%22+of+Plagiarism&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=iii-vi&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1139%2Fl06-901&rft.au=D.+Mavinic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AIAA2007-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AIAA2007_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Publication Ethical Standards: Guidelines and Procedures". <i>AIAA Journal</i>. <b>45</b> (8): 1794. 2007. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007AIAAJ..45.1794.">2007AIAAJ..45.1794.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2514%2F1.32639">10.2514/1.32639</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AIAA+Journal&rft.atitle=Publication+Ethical+Standards%3A+Guidelines+and+Procedures&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1794&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2514%2F1.32639&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007AIAAJ..45.1794.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wagner (2006) p. 220-1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelect_Committee_on_Science_and_Technology" class="citation web cs1">Select Committee on Science and Technology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/263105/1/399we23.htm">"The Origin of the Scientific Journal and the Process of Peer Review"</a>. Parliament of the United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+the+Scientific+Journal+and+the+Process+of+Peer+Review&rft.pub=Parliament+of+the+United+Kingdom&rft.au=Select+Committee+on+Science+and+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.soton.ac.uk%2F263105%2F1%2F399we23.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="أدبيات علمية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أدبيات علمية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmi_k%C3%BCtl%C9%99vi_%C9%99d%C9%99biyyat" title="Elmi kütləvi ədəbiyyat – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elmi kütləvi ədəbiyyat" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="প্রকাশিত বৈজ্ঞানিক রচনাসমগ্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রকাশিত বৈজ্ঞানিক রচনাসমগ্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Навуковая літаратура – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Навуковая літаратура" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Научна литература – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Научна литература" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odborn%C3%A1_literatura" title="Odborná literatura – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Odborná literatura" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videnskabelig_litteratur" title="Videnskabelig litteratur – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Videnskabelig litteratur" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaftsprosa" title="Wissenschaftsprosa – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wissenschaftsprosa" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienca_literaturo" title="Scienca literaturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Scienca literaturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zientzia_literatura" title="Zientzia literatura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zientzia literatura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C" title="نوشته‌جات علمی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نوشته‌جات علمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99_%EB%AC%B8%ED%97%8C" title="과학 문헌 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="과학 문헌" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="वैज्ञानिक साहित्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वैज्ञानिक साहित्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanstvena_literatura" title="Znanstvena literatura – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Znanstvena literatura" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karya_tulis_ilmiah" title="Karya tulis ilmiah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Karya tulis ilmiah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letteratura_scientifica" title="Letteratura scientifica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Letteratura scientifica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="სამეცნიერო ლიტერატურა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სამეცნიერო ლიტერატურა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mokslin%C4%97_literat%C5%ABra" title="Mokslinė literatūra – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mokslinė literatūra" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sastera_saintifik" title="Sastera saintifik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sastera saintifik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%85_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Шинжлэх ухааны уран зохиол – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Шинжлэх ухааны уран зохиол" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschappelijke_literatuur" title="Wetenschappelijke literatuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wetenschappelijke literatuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatur%C4%83_%C8%99tiin%C8%9Bific%C4%83" title="Literatură științifică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Literatură științifică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Научная литература – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Научная литература" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_shkencore" title="Literatura shkencore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Literatura shkencore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanstveno_delo" title="Znanstveno delo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Znanstveno delo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="ئەدەبی زانستی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەدەبی زانستی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nau%C4%8Dna_literatura" title="Naučna literatura – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Naučna literatura" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetenskapslitteratur" title="Vetenskapslitteratur – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vetenskapslitteratur" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%91%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BC%D3%A3" title="Адабиёти илмӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Адабиёти илмӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%96%87%E7%8D%BB" title="科學文獻 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="科學文獻" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%96%87%E7%8D%BB" title="科學文獻 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="科學文獻" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 28 September 2024, at 22:56<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" 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