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<ul id="toc-Influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Claude Adrien Helvétius</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AF_%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%87%D9%84%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3" title="كلود أدريان هلفتيوس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كلود أدريان هلفتيوس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klod_Adrian_Helvetsi" title="Klod Adrian Helvetsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Klod Adrian Helvetsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%90%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BD_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B9" title="Клод Адрыян Гельвецый – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Клод Адрыян Гельвецый" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%90%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Клод Адриан Хелвеций – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Клод Адриан Хелвеций" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Claude Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Claude Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%AD%CE%BD_%CE%95%CE%BB%CE%B2%CE%AD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Κλοντ Αντριέν Ελβέτιος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κλοντ Αντριέν Ελβέτιος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AF_%D8%A2%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%87%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3" title="کلود آدرین هلوسیوس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کلود آدرین هلوسیوس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A4_%D4%B1%D5%A4%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%80%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%BE%D5%A5%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD" title="Կլոդ Ադրիան Հելվեցիուս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կլոդ Ադրիան Հելվեցիուս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%93_%D7%90%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%95%D7%98%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A1" title="קלוד אדריאן הלווטיוס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קלוד אדריאן הלווטיוס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%93_%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%B0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="კლოდ ადრიან ჰელვეციუსი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კლოდ ადრიან ჰელვეციუსი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%90%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Клод Адриан Гельвеций – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Клод Адриан Гельвеций" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9,_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%90%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Гельвеций, Клод Адриан – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гельвеций, Клод Адриан" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius_Hadrianus_Helvetius" title="Claudius Hadrianus Helvetius – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Claudius Hadrianus Helvetius" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%90%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98" title="Клод Адријан Хелвециј – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Клод Адријан Хелвециј" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%84%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3" title="هلفتيوس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="هلفتيوس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Claude Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%EF%BC%9D%E3%82%A2%E3%83%89%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A8%E3%83%AB%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A7%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A6%E3%82%B9" title="クロード＝アドリアン・エルヴェシウス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="クロード＝アドリアン・エルヴェシウス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Claude Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelvesiy_Klod_Adrian" title="Gelvesiy Klod Adrian – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gelvesiy Klod Adrian" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Claude Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9,_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%90%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Гельвеций, Клод Адриан – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гельвеций, Клод Адриан" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%90%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Гельвеций Клод Адриан – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Гельвеций Клод Адриан" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%90%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%83%D1%81" title="Клод Адријан Хелвецијус – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Клод Адријан Хелвецијус" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Claude Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D2%BA%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Клод Һельвеций – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Клод Һельвеций" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Helvetius_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Helvetius (disambiguation)">Helvetius (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Claude Adrien Helvétius</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius.png/220px-Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius.png 1.5x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="298" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1715-01-26</span>)</span>26 January 1715<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">26 December 1771<span style="display:none">(1771-12-26)</span> (aged 56)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">Paris, France</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/18th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="18th-century philosophy">18th-century philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a><br /><a href="/wiki/French_materialism" title="French materialism">French materialism</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Sensualism" title="Sensualism">Sensualism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Claude Adrien Helvétius</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'h' in 'hi'">h</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'v' in 'vie'">v</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">French:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[klod<span class="wrap"> </span>adʁijɛ̃<span class="wrap"> </span>ɛlvesjys]</a></span>; 26 January 1715<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – 26 December 1771) was a French <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freemason" class="mw-redirect" title="Freemason">freemason</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Litt%C3%A9rateur" class="mw-redirect" title="Littérateur">littérateur</a></i>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Claude Adrien Helvétius was born in <a href="/wiki/Paris,_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris, France">Paris, France</a>, and was descended from a family of physicians, originally surnamed <i>Schweitzer</i> (meaning "<a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Swiss</a>" in German; Latinized as <i><a href="/wiki/Helvetia" title="Helvetia">Helvétius</a></i>). His great-grandfather <a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Schweitzer" title="Johann Friedrich Schweitzer">Johann Friedrich Schweitzer</a> known as "Helvetius", was a Dutch physician and alchemist, of German extraction. His grandfather <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adriaan_Helvetius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adriaan Helvetius (page does not exist)">Adriaan Helvetius</a> introduced the use of <a href="/wiki/Carapichea_ipecacuanha" title="Carapichea ipecacuanha">ipecacuanha</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his father <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Claude Adrien Helvétius (page does not exist)">Jean Claude Adrien Helvétius</a> was first physician to <a href="/wiki/Marie_Leszczynska" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Leszczynska">Marie Leszczyńska</a>, queen of France. Claude Adrien was trained for a financial career, apprenticed to his maternal uncle in Caen,<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1965_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1965-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but he occupied his spare time with poetry. Aged twenty-three, at the queen's request, he was appointed as a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/farmer-general" class="extiw" title="wikt:farmer-general">farmer-general</a>, a tax-collecting post worth 100,000 crowns a year. Thus provided for, he proceeded to enjoy life to the utmost, with the help of his wealth and liberality, his literary and artistic tastes - he attended, for example, the progressive <a href="/wiki/Club_de_l%27Entresol" title="Club de l'Entresol">Club de l'Entresol</a>. As he grew older, he began to seek more lasting distinctions, stimulated by the success of <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Maupertuis" title="Pierre Louis Maupertuis">Pierre Louis Maupertuis</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Poet" title="Poet">poet</a>, and of <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Secondat,_Baron_de_Montesquieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> as a philosopher.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His wife, <a href="/wiki/Anne-Catherine_de_Ligniville,_Madame_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Anne-Catherine de Ligniville, Madame Helvétius">Anne-Catherine de Ligniville, Madame Helvétius</a>, maintained a salon attended by the leading figures of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> for over five decades. </p><p>In 1758 Helvétius published his philosophical <a href="/wiki/Magnum_opus" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnum opus">magnum opus</a>, a work called <i>De l'esprit</i> (On Mind), which claimed that all human faculties are attributes of mere physical <a href="/wiki/Sensualism" title="Sensualism">sensation</a>, and that the only real motive is self-interest, therefore there is no good and evil, only competitive pleasures. Its <a href="/wiki/Atheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheistic">atheistic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utilitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utilitarian">utilitarian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Egalitarian">egalitarian</a> doctrines raised a public outcry, and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">Sorbonne</a> publicly burned it in 1759, forcing Helvétius to issue several retractions. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vor%C3%A9.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Le_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vor%C3%A9.png/350px-Le_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vor%C3%A9.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Le_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vor%C3%A9.png/525px-Le_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vor%C3%A9.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Le_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vor%C3%A9.png/700px-Le_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vor%C3%A9.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="526" /></a><figcaption><i>Château de Voré</i> (Collines des Perches, <a href="/wiki/Loir-et-Cher" title="Loir-et-Cher">Loir-et-Cher</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1764 Helvétius visited England, and the next year, at the invitation of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick II of Prussia">Frederick II</a>, went to <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, where the king paid him much attention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After 10 years, when he thought his fortune sufficient, he gave up the post of farmer-general, and retired to a country estate in France, where he employed his fortune in the relief of the poor, the encouragement of agriculture and the development of industries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this he won the admiration of many of the philosophers. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedrich_Zweite_Alt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Friedrich_Zweite_Alt.jpg/220px-Friedrich_Zweite_Alt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Friedrich_Zweite_Alt.jpg/330px-Friedrich_Zweite_Alt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Friedrich_Zweite_Alt.jpg/440px-Friedrich_Zweite_Alt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1048" data-file-height="1321" /></a><figcaption>Helvétius was one of several French <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophes" title="Philosophes">philosophes</a></i> who spent time at the court of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> of Prussia (depicted above)</figcaption></figure> <p>Helvétius' family lived alternately on <i>Château de Voré</i> (Collines des Perches, <a href="/wiki/Loir-et-Cher" title="Loir-et-Cher">Loir-et-Cher</a>) and their Parisian townhouse at the <i>rue Sainte-Anne</i>. </p><p>Religiously, Helvétius was a <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deist</a>, albeit a "most indifferent" one.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He died in Paris on December 26, 1771. </p><p>A work found in his papers called <i>De l'homme, de ses facultés intellectuelles et de son éducation</i> (On Man), was published in 1773. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="De_l'esprit_and_its_reception"><span id="De_l.27esprit_and_its_reception"></span><i>De l'esprit</i> and its reception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: De l'esprit and its reception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Helvétius' philosophical studies ended in the production of his famous book <i>De l'esprit</i> (On Mind). It was first published in 1758 and was intended to be the rival of <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_the_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="The Spirit of the Laws">The Spirit of the Laws</a></i>, with Helvétius arguing strongly against Montesquieu's theory that climate influenced the character of nations. </p><p>The work attracted immediate attention and aroused the most formidable opposition, especially from the dauphin <a href="/wiki/Louis,_Dauphin_of_France_(1729%E2%80%931765)" title="Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765)">Louis</a>, son of King <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XV of France">Louis XV</a>. The Advocate General <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Omer_Joly_de_Fleury" title="Joseph Omer Joly de Fleury">Joly de Fleury</a> condemned it in the <a href="/wiki/Parlement#The_Parlement_of_Paris" title="Parlement">Parlement of Paris</a> in January 1759. The <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_Sorbonne" class="mw-redirect" title="Collège de Sorbonne">Sorbonne</a> condemned the book, while the priests persuaded the court that it was full of the most dangerous doctrines. The book was declared to be heretical – so atheistic that it was condemned by Church and State and was burned. Helvétius, terrified at the storm he had raised, wrote three separate and humiliating retractions. In spite of his protestations of orthodoxy, the book was publicly burned by the Paris hangman.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It had far-reaching negative effects on the rest of the <i>philosophes</i>, in particular, <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a>, and the work he was doing on the <i>Encyclopédie</i>. The religious authorities, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a> and the new Pope, began to fear the spread of atheism and wanted to clamp down on the 'modern thought' hard and quickly. <i>De l'esprit</i> became almost a scapegoat for this.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1965_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1965-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DeLespritFrontPage.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/DeLespritFrontPage.png/220px-DeLespritFrontPage.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/DeLespritFrontPage.png/330px-DeLespritFrontPage.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/DeLespritFrontPage.png/440px-DeLespritFrontPage.png 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="737" /></a><figcaption>Cover page of a 1759 English translation of <i>De l'Esprit</i></figcaption></figure> <p>This great publicity resulted in the book being translated into almost all the languages of Europe. Voltaire said that it lacked originality. <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a> declared that the very benevolence of the author gave the lie to his principles. <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Melchior,_baron_von_Grimm" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Melchior, baron von Grimm">Grimm</a> thought that all the ideas in the book were borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a>. <a href="/wiki/Marie_Anne_de_Vichy-Chamrond,_marquise_du_Deffand" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Anne de Vichy-Chamrond, marquise du Deffand">Madame du Deffand</a> felt that Helvétius had raised such a storm by saying openly what everyone thought in secret. <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_d%27Issembourg_d%27Happoncourt,_Madame_de_Graffigny" class="mw-redirect" title="Françoise d'Issembourg d'Happoncourt, Madame de Graffigny">Madame de Graffigny</a> claimed that all the good things in the book had been picked up in her own salon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychological_egoism">Psychological egoism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Psychological egoism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Psychological_egoism" title="Psychological egoism">Psychological egoism</a></div> <p>Helvétius' philosophy belongs to the Egoist school: </p> <ol><li>All man's faculties may be reduced to physical <a href="/wiki/Sensualism" title="Sensualism">sensation</a>, even memory, comparison, judgment. Our only difference from the lower animals lies in our external organization.</li> <li>Self-interest, founded on the love of pleasure and the fear of pain, is the sole spring of judgment, action, and affection. Human beings are motivated solely by the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. "These two," he says, "are, and always will be, the only principles of action in man."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Self-sacrifice is prompted by the fact that the sensation of pleasure outweighs the accompanying pain and is thus the result of deliberate calculation.</li> <li>We have <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">no freedom of choice</a> between good and evil. There is no such thing as absolute right – ideas of justice and injustice change according to customs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>This view of man was largely <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbesian</a> – man is a system deterministically controllable by a suitable combination of reward and punishment, and the ends of government are to ensure the maximization of pleasure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_equality_of_intelligences">Natural equality of intelligences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Natural equality of intelligences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></div> <p>"All men," Helvétius maintained, "have an equal disposition for understanding."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As one of the French Enlightenment's many <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Lockean</a> disciples, he regarded the human mind as a blank slate, but free not only from innate ideas but also from innate natural dispositions and propensities. Physiological constitution was at most a peripheral factor in men's characters or capabilities. Any apparent inequalities were independent of natural organization, and had their cause in the unequal desire for instruction. This desire springs from passions, of which all men commonly well organized are susceptible to the same degree. We thus owe everything to education. <a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)" title="Social engineering (political science)">Social engineering</a> is therefore an enterprise unconstrained by the natural abilities of men. </p><p>This natural equality applied to all men in all nations, and thus the differences in national characteristics were not the result of innate differences between the people therein, but rather a byproduct of the system of education and government. "No nation," wrote Helvétius, "has reason to regard itself superior to others by virtue of its innate endowment."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This radically egalitarian aspect of Helvétius' philosophy caused <a href="/wiki/Diderot" class="mw-redirect" title="Diderot">Diderot</a> to remark that if it were true, <i>De l'esprit</i> might just as well have been written by Helvétius' dog keeper.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Omnipotence_of_education">Omnipotence of education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Omnipotence of education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></div> <p>Since all men have the same natural potential, Helvétius argued, they all have the same ability to learn. Thus, education is the method by which to reform society, and there are few limits to the drastic social improvements that could be brought about by the appropriate distribution of education. Although people seem to possess certain qualities in greater abundance than their neighbours, the explanation for this comes 'from above' – it is caused by education, law and government. "If we commonly meet in London, with knowing men, who are with much more difficulty found in France," this is because it is a country where "every citizen has a share in the management of affairs in general."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The art of forming men," he concludes, "is in all countries [...] strictly connected to the form of the government", and thus education via governmental intervention is the method of reform.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The crux of his thought was that public <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> has a utilitarian basis, and he insisted strongly on the importance of culture and education in national development.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254–255_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254–255-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His thinking can be described as unsystematic.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (March 2022)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence">Influence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The original ideas in his system are those of the <i>natural equality of intelligences</i> and the <i>omnipotence of education</i>, neither of which gained general acceptance, though both were prominent in the system of <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cesare,_marchese_de_Beccaria-Bonesana" class="mw-redirect" title="Cesare, marchese de Beccaria-Bonesana">Cesare Beccaria</a> states that he was largely inspired by Helvétius in his attempt to modify penal laws. Helvétius also exerted some influence on the utilitarian <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>. </p><p>The materialistic aspects of Helvétius, along with <a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a>, had an influence on <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, the theorist of <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">historical materialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, who studied the ideas of Helvétius in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> and later called the materialism of Helvétius and d'Holbach "the social basis of communism".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism">Criticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">Johann Georg Hamann</a> vigorously opposed Helvétius's rationalistic doctrines.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>British philosopher <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a> listed Helvétius, along with <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Henri_de_Rouvroy,_comte_de_Saint-Simon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a> as one of the six "enemies of freedom" who constituted the ideological basis for modern <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarianism</a>, in his book <i>Freedom and Betrayal: Six Enemies of Human Liberty</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Poetry">Poetry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>His poetic ambitions resulted in the poem called <i>Le Bonheur</i> (published posthumously, with an account of Helvétius's life and works, by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Saint-Lambert" title="Jean François de Saint-Lambert">Jean François de Saint-Lambert</a>, 1773), in which he develops the idea that true happiness is only to be found in making the interest of one person that of all.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A work called <i>De l'homme, de ses facultés intellectuelles et de son éducation</i>, found among his manuscripts, was published after his death. There is a complete edition of the works of Helvétius, published at Paris, 1818.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911255_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911255-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For an estimate of his work and his place among the philosophers of the 18th century see <a href="/wiki/Victor_Cousin" title="Victor Cousin">Victor Cousin</a>'s <i>Philosophie sensualiste</i> (1863); PL Lezaud, <i>Résumés philosophiques</i> (1853); <a href="/wiki/John_Frederick_Denison_Maurice" class="mw-redirect" title="John Frederick Denison Maurice">FD Maurice</a>, in his <i>Modern Philosophy</i> (1862), pp. 537 seq.; J Morley, <i>Diderot and the Encyclopaedists</i> (London, 1878); DG Mostratos, <i>Die Pädagogik des Helvétius</i> (Berlin, 1891); <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antoine_Guillois&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antoine Guillois (page does not exist)">A Guillois</a>, <i>Le Salon de Madame Helvétius</i> (1894); A Piazzi, <i>Le idee filosofiche specialmente pedagogiche de C. A. Helvétius</i> (Milan, 1889); <a href="/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Georgi Plekhanov</a>, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte des Materialismus</i> (Stuttgart, 1896); L Limentani, <i>Le teorie psicologiche de C. A. Helvétius</i> (Verona, 1902); A Keim, <i>Helvétius, sa vie et son œuvre</i> (1907);<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911255_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911255-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a>, "Helvétius" in <i>Freedom and Its Betrayal: Six Enemies of Liberty</i>, ed. Henry Hardy, (Oxford, 2002), pp. 11–26. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c+helvetius">"Helvétius"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ian Cumming, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ9S-xWkIBcC&dq="><i>Helvetius: His Life and Place in the History of Educational Thought</i></a>, Routledge, 2013, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ian Cumming, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ9S-xWkIBcC&dq="><i>Helvetius: His Life and Place in the History of Educational Thought</i></a>, Routledge, 2013, pp. 115–132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FZk5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA509">Helvetius, Adriaan</a> in Biographisch woordenboek der Nederlanden, vol 8, (1867), p. 509.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1965-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1965_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1965_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Helvetius: A Study in Persecution</i> by David Warner Smith, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1965.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>, p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDuzer1935" class="citation book cs1">Duzer, Charles Hunter Van (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V2kIAQAAIAAJ"><i>Contribution of the Ideologues to French Revolutionary Thought</i></a>. Johns Hopkins Press. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-598-51150-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-598-51150-8"><bdi>978-0-598-51150-8</bdi></a>. <q>Helvetius himself was a Deist – a most indifferent Deist</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contribution+of+the+Ideologues+to+French+Revolutionary+Thought&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1935&rft.isbn=978-0-598-51150-8&rft.aulast=Duzer&rft.aufirst=Charles+Hunter+Van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV2kIAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClaude+Adrien+Helv%C3%A9tius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Helvétius, Claude Adrien, <i>Treatise on Man: His Intellectual Faculties and his Education</i>, transl. W. Hooper, M. D., (London: Albion Press, 1810), p. 146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Helvétius, Claude Adrien, <i>De l'esprit or, Essays on the Mind, and Its Several Faculties</i>, (London: 1759), p. 286</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Helvétius, <i>De l'esprit</i>, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Helvétius, <i>De l'esprit</i>, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Helvétius, <i>De l'esprit</i>, p. 325</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254–255-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911254–255_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>, pp. 254–255.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mehring, Franz, <i>Karl Marx: The Story of His Life</i> (Routledge, 2003) pg. 75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Alan Sparling, <i>Johann Georg Hamann and the Enlightenment Project</i>, University of Toronto Press, 2011, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berlin, Isaiah, <i>Freedom and Betrayal: Six Enemies of Human Liberty</i> (Princeton University Press, 2003)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911255-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911255_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911255_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>, p. 255.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p><b>Attribution:</b> </p> <ul><li><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Helv%C3%A9tius,_Claude_Adrien" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Helvétius, Claude Adrien">Helvétius, Claude Adrien</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">254–</span>255.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Helv%C3%A9tius%2C+Claude+Adrien&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E254-%3C%2Fspan%3E255&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClaude+Adrien+Helv%C3%A9tius" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 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href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Helvétius%2C%20Claude%20Adrien%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Helvétius%2C%20Claude%20A%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Helvétius%2C%20C%2E%20A%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Claude%20Adrien%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Claude%20A%2E%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22C%2E%20A%2E%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Helvétius%2C%20Claude%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Claude%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Claude%20Adrien%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Claude%20A%2E%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22C%2E%20A%2E%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22C%2E%20Adrien%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Helvétius%2C%20Claude%20Adrien%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Helvétius%2C%20Claude%20A%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Helvétius%2C%20C%2E%20A%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Helvétius%2C%20C%2E%20Adrien%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Claude%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Helvétius%2C%20Claude%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Claude%20Adrien%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Claude%20A%2E%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20title%3A%22C%2E%20A%2E%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Claude%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Claude%20Adrien%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Claude%20A%2E%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20description%3A%22C%2E%20A%2E%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Helvétius%2C%20Claude%20Adrien%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Helvétius%2C%20Claude%20A%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Claude%20Helvétius%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Helvétius%2C%20Claude%22%20OR%20%28Claude%20Helv%2Atius%29%29%20OR%20%28%221715-1771%22%20AND%20%28%22Helvétius%22%20OR%20Helvetius%29%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Claude Adrien Helvétius</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hKxBs-aR2hEC"><i>A Treatise on Man: His Intellectual Faculties & His Education</i> by Helvétius</a> - English translation by W. Hooper, 1777, Google Books</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5UAAAAAAQAAJ"><i>De l'Esprit, or Essays on the Mind and Its Several Faculties</i> by Helvétius</a> - English translation by William Mudford, 1807, Google Books</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">Utopianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Thinkers295" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Ashley-Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Tindal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson" class="mw-redirect" title="René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson">d'Argenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Chamfort" title="Nicolas Chamfort">Chamfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Châtelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Condillac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Gouges</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Jaucourt" title="Louis de Jaucourt">Jaucourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Maréchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Morelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Raynal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geneva</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firmin_Abauzit" title="Firmin Abauzit">Abauzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonnet" title="Charles Bonnet">Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Burlamaqui" title="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui">Burlamaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pr%C3%A9vost_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Prévost (physicist)">Prévost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure" title="Horace Bénédict de Saussure">Saussure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Thomasius" title="Christian Thomasius">Thomasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Farmakidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Feraios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Kairis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">Toland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Galvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Genovesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Pagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Verri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Bekker" title="Balthasar Bekker">Bekker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieter_de_la_Court" title="Pieter de la Court">de la Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Koerbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Nieuwentyt" title="Bernard Nieuwentyt">Nieuwentyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Swammerdam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Konarski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Niemcewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Śniadecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Wybicki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Carvalho e Melo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Budai-Deleanu" title="Ion Budai-Deleanu">Budai-Deleanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_Cantemir" title="Dimitrie Cantemir">Cantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petru_Maior" title="Petru Maior">Maior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuil_Micu-Klein" title="Samuil Micu-Klein">Micu-Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_%C8%98incai" title="Gheorghe Șincai">Șincai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Fonvizin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Kantemir" title="Antiochus Kantemir">Kantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kheraskov" title="Mikhail Kheraskov">Kheraskov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Lomonosov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Novikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Vorontsova-Dashkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dositej_Obradovi%C4%87" title="Dositej Obradović">Obradović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avram_Mrazovi%C4%87" title="Avram Mrazović">Mrazović</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">Cadalso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Morat%C3%ADn" title="Leandro Fernández de Moratín">Moratín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Jovellanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Torres_Villarroel" title="Diego de Torres Villarroel">Villarroel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">Beattie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">Cullen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Stewart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism">Romanticism</a> →</b></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-François de Saint-Lambert">Jean-François de Saint-Lambert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Antoine_Suard" title="Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Suard">Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Suard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Jean_de_Chastellux" title="François-Jean de Chastellux">François-Jean de Chastellux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustin_Roux" title="Augustin Roux">Augustin Roux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Morellet" title="André Morellet">André Morellet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Andr%C3%A9_Naigeon" title="Jacques-André Naigeon">Jacques-André Naigeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Ferdinando Galiani</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Claude Adrien Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Darcet" title="Jean Darcet">Jean Darcet</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a 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class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000109285688">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/100185545">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/19688/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJbtvg4dR9m4vCthJCxdQq">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118710257">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50081968">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119072034">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119072034">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00522530">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Helvétius, Claude-Adrien"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/BVEV004047">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35851206">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000700690&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX998512">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/270341">Portugal</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/1649720">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p069230153">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90704565">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Helvétius, Claude Adrien, 1715-1771"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000138705&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></span></li><li><span 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